Pumps are one of the commonly seen equipment in the chemical process industries.

It is an
equipment that transport liquids from source to destination. Due to the nature of process, pumps
are manufactured to suit wide variety of liquids, applications and capacities. Owing to its
flexibility, pumps are considered the workhorse of the chemical process industries. The physical
outlook of a pump is relatively simple. However, it requires a technical professional to have a
comprehensive understanding on the operation, construction and design aspects of a pump. This
article is produced with the objective to provide information related to centrifugal pump design.
In addition, this article shall also provide a general overview on types of pump, selection of
pumps, centrifugal pump rating and affinity laws.

1. Pump Classification
Pumps are categorized into four groups that are positive displacement, dynamic, lift and
electromagnetic (Figure 1) (Boyce, 1999)
.
Figure 1. Classification of pumps

(Source: Boyce, 1999)

1.1. Positive Displacement Pump
A positive displacement pump is a constant flow machine. It has an expanding cavity on the
suction side of the pump and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquids in positive
displacement pump are transported from the suction to the discharge side by mechanical action.
The liquid flow path in a positive displacement pump is not continuous (Jacobs, 1991). These
pumps are commonly known as constant-volume pumps and are capable of developing high
pressures while operating at low suction pressures (PetroWiki, 2016).

It is important to note that positive displacement pumps shall not be operated against a closed
valve on the pump discharge side. Operation against a closed discharge valve could result to
pump damage. On the safety perspective, positive displacement pump shall be installed with a
relief or safety valve on the pump discharge side. The relief valve can be of internal or external
type. An internal relief valve is generally used as a safety precaution whereas the external version
is installed on the discharge line with a return line back to the pump suction line or supply tank
(The Engineering ToolBox, n.d.).

1.2. Rotor-Dynamic or Kinetic Pump

The kinetic pump operates by raising the pressure of the liquid through the conversion of
velocity energy to pressure energy. In other words, the rotation of the pump impeller creates a
very low pressure at the eye of the impeller. This very low pressure condition pulls the liquid
towards the eye of the impeller. The rotation of the impeller radially pushes the liquid that are
sitting between the vanes outward, thus resulting to centrifugal acceleration. The centrifugal
force together with the curved nature of the impeller blades pushes the liquid in the tangential
and radial direction (Sahdev, n.d.).

The resistance to flow is created when the kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is
obstructed. The initial resistance is created by the pump casing where it catches the liquid and
slows it down. Additional resistance, i.e. in the discharge nozzle, the liquid is decelerated and
converts the velocity to pressure based on Bernoullis principle (Sahdev, n.d.). Point to note,
centrifugal pumps are also known as constant head machines (The Engineering ToolBox, n.d.)

1.3. Lift Pump

The working principle of lift pump or air-lift pump is based on the use of compressed air to lift
water from a well or sump. The fundamental working principle of a lift pump is based on the
density difference between water and air. In a lift pump, air is mixed with water to form froth.
The froth has a density less than of the water. Due to this, lift pumps require a very small column
of pure water to balance a very column of air-water mixture (balu, 2009).

The operation of a lift pump consists of two modes of operation. The first mode of operation is
the upstroke of the plunger. The second mode is on the downstroke of the plunger. During the
upstroke, the lower valve opens whereas the upper valve closes. At this moment, the low air
pressure produced in the barrel forces the water to move up the downpipe. On the downstroke
mode, the lower valve closes and the upper valve opens. At this point, water is forced into the
barrel located above the upper valve (Williams, 2016).

Despite of its simplicity, this machine has its own limitation on how much water can be lifted.
The vacuum condition created in the barrel via lifting the pump handle results to water being
forced into the pipe. However, the amount of water lifted is limited to the weight of the column
of water equals to the weight of atmospheric pressure forcing on the water source surface
(Williams, 2016).

