BX Six Sigma Overview What Is'$ix Sigma? Sigma is a statistical concept that represents the ‘Stount of variation present in a process relative (0 Customer requirements oF specifiations. When @ ‘Process operates atthe ax cigma Level, the variation Preccemall that the resulting products and services are 99.9997% defect free. gix Sigma” is commonly denoted in several diferent ways. You might sce it written a8 "60," "6 Sigma,” or “63.” Inaddition tobeinga statistical measure of variation, theterm sie Sign sisoreferstoabusiness philosophy Uf focusing om continuous improvement by Shdestanding customers needs, analyzing business processes, and instituting proper meararoment Pathos. Parthermore, iti a methodology that an agondzation uses to ensure that itis improving its key processes: ‘While Six Sigma corresponds to being, 99.9997% ufectiree, net all business processes need to attain {iis High a goal. Companies can also use the Six Signa snethodology fo ienty which of thei key business processes would benefit most from Emprovement and then focus their improvement efforts there: In this book, we often use the more generic erin lgnu or process signa toreferto thecurventcapablity ohiprocess (he hiow well the process is performing relative ta customer specifications) SETSprocess Capablity spo increase your organo process-sigma Teo rena accents he a ‘of variation Neve You ving Yeas variation Bee? fyou the foitowiag benelit® w Greater predictability Inthe OCS * Cans waste and rework Which owers costs . a darren peer, lone? oper asters who ae YOU supplier. spye simple exsrape below NST, the concept Tha sama, ote that the ATO cof data in tis of Sn PE imate us 1 er¥e® © ideseribe the orncapt adequately spoeempanies ier ptt YOUNES Youwant Two comin whch oe can Pee KG ‘your nee. wo det yout nd butare Yering toleratea deliver, atime beween 852 mederspm ate etree ie ae specail a 245 DN ‘on the tow side caer pn, on the igh HE eT rE eereeeeeeorg ene 1 Bisigme OverwienYou decide to order two pizzas at the SAS won deta for ten days—-oneplazs Om CTT every neh Toma company D.Youteack eel ey Aan one gaye ana collect the following comparison of Dettvery Times ar 2 _ [se | $e 08 + wie 5 =- ae 6 oo 7 3 3 a eee Hey ore 8 © 65 co ‘hg the chart above shows, Company A Ba it fs te chat oy Day Band Day 61 Pz Io) er ee otal af Yout tole Sy times hat agp and 615. 1nSixSigm terme, oetwenn Setegrrences ave called (eC th AE oes alg be described wsually with The following geoph aE Tix Sigma Overview 3Defects and Variation rwoenty ole soseiy —Tovie gs oes Sinton robecem, spe, “Soapany a” een! jenvwvocooared eo een nec “agnosie coma emma ® ower alge 8078 aghoragin 208 ‘jsmentione above, proses vali 0 ts As mention fegltlen 100 than Si Sit eect netevelofgualy i eo ga evel greater Nn OA sounds Eis ina warld operating a 8S eve, the a eingetuations would eco “unt Hast 2000 eng rug PeescPHOne dis persed pet year rreafe dking waterforsiostonehour amon “No telephone service o television teanerissoh Tae nearly ter minutes each Ninetyaix erases pe 100,000 sine HENS expen lieve thatthe gual evel OF TOS Depa ay fal ihn te ee £0 Ours ‘Six Sigma terminology Ongarzatons tht adopt 2S. SET philosophy and Orgaeigotogy employ acaramonty 1924 dunderstoodocabany-Thesetermare used frequent ehroushont Fae ad you will se them often as You work ‘rer ongaizaion’bsigmasmproveren tens. elow is 2ampling of these terms. Caitical To Quality (CTO) characteristic: A Key Celta ech customers evaluate the quality of Fenty product ot service and that can Ds Ghee ©? your prosfor your project, 6 wseful CTO charac Tafotic has the Following features: ‘Tecra othe castemer’s perception of quality: ‘+ Teean be mexsured. + A speifcation can be st to tel whether the CTO Ghavacteriti has been achieved. unit: An iter tha you produce or proCess defect Any wit or event that does not meet customer efutrements, A defect must be messurable defective: A unit with one or more defects “dcfectopportunily:A measurable chance foradefect te occur sigma: An expression of process yield based of sigma, At elesteper lion opportunities, oF DEMO. whore, why, and how did Six Sigma begin? Thea Siginapilosophy and metiodology state 31 Paes aecarporation in the, mid-1980s, when, the Movoroly discovered that products with 2 igh Sarre ia thosethat nade ough the prove Peso foe re) rarely failed in g5t0e 8 Proce tegen foctsing on creating crategies 19 Motor ects inite productsand in 1988 wasamong Tea group of organizations to win the Malco A ge National Quality Avserd. Today, based on aca sir Signa Overview §— its pioneering work, Motoeola olds the trademark forthe Six Sigma® methodology. Duxing the wid-1960s, Motorola joined forces with Dutt er companies, including ABD (Aaa Brown Fee eAttiedsignal, Koda, TEM, and Texas. In dover io found the tx Sigma Research inatiute see pega the expansion and comumercalization Br the process of achieving Sx Sigma capability ‘The Six Sigme concept and methods have gained Topalarty'in pare ue to publicity ebout Former Pept Mectre CEO Jack Welch's commitment (0 fchieving Six Sigma capability Why should fuse Six Sigma? “The benefits of following the Six Sigma concept and Teng tne accompanying, methods ace many- Thy {clude te following? Havinga measurable way to track performance improvements “rosa your ttention on process ANagENERE ‘ergata eves. strproving your customer selationships PY wircsing detects improving the eficiney and efeciveness of spre keses by aligning tem Wi YOU Raster neds. Condeng measurable tracking Keeps youiniorned Conducting are working and which ones are about whet er gpecd up sigficant improvernen no ea ce focus ets you dene fess and Having» Pee yl.Aligeamg a process WTA YO cae ee can sede eat! COOL caste Pectin Alo by ei n tue wi Leal eet a their needs, youn more ely sos sigma Overview advelop new ideas for improvements and enhance: seonts fo your products and services How dos Six Sigma differ from Continuous ‘Quality Improvement (CQ)? ‘itnoughsomesixSigmaconceptsandtootsaresia(t Although ood for COL, Six Sigma emphasizes the fellowing points ore prensa focus on quay a defied Yu Aosocete tone aly re this iste, «+ More rigorous statistical methods 1 prortzation of your improvement projects 202 Print of your resources, 10 auppor" YORE Saamzation’s key strategic initiatives. tf you ae fain wit COL youare probably es) If yar ar gome ofthe tools described i this Doo fem lato ind some ne toobsthat you cn a to your Six Sigma too! belt i you ae ot alcendy fala with COL then You st yom aie ewe tools that wil help you improve We ser ngs of your orgaization'sprocessesard (eit bitty to meet your customers” What is nooded for a succosstul Six Sigma program? ‘Your proces-sgma workwillbesuccessl ony 2% Yowrprtrion as an envionment that sUPPOR Se ors and consistent se, To accomplish 5, YOUr SApanization should do the following “Have management led your improvement efor, {actively support a focus on delighting, Your ceasiomers sarerar sig Sigma Overview 7« Provide the sigma Improvement ttm with reer itegpert who can ofer ongoing puida Sha coaching ect neourage open discussion about defects Fed not be afrad to point out that rer nea wong. The aii industy, for something Reg cmahes and "earls to Improve sty + Valueand ase the data you gather. + Help employees work effectively by providing 2 Dtebocbesed, cooperative environment What aro the Six Sigma methodologies? ‘There are two basic methodologies introduced ‘Hi Signta organizations, They are known by thelr ‘Scronyims: DMIAIC and DMADV. ‘The DMAIC method involves five steps: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control. This areca ip used to ianprove the current capabilities ree Gaisting, process, This is by far the most Shamonly wsed methodology of sigma im: Seovement teams ad is desribed in deta im the _Rext section ofthis book. Ta the DMAIC method, the CTOs axe defined firs. The improvement team then studies each one in- Teaively to understand the key drivers that ine Hiucnce successful process performance, Improve: sets in the key drivers ean then be made, and the ageeavenn attain the required Six Sigmalevel and thereby meet the CTOs. TaRayma Orontow COEThe fivestepsofthe MAIC method areoutined bow. 1,Detine the project * Define the projets purpose and scope 5 Cotlece background information on the process SSijourcosomers’ needs and requirements 22 Measuse the cure situation ‘Gather information on the earent situation 10 ‘rove lenerfocus for yourimprovementeffo Analyze to ieatify euses. identify the root enuses of defect. + Confirm them with data Improve. + Develop, try out and fmplement stations that less th root ese + Une data fo evaluate results fr the solutions and the plane used to cary them ut 5. Conte