PROCEEDINGS OF SUNDALAND RESOURCES 2014 MGEI ANNUAL CONVENTION

17-18 November 2014, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia

THE ORIGIN OF SUNDALAND

Robert Hall
Southeast Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences
Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
robert.hall@es.rhul.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

It is now accepted that the core of SE Asia was assembled from continental blocks that separated from
Gondwana in the Palaeozoic and amalgamated with Asian blocks in the Triassic. Some fragments of
these assembled blocks rifted and separated from Asia and later re-amalgamated with the oldest,
western, part of the SE Asian continental core during the Mesozoic. There is increasing evidence that
fragments of Cathaysian/Asian continental crust form parts of Northern Borneo and the offshore shelf
to the north of Sarawak and east of Vietnam. Sarawak, the offshore LuconiaDangerous Grounds areas,
and Palawan include such Asian continental material. These probably represent a wide accretionary
zone at the AsiaPacific boundary, which was an active continental margin until early in the Late
Cretaceous. Other continental blocks rifted from Australia in the Jurassic (SW Borneo, East JavaWest
Sulawesi, SabahNW Sulawesi, South SulawesiSumba), and the Woyla intra-oceanic arc of Sumatra,
and were added to Sundaland in the Cretaceous. After collision of these blocks subduction ceased
around Sundaland in the early Late Cretaceous, and from about 80 Ma most of Sundaland was
emergent, physically connected to Asia, but separated by deep oceans from India and Australia.

INTRODUCTION which follows the Carboniferous Song Ma

This paper gives an overview of the origin and
growth of Sundaland from the Late Palaeozoic
until the Late Cretaceous. Sundaland was an
exposed landmass during the Pleistocene sea
level lowstands, and comprises southern
Indochina, the ThaiMalay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, the shallow marine shelf (the
Sunda Shelf) between these islands, and West
Sulawesi (Fig. 1). Sundaland (van Bemmelen,
1949; Hutchison, 1973, 1989) is the continental
core of SE Asia (Fig. 2). From the Late
Cretaceous it formed the southeastern
continental promontory of the Eurasian plate
and was separated by deep oceans from India
and Australia. It is now bordered to the west,
south and east by subduction and collision
zones (Hall and Morley, 2004; Metcalfe,
2011a,b). Its northern limit is poorly defined. It
merges with the region deformed in the
Cenozoic by IndiaAsia collision and is
commonly separated from East Asia (Fig. 3) to
the northeast along the Red River Shear Zone,
suture, and to the northwest from a Burma
block along a Cretaceous suture and ophiolite
zone (Hutchison, 1975). The western and
southern margins of Sundaland follow the
Sunda and Java Trenches. The eastern margin is
irregular; a boundary has often been drawn
through West Java, northeast into Borneo and
then north-west towards the South China Sea,
to exclude the ophiolitic and arc rocks added in
the Cretaceous. However, we now know that
further east, East Java, West Sulawesi, and
potentially the area including Flores and Sumba,
are underlain by continental crust that was at
the edge of Sundaland and formed the SE Asian
promontory of the Eurasian plate from the Late
Cretaceous onwards.
Sundaland has often been described as a shield
or craton (e.g. van Bemmelen, 1949; Burton,
1972; Ben-Avraham and Emery, 1973; Gobbett
and Hutchison 1973; Hutchison, 1989; Tjia,
1996; Barber et al., 2005) which is an idea
inherited from geological thinking that pre-

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17-18 November 2014, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 1. Simplified geography of Sundaland and surrounding regions. The 200m bathymetric contour has been
used to define the edge of the Asian margin, Sunda shelf and the SahulArafura Shelf. Bathymetric contours are at
200m and 6000m. Black filled triangles are volcanoes from the Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program
(Siebert and Simkin, 2002).

