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Buddhadharma redirects here. For the magazine, see known as Buddhists.[web 1][5]
Buddhadharma: The Practitioners Quarterly. Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path
to liberation, the importance and canonicity of vari-
ous teachings and scriptures, and especially their respec-
tive practices.[6][7] Practices of Buddhism include taking
refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, study
of scriptures, observance of moral precepts, renunciation
of craving and attachment, the practice of meditation
(including calm and insight), the cultivation of wisdom,
loving-kindness and compassion, the Mahayana practice
of bodhicitta and the Vajrayana practices of generation
stage and completion stage.
In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the
sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the
Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way),
thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suering and
rebirth.[8] Theravada has a widespread following in Sri
Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land,
Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai),
is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Ma-
hayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva
path,[9] a state wherein one remains in the cycle of re-
birth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana,
a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be
viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana.
Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teach-
ings of eighth century India,[11] is practiced in regions sur-
rounding the Himalayas, Mongolia[12] and Kalmykia.[13]
Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow
body.[14]
1
2 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS
2 Buddhist concepts
Main article: Glossary of Buddhism
2.1 Dukkha
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, where the Buddha gave his rst Main articles: Dukkha and Four Noble Truths
sermon. It was built by Ashoka. Dukkha is a central concept of Buddhism and part of
In Buddhism, dukkha is one of the three marks of exis- The theory of rebirths, and realms in which these re-
tence, along with impermanence and anatt (non-self).[78] births can occur, is extensively developed in Buddhism, in
Buddhism, like other major Indian religions, asserts that particular Tibetan Buddhism with its wheel of existence
everything is impermanent (anicca), but, unlike them, (Bhavacakra) doctrine.[88] Liberation from this cycle of
also asserts that there is no permanent self or soul in living existence, Nirvana, has been the foundation and the most
beings (anatt).[79][80][81] The ignorance or misperception important historical justication of Buddhism.[91][92]
(avijj) that anything is permanent or that there is self in The later Buddhist texts assert that rebirth can occur in
any being is considered a wrong understanding, and the six realms of existence, namely three good realms (heav-
primary source of clinging and dukkha.[82][83][84] enly, demi-god, human) and three evil realms (animal,
hungry ghosts, hellish).[note 12] Samsara ends if a person
attains nirvana, the blowing out of the desires and the
gaining of true insight into impermanence and non-self
reality.[94][95][96]
4 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS
A notable aspect of the karma theory in Buddhism is nirvana as identical with Anatta with complete Empti-
merit transfer.[128][129] A person accumulates merit not ness, Nothingness.[142][143][144][note 19] In some texts, the
only through intentions and ethical living, but also is state is described with greater detail, such as passing
able to gain merit from others by exchanging goods and through the gate of Emptiness (sunyata) realizing
services, such as through dna (charity to monks or that there is no soul or self in any living being, then
nuns).[130] Further, a person can transfer ones own good passing through the gate of signlessness (animitta)
karma to living family members and ancestors.[129][note 17] realizing that nirvana cannot be perceived, and nally
passing through the gate of wishlessness (apranihita)
realizing that nirvana is the state of not even wishing for
2.3 Liberation nirvana.[133][146][note 20]
The nirvana state has been described in Buddhist
texts partly in a manner similar to other Indian re-
ligions, as the state of complete liberation, enlight-
enment, highest happiness, bliss, fearlessness, free-
dom, permanence, non-dependent origination, unfath-
omable, indescribable.[148][149] It has also been de-
scribed in part dierently, as a state of spiritual re-
lease marked by emptiness and realization of non-
Self.[150][151][152][note 21]
While Buddhism considers the liberation from Sasra
as the ultimate spiritual goal, in traditional practice, the
primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists has been
to seek and accumulate merit through good deeds, dona-
tions to monks and various Buddhist rituals in order to
gain better rebirths rather than nirvana.[155][109][note 22]
3.1.2 Theravada
The Dharma, the precepts, the practice, the Four 3.3.1 Precepts
Truths, the Eightfold Path
The ve precepts (panca-sila) are moral behavioural and
The Sangha, order of monks, the community of ritual guidelines for lay devotee in Buddhism, while those
Buddhas disciples following a monastic life have rules of conduct (pa-
timokkha).[203] The ve precepts apply to both male and
[201][204]
Reciting the three refuges is considered in Buddhism not female devotee, and these are:
as a place to hide, rather a thought that puries, uplifts
and strengthens.[200] 1. Abstain from killing (Ahimsa);
8 3 BHAVANA (PRACTICE, CULTIVATION)
1. No sexual activity;
3.3.2 Vinaya
Monastic communities in the Buddhist tradition, cut nor- 2. Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas, where-after liber-
mal social ties to family and community, and live as is- ating insight is attained;
lands unto themselves.[215] Within a monastic fraternity,
a sangha has its own rules.[215] A monk abides by these 3. Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas and the four Arupa
institutionalized rules, and living life as the vinaya pre- Jhanas, where-after liberating insight is attained;
scribes it is not merely a means, but very nearly the end
in itself.[215] Transgressions by a monk on Sangha vinaya 4. Liberating insight itself suces.