Maintain the gains that you have achieved by Mendnedizing your work methods or processes. + Anticpate atere improvements and make plans ‘ibxEewve the lesons learned from this ime provement elfor. sarcome Six Signa Overview 8“The DMAICmethod isvery robust. Many organizations Peep eed it successfully to produce dramatic jm Pgvenente Using the DMAIC method alco resus The following benefits ‘+ It provides a framework, Teprovides common language: 4 Htprovidesa checklist preventskippingcrical Hepsi the process. «+ ttenabtes you to improve the way in which you improve. ‘Note: Some organizations use the RDMAIC method, i rot er econize stop is added to the beginning Of Tetirovement process. This step involves using reShuijae t desiy the most urgent projects © Work recemdyor the ones that wll result in the greatert Panwa to the organization ad ts customers ‘The DMADY meter is oed when you need to create rr ete produrtracvicetomectcasomer re auproces Pry you need a complete redesign Beceuse en eset oraervie consent spade Pree Pent requisrents Tismethod sic) Sel thanthe OMATC meted DMADY lesfrequeny iy eonvened and staffed by senior seas Whe many of ts metas ook and pana ane for DMATC, oer ase pial) sy by ix Sigma Experts. These 018 a Beyond te scope ofthis Book, ‘ike theDMAIC method iheDMADY method involves Lethe Me, Measure, Analyze, Desi, ard fie, Pe metre improvement ea efne® Yer de te tea tencreatena pot eve, rer 1 SixSigna Overviow! SETA— JX DMAIC cara membet, You) re ng the DMAIC met swilmost ieely week AsaSixSigm™ — on improvement on eto success, EN an a ee dusing ech se a Wreeetapprcnc Somplete your ® ete fare Mp well as the vibe tools oust necessary 1 te DUAIC Process FIOW‘The goals, outputs, approach, and tools for each step of the DMAIC method are outlined on the next several pages. The Define Stop Goals and outpats ‘The goal of the Define step is to define the project's purpose and scope and obtainbeckgroundinformation bout the process and its customers The outputs ofthe Define step consist ofthe fllo ings + A clear statement of the intenced improvement nd how you will measure It + Ahighslevel map ofthe process, * A translation ofthe voice ofthe customer, or VOC ‘Gee page 258 for details), into key quality characteristics Approach ‘The “Detine Step" Process Flow oe | |e [foes ae ‘Tofully define the scope and purpose of your project, Youmistfirstunderstand theboundariesof the process you ate trying to improve and the requirements of fs ‘customers. You Include this information, along with expected resource needs and a projected tiene, in your team charter. 2In practice there fs usually some give and take between thas actviliesas you work todafinea project hatisboth Important and doable. "The applicable tools for the Define step include the following: ea SE oeraipien Phe Enables youre ocrgenze and | 28 oma nye Sued ena Beciawondubaaoe ce Sata ou eh A pen cha ‘itninpertin conmuncaton nd Pan a pcre wo b tarny O fret erean enc bt woot {Shy rte ih ang hs yet ake tnnay talent Sinn endow eet cs tee Soop [Cort Gh Foca tein on dsecng wea, | 7 otng paces varie’ te eroTwe ‘ical Yo Gly (ET) enacts] 91 So fectes ty Wich ong Sele aly aftr od or Seve The CT Yon nies our Tose econ ‘carl carats proc} Green doe ntl 8 OT, ‘hosedto be dace Data tom casper apa yorteam | 5 Chabrcund hare peter ut Yorn ey ‘Bion he nocaay covery ds prow ates hon tome. ‘Cantnoed on the next page BANE 13Sa = nea | sp ouream ander yas | SP este reaurners, wES seentfo mrceaies Mi eae En ra aastian [Hopeyartenioamscgtaicon | 78 eee es era, eRe, thle ou een Temata fe bmstpanuce Tantei arian ones, | 2" oats yo cao ny ens Sane ot tine. aro Ta 806 Gaara Press| 9° A306 rac ma hee Sup eceraor eho} cee ett cans as nt eased sep oH BOS ‘The Measure Step Goals and outputs ‘Te goal of the Measure step, 10 fous Yom provimentefion by athering information about the “Theoutpntsof the Measurestep include the sowing “Data that pinpoints the problem’s location oF rate of currence. ia DWNsell the process meets «Baseline data on how ferermine the current Rastomes needs (60 4 aaa process signe): + An understanding of fperates. «A mote focused problem statement: ‘Approach “The “Measure Step J how the current process y* process Flov! During the Measure stop, You yee, the L- Problem you ace 2tudying ‘detail—what rye happening, nen: bah in You aso clleet dats to ‘Pagetine to which you ca pafermance after you work create 8 P* SFepare the process PF Gn the Improve steP. eee rere aac | eee Eee‘The applicable following: tools for the Measure scp incude the ae ee wousinamreara earn 1 arnt sehecetinsomonon se —Traermennv oe | Sta, [re Too poe [Tears uo eo ‘01 aay [sameness ome nanisei, | oe Ree eee coma cam lesa imcetgerseaieaes| eee eee eat rast grow jo cles about Me eis a tgarnonneneonns | ieee tte roo VOperationst Finca Teipar tk senbo ha!| 78 aoe eee sragawacs or Ganmewreas |" esis barat Cage satsonooees ae fam especies ce pcan ese acon frsmmengeanctent |* ee ene |_|28 Lose |Boins th es ascocniod win | 242 EStcion”™ | aration aroun ecutomor” spechonton target Talis [Atamalvvon process tome | 207 vis | aspect en in ae hb rman Ses ot The Analyze Step Goals and outputs “The goal of the Analyze step is to identify root causes and confirm them with data. The output ofthis step is ‘theory that you have ested and confirmed. Approach ‘The “Analyze Stop" Process Flow AIC TF“the Anatyze.step pinpoints the specific enase(s) of ihe tocuved probletn statement you will develop 263 tee atthe Measure step. You can then addeess the wea ause(a) Hhrough solucions youimplementin the improve sep. “The applicable tots for the Analyze step include the following crooraral Erabinsyourtoom catveiiand, | casa) cnty gore spy Mae Ihc bat cae eon ae [copes © et at nc iho erm | er a hrc seer yom done wall esmar | Preidas aration eating eae | 105 5 id cause ot rr ate eae Ese | Ge, ensng your ea 0 ae, ‘SBtintone abou te primary cae. Fonaet | Oranibesepaaicaty wat on, won | 124 Fomged | Creer veatanos Ne ree | ear ne oted, to al ' acon me eecnue mn esc i sonin. Fragen) Srastaa Hiatogams ei you ceiy | 18 Eisen earacenses aright gets ern, ie Sate Dagar ‘REPRO jo urierstangvlonah Belge aie ine ypu [using steaks one cannes | ME Being toa rian “Gontnved on herent p2Ge Sepa TE ie Dua(See Stee i ‘eed sbi tons between | ®26 trot, ean ap our foam Seite toss “ternal oon poones atops | 207 {Sime pjecton chances ote feast es Tie Se ta roe cmgar toares | 210 Bean | lotcreasing reso aoe Yours eat dpe sroeoe ot Scan arta eet on arbion The Improve Step Goals and outputs ‘The goal ofthe Improve stop isto develop, try out, and Implement solutions that address root causes and to tise dat to evaluate the solutions as well a the plans ‘you use to carry them out. ‘The outputs of the Improve step include the f lowing. «+ Planned, tested sctions that eliminate or reduce the impact of the identified root cause(9) of « problem, "Before! and, “after” data analysis that shows how much ofthe initial gap was closed. +4 comparison of the plan to the actual iam plementation waa HATE TS“Approach “The “Improve Step” Process Flow ‘The Improve sep involves not only coming up with ree flows but aso using the PDCA (Plan-Do-Checks an Gyete to evabate and improve the solutions Yom et Xs implement. Preparing people for change 's Whother eiteal component of this step. “The applicable tools forthe Improve sep inchude the following: ES aS Fry new vers yourgepuacktyour | 7 olan ar Brag fens rasan | Enbin your earn ronal sot | 4 Freie gone 2 age mato" stecathecens. ‘Gane on te nex Ge rs SOIT 20 HASssidinlen ear |r ent SRSA [convo onrel int provost, ave cate are | 78 (Safe Show pat ane prose Sonnaton san aay See ro Cart (an un Cha) atte rate eae Mcrame | Fcpne chon hack eae Hteuonmace Tyrhenant | Hap your tam irk, | 150 Bnet | Seti ee athe cileent operons ome change aay, wo ati wl fier t aprooate each th Pago ust | Arh grams compar blr] 178 i aan Paro Core way {Dipti co how much poorest Seinen PocaGrw | tm raca manpegeaceay | mo Gycto is the basie mothodalogy Srl Ap ener ‘Sth cotton ors Sltlreraon more let, oe ea Re Eeeepaenae _ |S oninaod on ho next page ‘MAI 21Saar Pues Son Tes sateuetotmnerat oe ea any solution wil show up in tho naw | sos Fanti is Gowetcrey apc] -|ihsecrees nct ise eny oe, Fate [Atawnatvotow procoosnathapa | 2a aa ie! gn task ahs oes a The Contr! Step Goals and ouiputs The gosl ofthe Control step io to maintain the ins you have made by standardizing yout werk Iothods or processes, naan a fous wot rovements and preserving te esseas senieana ‘rom this effort. 