SECTION 18

Environmentally Friendly Lubricants

Peter Wissner, CLS, OMA II - Univar Canada Ud.

Introduction

The first lubricants used by man were completely environmentally friendly. Water was used to wet grinding
stones, allowing higher quality work to be done more quickly. Improvements to water as a lubricant soon
followed with the use of vegetable oils and animal tallows. Their use was expanded to simple machinery
where the improved lubricity provided better operation. There is evidence that the ancient Egyptians used
grease made with animal tallow oils to lubricate their chariot axles. Vegetable oils and tallow remained the
only lubricants until the discovery of petroleum oils in the late 1800's. Once it was realized that superior
lubricants could be refined from crude petroleum, vegetable and animal oils were rapidly displaced.

Not until recently, due to increasing concem regarding the effect of the release of petroleum oils into our
environment, have we begun to re-investigate the use of vegetable oils. It is estimated that of the
approximately 24 million tonnes of engine oil consumed annually worldwide, between 15 and 35 percent is
leaked 01' disposed of in an unknown manner. Due to their high polarity, natural ester oils crushed from
castor beans have been used for many years in two-stroke cycle engine oils. Their use was not
environmental, though the oxygenated ester provided cleaner combustion resulting in lower emissions. The
performance of castor oil use paved the way for other ester-based lubricants to be developed.

Rapeseed and canola oil are the most common, natural base oils for enviromnentally friendly industrial
1ubricants. Along with these natural seed oils, polyalkyl glycol (PAG) fluids have been used for many years
in applications close to water where their good solubility leads to rapid dissipation of the harmful
concentrations of oil, Synthetic ester based lubricants are now gaining popularity and usage due to their high
biodegradability, good lubricity, thennal and hydrolytic stability and low temperature flow. Despite the
increased initial cost, biodegradable, low-toxicity lubricants are alrcady experiencing increasing usage in
hydraulics (especially mobile equipment working in sensitive areas), hydroelectric turbines, rail-wheel flange
lubrication and forestry industry applications. Their use is much more prevalent in the European community,
but is steadily increasing in North America.

Environmentally Friend1y

In developing and selecting environmentally friendly lubricants, we need to consider four main aspects of
their performance and properties. To be considered environmentally friendly, lubricants must firstly have
relative1y low toxicity. Secondly, they should be biodegradable 01' at the least non-bioaccumulative. Thirdly,
they should be acceptable from an occupational health and safety point of view. Nonnally if a fluid is non-
toxic and biodegradab1e, it is unlikely that it would have OH&S problems. Finally, the lubricant must
provide acceptable and cost effective performance in application.

The ASTM has recently published a "Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for Enviromnentallmpact"
(ASTM D6046) which defines levels of environrnental friendliness based on biodegradability, toxicity and
environmental persistence. It covers unused fully formulated hydraulic oils. The standard separates classes
210 SECTlON 18
into three groups of four. Category P for environmental persistence, Category T for Ecotoxicity and
Category B for bioaccumulation are all further divided into categories Pw (Fresh water), Pm (Marine), Ps
(Soil) and Pa (Anaerobic). Currently, the bioaccumulation c!assifications are undefined and only the Fresh
Water environmental persistence, Pw category is defined.

The environmental persistence category is divided into Pwl, Pw2, Pw3 and Pw4 depending on the rate of
biodegradation. The ASTM D5864, ISO 9429:1990, OECD 301B, C or F, US EPA 560/6-82-003 and EUC
C.4-C or D tests are all suitable ultimate biodegradation tests for c!assification purposes. The CEC L-33-
A934 test is suitable as a primary biodegradation test and can be used to classify an hydraulic oil as Pw-C
(greaterthan 80% bioodegradable in 21 days).

The ecotoxicity c!assifications are separated into Soil and Water and also have four sub-classes with varying
results from a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate, soil and water toxicity tests. The ASTM D6046
method provides a detailed list of these tests.

The ASTM c!assification method uses biodegradation rates and toxicity as the primary parameters for
c!assification. These two important properties of environmentally friendly fluids are discussed next.

What Is Biodegradation

Almost any fluid that contains carbon is ultimately biodegradable, as it will eventually be converted into
carbon dioxide and water, by the action of biological organisms in soil and water. Typical mineral and
synthetic based oils are biodegradable. They do, however, require long periods oftime to be digested. To be
considered truly environmentally friendly, the fluid must be readily biodegradable. The term readily
biodegradable is now generally accepted to mean that the fluid is greater than 60% biodegradable within 28
days. Though there are, as yet, no universal specifications or standards for biodegradability, there are several
methods available to determine the extent to which fluids are biodegradable. Before discussing the
evaluation and c!assification methods, a brief description ofthe process ofbiodegradation is presented.