rules invites enforcement, which can include temporary
or permanent expulsion.[216]
3.5 Dhyana meditation
Bhikkhus in Thailand
According to Bronkhorst, the Four Dhyanas was a Bud- The arupa-jhanas (formless realm meditation) are also
dhist invention.[232] Bronkhorst notes that the Buddhist four, which are entered by those who have mastered the
canon has a mass of contradictory statements, little is rupa-jhanas (Arhats).[244][245] The rst formless dhyana
known about their relative chronology, and there can gets to innite space without form or colour or shape,
be no doubt that the canon including the older parts, the second to innity of perception base of the in-
the Sutra and Vinaya Pitaka was composed over a long nite space, the third formless dhyana transcends object-
period of time.[233] Meditative practices were incorpo- subject perception base, while the fourth is where he
rated from other sramanic movements;[217] the Buddhist dwells in nothing-at-all where there are no feelings, no
texts describe Buddha learnt the practice of the formless ideas, nor are there non-ideas, unto total cessation.[245]
dhyana from Brahmanical practices, in the Nikayas as- The four rupa-dhyanas in Buddhist practice leads to re-
cribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta.[234][235] birth in successfully better rupa Brahma heavenly realms,
The Buddhist canon also describes and criticizes al- while arupa-dhyanas into arupa heavens.[246][247]
ternative dhyana practices, which likely mean the pre-
Richard Gombrich notes that the sequence of the four
existing mainstream meditation practices of Jainism and rupa-jhanas describes two dierent cognitive states.
Hinduism.[236]
The rst two describe a narrowing of attention, while
Buddha added a new focus and interpretation, partic- in the third and fourth jhana attention is expanded
ularly through the Four Dhyanas methodology,[237] in again.[248][note 31][249] Alexander Wynne further explains
which mindfulness is maintained.[238][222] Further, the that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood.[250] Ac-
focus of meditation and the underlying theory of lib- cording to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of
eration guiding the meditation has been dierent in awareness, such as sati, sampajno, and upekkh, are mis-
Buddhism.[225][239][240] For example, states Bronkhorst, translated or understood as particular factors of medita-
the verse 4.4.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with its tive states,[250] whereas they refer to a particular way of
become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring, con- perceiving the sense objects.[250][note 32][note 33]
centrated, one sees soul in oneself is most probably a
meditative state.[241] The Buddhist discussion of medi-
tation is without the concept of soul and the discussion 3.5.3 The Brahma-vihara
criticizes both the ascetic meditation of Jainism and the
real self, soul meditation of Hinduism.[242]
1. First dhyana: detach from all sensory desires Statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat, Phitsanulok,
Thailand
and sinful states that are a source of unwhole-
some karma. Success here is described in Bud-
Main article: Brahmavihara
dhist texts as leading to discursive thinking, de-
liberation, detachment, sukha (pleasure) and priti
(rapture).[243][note 30] The four immeasurables or four abodes, also called
Brahma-viharas, are virtues or directions for meditation
2. Second dhyana: cease deliberation and all discursive in Buddhist traditions, which helps a person be reborn
thoughts.[244] Success leads to one-pointed thinking, in the heavenly (Brahma) realm.[252][253][254] These are
serenity, pleasure and rapture.[243] traditionally believed to be a characteristic of the deity
Brahma and the heavenly abode he resides in.[255]
3. Third dhyana: lose feeling of rapture. Success leads
to equanimity, mindfulness and pleasure, without The four Brahma-vihara are:
rapture.[243]
1. Loving-kindness (Pli: mett, Sanskrit: maitr ) is
4. Fourth dhyana: cease all eects, lose all happiness active good will towards all;[253][256]
and sadness. Success in the fourth meditation stage
leads to pure equanimity and mindfulness, without 2. Compassion (Pli and Sanskrit: karu) results
any pleasure or pain.[243][244] from metta, it is identifying the suering of others
3.6 Praj insight 11
3.6.2 Theravada
3.6.1 Origins
samatha is developed.[294]
controversial in Buddhism, but has a following in the obedience to teachers is also important in Theravada and
East Asian Buddhism.[308][309] These Sutras suggest, Zen Buddhism.[324]
states Paul Williams, that 'all sentient beings con-
tain a Tathagata' as their 'essence, core inner nature,
Self'.[310][note 35] The Tathagatagarbha doctrine, at its 4 Buddhist texts
earliest probably appeared about the later part of the
3rd century CE, and it contradicts the Anatta doctrine
(non-Self) in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading
scholars to posit that the Tathagatagarbha Sutras were
written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.[312][313]
However, the Buddhist text Ratnagotravibhga states
that the Self implied in Tathagatagarbha doctrine is
actually not-Self.[314][315]
3.7 Devotion
Main article: Buddhist devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most
5.2.1 Pre-sectarian Buddhism and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for
rebirth, but intentions and desire.[379]
Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Another core problem in the study of early Buddhism
is the relation between dhyana and insight.[139][217][218]
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Bud- Schmithausen, states that the four noble truths as lib-
dhism, recognized by nearly all scholars. Its main scrip- erating insight, may be a later addition to texts such as
tures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikyas Majjhima Nikaya 36.[220][380][381]
or Agamas.