Figure 2. The Mesozoic growth of Sundaland. Late Triassic Sundaland is outlined in dark blue as pre-Cretaceous
Sundaland. The area commonly considered to form the Mesozoic continental core is outlined in light blue with a
southern boundary drawn at the limits of Cretaceous continental crust inferred by Hamilton (1979). Sundaland
grew in the Cretaceous by the addition of continental crust in East Java and West Sulawesi. The area shaded in
yellow is the modern plate boundary zone of active orogenic deformation although there are important zones of
deformation within Sundaland.
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 PROCEEDINGS OF SUNDALAND RESOURCES 2014 MGEI ANNUAL CONVENTION
17-18 November 2014, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia
dates plate tectonics. Hutchison (1989)
suggested that the region stabilised to form a
single aseismic cratonic core of SE Asia during
the Late Triassic. Some authors consider
Sundaland to have been a rigid plate in the
Cenozoic (e.g. Davies, 1984; Replumaz and
Tapponnier, 2003; Replumaz et al., 2004) that
rotated clockwise as a block during the last 8
10 million years (e.g. Rangin et al., 1999) or over
a longer period (Replumaz et al., 2004).
However, the region has been very far from
stable (Hall and Morley, 2004) and it cannot
have behaved as a single rigid block during most
of the Cenozoic; the considerable evidence for a
heterogeneous pattern of subsidence and
elevation requires a much more complex
tectonic model for the region with significant
internal deformation of Sundaland (Hall, 1996,
2002, 2009; Hall et al., 2008).
Seismicity and GPS observations
The Sunda Shelf is widely regarded as a stable
area (e.g. Geyh et al.,1979; Tjia, 1992), probably
because it is flat and close to sea level. Data
from the region have been used in construction
of global eustatic sea level curves (e.g. Fleming
et al., 1998; Bird et al., 2007) despite evidence
of very young faulting and vertical movements
(e.g. Bird et al., 2006). It is true that currently
the interior of Sundaland is almost devoid of
seismicity and volcanic activity, in marked
contrast to its margins (Figs. 1 and 4). Seismicity
(Cardwell and Isacks, 1978; Engdahl et al., 1998)
and GPS measurements (Rangin et al., 1999;
Michel et al., 2001; Bock et al., 2003; Simons et
al., 2007) suggest that at present a SE Asian or
Sunda microplate is currently moving slowly
relative to the Eurasian Plate. However, even if
it is the case that very young deformation
suggest a rigid plate, this has not been typical of
Sundaland in the Cenozoic.
The character of the Sundaland deep crust and
mantle is quite different from nearby
continental regions in India and Australia, and
from cratons (Hall and Morley, 2004; Hyndman
et al., 2005; Currie and Hyndman, 2006). Unlike
the well-known shields or cratons (e.g. Baltic,
Canadian, African, Australian) Sundaland is not
underlain by a thick cold lithosphere that was
stabilised in the Precambrian. P and S wave
seismic tomography (Bijwaard et al., 1998;
Ritsema and van Heijst, 2000) show it is an area
of low velocities in the lithosphere and
underlying asthenosphere, in contrast to Indian
and Australian continental lithosphere to the
NW and SE (Figs. 5 and 6). Such low mantle
velocities are commonly interpreted in terms of
elevated temperature, and this is consistent
with regional high heat flow, but they may also
partly reflect the mantle composition or
elevated volatile contents.
Much of the Sundaland interior has high surface
heat flow (Fig. 7), with values typically greater
than 80 mW/m2, much greater than cratons
(Artemieva and Mooney, 2001; Hyndman et al.,
2005). Likely causes are upper crustal heat flow
from radiogenic granites and their erosional
products, the insulation effects of sediments,
and a large mantle contribution. Also unlike
cratons, there has been significant deformation
within Sundaland during the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic. During the Cenozoic there was
widespread faulting, the formation of numerous
sedimentary basins, many of which are very
deep, and localized but significant elevation of
mountains (Hall and Morley, 2004).
The upper mantle velocities and heat flow
observations suggest the region is underlain by
a thin and weak lithosphere (Hall and Morley,
2004) that extends many hundreds of
kilometres from the volcanic margins (Fig. 8)
but is probably a long-term consequence of
subduction (Currie and Hyndman, 2006)
beneath Sundaland throughout much of the
Mesozoic until the mid-Cretaceous and from
the Eocene to present day. Critically, such
subduction back-arc lithosphere (Hyndman et
al., 2005; Currie and Hyndman, 2006) is not only
significantly weaker than cratonic lithosphere
but is likely to deform internally in response to
plate boundary forces (Fig. 9) and to within-
plate forces generated by topography (Lynch
and Morgan, 1987; Whittaker et al., 1992;
Zoback et al., 2002).
Regionally, the entire area of Sundaland north
of the Java-Sunda trench and west of the
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17-18 November 2014, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 3. The principal blocks in SE Asia. Ophiolitic/arc sutures are shaded in green. The pre-Cretaceous Sundaland
terranes are modified after Metcalfe (1996, 2011a,b) and Barber et al. (2005). West Sumatra, West Burma and
IndochinaEast Malaya formed part of a Cathaysian composite block added to Eurasia in the Palaeozoic. Sibumasu
was accreted along the BentongRaub suture in the Triassic. West Burma and West Sumatra moved along the
Sundaland margin to a position outboard of Sibumasu since then. The Woyla Arc was accreted in the Cretaceous.
The Luconia and Dangerous Grounds blocks include Cathaysian continental crust rifted from East Asia and added to
Sundaland during the Mesozoic in an East AsianPacific accretionary complex. SW Borneo, East JavaWest
Sulawesi, and SabahNW Sulawesi rifted from western Australia in the Late Jurassic and were added in the Late
Cretaceous. The area beneath South Sulawesi, Flores and Sumba is an extended part of the East JavaWest
Sulawesi block. The suture interpreted on the northwest side of this block is based on evidence from South
Sulawesi and its extension to the southwest is very speculative.

Philippine trench is underlain by weak lithospheric thickness, different internal

lithosphere and is very responsive to plate
boundary forces, but it is also heterogeneous.
The long accretionary history of the region
means that it is a composite mosaic of
continental fragments (Fig. 3) with varying
structures, crossed by sutures with different
orientations, and cut by strike-slip faults of
different ages (e.g. Allen, 1962; Hamilton, 1979;
Sieh and Natawidjaja, 2000; Barber and Crow,
2009).
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17-18 November 2014, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 4. Seismicity in and around Sundaland between 1964 and 2000 (Engdahl et al., 1998).
Bathymetric contours are at 200m and 6000m.