Biodegradation is the breakdown of a substance by naturally occurring bacteria in soil and water. Ultimately,
hydrocarbons are broken down into carbon dioxide and water. In order for the bacteria to consume the oil
several important conditions must exist. The three major factors affecting biodegradation are the bacteria
population, presence of adequate oxygen and a suitable ambient temperature. The oil itself is the food source
for the bacteria and, in order to maintain a reasonable rate of biodegradation, there must be an excess of
oxygen present. The bacteria are most active within a temperature range of lOto 30C. At temperatures
below 10C bacteria activity slows and they become virtually inactive below 5C. Temperatures aboye 50C
kili most bacteria, sterilizing the environment and limiting biodegradation. Other factors in biodegradation
inc!ude fluid viscosity, influence of sunlight, pH value, availability of mineral salts, availability of nitrogen
and water solubility. The rate at which a spilled fluid will be converted to innocuous materials in real life
will vary considerably with all of the aboye variables. Standard methods were developed to allow consistent
comparison ofbiodegradation rates.

The three most common methods of biodegradability testing are the CEC L-33-A94, US EPA 560/6-82-003
"Shake Flask" test and the OECD 301 series ofmethods. A fourth ASTM method (ASTM D5864 "Aerobic
Aquatic Biodegradation ofLubricants or their Components") is gaining favour in North America. Ofthese,
only the CEC and ASTM methods were specifically designed to analyze the biodegradation of lubricants.

SECTION 18 211
The CEC L-33-A93 method measures the biodegradation rate of two-cycle engine oils and was developed to
monitor the lakes of Switzerland. It involves adding a sample of oil to an open container of water, natural
salts and an unacclimated sewage inoculum. The biodegradation rate is determined by analyzing an infrared
spectrum at 21 days and comparing the level of hydrocarbons with the initial signature. A result of greater
than 70% hydrocarbon removal is considered acceptable and the fluid is regarded as "readily biodegradable".
The CEC method is criticized because it bases the biodegradation on a single hydrocarbon group and may not
give realistic results for the wide array ofhydrocarbons present in lubricating oils.

The EPA method uses a stoppered flask containing the sample, water, and both sewage and soil inoculum.
The flask is shaken for 28 days and the amount of carbon dioxide produced is used as the measure of the
biodegradability of the oil sample. The minimum passing result for this test is a 60% conversion of sample to
carbon dioxide. A comparison of typical biodegradation rates using these two methods is given in Table 18.1
(4). The method appears to be more stringent, particularly where polyglycol fluids are concerned.

Table 18.1 - Biodegradation ofOils Using the CEC and EPA Methods

Base Fluid EPA Biodegradability CEC Biodegradability

MineralOil 42-48% 20 -40%
Vegetable Oil 72 - 80% 90- 98%
Polyglycol 6-38% N/A
Synthetic Ester 55 - 84% 90 - 100%

The OECD methods are designed for fluids that are miscible in water. They are, therefore, not as relevant for
the water-immiscible oils typically used in industriallubricants. The methods are similar to the other two in
that they involve the mixing of the oil sample with water and bacteria from sewage sludge. The
biodegradation is detennined either by COz evolution or by measuring the dissolved hydrocarbon content or
the biological oxygen demand during the process. Greater than 60% biodegradability in 28 days is
considered acceptable using the OECD methods.

The ASTM D5864 "Standard Test Method for Detennining Aerobic Aquatic Biodegradation of Lubricants
or their Components" was published in 1995. It uses the results from ASTM D5291 to determine the total
carbon in the sample and uses this value to calculate the theoretical COz evolution from the sample. The test
itself is a shake flask test carried out at 20C to 25C for 28 days. The amount of COz evolved is measured
and compared with the theoretical value.

Laboratory biodegradation study allows the comparison of the relative biodegradability of fluids under
controlled conditions using standard methods. The real measure of biodegradability can only be determined
in realistic spill conditions. The Raiso Company of Finland compared the biodegradability of mineral and
vegetable oils. Ten liters of each were poured on the ground and the oil concentrations were monitored
regularly to a depth of 15 centimeters. In six to seven weeks the rapeseed oil had disappeared completely
while 20% of the mineral oil remained in the soil after a period of 16 weeks. This test is a prime example of
the decrease in harmful effects with environmentally friendly fluids.