According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the Four
Noble Truths became a substitution for prajna, or liber-
[383][384]
Tracing the oldest teachings Information of the old- ating insight, in the suttas in those texts where
est teachings may be obtained by analysis of the old- liberating insight was preceded by the four jhnas.[385]
est texts. One method to obtain information on the The four truths may not have been formulated in earli-
oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest ex- est Buddhism, and did not serve in [386] earliest Buddhism as
tant versions of the Theravadin Pli Canon and other a description of liberating insight. Gotamas teach-
texts. [note 37]
The reliability of these sources, and the pos- ings may have been personal, adjusted to the need of
[385]
sibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter each person.
of dispute.[217][221][361][218] According to Vetter, incon- The three marks of existence Dukkha, Annica, Anatta
sistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to may reect Upanishadic or other inuences. K.R. Nor-
resolve those inconsistencies.[359][note 38] man supposes that these terms were already in use at the
[387]
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by Buddhas time, and were familiar to his hearers. Ac-
scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[364] cording to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path
may initially have been as simple as the term the middle
way.[139] In time, this short description was elaborated,
1. Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and sub- resulting in the description of the eightfold path.[139] Sim-
stantial authenticity of at least a considerable part ilarly nibbna is the common term for the desired goal of
of the Nikayic materials;"[note 39] and Richard Gom- this practice, yet many other terms can be found through-
brich.[365][subnote 3] </ref> out the Nikyas, which are not specied.[388][note 43]
2. Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retriev-
ing the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"[note 40] </ref>
5.2.2 Early Buddhist schools
[note 41]
3. Cautious optimism in this respect.
Johannes Bronkhorst[subnote 6] and Donald Main articles: Early Buddhist schools, Buddhist councils,
Lopez.[subnote 7]
</ref> and Theravada
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirva
states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Bud- dhism tradition started in south India (modern Andhra
dhas teaching likely began during Buddhas lifetime, sim-Pradesh), and it is there that Prajnaparamita sutras,
ilar to the First Council, that helped compose Buddhist among the earliest Mahayana sutras,[399][400] developed
scriptures.[390] among the Mahsghika along the Ka River region
[401][402][403][note 45]
The Second Buddhist council resulted in the rst schism about the 1st century BCE.
in the Sangha, probably caused by a group of reformists There is no evidence that Mahayana ever referred to a
called Sthaviras who split from the conservative majority separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather
Mahsghikas.[391] After unsuccessfully trying to mod- that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doc-
ify the Vinaya, a small group of elderly members, i.e. trines, for bodhisattvas.[406] Initially it was known as
sthaviras, broke away from the majority Mahsghika Bodhisattvayna (the Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas).[407]
during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the Paul Williams states that the Mahyna never had nor ever
Sthavira sect.[392] attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination codes
[408]
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which from the early schools of Buddhism. Records writ-
was the Theravada school. Originally, these schisms were ten by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both
caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of Mahyna and non-Mahyna monks could be found in
various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if the same monasteries, with the dierence that Mahayana
not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal dis- monks worshipped gures[409] of Bodhisattvas, while non-
agreements too. [393]
Buddhist monks of dierent fra- Mahayana monks did not.
ternities became distinct schools, stopped doing ocial Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of
Sangha business together, but continued to study each Mahyna comes from early Chinese translations of
others doctrines.[393] Mahyna texts. These Mahayana teachings were rst
propagated into China by Lokakema, the rst translator
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sagha
started to accumulate their own version of Tripiaka (Pali of Mahayana
[note 46]
sutras into Chinese during the 2nd century
CE. Some scholars have traditionally considered
Canons, triple basket of texts).[42][394] In their Tripiaka,
each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya the earliest Mahyna stras to include the very rst ver-
sions of the Prajnaparamita series, along with texts con-
basket (disciplinary code) and added an Abhidharma bas-
ket which were texts on detailed scholastic classica- cerning Akobhya, which were probably composed in the
[411][note 47]
1st century BCE in the south of India.
tion, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.[42][395]
The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Bud-
dhist schools dier signicantly, and these were com- 5.2.4 Late Mahayana Buddhism
posed starting about 3th century BCE and through the
1st millennium CE.[396][note 44][397] Eighteen early Bud- During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism, four
dhist schools are known, each with its own Tripitaka, but major types of thought developed: Madhyamaka, Yo-
only one collection from Sri Lanka has survived, in nearly gachara, Tathagatagarbha, and Buddhist logic as the last
complete state, into the modern era.[398] and most recent.[413] In India, the two main philosophical
schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the
later Yogachara.[414] According to Dan Lusthaus, Mad-
5.2.3 Early Mahayana Buddhism
hyamaka and Yogachara have a great deal in common,
and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.[415]
Main article: Mahayana
There were no great Indian teachers associated with tatha-
Several scholars have suggested that the Mahayana Bud-
gatagarbha thought.[416]
states that esoteric form was attractive because it allowed Theravada emerged, but as the Hinayana term is consid-
both a secluded monastic community as well as the so- ered derogatory, a variety of other terms are used in-
cial rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings stead, including rvakayna, Nikaya Buddhism, early
for the maintenance of a political state during succession Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism and conservative
and wars to resist invasion.[429] During the middle ages, Buddhism.[436][437]
Buddhism slowly declined in India,[430] while it vanished Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosoph-
from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state ical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each
religion.[431][432] tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and
some comparisons can be drawn between them:[438][439]
6 Schools and traditions Both Theravada and Mahayana traditions accept the
Buddha as the founder, Theravada considers him
Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Buddhahood unique, but Mahayana considers him one of many
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Buddhas
A young bhikkhu in Sri Lanka The ideas of the 2nd century scholar Nagarjuna helped shape the
Mahayana traditions.
