History of Turkey

The history of Turkey, understood as the history of the region now forming

the territory of the Republic of Turkey, includes the history of

both Anatolia (the Asian part of Turkey) and Eastern Thrace (the European

part of Turkey).

For times predating the Ottoman period, a distinction must be made between

the history of the Turkic peoples, and the history of the territories now

forming the Republic of Turkey, essentially the histories of

ancient Anatolia and Thrace.

The name Turkey is derived from Middle Latin Turchia, i.e. the "land of

the Turks", historically referring to an entirely different territory of Eastern

Europe and Central Asia, which fell under the control of Turkic peoples in the

early medieval period.

From the time when parts of what is now Turkey was conquered by Turks, the

history of Turkey spans the medieval history of the Seljuk Empire, the

medieval to modern history of the Ottoman Empire, and the history of

the Republic of Turkey since the 1920s.

Anatolia and Thrace In Antiquity

Anatolia
Further information: Prehistory of Anatolia, Ancient Anatolians, Hittite

Empire, Syro-Hittite states, Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Macedonian

Empire, Ancient Regions of Anatolia, Kingdom of Pontus, Seleucid

Empire, Byzantine Anatolia, and Ancient Near East

The ancient history of Anatolia (Asia Minor) can be roughly subdivided

into prehistory, Ancient Near East (Bronze Age and Early Iron Age), Classical

Anatolia, Hellenistic Anatolia, with Byzantine Anatolia spanning the early

medieval period to the age of the Crusades and the eventual Turkish

(Seljuk/Ottoman) conquest of Anatolia by the 15th century.

The earliest representations of culture in Anatolia were Stone Age artifacts. The remnants

of Bronze Age civilizations such as the Hattian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Hittite peoples

provide us with many examples of the daily lives of its citizens and their trade. After the fall

of the Hittites, the new states of Phrygia and Lydia stood strong on the western coast

as Greek civilization began to flourish. They, and all the rest of Anatolia were relatively soon

after incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

As Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port

cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into various satrapies, ruled

by satraps (governors) appointed by the central Persian rulers. The first state that was

called Armenia by neighboring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty,

which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC, which became

the Satrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid rule. Some of the satraps revolted periodically but

did not pose a serious threat. In the 5th century BC, Darius I built the Royal Road, which
linked the principal city of Susa with the west Anatolian city of Sardis.[3] Anatolia played a

pivotal role in Achaemenid history. In the earliest 5th century BC, some of the Ionian cities

under Persian rule revolted, which culminated into the Ionian Revolt. This revolt, after being

easily suppressed by the Persian authority, laid the direct uplead for the Greco-Persian Wars,

which turned out to be one of the most crucial wars in European history. After Achaemenid

Persian rule, the Greek Alexander the Great finally wrested control of the whole region from

Persia in successive battles, proving victorious over the Persian Darius III. After Alexander's

death, his conquests were split amongst several of his trusted generals, but were under

constant threat of invasion from both the Gauls and other powerful rulers

in Pergamon, Pontus, and Egypt. The Seleucid Empire, the largest of Alexander's territories,

and which included Anatolia, became involved in a disastrous war with Rome culminating in

the battles of Thermopylae and Magnesia. The resulting Treaty of Apamea in (188 BC) saw

the Seleucids retreat from Anatolia. The Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes,

Rome's allies in the war, were granted the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia.

Roman control of Anatolia was strengthened by a 'hands off' approach by Rome, allowing

local control to govern effectively and providing military protection. In the early 4th

century, Constantine the Great established a new administrative centre at Constantinople, and

by the end of the 4th century the Roman empire split into two parts, the Eastern part

(Romania) with Constantinople as its capital, referred to by historians as the Byzantine

Empire from the original name, Byzantium.

Thrace

The Thracians (Ancient Greek: , Latin: Thraci) were a group of Indo-European

tribes inhabiting a large area in Central and Southeastern Europe. [5] They were bordered by

the Scythians to the north, the Celts and the Illyrians to the west, the Ancient Greeks to the

south and the Black Sea to the east. They spoke the Thracian language a scarcely attested

branch of the Indo-European language family. The study of Thracians and Thracian culture is

known as Teratology.