7 The outputs of the Control step include the following: + Documentation of the new method, "Training of fellow employees in the new method. + Asystem for monitoring the consistent use of the new method and forchecking the results, *Complefed documentation and com. munication of the results, learnings, and secommendations 2s aoApproach ‘The “Control Step” Process Flow — Pee Gece eae seat | ca. [focal = - St | | mee ge] fey) = Many tools can help you monitor and control ‘processes, Simply thinkingin terms of POCA (Plan- Bo-Check-Act)—-or, in this case, SDCA (Stan- dardize-Do-Check-Act) creates & mentality of constantly checking the effectiveness of your Current methods, Training ensures consistency of pplication, a¢ do “conspicuous standards” that make it easy for employees todo the job correctly maa MATE 3“The applicable tools or the Control sep include Ine following: ae connor] Haoe you commie titra, | 70 Pa ep etesta be gotaton aout opr. Twa Grane worter proce ver time our | 75 Mefes orgies Tey ene sone ecco e 7 ete anager On Soca genes as erence tomcat | 1 [POcA | Satovemen’ es lng cont — ‘Mere can you genet Prownes evan tt? acoas | Denanantsyou P0GR Span. | 19 FgeSaon | aons ts wk homo cca ee ancora | Sens eening rere Frangran [Mois proaes ca ne oi, eet Epes te et Bs Secu arageres Ob ee, [ernest eos seu er ss Feng | al ov one tl Fete | amp cut ota ee om oa 2 2h HASDMALC team structure in most Six Sigma efforts, companies divide the ‘exponsbilties for accomplishing the improvernent jt four major roles: the sponsor; the team {yplcally called the Master Six Sigma Expert; the Te eader, typically ealled the She Sigma Bxperts land the team member, ‘The DMAIC Team Structurearly on Six Sigma prec ’simportant Wa Barly ee slain wih Your SPEEA) he fom toe, manager or executes ho Have sr locate sesouree t the PORCH, Poses Fesane ig Sint ensure the project Fo oo organization’ business nee: CRED sea eve by management ore supe et seuss oper of meproject Pn yourproieyvities such a= weekly communies eh include Migr team leader and sponsor, 26 Well &© Mente eviews with the entire 60 “You wil likely also need technical support om) © You wl pectin Sk Sigma improvement WhO Tos some the many tals concepts race ave jt cated a Master Sx Sma En ew osha Sx Sigs. progr. NN OTESY EOS, amet aw 4 few Maser Sx Sigma Experts who ae (aed om by al is improvement Fam “Tne Six Siguna Expert leads the improvement Ars Th gallngpeceo the profettoment hosts! are Bie Sigma Haver typically Mas 9 Sto hare jg ofthe foes and concept, a8 Wel 25 So vrowenee in applying them. The Se Sere oregon x moreteams al any given. organizations this 2 fulltime ole Somecrpivationsassign anadaonateamTeagerro%: Se Era roma eS Signa Exptl se Tc esigana Expert focuses on speci ore cn sigma concep, wie cet A ences ca responses of eam meng MANES eject plan and threes eal 950% ‘Theteommennberscarry oultheworkof the profeg 0) Tha in sg ooisand concepts =m APP sae to tration of the PL TN Po Sucush pyourtstemmenber make asia es nt fi Se SMA mprOVEMEN LCP omac OOSCSC~* eas RIEActivity Network AX diagram (AND) Scheduling sequential & simultaneous tasks Why use it? ‘Toallow a team to find both the mosteffcint pathand realistic schedule for the completion of any project by {graphically showing total eampletion time, the neces~ Sary sequence of asks, those tasks that can be done ‘simultaneously, and the cial tasks to monitor. What doos it do? + llteain membershavea chance ogivea realistic picture of what thei piece of the plan requires, based on real experience « Bveryane sees why he or she is critical to the ‘overall succes ofthe project + Unrealistic implementation timetables are discovered and adjusted inthe planning stage "The entie team can think creatively about how to shorten takes that sre bottlenecks tention and scarce tasks ‘The entze team cen focus respuroes on the truly ct How do Ido 4, Assemble the right team of people with firsthand knowledge of the subtasks: 2. Brainstorm or dacument all the tasks needed to complete 4 project. Record on Postit® Notes Sa IE43, Find the first task thetamust be done, and place the {and om the extreme lef of 2 large work surface eared ont Noe Dacre audi for ‘new opie 4. Asks “Are there any tasks that can be done ‘Simltaneously with task #32" tf there are simultaneous tasks, plae the taskcard bove or belovr tak #1, nt, goto the next step. 5. Ask, "What is the next task that must be done? Cin others be done simultaneously?” + Repeatthisqustoningprocesuntialterecorded thaks are placed in saquence and in parallel I ‘Tip Ateach step always ask, “Have we fongotlen dry other needed tasks that could be donestinul taneously?” aay Nemwercan ES6 Number each task draw the connecting arrows and ree ona ealsetime othe completion of exh tsi + Record the completion time on the bottom half of ‘Tip Be sure to agreeon the standard time unit fr ie creaske eg, days, weeks. Hlapsed time iseasier haf “decicnied" tine, eg,,8 hours of dedicated time versus 8 hours over a two-week period (elapsed: ime). Fe Determine the projects citial path «Any delay to a task on the ertc ptt will be Aided te the projec’s completion time, wnless sae theta isaccalerated oreliminated Likewise, the project's completion time can be reduced by fcevierating any task on Ure critical path, There are two options for calculating the total ‘ries! path and the tasks included wathin Mt Tongest cumulative path. Wdenity total proiest ‘Completion lime, Add up each path of connected eines. The longest cumulative path is the SEE Ee eee eee aman “aati WoTworNTGantt 29gpiet pile mlemeniation ie, Tis is fe projets rial path. Cleat slack. Calculate the “slack” in the start {ng anil completion times of ech task This iden- tikes which take must be completed exactly a8 Scheduled (on thecrii!pati}andthosethat have — some latitude, Finding tho extial path by calculating the shack 2 Ron eased + si cous 7 [Toon T=7 fae 1. Deterrine | days feala5| aude for on ene pal 98, Ass0se Oo) compatiors a ings : i= ar[tabs| days [jos wean 65 = USANDE- tale cpio cn ah ot WURESSASINE Sehlndiin ba“Tip pevamining the Longest Sum path is tp han eles Oe Sak Pj aC IN ee the total Breet simeard 1 satpathare identified “2ut0 brtically eveloping a New Course seas Famoridcant 3a ma | SS on ee fr eeeetsn ke [| Seemew'e [ween asinog men ® Buidojensa ' 3B Realy NenwoGanie TOEvariations varieteracted ciple SNe section i in The cmny on Node (AON) ‘For more the act other formats er ‘netivity oF informe A) and Precedence PAE (POM), see Me Memory Tagger Phe. nna widely se ened SS method is Aegean Iie a aime tl the Gro chow winch tasks ca” PE foe sinnallaneouslY Daf the fe ofthe o}e $n isan sa eTMTE “ay WatworeTante SFActivity Network phase! 180 9000 Cortification Aualt Schedule ge 4 coesy OOP ‘remo roesy Activity Network Phase | 180 6000 Certification Audit Schedule (cont) sang aye Sropose ane smb fe prajauns oq yas ey oye SE pop ‘ped pon a Suess ‘okte oa ona cy ea ot saned wonoaNS eM ER SNe NW aM SON, $99 2 fess papa wegen SR] mete Esa sez] [otal ena] fee] oor nau ‘yodar ‘ome ogeindeas ‘pee + “ety NawworkiGartt 35Planning Guld [Aplonning grid helps you identity the cesoures for, sean Bt abe Sp na pret Te following ators sna nay to ue: + tstblefum quickly summrizesthatsksneted to complete» project + You ean easily customize to track information peliovo you project. + tis easy to neat with pen and paper A Sample Planning Grid Outcome ot ‘nn step. _Parconie) stoped ccna 0 Taovee [ons + Peseta] Se [un 3]. Tea a | nazz [al wn [erie US| a corer 2 fowtine ] ain Jone] | a feta_ ‘The stepstore —— 3, Weite your final st of 225 1. Specify the 2. defy the final step ane ‘3, Tdentty the starting Po# 4, Dasinstor starting Pomn 5, Clean up Sinang elated ideas, ewe fand sofort 4 the columns of & 6 fexainple at et ide of the grid. 8, Fillin the Prodi 9. B 40. Revise steps if necessary 41, Complete the remaining: Hes act ompletingaplaning B54 76 {nal oxicome ofthe projet rm a fist of stops that 0&8 nana he ial SEP hve lst by fiminating tera tentative due date oF ti as follows na it produces nt and what it proces betwvoen the duplication, com dnguncearstatemen®, gid as shown in the insequence down the act column for exch SP: jane for each ste. columns. she top of the gid a ‘Tip The categories across Rigen te neces of YUE POP ‘varyJX Abfinity Diagram ae Gathering & grouping ideas Why use it? 7 ‘oallow a team tocreatively generate a largenumberof ideas/issuceand then organizeand summarizeratural fgroupings among them to understand the essence of problem and breakthrough solutions. What doos it do? * Encourages crealiviy by everyone on the team at allphases of he process + Treks downlongtendingcommniatonbarer + Encouriges non-aditional connections among, — ‘eae/ bes + Nlows breithcoughs to emerge ratrally, even ‘on long-standing se + Hncourayes “ownership” of results tat emerge bpcouse te feu creates Both he deal input i gonra reuls FOvercomes"teemparlysi”whichisbroughton byanoverwhelg ety of options and ack of alae 11 Phare the ita under discussion in afullsentence“Tip rom the stast reach consensus on the choice ‘of words you will use. Neutral statements work ‘ell, but positive, negative, and solution-ori- ‘eed questions alse work. 2 Brainstorm atleast 20 ideas oF issues 8} Follow guidelines fr brainstorming. 