Figure 5. 150 kilometre depth slice through the S20RTS shear wave tomographic model of Ritsema and van Heijst
(2000). High relative shear wave velocities are represented by blue and low velocities by red. Cratons are easily
identified; SE Asia is not among them.
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 PROCEEDINGS OF SUNDALAND RESOURCES 2014 MGEI ANNUAL CONVENTION
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THE PRE-JURASSIC CORE OF SUNDALAND
The western part of Sundaland (Fig. 2) was
essentially in its present form, and in a similar
position with respect to Asia, by the Early
Mesozoic (Metcalfe, 1990, 1996, 2011a). This
region formed by amalgamation of continental
blocks and is surrounded by material added
later in the Mesozoic. Metcalfe (2011a,b)
provides the most comprehensive and recent
accounts of the Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic
history of the region and forms the basis of the
summary here.
IndochinaEast Malaya, Sibumasu, West
Sumatra
The eastern part of the core of Sundaland (Fig.
3) is the IndochinaEast Malaya block which
separated from Gondwana in the Devonian. By
the Late Permian, North China, South China,
IndochinaEast Malaya and the Sukhothai Arc
(e.g. Sone and Metcalfe 2008; Metcalfe
2011a,b; Sevastjanova et al., 2011) formed a
composite Cathaysian continent (Barber and
Crow, 2009; Metcalfe, 2006, 2009) at equatorial
latitudes with warm-water Tethyan faunas and
low latitude floras. In contrast, Sibumasu (SI
Sino, BU Burma, MA Malaya, SU Sumatra;
Metcalfe, 1984, 2011a) is characterised by
Carboniferous Permian glacial - marine
diamictites and Gondwana floras which indicate
that it remained at high southern latitudes
during the Late Palaeozoic glaciation. This block
separated from Gondwana in the Early Permian
and amalgamated with the Cathaysian
continent to form the core of Sundaland during
the Triassic. The West Sumatra block has a
Cathaysian flora and fauna but is now outboard
of Sibumasu. It is considered to have been part
of Cathaysia, and subsequently moved along
the western margin of Sibumasu before the
Mesozoic (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005;
Barber and Crow, 2009).
Separation of continental fragments from
Gondwana opened large Tethyan oceans but
almost all oceanic crust was eliminated by
subduction. Abundant PermianTriassic tin belt
granitoids were produced by subduction of this
oceanic crust (Fig. 10). During the Permo
Triassic stages of suturing there was extensive
granite magmatism, associated first with
subduction preceding collision, and later with
post-collisional thickening of the continental
crust (Hutchison, 1989, 1996b). These granites
now extend from Thailand, through the Malay
Peninsula, to the Indonesian Tin Islands (e.g.
Cobbing et al., 1992).
Isotopic studies indicate the Malay Peninsula
has a Proterozoic continental basement (Liew
and McCulloch, 1985; Liew and Page, 1985) and
zircon studies indicate that although
heterogeneous, both East Malaya and Sibumasu
have Proterozoic basements no older than 2.8
Ga (Sevastjanova et al., 2011).
West Burma
West Burma has been identified as a distinct
block but the term has been used in different
ways by different authors and its origin remains
controversial. Mitchell (1981) suggested that
Western Burma was an island arc separated
from mainland SE Asia by an oceanic marginal
basin which had closed by the mid Jurassic.
Mitchell (1986) proposed a microcontinental
fragment named Mt Victoria Land which has a
schist basement overlain by Triassic quartz-rich
turbidites. He did not identify the origin of the
fragment but showed it as separated by an
oceanic spreading ridge from the Shan-Thai
margin (approximately equivalent to northern
Sibumasu) in the Late Triassic and thrust
underneath the Shan-Thai block in the latest
Jurassic or Early Cretaceous. Later Mitchell
(1992) argued that Triassic turbidites in Burma
were deposited on the southern margin of Asia,
which he identified with the Shan-Thai foreland,
abandoning the separate Mt Victoria Land
block. West Burma was regarded by Gatinsky
and Hutchison (1986) and Hutchison (1989) as a
fragment that separated from Sibumasu in the
Triassic and re-amalgamated with it in the Early
Cretaceous. Barber and Crow (2009)
interpreted West Burma as a continuation of
the West Sumatra block. They considered that
both were part of Cathaysia by the Early
Carboniferous and were detached along a major
transcurrent fault and translated to a position
outboard of Sibumasu (Barber et al., 2005;
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Figure 6. Depth slice at 300 km from the P wave tomographic model of Bijwaard and Spakman (2000). High P wave
velocities are represented by blue and low velocities by red. The slice shows high velocity anomalies interpreted as
subducted slabs around Indonesia, and relatively low velocities beneath Sundaland.

Figure 7. Contoured heat flow map for SE Asia, modified from Hall and Morley (2004). Heat flow values were taken
from global and regional compilations (Kenyon and Beddoes, 1977; Nagao et al., 1995; Pollack et al., 1993;
Rutherford and Qureshi, 1981).
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Figure 8. Heatflow across a trench, subduction backarc region and craton based on model of Hyndman et al.
(2005). Sundaland lithosphere is expected to be thin and weak, and lower crust is thin and hot.

Figure 9. Relative strengths of cratons and subduction backarc regions from Hyndman et al. (2005). Sundaland
lithosphere is expected to be very responsive to plate boundary forces, especially when wet.