Toxicity

212 SECTION 18
The second and equally important aspect of environmentally friendly fluids is the question of toxicity.
Although these fluids are rapidly degraded, while they are present their toxic effects to the flora and fauna
must be minimal. Two cornmon tests used to evaluate toxicity are the Micro-tox and rainbow trout
bioassays. The Micro-tox analysis evaluates the effect of the sample on photosensitive bacteria. It provides
information on the microorganisms in soil and water that form the foundation of plant and aquatic life. It is,
however, only semi-quantitative and very dependent upon the bacteria species used.

The most common toxicity test is the 96 hour Rainbow trout bioassay. In this test the concentration of oil
that causes 50% mortality (LC-50 or Lethal Concentration) in a population of trout after 96 hours is
established. Rainbow trout are used due to their greater susceptibility to toxic substances. Acceptable levels
for enviromnentally friendly fluids are concentrations of greater than 1000 ppm (0.1%). The higher the LC-
50 the lower the toxicity of the product. In addition to this test, the ASTM D6046 c!assification lists 25 other
tests that may be used for c!assification purposes. The choice of tests should be made depending on the most
likely type of flora or fauna that a spill ofthe fluid would contact.

Phyto-toxicity or plant toxicity tests are also available to determine the effects of oil contamination on plant
seed germination. Oil spills on soil away from water courses are considerably easier to contain and c!ean up
than those in or near water. In moist clay soil the migration of oil can be as slow as I centimeter per year
allowing easy containment. Due to the rapid spread of oils in aquatic environments compared with soil,
aquatic toxicity testing is more critical and more widely reported.

Base Oil Chemistry

By far the most common vegetable oil base in industriallubricants is rapeseed oil. Vegetable oils are natural
esters. An ester is a hydrocarbon formed by the reaction of an alcohol with a fatty acid (see Fig. 18.1).

Figure 18.1
o
11
H2COH H2 C 0 C C17H33
I I
HCOH + 3 C17H33COOH 0> HC 0 CO C17H33 +3H20
I I
H2COH H2 C 0 C C17H33
11
O
Alcohol + Fatty acids _O> Canola oil + Water

In rapeseed and canola oils the alcohol is always glycerol and the fatty acid can be a combination of sorne of
the fatty acids listed in Table 18.2 (this incomplete list contains common fatty acids).

sscrton 18 213
Table 18.2 Common Fatty Acids in Natural Esters

Saturated Fatty Acids Unsaturated Fatty Acids

(Fats - solid at room temperature) (Oils - Liquid at room temperature)
Lauric acid (CllH23COOH) Oleic acid (C 17H33COOH)
Myristic acid (CI3H27COOH) Linoleic acid (C17H31COOH)
Palmitic acid (ClsH31COOH) Linolenic acid (C 17H29COOH)
Stearic acid (C17H3SCOOH) Eleostearic acid (C17H29COOH)

Esters made using saturated fatty acids have better thermal stability than those made with unsaturated fatty
acids. Unfortunately, saturated fatty acids tend to be solids at room temperature. Rapeseed plants have been
genetically altered to contain more saturated acids and fewer of the highly unsaturated acids that are
detrimental to thermal and long term stability. Canola oil is a special variety of rapeseed that contains a very
low level of erucic acid. The more unsaturated an ester is, the more double bonds in its structure and the
poorer its thermal stability is. It is therefore preferable to have more oleic acid than Iinoleic or linolenic acid.
Double bonds are more prone to breakdown from thermal or oxidative stress. The almost 30% linoleic and
linolenic acid in canola oil is detrimental to its thermal stability. This poorer stability can be improved
through the use of appropriate anti-oxidation additives.

In the same way vegetable oils are natural esters made from alcohol (glycerol) and fatty acids, synthetic
esters can also be manufactured by reacting alcohols with fatty acids. Instead of glycerol, branched alcohols
with more favourable properties can be reacted with pure oleic acid feed (no linoleic or linolenic acid) to
produce a synthetic ester with better performance characteristics. This reaction is shown in Figure 18.2.

Figure 18.2
o
11
H2-C-OH H2- C -O- C - C17H33
I I
C2H5 -C-CH20H + 3 alele Aelds --> C2H5-C-CH2-0-CO - C17H33 + 3 H20
I I
H2-C-OH H2- C -0- C - C17H33
11
O
Alcohol + Oleic Acids --> Synthetic ester + Water

The use of purer oleic acid feed improves the thermal and oxidative stability of the synthetic ester compared
with natural ester canola oil. The branched alcohol feed improves cold flow properties and eliminates the
Beta-proton elimination reaction that reverses the esterification reaction producing carboxylic acids that are
detrimental to metals, seals and fluid stability.