1) Record each idea ona Post-t® Note in bold large Drint to make it viible 46 feet away. Use at = Jrinimum ¢ noun anda verb. Avoid usingsingle ‘words, Four to even words work well ‘What aie the issues involved in inal planning fun famiy vacations? i a speech] |ovees* a catenin etapa) |B Bate {Rig clas] Tear sue ‘stration Note: Theo are 10 to 40 moce asin pear atiniy Baga Tip epi” fy a 4-60 ems tint ‘unaeual fo have 100-200 ideas. 3. Without talking: sort Ideas simultaneously into E10 related groupings a) Move Post.t® Notes where they fit best for yous ‘don’t ash, simply move any notes that you think belong, in another grouping, EEE Pee eee eet Here ara Batty 38ee ‘sorting willstow down or stop whhencsch Peer Sorting rien comnortable with the BroUpINE ‘What are the issues involved 9 ‘Sanaing fun fray vacations? ntetion Note: Thexg ave se 10 mare roURINGE usta oe peal anny Diag ip Sortinsilence focus on the meaning NTS iP sor etonsammongall eas, maton Of” aan or ory haoeniseindicussionss ‘Tip Aven idea is moved back and forth) ip Meech connection thatthe other person © eee Tunis movement continwes beyond @ making ne agen to create apts FUE ‘Tip his okay forsomenotes tostandalone Fe ghocas important asters hat inte groupings naturally _ 4k for each grouping, erste summary oF header ‘ond sing consensus ‘Sonnac eam consensusconastord or Ph Gaines te central idea/theme of €8ch a Hay Sie OHgrouping; recordit on a Post-it Note and placeit «BO Me top of each grouping. These are draft header catds bj For each grouping, agree on s concise sentence that combines the grouping’s central idea and ‘what al ofthe specie PosttNotes ada to that lea; cecond itand replace the draft version, This is final header card «Divide large groupingsinto subgroups asneeded ‘and ereate appropriate subheaders Draw the fal Affinity Diagram connecting all finalized header cards with thelr groupings ‘What aro tho issues involved in planning fun family vacations? ‘ustration Note: Tote oye ssn a ype Atay Te 8p aera BeaiiyTip Spend theexiatimeneededto dosolidheader ip Seiveto capture essence ofall of theiceas Sreach grouping, Shortcut herecansreatly rece fis effectiveness ofthe final Affinity Diagrast- Wis possible that a note within a grouping could ocdmcalveadercard. However, ddn’tchoose the oejaneat one” because ive convenient. The hard Monk of creating new header eards often leads to Dreakthrough ideas. Variations partner popular formofthistool called the KJ Methox aeetfeteloped by the Jxpanese anthropologist Jo JRaveakita while he was doing fieldwork in the 19506, ARE Method, identified vith Kawakita’s initials, Falped the anthropologist and his students gathes ard eee deta, The KI Method differs from the Affinity Diagram descibed above in thatthe cards are fa Paes and go through a highly strtured refiner process before the final diagram is created aninity i cE"Te oop eeu anaten more ‘scarey Affinity Iagues Surrounding Implementation of the Business Plan ‘ar busness panning | eoseach be crores ore grepings en rv e298Affinity Issues Surrounding Implementation of the Business Plan (cont.) Note:The ity helped the team bring focus to the ssy ‘pinions on bufiness plang The headers tht surfaced beenine the key issues inthe TD exazplo (shown inthe Intestiationship Digeaph tool section). aay —— raBx Brainstorming Creating bigger & better ideas why use it? ‘Tocstablish a common methos £2 roeceatively Fea aly generat high volume of ens om 2°) aera prove that ine of ex ent judgment What does it do? 2 couragesepen thinking whenateausstuckie Moame old way” thinking 1 Gotuailteam ietnbersinvotved and enthuses’ Geteat few people don't dominate the whole our «ils team members to bulld on each cAers Allorsay while staying, cocused on their unt mission pow ao ee 12 A ~ ere ate tv major methods for braistorsiN w srucared. A process in which enc sara member ives ideas in Sum. «a nsctured, A process in whic eam mernbes pve ideas as they. come to mind Father meta ean be done sitetly oF aloud OLStructured 1. The central brainstorming. question is stated, agreed on, and written dawn for everyone fo see Be aure that everyone understands the question, issue, or problem. Check this by asking one or two ‘members to paraphrase it before recording it on 8 Aipchart or Board 2. Bach wn merber in tum, gives an idea. No ides icized, Ever! With each rotation around the team, any member ‘can pas at any time. While this rotation process encourages full participation it may also heighten snvety for inexperienced or hy tearm members. 5. Asidese are generated, wite each one i large, vs- ibe letters on a fipchart or other writing surface Make sure every idea is recorded with the same swords of the speaker con tinterpret or abbreviate ‘To ensue this, the person writing should always ask the speaker if the idea has been worded Securely 4, Ideas are generated in turn until each person ‘passes, indicating thatthe ideas (or members) are -eep the process moving and relatively short— 5 t0 20 minutes works well, depending on how ‘complex the topics 5. Review the written list of ideas for clarity and to discard any duplicates Discard only ideas that are vietually identical. Ibis en important to preserve suble differences that re revealed in slightly different wordings. 46 rainaloraing CERIOUnstructured 60: t E ane 50 rented, =wont ff ; hyp moses Ce Soldor Defects Historica ave: 2074 pom — “Hite OGL: 8788 ppm Historical UCL; pam +0000 ont Rte Pm 2858 2000. 28 Lot gGaagagaags chooks (8 per dy) oman ro coun TAT aoe Conia CharisKen chat ” toate rao ame cash oH peppesees]é. Tomaton ponied con uci Pata erator ots Hours 1,16 and 22 chk be evewed fo endertand ote rnp averages ona te con! Baus ‘ae Contvar Ch BETTERBe Citieal To Quality (CTA) Tree Ieentving measures trom the customer's perspective Why use it? resent Crita! ToCualty (CTO) charscternich (6 Feiner ohh customers evaluate YOu! Prod 9° tures i eonbe vee asneasurencoryourprojst ce a chaacteistichas the following features Os ertal tothe customer's perception f qual canbe mensured in specifaion canbe set to tell whether the CTO ‘Gharncteritic has been achiev What does it do? 2 Linke easter needa gated from YOUr Vai va per (VOC) ata-colletion ifort Wit tan wipectc, mensurable characterises «fables the project team t0 transform. general ‘data into specific dato « tjakes the measuring process easier Fr the team setting Up 4 070 Tr oro 01s aig Gesecosicnotek 4. Gather gorted customer Gathetjan process The needs YOU needs from your date fein the CTO seliection the nemeneroPece ne Trea dy ty Diagram ee BIO A.customer-Data Affinity Diagram [aes | et Tip Use the Kana Modi (ease 58) FS ip es tn Testo ene yous team fas 00k sae any cotclcustsser est 2 temsorcsamernentam te or Te Hitherto ne eft sds ofthe CPO TSE fro the customer’ point Tee you conser each NEY What Sroula that meant” ood tnc custome +8tanPOiN vould egerbecomecs a€s¥et Oe "keep Bach ansayhat woulda mean reach a ng eat oul be absurd to continue YOU seve nat thls eve are the CTO “Tay to view each need f sample: Ne aster series” means "enone See ane a Gatieal TH Gay CTO TIP sic«s-Knowledgeable rege” means the answers they give ae correct. “would obras what et re Jas, 29 you should stop at this point. “Corsest Snaweey" ie an appropriate CTO. [A Sample CTO Trot Need —> Drivers ——* CTOs ee oe soa panes rane Sg ae SS omeraiaeni somaeaae ey eos cute ed bs piipeiaresen coined sere) ———T_ cree see | ena _ Towne Le ecm Scania Be person ‘wocantp =r" General <———-———+ Specific Hardt 2 ———————+ Easy 2 measure messure sacar “Great To Gay (CTO TOE FSA. Select CEOs forthe projectbased on the following: + Which will have the greatest positiveimpact on the customer? + Which are within your scope or provess aces of focus? “Which of the Kano Model’s "Must Be” Characteristics are not addressed? (See the Section on the Kano Model.) 