Theravda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China,
Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small por- Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of
tions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has Vietnam (also commonly referred to as Eastern Bud-
a growing presence in the west. dhism). The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Hi-
malayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in ori-
gin, but is discussed below under the heading of Va-
jrayana (also commonly referred to as Northern Bud-
6.3 Mahayana traditions dhism). There are a variety of strands in Eastern Bud-
dhism, of which the Pure Land school of Mahayana is
Main article: Mahayana the most widely practised today..[454] In most of this area
Mahayana schools consider the Mahayana Sutras as au- however, they are fused into a single unied form of Bud-
thoritative scriptures and accurate rendering of Buddhas dhism. In Japan in particular, they form separate denom-
words.[335] These traditions have been the more liberal inations with the ve major ones being: Nichiren, pecu-
form of Buddhism allowing dierent and new interpreta- liar to Japan; Pure Land; Shingon, a form of Vajrayana;
tions that emerged over time.[449] Tendai, and Zen. In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong
Mahayana ourished in India from the time of to the Chogye school, which is ocially Son (Zen), but
22 7 BUDDHISM TODAY
6.3.2 Zen
the Sarvstivdin Lalitavistara Stra, give dierent ac- See also Perry Schmidt-Leukel (2006) pages 3234,[54]
counts about the life of the Buddha, many include John J. Makransky (1997) p.27.[55] for the use of the term
stories of his many rebirths, some add signicant redeath. The term Agatigati or Agati gati (plus a few
embellishments.[18][19] Keown and Prebish state, In the other terms) is generally translated as 'rebirth, redeath';
past, modern scholars have generally accepted 486 or see any Pali-English dictionary; e.g. pages 9495 of Rhys
483 BCE for this [Buddhas death], but the consensus Davids & William Stede, where they list ve Sutta exam-
is now that they rest on evidence which is too imsy.[20] ples with rebirth and re-death sense.[56]
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualied claims about
the historical facts of the Buddhas life. Most accept that [9] Graham Harvey: Siddhartha Gautama found an end to
he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do rebirth in this world of suering. His teachings, known
not consistently accept all of the details contained in his as the dharma in Buddhism, can be summarized in the
biographies.[21][22][23][24] Four Noble truths.[58] Georey Samuel (2008): The
Four Noble Truths [...] describe the knowledge needed
[2] The exact identity of this ancient place is unclear. Please to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth.[59] See
see Gautama Buddha article for various sites identied. also [60][61][62][52][63][64][58][65][web 3][web 4]
The Theravada tradition holds that insight into these
[3] Bihar is derived from Vihara, which means
four truths is liberating in itself.[66] This is reected in
monastery).[25]
the Pali canon.[67] According to Donald Lopez, The
[4] Other details about Buddha'a background are contested Buddha stated in his rst sermon that when he gained
in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts as- absolute and intuitive knowledge of the four truths, he
sert that Buddha described himself as a kshatriya (warrior achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from
class), but states Gombrich, little is known about his father future rebirth.[web 3]
and there is no proof that his father even knew the term The Maha-parinibbana Sutta also refers to this
kshatriya.[28] Mahavira, whose teachings helped establish liberation.[web 5] Carol Anderson: The second pas-
another major ancient religion Jainism, is also claimed to sage where the four truths appear in the Vinaya-pitaka is
be ksatriya by his early followers. Further, early texts of also found in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta (D II 9091).
both Jainism and Buddhism, suggest they emerged in a pe- Here, the Buddha explains that it is by not understanding
riod of urbanization in ancient India, one with city nobles the four truths that rebirth continues.[68]
and prospering urban centers, states, agricultural surplus, On the meaning of moksha as liberation from rebirth, see
trade and introduction of money.[29] Patrick Olivelle in the Encyclopdia Britannica.[web 6]
[5] Doubts about the historicity of these claims in early Bud- [10] This explanation is more common in commentaries on the
dhist texts have emerged in modern scholarship because Four Noble Truths within the Theravada tradition: e.g.
later Buddhist texts do not mention that Buddha learnt Ajahn Sucitta (2010); Ajahn Sumedho (ebook); Rahula
these concepts from more ancient teachers.[32][34] Accord- (1974); etc.
ing to Alexander Wynne, the evidence suggests that Bud-
dha studied under various teachers and they almost cer- [11] Ending rebirth:
tainly taught him, but the details of his education are * Graham Harvey: The Third Noble Truth is nirvana.