Starting around 1200 BC, the western coast of Anatolia was heavily settled

by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists,

such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and Byzantium, the latter founded by Greek colonists

from Megara in 657 BC. All of Thrace, and the native Thracian peoples were conquered

by Darius the Great in the late 6th century BC, and were re-subjugated into the empire in 492

BC following Mardonius' campaign during the First Persian invasion of Greece. The territory

of Thrace later became unified by the Odrysian kingdom, founded by Teres I, probably after

the Persian defeat in Greece.

By the 5th century BC, the Thracian presence was pervasive enough to have

made Herodotus[9] call them the second-most numerous people in the part of the world

known by him (after the Indians), and potentially the most powerful, if not for their lack of

unity. The Thracians in classical times were broken up into a large number of groups and

tribes, though a number of powerful Thracian states were organized, such as the Odrysian

kingdom of Thrace and the Dacian kingdom of Burebista. A type of soldier of this period

called the Peltast probably originated in Thrace.

Before the expansion of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thrace was divided into three camps

(East, Central, and West) after the withdrawal of the Persians following their eventual defeat

in mainland Greece. A notable ruler of the East Thracians was Cersobleptes, who attempted

to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes. He was eventually defeated by

the Macedonians.

The Thracians were typically not city-builders, the largest Thracian cities were in fact large

villages.[10][11] and their only polis was Seuthopolis.

Byzantine Period

Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, Sassanid Empire, and Byzantine-

Sassanid Wars

Originally a church, later a mosque, and now a museum, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul was

built by the Byzantines in the 6th century.

The Persian Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC, which led to

increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area. Following Alexander's death

in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms,

all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[16] The process

of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by

the early centuries AD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being

largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.

In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming

it New Rome. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the

Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known

as Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This, which would later

be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of what is today

Turkey until the Late Middle Ages, while the other remaining territory remained in Sassanid

Persian hands.

Between the 3rd and 7th century AD, the Byzantines and the neighboring

Sassanids frequently clashed over possession of Anatolia, which significantly exhausted both

empires, thus laying the way open for the eventual Muslim conquests from both empires'

respective south.

Early history of the Turks

Historians generally agree that the first Turkic people lived in a region

extending from Central Asia to Siberia. Historically they were established

after the 6th century BCE. [23] The earliest separate Turkic peoples

appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200

B.C (contemporaneous with the Chinese Han Dynasty). The first mention

of Turks was in a Chinese text that mentioned trade of Turk tribes with

the Sogdians along the Silk Road.

It has often been suggested that the Xiongnu, mentioned in Han

Dynasty records, were Proto-Turkic speakers.

The Hun hordes of Attila, who invaded and conquered much of Europe in

the 5th century, may have been Turkic and descendants of the Xiongnu.
[24][31][32]
Some scholars argue that the Huns were one of the earlier Turkic

tribes, while others argue that they were of Mongolic origin.

In the 6th century, 400 years after the collapse of northern

Xiongnu power in Inner Asia, leadership of the Turkic peoples was taken

over by the Gktrks. Formerly in the Xiongnu nomadic confederation, the

Gktrks inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From

552 to 745, Gktrk leadership united the nomadic Turkic tribes into

the Gktrk Empire. The name derives from gok, "blue" or "celestial".

Unlike its Xiongnu predecessor, the Gktrk Khanate had its

temporary khans from the Ashina clan that were subordinate to

a sovereign authority controlled by a council of tribal chiefs.

The Khanate retained elements of its

original shamanistic religion, Tengriism, although it received missionaries

of Buddhist monks and practiced a syncretic religion. The Gktrks were

the first Turkic people to write Old Turkic in a runic script, the Orkhon

script. The Khanate was also the first state known as "Turk". It eventually

collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts, but the name "Turk" was

later taken by many states and peoples.

Turkic peoples and related groups migrated west from Turkestan and what

is now Mongolia towards Eastern Europe, Iranian plateau and Anatolia and

modern Turkey in many waves. The date of the initial expansion remains

unknown. After many battles, they established their own state and later

created the Ottoman Empire. The main migration occurred in medieval

times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the

Middle East.[34] They also participated in the Crusades.

Seljuk Empire

The Seljukall Turkmens created a medieval empire that controlled a vast

area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central

Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the

Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before

eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.