5, During the Define, Measure, and Analyze steps Of the DMATC method, the team will develop the provess-output measures directly affecting the CTOs you select. These process-output Ineasures ave called y's, The team will alse ‘develop the causal factors directly affecting the Y's called the x's, ‘Tip in some cases you can go directly from the tastomer needstotheCTQs,Whileinothersyou “ight need to drive down through several lev~ lsat the CTQ Tree to discover the underlying CTs BH Citcal To Quality (CTA) Trew HOES__ggye Data Collection Gathering meaningful data why use it? Toelp you collec the right data for your new and To help etiam you colecusohul and meaning “what does it do? 1 Saveyateam ime eeefior: Youd prelimi Sere about what dtavallhaipyouunderstat ine Rn whens under what conditions Sr Sem des and doesnot per. s ghuctares your data collection so everyone ease sone that data willbe collects and bow” + Hlpayouthinkabosthowyoucansor'yourdsta Helps gover that might provide cies about & problem's eases How do I do ft Data-Collection Steps. coamy | J pati | ator1. Clarify your data-otlection goals + Make sure the data you collect will give you the answers you need. «+ Use the following questions to help you identify your data-colleetion goals. = Why ace you collecting data? What questions Go you want to answer? What will you do withthe dats? ~ Flow will the data help you? = What patterns or relationships night you want toexplose? sConsider how you will stratify the date ‘Strafntion means dividing data into groups, oF ‘Stenta, based on key characecstcs © Akey chraceratieissomeaspectof he data that you tin ean help explain when, where, and / Bewhy a problem exists ~The purpose of dividing data into groups i 10 Arrowsshow the direction or low of the process * Keep the Flonchart simple sing the basi yan boktisted above. Aa your experence grove ons ater, more graphic symbols to repent the steps Other symbols sometimes wd ineladee ~ A half or torn shet of paper for aveport com pleted and/or filed. on ~ A can or compute ape whet for data entey intoa comptrdataboe ~ Alage"D’ oc halle to identify lacesin the Proces where therelsa deny orwatios ee + Be consistent in the lve of deta shown, ~A macroevel flowchart will show hey ction eps bul no deision hose A itermecintedevel Gousha will show c- tion and decision pois ~ A miro level owehart will show minute detail * Label each process step using words that are Uindesandebletoeveryone * Add arrows to show the direction ofthe low of step in the proces. Although it lo not uli yoUtshow all yes" checes branching ows set “no! choices branching othe at iscoaies to 18 Fowehat sa aoafollow the process Preferences ancl space will later: ‘ictate divcction es swt forget to identity your work, Inlude the {eof your proces the date te dina ws sade, ad the names of he teat embers, Teal the Mowat for completeness * Are the symbole uted octet? ‘Are the procs tee apts, outputs, actions, Aisiona,walls/dlys) entitled leas? + Make sure every feedback loop is clase, 10, tery path takes yo ether bck 0 oF ahead 4 Sah tep. + Chuck that every continuation point has a corse sponding pin saehere inthe Howrah oF om Bother page of the wea «Theres ually only one ouput arrow out of an ~ ‘ctv toe there store han one sro, you fay nites dein dimen + Validate the lwchrt with pople who are nt on the tum and who carry eu the proces e- Sine: Highlight additions de deletion hay vs. ‘ommend’ Beng these back odo ten to cece ‘Sel incorpora ino the fini Howto, ~~ 6 Finalize the Hlowehart ‘Ts this process being run the way It should be? + Ase people fllewing the process ae charted? + Are there obvious complexities or redundancles that can be reduced or eliminated? ‘+ Howe differents thecurrent pracess from an ideal ‘one? Draw an ideal Flowchart, Compare the two cad (current versus ideal) to identify discrepancies and opportunities for improvements. CT Flowohar 178Flowchart x Proposed Pattent Appointment Procedure aera us. toy fe err, Sa 720 Flowohart SaoVariations: ‘The type of Flowchart just described is sometimes re- ferred to asa "detailed" flowchart because it includes, in detail, the inputs, activites, decision points, and outputs of any process, Four ether forms, described below, are also useful ‘Macro-Flowchart Refer to the third bulloted item in Step 1 ofthis section fora description. Fora graphicexample, seepage 1190 The itemory Segger™ ‘Top-Down Flowchart charts a picture of the major sleps in a work process t minimizes the detail to focus only on those ‘Reps eceential to the process. It usually does net in- ‘lide inspection, rework, and other steps that result in ‘quality problema, Teams comotimes study the top- ‘down flowchart to look for ways to simplify or reduce the number of eps to make the process more efficent and effective Planning a Party 35. 2 ate fis puyoss | |_wcsten t 1 1 pasion 21 Deon Se ‘ane 4 } 1201egeen 225s! pert aon Seam Flowchart 12Deployment Flowehart “Ths chart shows the people or departments response a alow ofthe process stepsortaskathey areassigne srubefal clarity roles ane rack accountbility a well te dependences in the sequence of eves Opportunity Flowchart "rs type of hast eps you improve a process Of save oRratingitewalu-nccedstepsfromitsnon-valis aap Value addedstepsare ose thatarcessentiy Teton the product or service and are newt for Prine process svere t runt perfectly every, Sine a vmded steps are those that are added 10 % sa pecan defects, errs, and omissions Occur oF Bithuse of worry that they might occ. ‘Rememberthese tips when consirucingan Opportunity owenare Divide page ntotwo sections value Tore tert gon should be smaller than the non-vale aia aoction. Tne flows covin the page. Join fe a arte aicpa with an arrow only if there are no ‘Non-value-added steps in between. ra STOTTide? Workflow Howchaxt ‘This type of chart is used to show the flow of people, ‘materials, paperwork, tc, withina worksetting When redundancies, duplications, and enneceseaty com_ plexities are identified in a pathy people can take ction {oreduce or eliminate these problems, IRR Flowchart 123Bre Focused Problem Statement Narrowing the problem definition Why use it? ‘To narrow the focus of a problem so that you can use ar time and resources most effectively in finding ‘solution What does it.do? ‘Describes specifically what occurs, when o€ Dher what eircumstances itoceurs, and/or who isinvolved «+ Prevents a tear from gettingbogged oven ying todo too much at once «+ Alleviates the difficulties of getting beyond ieneralissies, which are harder to tackle thar Specific ones «+ Keops the team motivated and focused rENarrowing a Problom Statement oorseniee atte LX ey Tesinert ah Seagal Neco Bethe Seuss! Nols Wit: Poorsaniee soammmagaa (LDL eee Broad Samownat Nacrom re cae What: Pon srvoe What ype of sve: Room sence Wataout te sori: Me prom a, LLL etna Broad Serauhat Sopeerinanrenm, —oFvegve owned wat: Poor sonics (at ype of are Room sonics (het bur erin: ile {When sts posi th retest Boor arm andeam. esis How dot do wk 11. Review the problem statement on yout charter 12. Review the data from the Measure step of the DDMATC method to get clues about the specifics Gar, who, what, when, where, which) of the problem you are addressing 3. Complete a worksheet like the one on the next page using the questions provided to develop + Rocused Problem Statement Focused Probiem Statement 1 Eagoneneantert, of | ut an xX where you hin grain date ti te basement Broad Sempowhat Navi = GiSque “focused “oss tyne etl stint alsin {teandded oro, what a or (Sr nlomaton can youcolect {0 lp mono yout preter ‘Satrent ove bis ‘Tip Ifyouhavenoansywers orvagueanswerstothe ‘questionson the worksheet, you mightneed to do ‘hore work in the Measure step of the DMAIC method before proceeding withthe Analyze step. 15 Fooused Brobipm Statement TSSTip Therearenortesthatell you when 's focused enough ti Bc sgh. Tryin Focused Problem Statement 727‘A. Comparison of Problem Statements sate angle deea tha books What: Glsing the banks Besse a beam Dons ot inte: Sepsis x L111 Fen tm proton stares fost Semen Nay orvague focused Gaus Whether the prtion 2 Rene ‘eds these or carne so ge hates far cords ive Me gan ears eames into ruta open Wl pr! egret eee reer Fines coral bo Fes corel eee Coleg acne cag Wb problem orcs ttt dye Win opens wos LL LAL DG rer nee Seer tay SET Brand, Seeized “SS ven id problem oes: rotstintes dos Inscorl tospal ts forsugory What arcu pers ay Hos ‘hie patient: Suge Were: Co esp 1x er: 2 tase Sorwnnat Name ROO Ces ott Bro, Sent! Nass Whatpocol miconeeort ‘What inde a sroe95? ‘When dite prob sat?Bx Histogram ‘AN Process centering, spread, and shape Why use it? ‘To summarize data trom a process that has been col- lected overa period of time, and graphically presents frequency distribution in bar fort. What does it do? * Displayslargeamountsofdatathatarediffcultto interpret in fbsla form + Shows therelative frequency of occurrence of the various data values + Roveals the centering, variation and shape ofthe data + Mlustrates quickly the underlying distribution of the data + Provides useful information for predicting future performance of the process + Helps tondicateiftherehas beena change in the process + Helps anewor the question “Is the process capable lof meeting my customer requirements?” How do I do it? 1. Decide on the process measure + The data should be variable data Le, measured ‘onacontindousscale, For example: temperature, time, dimensions, weight, speed. ao RT2 Gather data «Collect a east 5D to 100 data points if you plan se Moking for patterns and caleutating the Ghatibunion’s centering (mean), spread (Varla- Seen shape Your might also conser collect HoNtatnforaspediied period oftime: how, silt day, week, « sz hjtorical data to find patlerns oft use 288 Doseline measure of past performance 13. Prepare a frequency table from the dats 3) Count the numberof data points Pn the sample al as]wo2] s4]t0.4] 96 8a| anjroi| aa] 97| 98| 99 27 24] 96] 100] 98) 9.9) 10-1 sozliot| 38|10.