unclear.[32][35] The Buddha tells us that an end to suering is possible,
and it is nirvana. Nirvana is a blowing out, just as a can-
[6] The Theravada tradition traces its origins as the oldest dle ame is extinguished in the wind, from our lives in
tradition holding the Pali Canon as the only authority, samsara. It connotes an end to rebirth[58]
Mahayana tradition revers the Canon but also the deriva- * Spiro: The Buddhis message then, as I have said, is
tive literature that developed in the 1st millennum CE not simply a psychological message, i.e. that desire is
and its roots are traceable to the 1st century BCE, while the cause of suering because unsatised desire produces
Vajrayana tradition is closer to the Mahayana, includes frustration. It does contain such a message to be sure; but
Tantra, is the younger of the three and traceable to 1st more importantly it is an eschatological message. Desire
millennium CE.[45][46] is the cause of suering because desire is the cause of
[7] As opposite to sukha, pleasure, it is better translated as rebirth; and the extinction of desire leads to deliverance
pain.[50] from suering because it signals release from the Wheel
of Rebirth.[60]
[8] On samsara, rebirth and redeath: * John J. Makransky: The third noble truth, cessation
* Paul Williams: All rebirth is due to karma and is imper- (nirodha) or nirvana, represented the ultimate aim of Bud-
manent. Short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth dhist practice in the Abhidharma traditions: the state free
one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance from the conditions that created samsara. Nirvana was the
with the completely impersonal causal nature of ones own ultimate and nal state attained when the supramundane
karma. The endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is yogic path had been completed. It represented salvation
samsara.[52] from samsara precisely because it was understood to com-
* Buswell and Lopez on rebirth": An English term that prise a state of complete freedom from the chain of sam-
does not have an exact correlate in Buddhist languages, saric causes and conditions, i.e., precisely because it was
rendered instead by a range of technical terms, such as the unconditioned (asamskrta).[62]
Sanskrit PUNARJANMAN (lit. birth again) and PUN- * Walpola Rahula: Let us consider a few denitions and
ABHAVAN (lit. re-becoming), and, less commonly, descriptions of Nirvana as found in the original Pali texts
the related PUNARMRTYU (lit. redeath).[53] [...] 'It is the complete cessation of that very thirst (tanha),
25
giving it up, renouncing it, emancipation from it, detach- stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not
ment from it.' [...] 'The abandoning and destruction of non-existent, and it seems impossible to imagine what
craving for these Five Aggregates of Attachment: that is awareness devoid of any object would be like.[153][154]
the cessation of dukkha. [...] 'The Cessation of Continuity
and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana.'"[73] [22] Scholars[112][113] note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has
been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists.
[12] Earlier Buddhist texts refer to ve realms rather than six This they attempt through merit accumulation and good
realms; when described as ve realms, the god realm and kamma.
demi-god realm constitute a single realm.[93]
[23] all eight precepts are sometimes observed by lay people
[13] This merit gaining may be on the behalf of ones family on poya full moon, no moon and half moon days on a
members.[100][101][102] lunar calendar believed to be more holier.[209]
[14] The realms in which a being is reborn are:[105][106][subnote 1] [24] This, states Richard Gombrich, means sleep on a mat on
Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the the ground.
uddhvsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only
by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as angmis (non- [25] The hundreds of rules vary by the sangha; 11th-century
returners). Rebirths in the rpyadhtu (formless realms) Chinese monastic texts include rules such as only reciting
can be attained by only those who can meditate on the Buddhas Holy Words alone, not near commonplace peo-
arpajhnas, the highest object of meditation. ple; not eating prohibited foods such as meat, sh, cheese,
onions, garlic, animal fat; abstain from anything that can
[15] Diseases and suering indued by the disruptive actions of lead to sensual thoughts; think of all sentient beings as a
other people are examples of non-karma suering.[120] newborn baby to develop feelings of compassion, etc.[212]
[16] The emphasis on intent in Buddhism marks its dierence [26] The problem was famously voiced in 1936 by Louis de La
from the karma theory of Jainism where karma accumu- Vallee Poussin, in his text Musila et Narada: Le Chemin de
lates with or without intent.[122][123] The emphasis on in- Nirvana.[219] See Louis de La Valle Poussin, Musial and
tent is also found in Hinduism, and Buddhism may have Narad. Translated from the French by Gelongma Migme
inuenced karma theories of Hinduism.[124] Chdrn and Gelong Lodr Sangpo.
[17] This Buddhist idea may have roots in the quid-pro-quo ex-
[27] On Vetter and dhyana, see, for example, Vetter 1988:
change beliefs of the Hindu Vedic rituals.[131] The karma
merit transfer concept has been controversial, not ac- page xxvii: Originally this
cepted in later Jainism and Hinduism traditions, unlike ["the fourth stage [...] that
Buddhism where it was adopted in ancient times and re- state of pure equanimity and
mains a common practice.[128] According to Bruce Re- awareness"] may have been
ichenbach, the merit transfer idea was generally absent the only ground of an expe-
in early Buddhism and may have emerged with the rise rience of release.
of Mahayana Buddhism; he adds that while major Hindu page xxviii: Incidentally,
schools such as Yoga, Advaita Vedanta and others do not this state of pure equanimity
believe in merit transfer, some bhakti Hindu traditions and awareness may also have
later adopted the idea just like Buddhism.[132] been the origin of the method
[18] Another variant, which may be condensed to the eight- of discriminating insight.
fold or tenfold path, starts with a Tathagatha entering this page xxviiixxix: In order
world. A layman hears his teachings, decides to leave the to solve [...] a very practical
life of a householder, starts living according to the moral way.