Hydrolytic and Pyrolytic Degradation

It can be seen in Figures 18.1 and 18.2 that water is a product of both natural and synthetic esterification
reactions. The presence of water in either synthetic or natural esters causes the reaction to become partly
214 SEcnON 18
 reversible. Hydrolysis occurs when water (usually with heat and a catalyst) causes the reaction to reverse.
The ester bond breaks to form the initial alcohol and fatty acid. The reaction can be hindered somewhat in
synthetic fluids by carefully selecting branched alcohols. The extra bonds increase the overall molecular
stability reducing the increased acidic formation. If they are not inhibited, carboxylic acids formed by
hydrolysis can seriously corrode sorne metal bearings, affect seals and shorten the life ofthe fluid.

Certain ester compounds do not require the presence of water or a catalyst to break the ester bonds. "When
an ester containing a beta proton in the alcohol portion is heated the alkene and carboxylic acid are formed"
(7). The beta proton is a single, positively charged hydrogen atom located on the second or beta carbon in the
alcohol. In the canola oil esterification reaction in Figure # 1 the middle carbon in glycerol is bonded to a
single hydrogen atom or "beta-proton''.

This beta-proton is prone to elimination (separation from the molecular structure). When it is released the
middle carbon to oxygen bond is weakened and the hydrogen and C-O reunite forming a carboxylic acid,
The progression ofthe reaction is given in the Appendix. After the beta-hydrogen is eliminated it is replaced
with one of the alpha-hydrogen atoms and a new beta-proton elimination reaction can take place. Increased
acidity of the oil results from the formation of new carboxylic acids. These acids can promote corrosion,
l. cause vamishing and decrease the long term stability of the fluid.
!
1 It can be seen in Figure 18.3 that the synthetic ester does not contain the beta-proton present in rapeseed and
canola oils. In the alcohol group the hydrogen is replaced with a C2Hs carbon chain, The replacement of the
hydrogen atom by a carbon chain greatly increases the stability ofthe molecule. The beta-proton elimination
reaction does not take place. The fluid remains stable and the formation of carboxylic acids that can increase
corros ion, vamish and fluid degradation does not take place.

Figure 18.3

H2-C-O-CO - R1 H2-C- o-ca - R1

f I
H-C- o-ca - R2 C2H5 -C- o-ca - R2
I I
H2-C-O-CO - R3 H2-C-O-CO-R3

Natural Ester Synthetic Ester

with Beta-proton Beta-proton replaced with C2H s

Fluid Properties

When developing lubricants, certain performance criteria and fluid properties must be considered. They
include the lubricity of the fluid, its viscosity, flow and cold pour characteristics, thermal and oxidative
stability, corrosivity and compatibility.

AlI three common environmentally friendly fluids have inherently good lubricity, The polar nature of the
fluids provides greater affinity for metal surfaces providing better lubricity than non-polar mineral oils.
Natural and synthetic esters have excellent lubricity while that of polyglycols is lower but still better than
mineral oils. Their inherent lubricity allows lower lubricity and anti-wear additive content. Since additives
are usually more toxic than the base fluids, this further improves the environmental acceptability of these
fluids.
SECTION 18 215
Polyglycols, natural and synthetic ester fluids also have excelIent viscous properties. Their viscosity indexes
are greater than 150 compared with mineral oil VI's of approximately 100. The high viscosity index alIows
for a wider operating temperature range and improved lubrication due to reduced fluid thinning at elevated
temperatures. Cold temperature flow is a concern when natural esters are used. Rapeseed has a typical pour
point of -20C. Through the use of pour point additives this can be depressed to _30 or slightly lower. Low
molecular weight polyglycols have low pour points alIowing use to temperatures of -45C. As the molecular
weight of polyglycols increases their pour points increase and biodegradability decrease. Synthetic esters
have excelIent low temperature fluidity and certain types can be used to extremely low temperatures.

Both polyglycol and synthetic ester fluids have very good thermal and oxidative stability. They are very pure
synthetic fluids and can be specificalIy synthesized to provide excelIent stability. As explained previously,
they can be made from carefulIy selected branched aleohols and saturated fatty acids. The upper operating
temperature limits for synthetic fluids can be 90C for polyglycols and 120C for synthetic esters. Rapeseed
oils have lower limits with respect to their thermal and oxidative stability. They have a practical upper
operating temperature limit of 80C and their effective service lives are lower than synthetics or petroleum
oils, especialIy as the temperature increases. Polyglycol fluids are especialIy tolerant of water contamination
since they are completely miscible with water. Rapeseed oils and synthetic esters are more susceptible to
hydrolytic splitting when water and elevated temperature exist in the system. The weaker beta-proton in
natural esters makes them especialIy susceptible to increased acidity when water contamination is present.
Synthetic esters are somewhat more stable but not impervious to hydrolytic splitting. It is important to limit
water intrusion in any lubricated system but especialIy so for these fluids.