|103| 10] 102] jalto7| 92|163) 99) 98) 109) B8lr02| a2] ea] 97/89] 98! So] 95] 97] 97) 98) 98) 99) 100) a7| a4] 93] oa] 9.6|100! 38 a7|106| 95|10-1)10.0) 98 95 a7 38| salto | 95|t0.1] 102] 82 403} a6] 97] 9:7)10.1| 98) 97 2.3| a5| 24| aa] 92|100| 109} Salioa| 93] 96\102| 97| 971 2afio2| 9a] 23] 95] 95] 99] nthisexample, there are 125 data points," = 125, tydetermine the ange, Pfr the entire sample "The range isthe smallest valve inthe setof date The rome irom the largest value, For our example: Be Xqq ~ Xn 10-7 -9.0= 4.7 ‘9 Determinethe numberof clasintervae Knee ssa a Histogram+ Moth I: Take the suave root of the total number of dalapointsandound tothencarest wholenumber. k=125 = 11.18= 11 intervals + Method 2:Use the table below to providea guide- line for dividing your sample into a reasonable ‘number of classes. Number of Number of Data Points Classes (k) Yor our example, 125 data points would be di vided into 7-12 class inecvals, Tip Taese womethods are general ales ofthurnb for determining cass intervals. In both methods, consid. using k = 10 lass intervals for ease of Smmental”calelation Tip Thenumber of intervals can infiuence the pat- tem ofthe sample. Too few intervals will pro- duce a tight, high pattern. Too many intervals, wil prodice a spread-out, flat pattern. «a)Determine the class wid, H ‘The formula for this: an HeBeWZ 0.7 + Round your number to the nearest value with the same decimal rumbers asthe original sample. In ‘curexample, We would round up to.20-tisuseful to have intervals defined to one more decimal place than the data collected, «Determine the class bourdartes, or end points. aE tga* Use the smallest individsal measurement in the sample, oF ound to the next appropriate lowest rourd fumber. This will be the lower end point for the frst class interval. In our example this ‘would be 9.0 + Ada the class width, H, to the Iower end point ‘Thiswillbe the lower end point for the nex class interval. For our exemple: 90+H = 90+.20=020 ‘Thus, the fist class interval would be 9.00 and everything wp to, bu! ot including, 9.20; that is, 8.00 through 9.19. The second less interval ‘would begin at 9.20 and be everything up to, bat not including, 9-40, Tip Bach class interval mst be mutually exclusive, ‘hats, every data point wil ft into one and only ‘one cass interval. + Consecatively ada the clas width to the lowest class boundary until the Klaas intervals and/or the range of all the nmbers are obisiaed Constructthe frequency tablebasedonthevalues —— you computed in item." 'A frequency table based on the data from our ‘example is shown belovr Bonini ote ‘el 7 ea0aie 031 + 2 S203 8a dee sin pHa 3 baoase 95 tert itt wer e 4 Beare O27 tre ar ar wer | ar S Seosee 99 tem ie dim tee Lat Sit at & wooolo1 sot srt ua vim Jet I 2 % josoiog9 $09 4H eH eo 8 Inebiorg 107 tet 5 0 taau-las9 109 3 2 Histogram __eanecannare4. Draw a Histogram from the frequency table + On the vert ine (y axis), dea te requ oan stale ocones dos nerve wih Reng tet fregueney count +08 the hoxzontal line (eax), draw the sale ‘ete to the votable you are meauring ‘Foreachclassintrval draw abaewih he height cca to the feguency tally ofthat cass Spee ‘Specteains: Target O25: ust Lf] Bo aE a4 ae 9a wD WE Toe Thieknase SearaoS Histogram 1885. Interpret the Histogram 2) Centering. Wheres the distribution centered? Is the process running too high? Toe lowe Peasterent —~s| uillth, ae : bogs fl ee Variation. What isthe data? I it too variable Variation ot spread of the ———) Shape, What is the shape? Does it look like ‘normal, bell-shaped distribution? Ia it positively ‘or negatively skewed; thatie, moce deta values to the leit arto the right? Ave there twin (bt modal) cormuleple peaks? ‘BhModal Disireuton Muli-Modal Dsiibuton ae cl Bositvely Stewed Negatively Skevied Tip Some processes axe naturally skewed don't expect every dtebtion te fllowa bel sped Tip Alviays look for twin o multe peaks indi- ating tt eda coming rm oor mare diferent sources, eg. shite machines, people, Supplier If uss evident, scat the dan <)Preess Capailiy. Compare the results of your Histogram to your cusomer requvemente or specications fs your process capablect mest the requirement yi the Histogran centered on ih target and within the specication ints? fogram 135‘centering and Spread Compare to (Customer Target and Limits sce spade Set target Let (o.com at tn » No ara ot lei el Leerfl \ ee, all bo = ocrendesess Ls lh - ess: Citra cl mweaion a Te Tip a spit ct cay fe dt "Gite spent eu ech etter nt) aieat ae pets ‘panna erin ‘peoductis being sorted outand isnot included in Fre sample 166 Wistogram cd“Tip ‘The Histogram [szelated to the Control Chat. {ikea Conteol Chart, a normally dstsibuted His- togeam sv have almost al its values within 13 andard deviations ofthe mean, See page 132 of ‘Tae Memory Jogger I for an illustration of fis. Variations Stem & Leaf Plot “This plot is a cross between a frequency distribution “and a Flistogeain. Itexhibits the shape ofa Histogram, ‘but preserves the original data values—one of ts key benefite! Data i easily ecorded by writing the trailing digits in the appropriate row of leading digits In this example, the smallest value fs 057, andthe Teak value fo, Using sucha plot, itis ey to find the medion and range ofthe data, ‘+ Median = middle data value (or average of the {romiddlle values) when the data is ranked from smallest to largest. For this example, there are 52 data points, Therefore, fine average of the 26th and 27¢h value wall give the median value. ‘Median = (113 + 116)/2=.1148 «+ Range=Highestvalue-lowostvale=164-0572107 eaemass ——————Hisogrann 197Histogram St “Time Distribution of Calis ana maton poe ore of soeene Beason notetThe Hltopgm denied three peak lng pared Note Te ig of the workday ad before and fer he Oa thee tascam fp The HovTreps sgvehvoniae fg with thelr easton ne 186 WstogramDot Plot Likes Histogram, a DotPiotitustrates the frequency of occurrences, except dots are used to represent Jrequency on the chart instead of bars ‘Time to Fill Walk-in Prescriptions Time (minutes) Stratifying Frequency Diagrams As described in the Data Collection section, strat- ification can provide useful insight into what is actully Magpening ina proces: When dsplying stralfied data, you should code the data points te visually separate the various data groups. You can use the following methods to cade Your data: * Different labels, colors, of symbols * Different plots side by side Sara gra 5BA Sample Stratified Frequency Diagram Box Plot ‘A Box Plot (aso kown Particularly helpful for showing the distribution of data. lt shows simslac information as the Dot Plt aud ‘hao a few additional features. In this example, a eam ‘Was looking t call volumes by day of the week. Ta dataisshownon thenextpageinthe form of ox Plot, ‘The outline of the box on the Bex Plot indicates the ‘middle 50% ofthe data (the middle two quartiles). The line inside the box represents the median, The lines extending on either side of the box, called whiskers, represent an upper limit anda lower limit, These Limit arebased on.one and one-half times thelengghef thebox added to either side of the box (ture ae vals Us extreme) or the highest oF lowest value. The asterie, ‘represents any values that lie Beyond the Laie a0 Histogram Co iHistogram TiHypothesis Testing BS Cheong Tor offferences Why use it? Tees testing is used to help determine if the Hyer between groups of data is due to teve dif TaeRtee between the groups ois the result of oveman sere araton which thenatural variation inaproces Fre fe moat commonly sed inthe Analyzestep of TE DMATC method to determine diferent levels of = Ugerete process setting (x) result in significant it fesences fn tne output ()- An example would be “Do (Giterent regions of the country have different defect sarees toa also used the improve step of the IKXEAIC mnathos to prove astalstically significant ci ference in before” and “after” data