precepts, guards his sense-doors, practices mindfulness page xxxiii: an older stage
and the four jhanas, gains the three knowledges, under- of the same path to salvation
stands the Four Noble Truths and destroys the taints, and ends in the right samadhi,
perceives that hes liberated.[77]
[28] Williams refers to Frauwallner (1973) p.155
[19] The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion
of emptiness (shunyata) to Anatta and Nirvana. They [29] Many ancient Upanishads of Hinduism describe yoga and
do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: rst, in the meditation as a means to liberation.[229][230][231]
common sense of a monks meditative state of emptiness;
second, with the main sense of Anatta or 'everything in [30] The state is described in a number of additional character-
the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense istics in dierent Buddhist texts. For example, success in
of Nirvana or realization of emptiness and thus an end to the First Dhyana leads to a gem-like outer light emanating
rebirth cycles of suering.[145] from the body, according to Samahitabhumi by Asanga;
the nature of emanating light from ones body changes as
[20] Some scholars such as Cousins and Sangharakshita trans- the meditation successfully progresses from the rst to the
late apranaihita as aimlessness or directionless-ness.[147] fourth Dhyana.[243]
[21] These descriptions of nirvana in Buddhist texts, states [31] Gombrich: I know this is controversial, but it seems to
Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nir- me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike
vana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a state of the second.[248]
26 9 NOTES
[32] Wynne: Thus the expression sato sampajno in the third peace) and again MN 26 (passim), anuttaramyagakkhe-
jhna must denote a state of awareness dierent from the mam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe
meditative absorption of the second jhna (cetaso ekodib- place, the nirvana). Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has
hva). It suggests that the subject is doing something dif- reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression
ferent from remaining in a meditative state, i.e., that he in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p, 235), see chapter 2,
has come out of his absorption and is now once again footnote 3, Furthermore, satthi (welfare) is important in
aware of objects. The same is true of the word upek(k)h: e.g. SN 2.12 or 2.17 or Sn 269; and sukha and rati (hap-
it does not denote an abstract 'equanimity', [but] it means piness), in contrast to other places, as used in Sn 439 and
to be aware of something and indierent to it [...] The 956. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal, im-
third and fourth jhna-s, as it seems to me, describe the mortality) [...] but one could say here that it is a negative
process of directing states of meditative absorption to- term.[388]
wards the mindful awareness of objects.[251]
[44] Abhidhamma Pitaka. Encyclopdia Britannica. Ulti-
[33] According to Gombrich, the later tradition has falsied mate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britan-
the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the nica, 2008
concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the
other and indeed higher element.[248] [45] Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that historians of
Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time
[34] The Buddha never claimed that the four immeasurables
that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers
were his unique ideas, in a manner similar to cessa-
as Nagarjuna, Dignga, Chandrakirti, Aryadeva, and
tion, quieting, nirvana.[258] The Buddhist scripture Digha
Bhviveka, among many others, formulated their theo-
Nikaya II.251 asserts the Buddha to be calling the Brah-
ries while living in Buddhist communities in ndhra.[404]
mavihara as that practice, and he then contrasts it with
They note that the ancient Buddhist sites in the lower
my practice.[258]
Ka Valley, including Amaravati, Ngrjunako and
[35] Wayman and Wayman have disagreed with this view, and Jaggayyapea can be traced to at least the third century
they state that the Tathagatagarbha is neither self nor sen- BCE, if not earlier.[405]
tient being, nor soul, nor personality.[311]
[46] The most important evidence in fact the only evidence
[36] While some scholars suggest that Buddhism may have de- for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around
veloped as a social reform to the Vedic religion, other the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence
scholars such as Gombrich suggest that Buddha should at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of
not be seen as a social reformer, because his concern was the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyn-
to reform individuals, help them to leave society forever, cratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated
not to reform the world... he never preached against social into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an In-
inequality.[343] The philosophical roots of Buddhism and doscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as
related ideologies in ancient India, states Gombrich, was Lokaksema.[410]
the spiritual salvation of man.[343]
[47] The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in pro-
[37] The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada, ducing Mahayana Sutras Warder[412]
Mulasarvastivada, Mahsaka, Dharmaguptaka and other
schools,[359][360] and the Chinese Agamas and other sur- [48] See Hill (2009), p. 30, for the Chinese text from the Hou
viving portions of other early canons. Hanshu, and p. 31 for a translation of it.[427]
[38] Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of liber-
[49] (Harvey 1990),(Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1
ating insight by Lambert Schmithausen,[220] the overview
2, identies three broad traditions as: (1) The Ther-
of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter,[139] the philologi-
avda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also
cal work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,[362] the tex-
sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) The
tual studies by Richard Gombrich,[218] and the research on
East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Viet-
early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.[363]
nam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism";
[39] Well-known proponents of the rst position are A. K. and, (3) The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred
Warder[subnote 2] to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982)
divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled
[40] A proponent of the second position is Ronald The Buddhism of South Asia (which pertains to Early
Davidson.[subnote 4] Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled The De-
velopment of Buddhism Outside of India with chapters
[41] Well-known proponent of the third position are J.W. de
on The Buddhism of Southeast Asia, Buddhism in
Jong,[366][subnote 5]
the Tibetan Culture Area, East Asian Buddhism and
[42] According to Schmithausen, the karma doctrine may Buddhism Comes West; Penguin handbook of Living
have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology.[376] Religions, 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, Introduc-
ing Buddhism, ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005,
[43] Vetter: I am especially thinking here of MN 26 printed ed, Harper, 2006
(I p.163,32; 165,15;166,35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram
santivarapadam pariyesamano (searching for that which [50] See e.g. the multi-dimensional classication in Encyclo-
is benecial, seeking the unsurpassable, best place of pedia of Religion[435]
27
[51] Cousins, L.S. (1996); Buswell (2003), Vol. I, p. 82; and, else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."<ref
Keown & Prebish (2004), p. 107. See also, Gombrich name='FOOTNOTEWarder1999inside ap'>Warder, &
(1988/2002), p. 32: [T]he best we can say is that [the 1999 inside ap.