1.4. Electromagnetic Pump

The electromagnetic pump or also known as EM pump is operated based on the principle of
force exertion on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. The liquid metals due to high
electrical conductivity allows the pumping force to be developed within the metals confined in a
duct or channel that is subjected to a magnetic field and electric current. Such pumps are
primarily design to be used in liquid-metal-cooled reactor plants. Non-metal or metals with
sufficiently high electrical conductivity may also be pumped in non-nuclear applications. These
types of pumps do not have moving parts which eliminates the need for seals and bearing. In
return, it minimizes leaks, maintenance, repairs and improving reliability. There are three types
of EM pumps such as direct-current conduction, alternating-current conduction, helical induction
and linear induction types (Leslie, 2000).

2. Pump Selection Criteria

This section shall cover a general overview on the selection criteria between centrifugal and
positive displacement pumps.

There are six criteria that are to be considered in the pump selection criteria between centrifugal
and positive displacement pumps. The criteria are listed below.

a) Flow rate versus pressure

Centrifugal pump is best suited for applications with varying flow rates depending on the
pressure or head. Positive displacement pumps are suitable for more or less constant flow
regardless of pressure (PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007).
Figure 2. Performance curve head vs. capacity

(Source: PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007)

b) Flow rate versus viscosity

The effect of viscosity is seen clearly in both pumps. As for centrifugal pumps, the increase in
viscosity results to loss of flow. This is not the case for PD pumps where the increase in viscosity
results to increased flow. Such condition is seen as the higher viscosity liquids fill the voids of
the pump resulting to higher volumetric efficiency (PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007).

Figure 3. Effect of viscosity with respect to flow rate

(Source: PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007)

The use of a centrifugal pump in a viscous liquid application result to (i) increase in break
horsepower requirement, (ii) reduced head generated, (iii) reduced capacity and (iv) reduced
pump efficiency (The Engineering ToolBox, n.d.). Therefore, it is recommended to limit the use
of centrifugal pumps in liquids with viscosity below 300 cSt. In some applications, the use of
high reliability centrifugal pumps to be considered for liquids above 300 cSt. Liquids in pumps
are generally considered to be viscous when their viscosity exceeds 40 cP (Whitesides, 2008).
c) Efficiency versus pressure
The efficiency of a centrifugal pump decreases with variation in pressure. This is the opposite for
PD pumps variation in pressure has little effect on the pump itself. Refer to Figure 4.

Figure 4. Efficiency of pumps with respect to pressure

(Source: PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007)

d) Efficiency versus viscosity

As seen in Figure 5, the efficiency of a centrifugal pump decreases as the viscosity of the liquid
increases. This is due to the increased frictional losses within the pump itself. For PD pumps, the
efficiency increases with respect to viscosity of the liquid (PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007).

Figure 5. Efficiency of pumps with respect to viscosity

(Source: PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007)

The Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSH R) of a centrifugal pump is a function of flow
determined by pressure and viscosity. In PD pumps, NPSH R is a function of flow determined by
speed. In other words, lower the speed, lower the NPSHR (PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007).
3. Centrifugal Pump Rating Calculation
The pump rating calculation shall be based on the following pumping scheme.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a centrifugal pump scheme

Pump Suction

Min. pump suction pressure = Min. suction vessel operating pressure + (Min. liquid height
suction pump flange) (in pressure terms) Pressure drop across the pump suction line

PS , MIN =P sv + [ S SG
10.2] PS Eq.1a

PS = P suctionline + P filter + Pother Eq.1b

where
PS,MIN = Minimum suction pressure (barg)
PSV = Pressure of the suction vessel (barg)
SG = Specific gravity of the liquid at T and P (dimensionless)
S = Minimum liquid height from pump centerline (m)
PS = Pressure drop across the pump suction line (barg)

The pump scheme above showed that the suction vessel is above the pump centerline. Therefore,
the S is indicated as positive term. If the suction vessel is below the pump centerline, S is
measured from the liquid surface to the pump centerline. Refer to Figure 7.
Figure 7. Pump scheme with suction vessel below pump centerline

If the suction vessel is exposed to atmosphere or operating at atmospheric condition, the P SV term
is expressed as 0 barg.

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

The Net Positive Suction Head is an important parameter in the centrifugal pump rating exercise.
This parameter determines if the pump adequate to avoid cavitation issues. The question is
What is cavitation?