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 PROCEEDINGS OF SUNDALAND RESOURCES 2014 MGEI ANNUAL CONVENTION
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Barber and Crow, 2009). West Sumatra and
West Burma are now separated from one
another by the Late Miocene Andaman Sea. For
all these authors the Mt Victoria Land or West
Burma block was essentially part of SE Asia from
the Late Triassic.
In contrast, several authors (Sengr, 1987;
Veevers, 1988; Metcalfe, 1990; Audley-Charles,
1991) suggested that the Mt Victoria Land block
rifted from western Australia. Metcalfe (1996)
later renamed it the West Burma block to avoid
confusion with Victoria Land in Antarctica. He
suggested that West Burma was derived from
NW Australia, and considered it a good
candidate for part of the continental sliver that
provided a source for sediments derived from
the northwest in Timor during the Triassic, and
which must have rifted from Gondwanaland in
the Late Jurassic. This suggestion has since
become widely accepted despite the fact that
Metcalfe (1996) observed there was as yet no
convincing evidence for the origin of this [West
Burma] block. According to this interpretation
West Burma separated from Australia in the
Late Jurassic and docked with SE Asia in the
Early Cretaceous.
Here, the West Burma block is considered to
have been part of SE Asia since at least the Late
Triassic (Fig. 11). Triassic sandstones on Timor
with a northern provenance have a heavy
mineral population and detrital zircon ages
identical to sandstones of the Birds Head
(Gunawan et al., 2012, 2014; Zimmerman and
Hall, 2014). In contrast, Triassic sandstones
from West Burma are quite different, and
closely resemble those from Sibumasu in their
heavy mineral and detrital zircon characteristics
(I.Sevastjanova, pers. comm., 2014). These data
support the reconstruction of West Burma of
Hall et al. (2009) and Hall (2012) as explained
below.
MESOZOIC ADDITIONS TO SUNDALAND
More continental blocks were added to
Sundaland in the Early and early Late
Cretaceous (Figs. 2 and 3) to form what is now
much of Borneo, East Java and West Sulawesi.
Most of the fragments had rifted from Australia
in the Late Jurassic and their collisions ended
subduction around the SE Asia promontory at
about 90 Ma.
SW Borneo
For many years SW Borneo was interpreted as a
fragment of Asian/Cathaysian origin (e.g.
Hutchison, 1989; Metcalfe, 1988, 1990, 1996).
The area of the Schwaner Mountains and
further south has been described as the
Basement Complex, Continental Core or
Sunda Shield of West Borneo (van Bemmelen,
1949) or the West Borneo Basement (Haile,
1974). SW Borneo lacks unmetamorphosed
sedimentary rocks that could be used to
correlate with other regions. It was considered
an ancient continental area, with the undated
Pinoh Metamorphic Group interpreted to be
older than Triassic and plausible arguments to
suggest they were pre-Carboniferous (e.g. van
Bemmelen, 1949; Haile, 1974; Tate, 1991; Tate
and Hon, 1991). The metamorphic rocks were
known to be intruded by Cretaceous Schwaner
granitoids. New work (Davies et al., 2014)
indicates the Pinoh Metamorphics are much
younger than expected. All the metamorphic
rocks dated from the Pinoh Metamorphic Group
of SW Borneo contain abundant Cretaceous
zircons with age distributions suggesting they
are detrital, and the chemistry of the rocks
suggest they contain significant reworked
volcanic material, probably ash. This suggests
that volcanic rocks were erupted in the Early
Cretaceous, reworked into sediments, buried
and metamorphosed during extension probably
associated with emplacement of the Schwaner
batholith later in the Early Cretaceous.
However, although all the metamorphic rocks at
the surface appear to be have Cretaceous
volcano-sedimentary protoliths, there are a few
isotopic hints from granites of a Precambrian
basement beneath, and diamonds that suggest
an Australian basement.
Detrital diamonds are known from rivers
draining the SW Borneo Block in the Kapuas
River of West Kalimantan and the Barito and
Meratus areas of SE Kalimantan. The source of
the diamonds has not been identified and there
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 PROCEEDINGS OF SUNDALAND RESOURCES 2014 MGEI ANNUAL CONVENTION
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are different opinions about their origin. Barron
et al. (2008) suggested that the Cempaka (SE
Kalimantan) diamonds are similar to those from
eastern Australia and argued for a subduction
origin. Potential source rocks for such
subduction-related diamonds could be ultra-
high pressure (UHP) rocks from the Meratus
region (Parkinson et al., 1998), although no
diamonds have so far been reported from these
rocks and many of the diamonds are much
larger than would be expected for subduction
products (Dobrzhinetskaya, 2012).
Subduction would be an improbable
explanation for diamonds in the Kapuas River
on the west side of Borneo where there is no
evidence for HP or UHP rocks. It is also
noteworthy that there are no diamonds known
from Cathaysian blocks in other parts of SE Asia
supporting arguments against a Cathaysian
origin for SW Borneo. Nitrogen aggregation
characteristics reveal similarities between
Kalimantan and NW Australian diamonds
(Taylor et al., 1990). Smith et al. (2009) showed
that the Borneo diamonds included several
groups interpreted to have been reworked from
multiple primary sources and argued that
external morphology, internal structure,
inclusions, thermobarometry, and Archean Re-
Os model ages from a sulfide inclusion, indicate
that Kalimantan diamonds formed in ancient
Gondwana sub-cratonic lithospheric mantle.
Griffin et al. (2001) and Metcalfe (2009)
suggested that alluvial diamonds of Burma,
Thailand and Sumatra were eroded from
Permian glacial-marine diamictites of the
Sibumasu Block, which was rifted from the
western Australian part of Gondwanaland. The
Borneo diamonds could have arrived in a similar
way, but on the SW Borneo block, and
subsequently reworked into river sediments
from the basement or its sedimentary cover.
Meratus
Hamilton (1979) drew a NE-SW line from West
Java to the Meratus Mountains of SE
Kalimantan as the approximate southeast
boundary of Cretaceous continental crust. To
the east of this line in Java and SE Borneo are
ophiolitic, arc rocks and some high pressure-low
temperature metamorphic rocks. This zone
records subduction beneath Sundaland in the
Early Cretaceous. Accretionary-collision
complexes resulting from subduction (Katili,
1971, 1973; Sukamto, 1975a,b; Sikumbang,
1986, 1990; Wakita et al., 1994a,b, 1998;
Parkinson et al., 1998; Wakita, 2000) include
tectonic units formed by oceanic spreading, arc
volcanism, oceanic and forearc sedimentation,
and subduction-related metamorphism. In the
Luk Ulo Complex of Central Java are
serpentinised ultrabasic rocks, basalts, cherts,
limestones, siliceous shales, shales, volcanic
breccias, and high pressure-low temperature
and ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks
(Parkinson et al., 1998; Wakita, 2000). In West
Java similar rocks are exposed to the south of
Ciletuh Bay and include serpentinised
peridotites, gabbros, pillow basalts, and rare
metamorphic rocks such as quartzite and
amphibolite (Schiller et al., 1991; Clements et
al., 2009). K-Ar ages from metamorphic rocks
summarised by Parkinson et al. (1998) indicate
