PHYS 1030 Final Exam

Thursday, April 26
9:00 - 12:00

Frank Kennedy Brown Gym

The whole course, about same weight per chapter

30 multiple-choice questions
Formula sheet provided

Bring student ID!

Check your marks on the web site

Let me know if there are errors!
 Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom

Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom the nucleus is really

small!

Atomic line spectra wavelengths characteristic of each element

Bohr model of the hydrogen atom

quantization of angular momentum quantization of energy

x-rays

The laser

Omit 30.5, 6 quantum mechanical picture of H-atom, Pauli

Exclusion Principle, periodic table
 Early model of the atom
About 10-10 m in size.

Positively charged (pudding), with negatively charged electrons

(plums) embedded in the pudding plum pudding model

Stability of the plum pudding was questionable.

Where would the characteristic spectral lines come from?

 Geiger+Marsden: Fall of the plum pudding
Alpha () particles nuclei of
4He atom, emitted by some

radioactive nuclei were

scattered from a thin gold foil
and observed on a screen as
flashes of light.

Far more were scattered at large

angle than would be possible
with the weak electric field
inside a plum pudding atom.

Rutherford: realized that the

positive charges of the atom had
to be contained in a very small
volume the nucleus electric planetary model of the atom with electrons
field very strong close to it. in orbit around nucleus
 Very schematic picture of an atom

Size of the nucleus 10-15 10-14 m

Size of the atom 10-10 m

Equal amounts of + and charges in

the neutral atom.

Electrons are in orbit around the

nucleus in a planetary model of the
atom.

(charge +Ze)
 Problem with a Planetary Model of the Atom

The electrons suffer centripetal acceleration in their orbital motion.

Accelerated charges should radiate electromagnetic energy.

The electrons should lose energy and spiral into the nucleus in very
little time.

A planetary atom should not be stable!

Classical theory does not explain the structure of the atom.

Small systems, such as atoms, must behave differently from

large.

30.1
 Fraunhofer absorption lines
from the sun
http://www.harmsy.freeuk.com/fraunhofer.html
1 (Angstrom) = 0.1 nm
Fraunhofer lines due to absorption of sunlight
by elements in the atmosphere of the sun
chemical elements emit and absorb light at
the same wavelengths
Models of the atom need to explain this

The sun: blackbody radiation for T 6000 K

 Line spectrum of the hydrogen atom

n=2 n=4
n=6
n=3 n=5 n=4

m=1 m=2 m=3

n=
Ultraviolet Visible series limit
Infrared + other series
Balmer found by trial and error a simple formula to calculate the wavelength
of all lines of the hydrogen atom:
! " m Series
1 1 1 1 Lyman ultraviolet
=R 2
2
m = 1, 2, 3 . . .
m n
2 Balmer visible
n = m + 1, m + 2, m + 3 . . .
3 Paschen infrared
R = Rydberg constant = 1.097 10 m 7 -1
4 Brackett infrared
 Spectrum of H-atom
! "
1 1 1
=R m = 1, 2, 3 . . .
m2 n2
n = m + 1, m + 2, m + 3 . . .
R = Rydberg constant = 1.097 107 m-1
n= n=2
Example: Lyman series, m = 1:

For n = :
! "
1 1 1 m=1
= 1.097 10 7
2
= 1.097 10 m1
7
1
= 91.2 nm (series
(serieslimit)
limit, shortest wavelength in Lyman series)
For n = 2:
! "
1 1 1
= 1.097 107 2 2 = 0.823 107 m1
1 2
= 121.5 nm (longest wavelength in Lyman series)
 Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
Now superseded by more modern
quantum mechanical ideas, but gives
the correct answers. E = hf
= Ei Ef
Assume:
A planetary model with electron
in orbit around the nucleus.
There are certain electron orbits Stationary
states
that are stable (stationary states).
This is contrary to classical theory
and is not explained in this model.
Light is emitted or absorbed when an electron changes state.
Energy is conserved, so the energy of the photon is the difference in
energy between the initial and final states:

E = hf = Ei Ef what are the allowed energies?

 Energies of hydrogen atom in the Bohr model
A hydrogen-like
The electron is kept in orbit by the attractive
atom or ion with just
Coulomb force between it and the nucleus. one electron in orbit
kZe2 mv2
F= 2 =
r r
kZe2
mv =
2
= 2 KE (A)
r
m
The potential energy is:
kZe2
PE =
r
And so the total mechanical energy, E = KE + PE, is:
kZe2 kZe2 kZe2
E= = (B)
2r r 2r
But, what are the good values of r corresponding to the stationary states?
 Energies of hydrogen atom in the Bohr model

Assertion (Bohr): the angular momentum of the

electron around the nucleus can have only
certain, quantized, values:
nh
Ln = mvr = n = 1, 2, 3...
2
Combine with (A): mv2r = kZe2
2
! "2 m
kZe nh
So, v2 = =
mr 2mr
! "2 2
1 nh n
r= 2
= (5.29 10 11
m) n = quantum number
kZe m 2 Z
! "
kZe2
And then, substituting into (B), the total mechanical energy is: E =
! 2 2 4" 2 2r
2 mk e Z Z2
En = , n = 1, 2, 3 . . . En = 13.6 2 eV
h2 n2 n
 Bohr Model for H and H-like Atoms
A planetary model in which the electron defies the normal laws of
electromagnetism and does not radiate when in certain stationary
states.