The Seljuq/Seljuk empire was founded by Tughril Beg (1016-1063) in

1037. Tughril was raised by his grandfather, Seljuk-Beg Seljuk gave his

name to both the Seljuk empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuqs

united the fractured political scene of the eastern Islamic world and

played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in

culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the

development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture

to Anatolia.
Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman beylik's first capital was located in Bursa in 1326. Edirne

which was conquered in 1361 was the next capital city. After largely

expanding to Europe and Anatolia, in 1453, the Ottomans nearly

completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital,

Constantinople during the reign of Mehmed II. Constantinople was made

the capital city of the Empire following Edirne. The Ottoman Empire would

continue to expand into the Eastern Anatolia, Central Europe, the

Caucasus, North and East Africa, the islands in the Mediterranean, Greater

Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian peninsula in the 15th, 16th and 17th

centuries.

The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th

centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The

empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady

advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern

part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In addition, the Ottomans

were often at war with Persia over territorial disputes. At sea, the empire

contended with the Holy Leagues, composed of Habsburg Spain,

the Republic of Venice and the Knights of St. John, for control of

the Mediterranean. In the Indian Ocean, the Ottoman navy frequently

confronted Portuguese fleets in order to defend its traditional monopoly

over the maritime trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe;

these routes faced new competition with the Portuguese discovery of

the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.

The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the beginning of Ottoman

territorial retreat; some territories were lost by the treaty: Austria

received all of Hungary and Transylvania except the Banat; Venice

obtained most of Dalmatia along with the Morea (the Peloponnesus

peninsula in southern Greece); Poland recovered Podolia. Throughout the

19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire continued losing its

territories, including Greece, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the Balkans in the

19121913 Balkan Wars. Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early

20th century (see Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). Its

inhabitants were of varied ethnicities,

including Turks, Armenians, Assyrians, Kurds, Greeks, Frenchs,

and Italians (particularly from Genoa and Venice). Faced with territorial

losses on all sides the Ottoman Empire under the rule of the Three

Pashas forged an alliance with Germany who supported it with troops and

equipment. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I (19141918) on the

side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war,

major atrocities such as mass murder and death marches intentionally

denying food and water to the deportees were committed by the Ottoman

government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks causing

 millions of deaths. Following World War I, the huge conglomeration of

territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was

divided into several new states.

On October 30, 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, followed by the

imposition of Treaty of Svres on August 10, 1920 by Allied Powers, which

was never ratified. The Treaty of Svres would break up the Ottoman

Empire and force large concessions on territories of the Empire in favour

of Greece, Italy, Britain and France.

Republic of Turkey

The occupation of some parts of the country by the Allies in the aftermath of

World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish national movement.

Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, a military commander who had

distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of

Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of

Svres. By September 18, 1922, the occupying armies were expelled. On

November 1, the newly founded parliament formally abolished the Sultanate,

thus ending 623 years of Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of July 24,
1923, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly

formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire,

and the republic was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923, in the new

capital of Ankara. Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President of

Turkey and subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of

founding a new secular republic from the remnants of its Ottoman past.
[38]
The Ottoman fez was abolished, full rights for women politically were

established, and new writing system for Turkish based upon the Latin

alphabet was created. According to the Law on Family Names, the Turkish

parliament presented Mustafa Kemal with the honorific surname "Atatrk"

(Father of the Turks) in 1934.

Roosevelt, nn and Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference which was

held between 46 December 1943.

Turkey was neutral in World War II (193945) but signed a treaty with Britain

in October 1939 that said Britain would defend Turkey if Germany attacked it.

An invasion was threatened in 1941 but did not happen and Ankara refused

German requests to allow troops to cross its borders into Syria or the USSR.

Germany had been its largest trading partner before the war, and Turkey

continued to do business with both sides. It purchased arms from both sides.

The Allies tried to stop German purchases of chrome (used in making better

steel). Starting in 1942 the Allies provided military aid. The Turkish leaders

conferred with Roosevelt and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in November,

1943, and promised to enter the war. By August 1944, with Germany nearing

defeat, Turkey broke off relations. In February 1945, it declared war on

Germany and Japan, a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the nascent

United Nations.

Meanwhile, relations with Moscow worsened, setting stage for the start of the

Cold War. The demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish

Straits, prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947.

The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of

Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic

support.

After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in

1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade

of intercommoned violence on the island of Cyprus and the Greek military coup of July 1974,

overthrowing President Makarios and installing Nikos Sampson as a dictator, Turkey invaded the

Republic of Cyprus in 1974. Nine years later the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)

was established. Turkey is the only country that recognises the TRNC.