What does it do? * dentfies whether a particular diserte «has 2m cffecton the y «+ Checks for the statistical significance of differ” CS other words, IU helps determine if the Gifference observed between groups is bigger {han what you would expect from common- relay aged on the rumber of defects pes mio A tiie or DPMO, Its am expression of Process CPP asad on he DPMO) youn = okof yale (ay customer specifications, your Process hs © relate Coa sigma vate 1¢ you find lle varies Tow provessatemerspecficasons, Your Pros HAs © fhigh process sigma vale. ‘Historical dat indicates a change of 1518 8 proces: Histor! fue when shoriand long-term Erect sigs eserecompared, Tisshiisaucto det ery sco owes ie, which imeesses Ova) ra eqanton thus reducing fhe Sg Joes ae orto capably and pes yr enned, Subtracting 5 from the Shor Acres vee prvi et of longterm process ‘al Piybuoed onsbortermmessarements Tt San give the long term signs Aue FST inthe elainthe actual sigma vse forthe dat SSbtract 1.5 from the values shown. + Provides five indicator than percent Fat. ied referato ow muchof YOu Fess Yea i acceptable to your customers. out sounds good but Une 62IDPMO wae Rese tevl shows tha there sigicant Bown for improvernentProcess Sigma Values “these are estimates of long-term sigma values, For ‘lua sigma values, subtract LS from these values Poreont emo. o 9% e210 « Focuses on defects. Even a single defect reflects 8 failure in your customers’ eyes. «+ Makescomparisonseasierby usingacomanon metic, Banuce te three processes in the table below are persmued with different metic, its dificult to tell ‘which process performed best ‘Three Processes with Different Metrics Transactions performance rrcen’ Comvnas om yuan cntapooans v3 MORON nots a1 Nerney How do I do it? ‘There ate two methods for ealeulating process sigma. Mathod involves lookingup theactual yieldina process: ‘conversion fable ike the one at the end of this eson Method 2 involves looking up a normal ap Sronimatin of yielineprocee sigma able Method is Balled below, If you need to use Method 2, see Your SeSigma fxpestox MasterSixSigna Exper For poles aerocme ~~ races Sigma 205Method 1 for Calculating Process Sigma ctl Viet oo 6 pad ome rst ust caf | h ‘Mothod 2 for Calculating Process Sigma ‘og undo, Nonna Cu: ‘Sox ye Tega oe HI Method t 41. Review each of the Critical To Quality charac- teristics (CTQs) that you have selected for the project. 206 Process Signa saruanrare2. For each CTO, clearly define what a defect is. In ‘general, 2 defect is any aspect of 2 product ot Servicethat doce not meet acustomerspecitiction. In some industries, 2 customer specification is also referred tos 2 custowner tolerance 2. Definea defect opportunity “0” foreach CTO. In general, defect opportunity is amoasurable chance fora defect te accu, +A defect opportunity occurs aach time the Proditc service, or nformation shaded eis he point at which a customer quality requirement neither met or missed Tip Remember that a defect opportunity is ‘Based onthe quay chet tat nat amet -noton the nuinber of ways in whichitean be missed, For example, you should not list both "neoreee name” and *mizepelled name” 28 defect opportunities for a form. Rather, st one defect opportunity associated with the quality chacadteristice of “corect name.” Tip Wheneverpossibe stick with the samecdef- ‘ilfons of defect opportunities that ware weed in the past. The focas of process sigaa is on improvement, and its impossible to mecsure Innprovement i what you Consider to be a de- feet ‘constantly changing Tip Simple processes have few defect opportu 7 ities; complex processes have more. For ex- ample, asimple subprocess like posting pa rment has only two defect opportunities: incor eet post and late post. More complex pro- _ cesses, lke structuring a deal, have many more ‘opportunities —perhape one each for the accu racy and timeliness of Key research figures, several for the fimeliness and professionalism ‘saaamare recess Sigma 207of key customer interactions, and #0 on of Ker Smt proces signa (98 Some Komever Hvar onganiation has alta7s Pee Zor BN ew nimple eae been detcos determined by the custome It ore st not to change Your meBBUTE ment syste ‘Tip Make sure that you count only those 6 Te Mars can be reasonably expected thay ce mast have happened im the past. Also Pom ot re thal each defect opportunity mate {ers to the customer, ‘Tipit is important for the number of defect i vortumiies to remain constant (hough oo oPpetimalyis. The number of opportuniles Your Gapredent ofthe yield calculation ase isan foeene process sigaa. Jf Gre number of — ro derqanitier changes, your calculations of OPE Sipefore and after a change won’ Become parable. ‘sample Vield-Calcilation Factors Defect siuaton —eT_—_Unt_ Opportunies er unt feel, cx neon creat4. Determine the numberof units produced (°N"). ‘Auunitis the tem produced or processed. 5. Determine the total number of defects made (OD), Include any defects that are made and then ister fized, By inclading the defects that ——__Iaterget fixed, you are calculating your process sigma based on the ftps yield ofthe process, fot the final yield, The first-pass yield provides the most accurate pieture ofthe process because: seis aittiout to “inspect away” defects. itis very costly to fx errors. ‘it reveals a process's true improvement — potential. First-Pase Yield vs. Final Yield Sa Ne, Esros a voi a i rinsunyates Pie remaster ra usar a cae. Msi eomernty eoeial ao Process Sigma 209© Bitte Per opportunity “DPO. peo = DAN x 0). uf % Calculate yetd Yield =~ BPO) x 09, 8 Look up yout process sigma in the Process-Sigme Conversion Table on pase 248 Bxainpler ‘A Sample Process-Sigma Calculation 100 unis 2 opportuntios per unit 7 docs ~ eet 2 iasg) m9 *- 825) 100 = $05% «3.30 tong) * Palomino mbt tect mace: ‘ei dali made aetna eeTip Method 1 is reliable only if there isa suffi lent numberof detects and non-defects. You ‘must have at feast five of each category for this method to work Tip in some cases the main concern is with the overall process yield only. In such eases, sot tone specification for the process ae a whole, and determine one overall. process-sigma teyele time for the entire process (e.g, "com- plete the process within three days"). nother cases, there might be separate speci- fications for different steps. Then youneed to know how to determine the process sigma for ‘each step and combine them into an overall process sigma for the entire process ‘sarees Frese Sigma 211process-Sigma Conversion Table -phean are estimates of fongterm sigma Yalta or Theos ae voles, oubtract 5 from thede YasGEER PPEE EEE HEE Peer eee Sree eeeeere Yield Conversion Table “These are estimates of long-term sigma values, For actual sigava Values, subtract 1.5 from these values a ways 919% smgor 03% 5a a5 sagcoiss| 27 1507 9as% 57 3 suseeson | 20° tosse0 004 56 1 tosirom | 25 tenes OL 58° @ wat | 24 tote 01.0% 84 @ oan | 2s 2itaes 709% sa 72 aoamaen | 22 zrtge4 750% | se a sasecan | 21 2raz50 20% St 129 gogem | 2 sonsun oni% sme marm | 19 susTe e55% 49 wy onscin | 1a smznee ota Jae os nase | 7 aea700 sro a7 ow sooam | 18 aos7e OK 46 o60 gam0% | 15, S000, soa as 1390 aaa | 14 seosee s00% | ae tees pais] 13 sraz00 worm 43 ass some | 12 ara mee 42 er ome | Lt essen tam | as apst goss | 1 onrdse wa 4 a1 sam | 09 reaver za 0 aia gate% | as 7on0% 242% 8 wo osc | 07 ams 21.2% | a7 9am cesx | ae aisgw Tae So 7m cozx | 0s tau 189% as zr arm | ox enue 100% Ba aris ome | ag soKom 11% | 83 seam sone | 02 conto arm 32 aso oben | ot stage ae 7 Bt 47a B46 : 3 tao ea, ‘Raaroonare Process Sigma 213Bx Regression Quantifying the relationship Between two variables Why use it? ‘To investigate suspected correlations by generating a ‘equation that quantifies the eelationship. What doos tt do? + eel the eationship though anequationtor tie, curve, osace | sep the vrai y vais | Tpnables outo predic thempactofcontlings |" proses enable 6) + Enables youopredisfutreproces performance forcertin values ofa «tel you dently the vil fee that dive y (eae Seaton at tas = 6 fr) sretps you manipulate process conditions fo inte sable revue € x console) Seon avoid undesiableresuls For near repression i, when he rlatonhip fs sents ike) theregecinouatons represented se ekereteehorep epithe aoe pends stape ae over Wrhge tn pore ncease | Note: You might be accustomed fo expressing the ‘equation fora linea y = m+ b where m =slope and Sintercept. We we a different notation here, for easons thet will become clear when you do multiple ‘gression, ge the graph a Ube end of this section.)