Buddha] was probably Enlightened between 550 and 450,
more likely later rather than earlier. [3] Richard Gombrich: I have the greatest diculty in ac-
cepting that the main edice is not the work of a single
[52] Williams (2000, pp. 6-7) writes: As a matter of fact Bud- genius. By the main edice I mean the collections of
dhism in mainland India itself had all but ceased to exist the main body of sermons, the four Nikyas, and of the
by the thirteenth century CE, although by that time it had main body of monastic rules.[218]
spread to Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. [441]
(Originally 1958), Chronology, p. xxix: c. 1000-1200: [4] Ronald Davidson: While most scholars agree that
Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in there was a rough body of sacred literature (dis-
India. See also, Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982), pp. puted)(sic) that a relatively early community (dis-
100-1, 108 Fig. 1; and, Harvey (1990/2007), pp. 139-40. puted)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little con-
dence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scrip-
[53] According to Charles S. Prebish:[465] Although a variety ture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."<ref
of Zen 'schools developed in Japan, they all emphasize name='FOOTNOTEDavidson2003147'>Davidson 2003,
Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, p. 147.
that provides the potential for direct realization, that the
realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature [5] J.W. De Jong: It would be hypocritical to assert that
possessed by each sentient being .... nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Bud-
dhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the
[54] Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): It presumes that canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed
sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his
of Buddha nature. The method is to detach the mind disciples and, nally, codied in xed formulas."<ref
from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality name='FOOTNOTEJong199325'>Jong 1993, p. 25.
directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar
Stephen Hodge writes: "... practitioners of Zen believe [6] Bronkhorst: This position is to be preferred to (ii) for
that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay
Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered nd, even if no success is guaranteed.[367]
over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts.
According to this view, Enlightenment is not something [7] Lopez: The original teachings of the historical Buddha
that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can are extremely dicult, if not impossible, to recover or
occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of men- reconstruct.[368]
tal and emotional obscurations.[466]
[16] Bronkhorst 2013, pp. ixxi. [45] Gethin 1998, pp. 12, 4958, 253271.
[17] Gethin 1998, pp. 1314. [46] Paul Williams (1989). Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctri-
nal Foundations. Routledge. pp. 125. ISBN 978-0-415-
[18] Swearer 2004, p. 177. 02537-9.
[20] Keown & Prebish 2010, pp. 105106. [48] Emmanuel 2015, p. 30.
[31] Kurt Tropper (2013). Tibetan Inscriptions. BRILL Aca- [59] Samuel 2008, p. 136.
demic. pp. 6061 with footnotes 134136. ISBN 978-
[60] Spiro 1982, p. 42.
90-04-25241-7.
[61] Vetter 1988, p. xxi, xxxixxxii.
[32] Alexander Wynne (2007). The Origin of Buddhist Medi-
tation. Routledge. pp. 823. ISBN 978-1-134-09740-1. [62] Makransky 1997, p. 27-28.
[33] Hajime Nakamura (2000). Gotama Buddha: A Biography [63] Idema 2004, p. 17.
Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei. pp. 127129.
ISBN 978-4-333-01893-2. [64] Lopez 2009, p. 147.
[34] Johannes Bronkhorst (2013). Buddhist Teaching in India. [65] Kingsland 2016, p. 286.
Wisdom Publications. pp. 1932. ISBN 978-0-86171-
811-5. [66] Carter 1987, p. 3179.
[35] Hirakawa & Groner 1993, pp. 2226. [67] Anderson 2013.
29
[68] Anderson 2013, p. 162 with note 38, for context see pages is a ction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doc-
13. trine, the individual person consists of ve skandhas or
heaps the body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and con-
[69] Walpola Rahula 2007, loc. 791809. sciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these ve
skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suering.
[70] Gethin 1998, p. 70.
[83] Richard Francis Gombrich; Cristina Anna Scherrer-
[71] Ajahn Sucitto 2010, Kindle loc. 943946. Schaub (2008). Buddhist Studies. Motilal Banarsidass.
[72] Brazier 2001. pp. 209210. ISBN 978-81-208-3248-0.
[76] Goldstein 2002, p. 158. [86] Juergensmeyer & Roof 2011, pp. 271272.
[80] [a] Christmas Humphreys (2012). Exploring Buddhism. [88] Wilson 2010.
Routledge. pp. 4243. ISBN 978-1-136-22877-3.