The single-party period was followed by multiparty democracy after 1945. The Turkish

democracy was interrupted by military coups d'tat in 1960, 1971 and 1980. In 1984,

the PKK began an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed

over 40,000 lives, continues today. Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the

1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.
Politics of Turkey

The politics of Turkey takes place in a framework of a secular

parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Turkey is

the head of government, and the President of Turkey is the head of state who holds a largely

ceremonial role with substantial reserve powers.

Turkey's political system is based on a separation of powers. Executive power is exercised by

the Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Its current constitution was

adopted on 7 November 1982 after the Turkish constitutional referendum.

Executive

The function of head of state is performed by the president (Cumhurbakan). A president is

elected every five years on the principle of universal suffrage according to the current

constitution. The president does not have to be a member of parliament, but he/she must be over

40 years old and hold a bachelor's degree. The current president Recep Tayyip

Erdoan was Directly elected in 2014. Executive power rests with the president, the prime

minister(Babakan) and the Council of Ministers. Most ministers are members of Parliament.

(Kemal Dervi's 17 months' tenure in 2001-'02 as Minister of Economic Affairs was one

exception.) The prime minister is appointed by the president and approved through a vote of

confidence (gvenoyu) in the parliament. The Prime Minister of Turkey (Turkish: Babakan) is

the head of government of Turkey. He is the leader of a political coalition in the Turkish
parliament (Meclis) and the leader of the cabinet. The current holder of the position is Binali

Yldrm of the Justice and Development Party (AKP), who took office on 24 May 2016 and

replaced the former prime minister Ahmet Davutolu (also from Justice and Development Party

- AKP).

Parliament

Legislative power is invested in the 550-seat Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Trkiye

Byk Millet Meclisi), representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a four-year term

by mitigated proportional representation with an election threshold of 10%. To be represented in

Parliament, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote in a national parliamentary

election. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only win enough to get

one seat. The threshold is set to be reduced.

Local Government

The political system of Turkey is highly centralized. However, as a member state of the Council

of Europe, Turkey is under an obligation to implement the European Charter of Local Self-

Government. In its 2011 report, the Monitoring Committee of the Council of Europe found

fundamental deficits in implementation, in particular administrative tutelage and prohibition of

the use of languages other than Turkish in the provision of public services.

Judiciary

The freedom and independence of the Judicial System is protected within the constitution. There

is no organization, person, or institution which can interfere in the running of the courts, and the

executive and legislative structures must obey the courts' decisions. The courts, which are
independent in discharging their duties, must explain each ruling on the basis of the provisions of

the Constitution, the laws, jurisprudence, and their personal convictions.

The Judicial system is highly structured. Turkish courts have no jury system; judges render

decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers and

prosecutors. For minor civil complaints and offenses, justices of the peace take the case. This

court has a single judge. It has jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with penalties

ranging from small fines to brief prison sentences. Three-judge courts of first instance have

jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes. Any conviction in a criminal case can be

taken to a court of Appeals for judicial review.

Most courts are open to the public. When a case is closed to the public, the court has to declare

the reason. Judge and prosecution structures are secured by the constitution. Except with their

own consent, no judge or prosecutor can be dismissed, have his/her powers restricted, or be

forced to retire. However, the retirement age restrictions do apply. The child courts have their

own structure.

A judge can be audited for misconduct only with the Ministry of Justice's permission, in which

case a special task force of justice experts and senior judges is formed.

The Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors (HSYK) is the principal body charged with

responsibility for ensuring judicial integrity, and determines professional judges acceptance and

court assignments. Minister of justice, Sadullah Ergin is the natural head of the Council

according to the current constitution.

Turkey adopted a new national "Judicial Networking System" (UYAP). The court decisions and

documents (case info, expert reports, etc.) will be accessible via the Internet.
Turkey accepts the European Court of Human Rights' decisions as a higher court decision,

provided they do not concern the occupation of northern Cyprus. Turkey also accepts as legally

binding any decisions on international agreements.

There are several supreme courts with different subjects:

Yargtay acts as the supreme court of judiciary tribunals (criminal and civil justice). Dantay is

the highest of administrative courts. Anayasa Mahkemesi examines the constitutionality of laws,

decrees having the force of law (decret-loi), changes of parliamentary by-laws and several other

acts of the parliament. Saytay (Court of Accounts) is the court which examines the incomes and

expenses of the administrative bodies and which acts in the name of parliament. The Military

Court of Cassation (Askeri Yargtay) and The Military High Court of Administration (or the

Supreme Military Administrative Court) (Askeri Yksek dare Mahkemesi) are the highest

bodies to which appeals of decisions of military courts are to be made.