The understanding of cavitation issues in centrifugal pumps begins with the understanding of
liquid vapour pressure. Vapour pressure is the pressure required to boil a liquid at a specific
temperature. Example, water will not boil at room temperature as the vapour pressure is lower
than the surrounding atmospheric pressure. As the water temperature increases to 100C, the
vapours are released due to the fact that the vapour pressure at that 100C is greater than
atmospheric pressure (PUMPSCHOOL.COM, 2007).

Figure 8. Pressure graph with (a) pump not cavitation and (b) pump cavitating

(Source: The Engineering ToolBox, n.d.)

Cavitation can be avoided in centrifugal pumps if the pressure of the fluid at all points within the
pump is above the saturation pressure. There are two important parameters related to net positive
suction head that are net positive suction head available and required. The net positive suction
head available (NPSHA) is defined as the difference between the pressure at the suction of the
pump and the saturation pressure of the liquid being pumped. The net positive suction head
required (NPSHR) is defined as the minimum net positive suction head required to avoid
cavitation (ENGINEERS EDGE, n.d.). Point to note, NPSH shall not be confused with suction
head. Suction head is referred to the pressure above atmospheric (Coker & Ludwig, 2010).

NPSH A = [ ( PSV PVAP ) 10.2

SG ] (
+ S
PS 10.2
SG ) .Eq.2

Point to note, NPSHA shall be greater or equal to the net positive suction head required.

NPSH A NPSH R
Eq.3

The general requirement for NPSHA is at least 2.0 m of liquid greater than the pump
manufacturer requires under the worst pump operating conditions.

Pump Discharge
Pump discharge pressure = Max. operating pressure of the receiving vessel or BL + Liquid static
pressure at the discharge + Pressure drop across the discharge line + Pressure drop due to
equipment and fittings.

PD =P2 + ( H10.2
SG
)+ P D Eq.4

P D= P dischargeline + P fittings+ Pother Eq.5

Where:
P2 = Max. operating pressure of the receiving vessel or B.L (barg)
H = Liquid static height (HD,MAX HPD) (m)
SG = Specific gravity of liquid at T and P (dimensionless)
PD = Pressure drop across the discharge line (barg)

Differential Height (DH)

( P D PS , MIN ) 10.2
DH = Eq.6
SG

Where:
PD = Pump discharge pressure in barg
PS,MIN = Minimum pump suction pressure in barg

Pump Shut-off Pressure

The pump shut-off pressure or also known as shutoff pressure is defined as the maximum
pressure that a pump can develop under zero-flow conditions. This is synonym to pump
operating against a fully blocked outlet (Fernandez et. al, 2002).

The pump shut-off pressure is calculated using the equations provided below. The equations are
calculated based on 3 different criteria that are (APRIANDI, 2011):

a) Pump shut-off pressure is calculated by adding the suction vessel / drum operating pressure
to the shut-off pressure of the pump.

PSO=P SV , MAX +
[( )
SG
10.2
( S+ ( 1+ K ) ( DH ) )
] Eq.7a

b) Pump shut-off pressure is calculated by adding suction vessel design pressure to the operating
pressure of the pump.

PSO=P SV , DESIGN +
[( )
SG
10.2
( S+ DH )
] Eq.7b

c) Pump shut-off pressure is computed by adding the suction vessel design pressure to the shut-
off pressure of the pump.

PSO=P SV , DESIGN + ([ 10.2

SG
) ( S+ ( 1+ K )( DH ) )] Eq.7c

The maximum value obtained from the above equations shall be the pump shut-off pressure. The
constant K is typically 20%.

Power Estimation
The power estimation calculation of a centrifugal pump is divided into three parameters that are
hydraulic powere, shaft power and motor power.
a) Hydraulic Power
Hydraulic power or absorbed power is defined as the energy applied on the liquid being pumped
to increase its velocity and pressure. It can be calculated using one of the equations provided
below (Native Dynamics, 2012).