high pressure-low temperature metamorphism
between 117 and 124 Ma, and radiolaria
associated with pillow lavas at Luk Ulo are Early
Cretaceous (Wakita et al., 1994b). These rocks
are overlain by Eocene sediments (Wakita,
2000; Smyth et al., 2008; Clements et al., 2009).
In SE Kalimantan Sikumbang (1986, 1990) and
Wakita et al. (1998) concluded that arc-
continent collision and ophiolite emplacement
was completed by about 90 Ma.
East Java
Only a few outcrops of basement rocks are
known from East Java, but these, and results of
oil company drilling offshore, seemed to
support Hamiltons (1979) suggestion that the
basement was Cretaceous or Early Tertiary
melange. However, recent studies in East Java
show that the southern part of the island is
underlain by continental crust and suggest
there may be similar crust beneath the Java Sea
and in the forearc south of East Java.
Inherited zircons in Cenozoic sedimentary and
igneous rocks of East Java range in age from
Archean to Cenozoic. The distribution of zircons
reveals two different sources. Clastic rocks in
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north and west parts of East Java contain
Cretaceous zircons, which probably came from
the West Java Luk UloMeratus suture, or
from SW Borneo. In contrast, the igneous rocks
of the Early Cenozoic Southern Mountains
volcanic arc, found along the southeast coast,
include abundant volcanic rocks and minor
intrusions of dacites and rhyolites. They contain
only Archaean to Cambrian zircons (Smyth,
2005; Smyth et al., 2007, 2008).
Comparison of zircon UPb ages from East Java
with those from Western Australia support an
Australian origin for the deep crust below East
Java. Compilations of geochronological data for
Australia (e.g. Neumann and Fraser, 2007;
Southgate et al., 2011) suggest that source
rocks for Archean zircons are common only in
Western Australia, in the Pilbara (main
population at 3.52.9 Ga), and Yilgarn Cratons
(main population at 2.72.6 Ga). The zircon
populations of East Java are similar (Smyth et
al., 2007). The similarities are suggested to
indicate a Gondwana continental fragment at
depth, which rifted from Australia during the
Late Jurassic and collided with Sundaland,
resulting in the termination of Cretaceous
subduction. Continental crust was therefore
present at depth beneath the arc in south Java
when Cenozoic subduction began in the Eocene.
Australian-origin continental crust has also been
suggested to underlie parts of the southern
Makassar Straits and East Java Sea between
Kalimantan and Java based on basement rocks
encountered in exploration wells (Manur and
Barraclough, 1994). Offshore seismic data
suggest there may be similar crust both to the
north beneath the Java Sea (Emmet et al., 2009;
Granath et al., 2011) and south of East Java
(Deighton et al., 2011). In the Java Sea there is a
broadly horizontal regional unconformity at the
base of a Cenozoic section and beneath it are
synforms containing up to 510 km of section
which Granath et al. (2011) suggest is of
Precambrian to PermianTriassic age. South of
Java the Cenozoic section is about 2 seconds
TWT thick and there is a broadly flat-lying
sequence of more than 4 seconds TWT beneath
which Deighton et al. (2011) and Nugraha and
Hall (2012) suggest is Mesozoic or older.
West SulawesiSumba
More continental crust lies outboard of the
Meratus Mountains of Borneo. Several authors
(e.g. Wakita et al., 1996; Parkinson et al., 1998;
van Leeuwen et al., 2007) have suggested that
Gondwana continental fragments were
accreted to Sundaland in the Cretaceous in SE
Kalimantan, western and south Sulawesi within
the region interpreted by Hamilton (1979) to be
melange. Jurassic ammonites and bivalves
reported from South Sulawesi (Sukamto et al.,
1990; Sukamto and Westermann 1993) also
suggest an Australian continental fragment. In
some areas the basement is now dated, and it is
clearly not melange. In these areas and
elsewhere in western Sulawesi there is evidence
from inherited zircons, and from chemical
characteristics of Cenozoic igneous rocks, of
underlying continental basement (Priadi et al.,
1993, 1994; Bergman et al., 1996; Polv et al.,
1997, 2001; Elburg and Foden, 1999; Elburg et
al., 2003).
Geochemistry and palaeomagnetism suggest
that Sumba formed part of the Sundaland
margin by the Late Cretaceous (Abdullah et al.,
2000; Wensink, 1994). 3He/4He ratios suggest
that Australian continental crust was involved in
genesis of magmas throughout the inner Banda
arc from the Banda Ridges to Flores (Hilton et
al., 1992). Interpreting all these areas of
continental crust as part of a single block may
be an over-simplification. There are blueschists
and other high pressure-low temperature
metamorphic rocks known from inliers in South
Sulawesi (Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982;
Miyazaki et al., 1996, 1998; Parkinson et al.,
1998; Maulana et al., 2010) suggesting sutures
between blocks. Neogene potassic volcanics in
SW Sulawesi do not show the Australian
continental isotopic signatures shown by similar
volcanic rocks further north in Sulawesi (Elburg
et al., 2003) which also could indicate an
underlying suture.
SabahNW Sulawesi
Further north, Plio-Pleistocene basalts and
basaltic andesites from the Semporna peninsula
of southern Sabah have isotopic characteristics
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that suggest an ancient, possibly Archaean,
component is present in the Sabah crust
(Macpherson et al., 2010). The western part of
the north arm of Sulawesi includes
Carboniferous granites (van Leeuwen et al.,
2007) associated with medium to high grade
quartzo-feldspathic mica schists and gneisses of
the Malino Complex, and in the neck are
Permo-Triassic granites within the Palu
Metamorphic Complex (van Leeuwen and
Mujardho, 2005). Before Eocene opening of the
Celebes Sea south Sabah and NW Sulawesi
would have been closer together. The zircon
age populations of older metamorphic and
granitoid rocks of NW Sulawesi are similar to
the Birds Head of New Guinea suggesting an
Australian origin (Hennig, 2014).
The Woyla Arc and Sumatra Fragments
Wajzer et al. (1991) and Barber (2000)
interpreted the Woyla Group as a Late Jurassic
Early Cretaceous intra-oceanic arc and
accretionary complex which became sutured to
Sumatra by closure of a Tethyan ocean. It was
initiated in the Late Jurassic and was accreted
to Sumatra at about 90 Ma. Cameron et al.
(1980) postulated that the western portion of
the Woyla Arc overlies an older continental
block which they named the Sikuleh Continental
Fragment based on a clastic succession of
quartzites, grey phyllites and metasiltstones
beneath the arc, and granites, Tertiary rhyolites
and Mo-bearing breccia pipes that cut the arc.
Pulunggono and Cameron (1984) proposed that
the Natal block was another continental
fragment for which the evidence was less
conclusive and based largely on the presence
of granites that intrude the Woyla Arc. These
blocks were suggested to have been fragments
rifted from Sundaland or exotic fragments
accreted to it. Metcalfe (1996) suggested they
were continental fragments of NW Australian
origin. However, Barber (2000) and Barber and
Crow (2005) reviewed these proposals and
concluded that there is no convincing evidence
for any microcontinental blocks accreted to the
margin of Sundaland in the Cretaceous. They
interpreted the Sikuleh and Natal fragments as