‘an Example of Linear Regrossion sow ao toe ‘Use the least squaresamethod, where Her Csion equntioby using procedure that minis? Tee gad equared distance from all points t the line ‘This method finds the Tine where the squared verticy Tals et om each data point fo che Kine i as smal a5 sae forthe “east sea tal the method Peruze the “square” of ll the residual. aid joadeterinine the FT Lost ines metod 1 tata ton 5 Sur tr tal squared an, 3, Ft ino at anise sts Fogression 215Data (both x and y values) are used to obtain the be and by values, and the by and b, values establish the equation 4, Motthe data onaScatter Diagram (see page228 for details) Tip Besure to pot your data befor doing repres- enti chafe blr show four sel dat at ive the same regression equation: y =3 +05 Swinanly there are four fompltely cilferent relates Four Plots of the Same Equation“Meaourethe'vertial distancefrom the pointstotheline Square the figures ‘Sum the total squared distance Find the line that minimizes the sumn Tip Gevecally scomputer programs used to gen crate the “bes Bt ine that sepreonts the fan onship betwoon x and y. This work is ypiclly perfomned by a Sic Sgane Expert and ia shown Feri for overview purposes ony. Tip The following sets of terms are often used terchangeably ‘Regression equation and regression line. + Prediction equntion and prediction lin. + Fitted line, or fits and model. Tip When two variables show a relationship on a ‘eatlr plot they aresaid to becorrelated, but this docs not necestarily mean they have a eause/ fet relationship, Corelation means two things vary together. Cansaton menns changes in one variable cause changes inthe other. Correlated Variables sacra ny area Regression 297‘Tip Extrpoation efersto making predictions out it the ange of tec da reticent butt canbe very risky. Predictions omega, sion equationsare mors reliable forx'swithiecte range of the observed dats. Extrapolation is le "sky if you havea theory, process inowlede ey other data to guide you An Example of Extrapolation hate atenstip btn ‘Amount (6K) ‘The residuals the leftover varlaton in y ater you use x to predict y. The residual represents common cause (ey random and unexplained) variation. You deter, thine @residualby subtracting the predicted y fromthe observed. 218 Wegression sama‘Residuals areassumedtohavethe following properties: ‘Not related to thes « Stable independent, and not changing overtime = Constant and not increasing asthe predicted y's « Normal (Le. bellsheped) with 2 mean of 260 ‘An Example of Residual 416 Residue y esd, of. 4 5 to 15 Xo oxen watt) 8 Presaeay tea: ‘rpoand yan) ‘Your SixSigina Expert wll be reponsible for checking see gcaaptions. I the assumptions do et cach of Cpresion equation might De incorrect oF mnsleading Tip Other types of regression your team might Tp thet Oe crown in te fllowing FPP: are —wegression 218ee ‘other Types of Regression ‘nple Linear (Onex) Mule Twn or More x8) ‘curatineas (One x) amg instr vation Legit for Dist) BB Regression ETTBee un chart Tracking trends ‘Tonllow a team to study observed data from a Check ‘Bheator other data-colletion source to analyze trends ‘Sr patterns overa specified period of time What does it do? = Montorstheperformanee of one ormore processes vor me to detect trends, shits, ox cycles « Allows team tocomparea performancemessice Eek and after implementation of soktion to casure its impact «Focuses attention om vital changes in the process {tracks unefl information for predicting tends How do I do it?- 1, Decide on the process performance measure 2, Gather data Generally, collet 20-25 data points to detect renningl patter. 5. Create a graph with a vertical line (y axis) and 2 horizontal line & axis) + Onthevertcal line (y ani), draw thescalereated forthe variable you are measuring, “Areange they axis to cover ihe fll range of the asttementsane then some,eg, times the rangeof dats + On the horizontal line (axis), draw the 8 Sequance scale4. Plot the data = Look atthe data collected If there are no obvious fronds caleulate the average or arimtic meat. “Theaveragelsthesumofthe ensured valosdivided by the numberof dat poin. The mest value can abo be sed byt the mean isthe most frequently tased mean ofthe “entering” ofthe spe (See ‘Ds Points for more information on averages) Draw ‘a rorzontal ine a the average valu. Tip Do not eedzaw this line everytime new data is added. Only when therohasbeenamajr change in the process or provailing conditions should the verge berecalclated and redrawn, andthenonly Uising the datapoints after the verified change a i panmnery Timer snes 5 Interpet the Chart + Note the postion of the avrageline, sitet heat bitctativeto caste’ need or specie tion? fs it where you want Ie elative (0 your — bosinss objective? Tip A éangerinusing a Run Chertisthe tendency tosee every variation in date ang portant. ‘he Rn Char shui ewe fous sy ‘a changes nthe proces, Skmple tests ean BE {sed to tok for esningfal endo aed pattems, "These testsare found in the Control Chars ee: 2 Rin Chat SS SaRTGFEtion. Remember that for more sophisticated uses, ' Control Chart is invaluable since its simply Run Chart with statistically based limits Variation Like Controt Chats, Run Charts can be used to assess whether there are any signs of special-eause variation, In geaeral, to use a Run Chart you folio five steps 1. Collect twenty or more data values over time. 2, Plot the data in tne order, 8. Pencil in the median line, 4. Count the runsabove and below themedian,Arntisa series ofpointsonthesamesideof the medianyaseries can be of any length, from ene pot to many points 5. Check for special causes. I you see any signs ofa special cause try to determine ‘what itis and then work to remove it permanently. If the process is stable, continue with your data anal, ‘Sample Run Chart i r °F 8 6 w @ Tet aa pons a on mine oan ens eros elpmedhy oeieaatng aa oR ce Chart 2BAA rum ends anytime the connecting line crosses the median, Thenumber of rns youshouldexpectto seein stable process depend on the numberof data points, ‘The chart below shows how many runs you can expect ‘when only common-eause variation ie present The ‘twenty datapoints not on the median for eleven rns in the sample Run Charts well within the range listed in the chart below. Thus, based an thie test, you ean re sonably conclude there arenospecaleausesol variation, Expected Numbers of Runs Ee elk = = soc ‘thane ati | chen Sete NeerInaddition to checking thenumber of uns, other tests for Special causes youcan use with un Chartres follows + Too many rons. + Too few runs + Sixormorepointsina raw continuously incressing for decreasing, This indicates a trend. + Bight or more points in axow on the same side of themedian.Tisindicatesashift, When counting, runson thesaraeside ofthe centerline, ignore any points on the center line + Fourteen or more points in a row altemating up and down, When counting runs up of down, [ore any points that cepea the preceding value. wo points ina row have thesame value, ignore the second point Below are illustrations of each ofthese special causes ther Tests for Special Causes “woe ns Measurement Nein continued on tho ex! page * eseurement maou Ran Ghat 25Other Tests for Special Causes (cont) WX - an to easwement ae ponchat—,SSCSC~S*« ORTRun St Average Number of Days {or Determining Eligibility for Services = Sis Tin Foe War Ber Wy Sun a fp Sop 08 1 Bee ee be aae eee e Note: Blgiityrogucemans changed in May, mak ntrmeionproded couse f Cnr Sate Depa | og it Te er intan Sanit we Rac sitpor tr te department staf to make detem ore Theteend stat ‘Gemore cinseisive pins dein Ciiysipnfiant becuse there are sik un Ghar 227Scatter Diagram FB siessinng wbierenips between variables Why use a? otudy and identity the possible relationship between the changes observed in two different select emeetien What doos it do? * Supplies thedata to confimanhypothesis that two vvaniables are elated * Frovidesbotha visualand statistical means ots the strength of a potential lationship * Provides a good follow-up to a Cause & Bifect Diagram to find out i there is more than justo ‘consenstsconnectionbetween causes andtheotiec, How do t do it?. 1 Gollec 80-100 paired samples of data that you iy beet ana 2 bs dn etiRey ott come SEES aridiitae = 8 2 ag & ison: Thr ipo baer ne mr oda caren ae te ‘Convesardth rage Sages ae2. Draw the horizontal (x axis) and vertical (Y 2x8) Tines of the diagam The measurement scales generally ferease 85 Tes move up the tertcal ans ae othe rion The horizontal ads 151 opus et Cote) pitts Tdi CH Covet ating ofthe Sesion on “Eile wa an oo Wo Ga oho sho cin io ‘amrage Exporenen of Tang Tarn (0 35) 5. Plot the,data on the diagran® voit values are eepeated circle that point && mam times ass appropriate 45 ‘over Rating fhe Session a te aie ale lo Gh Bo we aie ho do who ola oho oo erage Exyerence of Tang Toa (0 60/) veeeaten proved cuter of ron Sed