[b] Gombrich (2006), page 47, Quote: "(...) Buddhas [89] McClelland 2010, p. 172, 240.
teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This [90] Williams, Tribe & Wynne 2012, p. 1819, chapter 1.
'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his sec-
ond sermon. [91] Conze 2013, p. 71, Quote: Nirvana is the raison d'tre
of Buddhism, and its ultimate justication..
[81] [a] Anatta, Encyclopdia Britannica (2013), Quote:
Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans [92] Gethin 1998, p. 119.
no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or
anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman [93] Buswell 2004, pp. 711712.
(the self)."; [94] Buswell & Gimello 1992, pp. 78, 8384.
[b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Rea-
son (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ [95] Choong 1999, p. 2829, Quote: Seeing (passati) the na-
of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; ture of things as impermanent leads to the removal of the
Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self view of self, and so to the realisation of nirvana..
(Pali: anatt, Sanskrit: antman, the opposed doctrine of
tman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briey, [96] Rahula 2014, p. 51-58.
this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no [97] Keown 1996, p. 107.
soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
[c] John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philos- [98] Oliver Leaman (2002). Eastern Philosophy: Key Read-
ophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ings. Routledge. pp. 2327. ISBN 978-1-134-68919-4.
ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: The Buddhist
schools reject any tman concept. As we have already [99] [a] Christmas Humphreys (2012). Exploring Buddhism.
observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction be- Routledge. pp. 4243. ISBN 978-1-136-22877-3.
tween Hinduism and Buddhism"; [b] Brian Morris (2006). Religion and Anthropology: A
[d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Critical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 51.
Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philoso- ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8., Quote: "(...) anatta is the
phy Now; doctrine of non-self, and is an exteme empiricist doctrine
[e] David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self
Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, is a ction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doc-
International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue trine, the individual person consists of ve skandhas or
1, pages 6574 heaps the body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and con-
sciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these ve
[82] Brian Morris (2006). Religion and Anthropology: A Crit- skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suering.
ical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. [c] Gombrich (2006), page 47, Quote: "(...) Buddhas
ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8., Quote: "(...) anatta is the teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This
doctrine of non-self, and is an exteme empiricist doctrine 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his sec-
that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self ond sermon.
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[107] Harvey 1990, p. 33.
[133] Buswell & Lopez 2003, pp. 589590.
[108] Keown & Prebish 2013, p. 36.
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[247] Lewis Hodous; William E. Soothill (2003). A Dictio-
[218] Gombrich 1997. nary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and En-
[219] Bronkhorst 1993, p. 133-134. glish Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index. Routledge. p.
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[220] Schmithausen 1981.
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13.2 Images
File:A_young_monk_against_the_background_of_Big_Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple._Matara,_Southern_
Province,_Sri_Lanka.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/A_young_monk_against_the_background_
of_Big_Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple._Matara%2C_Southern_Province%2C_Sri_Lanka.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Self-photographed, http://mstyslav-chernov.com/ Original artist: Mstyslav Chernov
File:Asoka_Kaart.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Asoka_Kaart.png License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Transferred from nl.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Dhammajoti at Dutch Wikipedia
File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/
40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.org/
region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the le. Artwork
created by an anonymous ancient source.
File:Bhavachakra.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Bhavachakra.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: http://probud.narod.ru/symbol/bhavachakra.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
13.2 Images 47
File:Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_data_by_Pew_Research.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_
data_by_Pew_Research.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter
File:BuddhistTriad.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Buddhist_sects.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Buddhist_sects.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Javierfv1212
File:Chinese_Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/
Chinese_Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/festivefrog/
2901377745/ Original artist: Jon Bragg
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Debating_Monks.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Debating_Monks.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: self photographed Original artist: Rainer Haessner
File:Destroyed_Statue,_July_17,_2005_at_15-53.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Destroyed_
Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Destroyed Statue Original artist: Tracy Hunter from
Kabul,, Afghanistan
File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona
File:ElloraPuja.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ElloraPuja.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contribu-
tors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/andihefti/2091525508/sizes/o/ Original artist: andihefti
File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion
(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)
File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: <a class='mw-selink selink'>File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg</a> Original artist: Draw new ag by User: _
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian ag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS
6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1]
Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.
jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ginkakuji_Temple_Togudo_2009_059.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ginkakuji_Temple_
Togudo_2009_059.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dingy
48 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
File:Rock-cut_Lord_--Buddha--_Statue_at_Bojjanakonda_near_Anakapalle_of_Visakhapatnam_dist_in_AP.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Rock-cut_Lord_--Buddha--_Statue_at_Bojjanakonda_near_Anakapalle_of_
Visakhapatnam_dist_in_AP.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adityamadhav83
File:Sanchi_Stupa_No_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Sanchi_Stupa_No_2.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Suyash Dwivedi
File:StandingBuddha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/StandingBuddha.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work at the Guimet Museum, Paris Original artist: personal photograph by [1]
File:Tsapa_Namgyal_-_The_Teacher_and_Philosopher_Nagarjuna_-_Walters_543008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Tsapa_Namgyal_-_The_Teacher_and_Philosopher_Nagarjuna_-_Walters_543008.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder
home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/29013' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Tsapa Namgyal
13.3 Content license 49