The angular momentum of the electron in the stationary states is:

nh
Ln = mvr = , n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
2
n is a quantum number.
Z2
The energy of the nth quantum state is: En = 13.6 2 eV
n
Light is emitted or absorbed when the atom changes energy state.

The energy of the photon is the difference in energy of the two states
of the atom.
 Emission of a photon
Ei = E f + h f
E = hf

Absorption of a photon
E f + h f = Ei

Emission and absorption occur at the

same wavelengths (as seen in the
E = hf Fraunhofer absorption lines of
sunlight).
 Spectrum of hydrogen-like atoms and ions
(Just one electron in
orbit around the ni
nucleus)

E = hf
= Ei Ef

nf
Z2
Energy levels: En = 13.6 2 eV Z = 1 for hydrogen
n
! "
hc 1 1
Energy of photons: E = Ei Ef = = 13.6Z 2 eV
n2f n2i

In agreement with Balmers formula

! "
(13.6 1.602 10 19
J)
R= = 1.097 107 m1
hc
 Energy levels of the hydrogen atom Bohr
Free electron

Energy
Energy

13.6 Origin of the lines of the

En = 2
eV
n hydrogen atom spectrum
(Z = 1)

Ground state
 Free electron
Prob. 30.-/7: It is possible to use
electromagnetic radiation to ionize atoms.
To do so, the atoms must absorb the
radiation, the photons of which must have
enough energy to remove an electron from
an atom.

Energy
What is the longest radiation wavelength
that can be used to ionize the ground state
of the hydrogen atom?

The least energy to remove a ground state

electron is E E1.

Ground state,
n=1
 Free electron

First excited state, n = 2

Energy

Prob. 30.7/8: The electron in a hydrogen atom is in

the first excited state, when the electron acquires an
additional 2.86 eV of energy.

What is the quantum number, n, of the state into

which the electron moves?

Ground state
Prob. 30.12/14: A hydrogen atom is in the ground state. It absorbs energy
and makes a transition to the n = 3 excited state. The atom returns to the
ground state emitting two photons. What are their wavelengths?
 Justification of Bohrs condition on the angular
momentum
nh
Ln = mvr = n = 1, 2, 3...
2

Substitute for the de Broglie wavelength

of the electron:
h This does NOT show
mv = p = the path of the
electron, but indicates n=4
hr nh there is a wave moving
So, mvr = = around the orbit take
2 with a pinch of salt!
Therefore, 2r = n

The circumference of the orbit is an integer number of wavelengths.

Condition for a standing wave that reinforces itself.

Bohrs theory applies to hydrogen-like atoms and ions that have
just one electron in orbit around the nucleus.
Examples:
H atom, Z = 1, 1 electron present
He+ ion, Z = 2, 1 electron removed
Li2+ ion, Z = 3, 2 electrons removed
Be3+ ion, Z = 4, 3 electrons removed, etc

Prob. 30.16: Doubly ionized lithium Li2+ (Z = 3) and triply ionized

beryllium Be3+ (Z = 4) each emit a line spectrum. For a certain series of
lines in the lithium spectrum, the shortest wavelength if 40.5 nm. For the
same series of lines in the beryllium spectrum, what is the shortest
wavelength?

Both are hydrogen-like atoms, with all electrons removed but one, so
Bohrs formula applies for energies of stationary states:

En = 13.6 Z2/n2 eV
An x-ray tube Spectrum of x-rays

Electrons:
KE = eV

Vacuum

Sharp lines characteristic of the chemical

element of the target.
A smooth background (Bremsstrahlung)
A cutoff wavelength, 0, below which there are
no x-rays
 Spectrum of x-rays
Bremsstrahlung: due to the
electrons being stopped
rapidly on hitting the target
accelerated charges emit
electromagnetic radiation.
o = 0.03 nm
The shortest wavelength x-rays E = 41.4 keV
are produced when all of the V = 41.4 kV
kinetic energy of the electrons
is converted into x-rays:

KE = eV = hf = hc/0

Characteristic x-rays: from electron transitions in the target atom.

Wavelengths depend on the target.
K-shell
K: (n = 2) (n = 1) L-shell
K: (n = 3) (n = 1) (Lyman)
L: (n = 3) (n = 2) L: (n = 4) (n = 2) (Balmer), etc
 x-ray spectra at different voltages

The characteristic x-ray peaks

do not move they are
properties of the target atoms.

The cutoff wavelength, 0,

decreases as the accelerating
voltage increases:

hc 0 1/V
eV =
0 The Bremsstrahlung
component also shifts as the
voltage is changed.
 Wavelength of K x-rays

Moseley found a quite accurate approximate result for K x-rays for

atoms with one electron removed from the K shell:

! " n=2 L shell

hc 1 1
EK = = 13.6(Z 1)2
eV K
12 22

The same as the Bohr formula, only with Z

replaced by Z 1. n=1 K shell
(there is a second electron in the K shell that
partly shields the charge of the nucleus)

Found that some elements were in the wrong place in the periodic table.
Identified other previously unknown elements.
30.34
Prob. 30.46/34: The atomic number of lead is Z = 82.