part of the Woyla intra-oceanic arc.
Sarawak and Semitau
Undated schists of Sarawak (e.g. Tate, 1991;
Hutchison, 2005) have been assumed to be
Palaeozoic. Their age has been inferred from
nearby unmetamorphosed limestones of
Permo-Carboniferous age with fossils of
Cathaysian characteristics (Fontaine, 1990).
There is good evidence for a Cathaysian origin
of the limestones and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks (see Hutchison, 2005, for review) in
Sarawak. There are also Triassic sedimentary
rocks in Sarawak containing a fossil flora with
Asian affinities (Vozenin-Serra, 1977). Hutchison
(2005) reviewed the paleontological evidence
from the Sadong and Serian Formations of
Sarawak and concluded that in the Triassic they
were probably located in east Vietnam, or close
by, further supporting a Cathaysian origin for
west Sarawak. Some younger rocks in Sarawak
and NW Kalimantan may also have Cathaysian
affinities.
The metamorphic rocks were interpreted as a
Palaeozoic basement overlain by Permo-
Carboniferous and Triassic sedimentary rocks
(e.g. Hutchison, 2005) accreted to Sundaland
during the Sarawak orogeny (Hutchison, 1996a).
They had been correlated with the Pinoh
metamorphics which were also undated but
assumed to be Triassic or older. However, the
correlations into the Schwaner Mountains of
SW Borneo were made across the Lupar Line
(Tan, 1979), which represents a major suture
(e.g. Haile, 1973; Williams et al., 1988), and/or
the tectonic melange of the Boyan Zone. As
summarised above the Pinoh metamorphics are
now known to be Cretaceous. Metcalfe (2011a)
suggests all these rocks could be part of a small
Semitau continental block sandwiched between
the Lupar and Boyan melanges. This is
supported by reports of Triassic metatonalites
from NW Kalimantan (Setiawan et al., 2013).
Luconia and Dangerous Grounds
The area east of the IndochinaEast Malaya
block is submerged at present and is overlain by
Cenozoic rocks, and therefore little is known
about the nature of the crust beneath it. Upper
Triassic deltaic sandstones with a
Dictyophyllum-Clathropteris flora and
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Figure 10. A schematic model for the PermianTriassic subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean and the Sibumasu
East Malaya collision from Sevastjanova et al. (2011), modified from Metcalfe (2011) and based on Metcalfe (2000,
2009), Sone and Metcalfe (2008) and Barber and Crow (2009). This model identifies two distinct PermianTriassic
magmatic episodes in the Eastern Province produced from different sources. Permian crustal-derived granitoids
intruded into the East Malaya Block were most likely subduction-related, whereas Triassic mixed crustal- and
mantle-derived Eastern Province granitoids were emplaced along the faults. The Sukhothai Arc is interpreted as an
arc built on a continental sliver. BRSZ BentongRaub Suture Zone.
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Cretaceous metamorphic rocks dredged from
the Dangerous Grounds in the South China Sea
(Kudrass et al., 1986) suggest that this area
includes rocks of Cathaysian origin (e.g. Hall et
al., 2009; Hall, 2011, 2012) similar to those of
Sarawak (Hutchison, 2005).
Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous igneous rocks
are abundant in SE China (e.g. Jahn et al., 1976;
Li, 2000; Wu et al., 2005), near Hong Kong
(Davis et al., 1997; Sewell et al., 2000), and in
the South China Sea (e.g. Li and Li, 2007). Jahn
et al. (1976) interpreted Cretaceous granitoids
of SE Asia as products of west-directed Pacific
subduction. Other authors have argued for an
extensional tectonic setting in SE China,
because of widely-developed metamorphic core
complexes, common A-type granitoids, and
alkaline rocks (e.g. Li, 2000; Wu et al., 2005).
The two interpretations may not be
incompatible. Based on geophysical data, Zhou
et al. (2008) traced a JurassicEarly Cretaceous
subduction complex south from Taiwan along
the present northern margin of the South China
Sea. They interpret this subduction complex to
have been displaced to Palawan by opening of
the South China Sea. The Early Cretaceous
granitoids (Nguyen et al., 2004; Thuy et al.,
2004) continue southwards into east Vietnam. It
is notable that there are no Cretaceous
granitoids younger than 80 Ma in the area
suggesting a major tectonic change at about
this time.
The various igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks dredged offshore were
interpreted by Hall et al. (2009) and Hall (2012)
to be part of a LuconiaDangerous Grounds
block. They resemble those on land in Sarawak
which typically form very small exposures
without observable contacts with other rocks.
There are also many reasons to doubt a single
event with collision of a Luconia block during a
Sarawak orogeny postulated by Hutchison
(1996a), as discussed by Hall (2012) and Hall
and Sevastjanova (2012). It here considered
more likely that the metamorphic rocks are not
a Palaeozoic basement but instead that
Sarawak, the offshore LuconiaDangerous
Grounds areas, and Palawan are underlain by a
wide accretionary complex, including
ophiolitic/arc rocks, metamorphic rocks and
Cathaysian sedimentary rocks, of different ages,
which represent an active subduction/
accretionary continental margin that formed
the AsiaPacific plate boundary from the
Triassic to the early Late Cretaceous.
RECONSTRUCTIONS
The present western part of the region, mainly
in Malaysia and Sumatra, is the oldest part of
the Sundaland continent and was assembled in
the Late Palaeozoic and Triassic as described by
Metcalfe (2011a, b). Fig. 10 shows a series of
schematic cross sections from Sevastjanova et
al. (2011) illustrating this development and
incorporating modifications to the granite
plutonic magmatic history based on zircon
studies. After the Late Triassic amalgamation of
IndochinaEast Malaya, the Sukhothai Arc and
Sibumasu (Fig. 11) much of western Sundaland
became emergent. Mesozoic terrestrial
deposits are not extensive (except in northern
Sundaland from the Khorat to the Lanping
Siamo fold belt region) but are found
throughout Sundaland; Mesozoic marine
deposits are rare.
From the Triassic onwards there was west-
directed subduction of Pacific plates at the East
Asian margin until the early Late Cretaceous.
This formed the accretionary complex that
underlies Sarawak, the offshore Luconia
Dangerous Grounds areas, and probably
Palawan, on the NE side of Sundaland. From the
Jurassic onwards much of Indochina southwards
through the Thai-Malay Peninsula and parts of
the present Sunda Shelf as far south as Sumatra
was an emergent area of land, probably largely
surrounded by subduction zones, implying that
the margins included volcanoes and mountains.
The limited geological record that is preserved
suggests that most of the interior of this region
was the site of deposition of terrestrial clastic
sediments during the Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous (Abdullah, 2009; Racey and Goodall,
2009; Clements et al., 2011).
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Figure 11. Late Triassic reconstruction based on Hall (2012) and Metcalfe (2011a) showing the position of West
Burma and blocks that later separated from the northern Australian margin in the Jurassic. EJ-WS: East Java-West
Sulawesi = Argo; SWB: SW Borneo = Banda; S-NWS: Sabah-NW Sulawesi = Inner Banda.