Q g H
Phy ,kW =
3.6 106 Eq.8

Q ( ( P D 100 ) ( PS , MIN 100 ) )

Phy ,kW = Eq.9
3600

Where:
Phy,kW = Hydraulic power (kW)
Q = Volumetric flowrate (m3/h)
= Density of the liquidf pumped at T and P
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
H = Developed pump head (m)
PD = Pump discharge pressure (barg)
PS,MIN = Min. pump suction pressure (barg)

H=
[ ( P DP S , MIN ) +
( H P , DH S , D ) SG
10.2 ] 10.2
Eq.10
SG

b) Shaft Power
The shaft power is defined as the power supplied by the motor to the pump shaft. It is the sum of
the hydraulic power and power loss due to inefficiencies seen in the power transmission from the
shaft to the liquid (Native Dynamics, 2012).

Phy , kW
PS , kW = Eq.11
p

Where:
PS,kW = Shaft Power (kW)
P = pump efficiency (decimal format)

P=( 800.2855 H+ ( 3.78 104 H Q )( 2.38 107 H Q2 ) + ( 5.39 104 H 2 ) ( 6.39 107 H 2 Q ) + ( 4 10

Eq.12
Where:
P = Pump efficiency in decimal format
H = Developed head (ft)
Q = Liquid flowrate (gpm)

The pump efficiency, P, is a function of developed head, H, and volumetric flowrate, Q. Both
terms are expressed in non-SI units. The developed head, H, is expressed in feet (ft) whereas
liquid flowrate is expressed in gallons per minute (gpm). Therefore, these terms must be
converted from SI unit to non-SI units using appropriate conversion factors. Refer below for the
conversion factors.

1 m = 3.28 feet (ft)

1 m3/h = 4.40 GPM

Point to note, Eq.13 was developed from the pump efficiency curves in the eight edition of The
GPSA Engineering Data Book provided by M.W. Kellogg Co. The pump efficiency results from
Eq.13 is within about 7% of the pump curve value (not 7% absolute) in aforementioned book.
Therefore, if the curve value is 50%, Eq.13 provides a pump efficiency value within the range of
50 3.5%. For flows between 25-99 GPM (5.68-22.5 m3/hr), the pump efficiency is calculated
by using the equation for 100 GPM (22.7 m3/hr) and substracting 0.35%/GPM times the
difference between 100 GPM and lower GPM (Branan, 2005).

The range of applicability of Eq.13 is between 50-300 ft (15.24-91.44m) of developed head and
100-1000 gpm (22.7-227 m3/hr).

c) Motor Power
Motor pump is the power consumed by the pump motor that rotates the pump shaft. It is the
combination of the shaft power and inefficiencies in converting electric energy into kinetic
energy (Native Dynamics, 2012).

P S ,kW
PM , kW =
M Eq.13

where:
PM,kW = Motor power (kW)
M = motor efficiency (decimal format)

Temperature Rise Due to Pumping

The temperature rise in the pump is due to the inefficiency of the pumping operation.
 t r=
9.8067 H ( 1 1)
P
Eq.14
CP

Where:
H = Developed head (m)
tR = Temperature rise (C)
CP = Specific heat at average temperature (J/kgC)

4. Affinity Laws
The affinity law presented below are based on 3 basic relationships that are (i) flow vs. diameter
and speed, (ii) total head vs. diameter and speed and (iii) power vs. diameter and speed
(Chaurette, 2010).

a) Flow vs. diameter and speed

Q 1 n1 D31
=
Q 2 n2 D32 Eq.15a

b) Total Head vs. Diameter and speed

H 1 n21 D21
=
H 2 n22 D22 Eq.15b

c) Power vs. Diameter and speed

P1 n31 D51
=
P2 n32 D52 Eq.15c

It is noticed that the above three equations used subscript 1 and 2. Both subscripts denote the
value before and after the change.

For pumps with fixed speed, the afinity laws become:

3 2 5
Q1 D1 H 1 D1 P1 D 1
= = =
Q 2 D 32 H 2 D22 P2 D52
For pumps with fixed diameter, the affinity laws become:

Q 1 n1 H 1 n21 P1 n31
= = =
Q 2 n2 H 2 n22 P2 n32

The assumption made in arriving at the affinity laws is that the two operating points that are
compared are at same efficiency (Chaurette, 2010).

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