According to Moseley and the Bohr model, what is the energy of a K

x-ray photon?

Prob. 30.36/48: What is the minimum potential difference that must be

applied to an x-ray tube to knock a K-shell electron completely out of
an atom of copper (Z = 29) target?
 A conventional x-ray picture, colour-enhanced
A picture of the shadows
cast by bones and tissue.

The higher the accelerating

voltage in the x-ray tube,
the shorter the average
wavelength of the x-rays
and the more penetrating
they are.

There is a trade-off
between penetrating power
of the x-rays and contrast
of the image.

Lung tumour
CT scans (Computerized Tomography) fire x-rays into the subject and
creates x-ray shadow pictures from many directions. Computer analysis is
able to reconstruct three-dimensional images from the many pictures. X-ray
detectors are used in place of film.
In CAT scans (Computerized Axial Tomography) a narrow fan of x-rays is
used to image a slice through the body.
 CAT Scan

(movable)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Venesreconstruction.JPG

Brain vessels reconstructed in 3D

 The Laser
Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Spontaneous emission the

E = Ei Ef electron in an excited state falls
back to a lower state at a random
time, emitting a photon of energy
Ei Ef in a random direction.

Stimulated emission a photon

of energy Ei Ef induces the
emission of a photon of the same
E = Ei Ef energy, resulting in two photons
of the same energy travelling in
E = Ei Ef phase in the same direction

amplification of the light.

 The Laser E = Ei Ef
Metastable state (~10-3 s)

For light amplification to occur:

There must be a large number of atoms in the excited state a
population inversion.

The excited state must be long-lived a metastable state.

Then atoms in the metastable state stay there long enough for a photon of
the right energy to come along and cause stimulated emission.

The result is a build up of photons of the same wavelength that are in phase
coherent light.
 The Laser

Laser light is:

Highly coherent. As the light waves are in phase, the combined

amplitude is large, and the intensity much greater than a source of
incoherent light, such as a lamp, that may emit the same number of
photons per second.

Very sharply defined in wavelength, whereas an incandescent lamp

emits blackbody radiation, which is over a wide wavelength range,
including the invisible infra-red.

Emitted in a narrow beam with divergence limited by diffraction.

Helium-Neon Laser (eg checkout scanner)

Low pressure He
(15%) - Ne (85%)
in a glass tube

A high voltage discharge in the gas produces

a population inversion.
Parallel mirrors at the ends reflect light back and
forth. Light angled too far from the axis of the
laser escapes through the sides. Only light
travelling parallel to the axis is amplified.
 Helium-Neon Laser

} Population
inversion

A high voltage discharge excites

helium atoms to the 20.61 eV
metastable state.
He and Ne atoms collide, the
excitation is transferred to the Ne
metastable level.
The population inversion is
between the 20.66 and 18.70 eV
levels of Ne.
The energy of the photons is 20.66 18.70 eV = hc/
= 633 nm, red.
 Lasers
There are now many types of laser in power ranges from mW to MW,
continuous beam and pulsed:

He-Ne, ruby, argon-ion, CO2, gallium arsenide solid state, chemical

dye...

Uses:
playback/recording of CDs, DVDs
checkout scanners
welding metal parts
accurate distance measurement
telecommunications
study of molecular structure
medicine
selective removal of tissue, example, shaping the cornea of the eye
removal of port wine stain birth marks
destroying tumours with light-activated drugs
reattaching detached retinas
 Holography
A laser beam is split into two parts. The first, a
reference beam, travels directly to the film. The
second reflects from the object and recombines
with the reference beam at the film, generating
interference fringes there.
Hologram
(interference
fringes, not an
image)
 Holography the
l0
interference fringes
For constructive lm
interference at P, the path
difference between the
reference beam and the P
beam that scatters from A
should be an integer
multiple of the wavelength
of the light.
For the bright fringe of order m: lm l0 = m
! !
rm = lm2 l02 = (l0 + m)2 l02
! !
rm = m(m + 2l0) ! 2ml0 m ! "
m
the fringes are close together for large m rm
2 m
Viewing the image by The fringes act as slits
shining laser light on d of varying spacing
the hologram

for first-order
sin = maximum
d
(the brightest)
d = spacing of the fringes
 Summary of Chapter 30
The positive charge of the the atom is concentrated in a nucleus that is
~10-15 - 10-14 m in radius.

The angular momentum of the electron in an atom is quantized,

leading to quantized energy levels in hydrogen-like atoms:

En = 13.6 Z2/n2 eV

Photons are emitted and absorbed by atoms at the same wavelength

identification of elements in the atmosphere of stars, discovery of
helium.

The energies of K x-rays can be calculated by replacing Z by Z1

identification of some chemical elements for the first time.

Stimulated emission, the laser.