Hall et al. (2009) and Hall (2011, 2012)
interpreted SW Borneo as a Banda block and
crust beneath eastern Sabah and NW Sulawesi
as a small Inner Banda block. These fragments
separated from Australia in the Jurassic, leaving
the Banda oceanic embayment south of a
continental promontory, the Sula Spur (Klomp,
1954). East JavaWest Sulawesi is interpreted
to be the Argo block that prior to separation
from Australia formed the offshore
continuation of the Canning Basin, whose
detrital sediments provided Archean and
Proterozoic zircons now found in East Java. This
interpretation is consistent with the evidence
for the Australian origin of these fragments
outlined above and the age of rifting on the NW
Shelf (Pigram and Panggabean 1984; Powell et
al., 1988; Fullerton et al., 1989; Robb et al.,
2005).
Fig. 12 shows the movement of these blocks
northward and their progressive addition to the
Sundaland margin based on Hall et al. (2009)
and Hall (2011, 2012). SW Borneo accreted to
Sundaland in the Early Cretaceous between
about 115 and 110 Ma along the Billiton
lineament that runs south from the Natuna area
(Ben-Avraham and Emery, 1973). The East Java
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Figure 12. Reconstructions at 150, 110, 90 and 50 Ma, modified from Hall (2012). A is Argo which became East
Java-West Sulawesi (EJ-WS); Ba is Banda which became SW Borneo (SWB); IB is Inner Banda which became Sabah-
NW Sulawesi (S-NWS). Luc-DG is the Luconia and Dangerous Ground blocks which formed in a wide accretionary
complex that existed at the East Asian-Pacific subduction margin from the Late Triassic to the early Late
Cretaceous.