Political principles of importance in Turkey

The Turkish Constitution is built on the following principles:

Kemalism

Secularism

Modernization

Most mainstream political parties are built on the following principles:

Nationalism
 Islamism

Kemalism

Other political ideas have also influenced Turkish politics and modern history. Of particular

importance are:

Neo-liberalism

Pan-Turkism

Socialism

Communism

These principles are the continuum around which various and often rapidly changing political

parties and groups have campaigned (and sometimes fought). On a superficial level, the

importance which state officials attach to these principles and their posts can be seen in their

response to breaches of protocol in official ceremonies.

Political parties and elections

For other political parties, see List of political parties in Turkey. An overview on elections and

election results is included in Elections in Turkey.

Since 1950, parliamentary politics has been dominated by conservative parties. Even the

ruling AKP, although its core cadres come from the Islamist current, tends to identify itself with

the "tradition" of the Democratic Party (DP). The leftist parties, the most notable of which is
the Republican People's Party (CHP), with a stable electorate, draw much of their support from

big cities, coastal regions, professional middle-class, and minority groups such as Alevis.

Military involvement in politics

Since Mustafa Kemal Atatrk founded the modern secular Republic of Turkey in 1923, the

Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Atatrklk, the official state ideology.

The TAF still maintains an important degree of influence over Turkish politics and the decision

making process regarding issues related to Turkish national security, albeit decreased in the past

decades, via the National Security Council.

The military has had a record of intervening in politics. Indeed, it assumed power for several

periods in the latter half of the 20th century. It executed coups d'tat in 1960, in 1971, and in

1980. Most recently, it maneuvered the removal of an Islamic-oriented prime minister, Necmettin

Erbakan, in 1997.

On 27 April 2007, in advance of 4 November 2007 presidential election, and in reaction to the

politics of Abdullah Gl, who has a past record of involvement in Islamist political movements

and banned Islamist parties such as the Welfare Party, the army issued a statement of its interests.

It said that the army is a party to "arguments" regarding secularism; that Islamism ran counter to

the secular nature of the Turkish Republic, and to the legacy of Mustafa Kemal Atatrk. The

Army's statement ended with a clear warning that the Turkish Armed Forces stood ready to

intervene if the secular nature of the Turkish Constitution is compromised, stating that
"the Turkish Armed Forces maintain their sound determination to carry out their duties stemming

from laws to protect the unchangeable characteristics of the Republic of Turkey. Their loyalty to

this determination is absolute."

Contrary to outsider expectations, the Turkish populace is not uniformly averse to coups; many

welcome the ejection of governments they perceive as unconstitutional. [6][7] Members of the

military must also comply with the traditions of secularism, according to the US Commission on

International Religious Freedom report in 2008, members who performed prayers or had wives

who wore the headscarf, have been charged with lack of discipline

Paradoxically, the military has both been an important force in Turkey's continuous

Westernization but at the same time also represents an obstacle for Turkey's desire to join the

EU. At the same time, the military enjoys a high degree of popular legitimacy, with continuous

opinion polls suggesting that the military is the state institution that the Turkish people trust the

most.

Over a hundred people, including several generals, have been detained or questioned since July

2008 with respect to Ergenekon, an alleged clandestine, ultra-nationalist[10] organization with ties

to members of the country's military and security forces. The group is accused

of terrorism in Turkey.

On 22 February 2010 more than 40 officers arrested and then were formally charged with

attempting to overthrow the government with respect to alleged "Sledgehammer" plot . They

include four admirals, a general and two colonels, some of them retired, including former

commanders of the Turkish navy and air force (three days later, the former commanders of the

navy and air force were released).

On 15 July 2016, elements of the Turkish military initiated a coup against the government led by

President Recep Erdoan. Military forces have been confirmed in Ankara and Istanbul with jets

and tanks deployed to the streets. Additionally, two bridges over the Bosporus Strait have been

closed.[15] After the failed military coup, thousands of soldiers have been arrested and hundreds

of judiciary members removed. The arrests include Gen. Bekir Ercan Van (de), commander of

the Air Base that the United States uses to launch airstrikes on ISIS.