West Sulawesi block and Sabah-NW Sulawesi
block were added to SE Asia at about 90 Ma and
the collision is marked by a suture that runs
from West Java through the Meratus Mountains
northwards (Hamilton, 1979; Parkinson et al.,
1998). At the same time as this collision, the
Woyla intra-oceanic arc collided with the
Sumatran margin of western Sundaland (Barber
et al., 2005).
Clements et al. (2011) suggested that the
termination of subduction in the early Late
Cretaceous contributed to widespread uplift of
Sundaland, marked by a major regional
unconformity. This was the final stage in the
formation of the Sundaland continent. Rocks
below the unconformity are Cretaceous or
older, and above are Eocene or younger,
representing a time gap of more than 80 million
years (Clements et al., 2011). Most of
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Sundaland was an emergent region, and
mountainous, supported by the presence of
Laurasian conifer pollen (Muller, 1968) in
Sarawak sandstones, from the Late Cretaceous
to Middle Eocene. The few rocks of this age that
are preserved, notably in Sarawak and NW
Kalimantan, are predominantly terrestrial clastic
sediments deposited by rivers, except at the
extreme margins of Sundaland in Sarawak,
Sabah, West Sulawesi, and probably offshore
East Java, where there are poorly dated deep
marine clastic deposits. A prolonged period of
emergence and multiple episodes of recycling
of older rocks is suggested by the quartz-rich
compositions and textural maturity of the
oldest sediments in the many Cenozoic
sedimentary basins that formed from the
Eocene, which contain the hydrocarbon
resources of Sundaland (Hall, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
Sundaland grew to be the continental core of SE
Asia in two main phases: the PermianTriassic,
and the Cretaceous. It was assembled mainly
from continental crust from Gondwana, with
Mesozoic additions of Cathaysian crust in the
NE. The complex character of the basement,
with numerous continental fragments
separated by suture zones, is one of the factors
influencing its Cenozoic development. Another
factor is the long history of subduction which
led to a weak and thin lithosphere and lower
crust, although within the collage of fragments
are strong, cold areas of thick lithosphere.
Recent discoveries based on dating Sundaland
igneous and metamorphic rocks have shown
that many established interpretations require
significant revision.
Acknowledgements
Many of our new ideas about Sundaland are
based on research by students and post-
doctoral members of the SE Asia Research
Group at Royal Holloway, which has been
supported over many years by a consortium of
oil companies. In addition, we have received
support from the University of London Central
Research Fund, the Natural Environment
Research Council, and the Royal Society. In SE
Asia we have been greatly aided by colleagues
from Pusat Survei Geologi Bandung, Lemigas,
Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, University of Malaya,
University Malaysia Sabah, and the Mineral and
Geoscience Department of Malaysia and
Sarawak. I thank many colleagues, friends and
students in the UK, Europe and SE Asia for help
and discussion.
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