AlI three classes of environmentally friendly fluids are nonnalIy non-corrosive to components within
lubricated systems. Sorne corrosion inhibitors for petroleum oils have acceptable toxicity and are also
soluble in rapeseed and synthetic ester base oils. Polyglycols can be inhibited using specific, low-toxicity
water soluble metalworking fluid additives. Corrosion only becomes a concern when the thermal and
oxidative breakdown of the fluids and contamination cause increased acidity in the oil.

The main drawback in the use of polyglycol fluids is their incompatibility with common mineral and
synthetic fluids, They have somewhat poorer additive solubility with many common petroleum lubricants
and require special additive chemistries. Synthetic ester and rapeseed fluids are compatible with mineral and
synthetic hydrocarbon fluids. With the exception of high detergent diesel engine oils, no operational
problems are anticipated should thc fluid be contaminated with mineral based oils. It was reported by Cheng
et al. (1) that in the presence of water, diesel engine oil contamination can result in additive dropout causing
filter plugging. It must also be understood that any contamination of environmentalIy acceptable fluids will
also have an adverse effect on the biodegradability and toxicity of the products. AlI three fluids can be
expected to have a greater effect on typical elastomeric seal materials. Due to their polar nature they are
expected to cause swelIing of nitrile and neoprene rubbers. The effects can be controlIed and fluorocarbon
seal materials are available that are very resistant to these fluids.

Applications

EnvironmentalIy friendly fluids are preferred, and in some areas required, where the accidental release of
these fluids can cause a significant adverse effect to the eco-system. In North America environmentally
friendly fluids have been accepted and are used in hydraulic systems operating in sensitive areas and as chain
bar fluids in the forestry industry. No other applications ofbiodegradable fluids are widespread, though their
performance is being evaluated and tested in a variety of equipment.
216 SECTION 18
Apart from the hydraulic and chain bar applications, biodegradable f1uids show significant promise in hydro-
electric and thermal power generation plants due to their intimate connection to water. Turbine oils and
biodegradable greases are two specific products being evaluated by the hydro-electric and thermal power
industry. The forest industry uses environmentally friendly chain bar oils and has expanded the use of
biodegradable lubricants to the milis where the saw blades and guides require lubrication. Interest is also
growing among the railroad cornmunity to replace current trackside lubricators with biodegradable greases
used to lubricate the wheel f1ange/rail gauge face interface.

Conclusion
The development of environmentally friendly lubricants is expected to continue to grow as industry and
govemment regulations in North America catch up with those in Europe, where the use of these lubricants is
already widespread. The technology currently available can provide adequate, and in sorne cases superior,
lubrication performance in many environmentally sensitive applications. There are many potential
applications in which biodegradable lubricants can perform comparably to current petrochemical f1uids.

Since there is a limited available supply of biodegradable base f1uids in the market today, and their costs are
typically higher than for mineral oils, it is preferable that biodegradable f1uids be applied in those areas where
the impact from spills of mineral products is the greatest and those areas where the biodegradable f1uids have
the best chance for performance success.

References

1) Cheng, V.M. et al., "Biodegradable and Nontoxic Hydraulic Oils", Mobil Oil Corp.
2) Environment Canada, "Final Report - Technical Briefing Note, Vegetable Oil Lubricants",
November,1993
3) Jamieson, S., "Slippery Sawguide Solutions", Canadian Wood Products, July/August 1995.
4) Makkonen, 1., "Environmentally Compatible Oils", Forest Engineering Research Institute of
Canada, June 1994.
5) Mang, Dr. T., "Environmentally Harmless Lubricants", NLGI Spokesman, September, 1993.
6) Wessol, A.A and Whitacre, B., "Operating Hydraulics on 'Green' Fluids", Machine Design,
January 22, 1993.
7) Zumdahl, S., "Chemistry", D.C. Heath & Ca., 1986

SEcnON 18 217
APPENDIX

H-CH-O-CO- R H-CH-O-CO- R
1 I
H+- -C-O -CO - R, => H+ < ----C -o -CO - R, =>
1 1

H-CH -O-CO - R3 H-CH-O-CO- R3

Canola Oil Beta Proton is removed by heat

H H
I 1

H...C-O-CO-R ... C-O-CO- R

1 1

H -C-O-CO-R, => H - C...O - CO - R, =>

1 I
H -C-O -CO- R3 H -C-O .co- R3
I 1

H H

The Beta (2nd) carbon attracts the The electron shift to the left side of the hydrogen from the
carbon above. Beta carbon weakens the C-O bond. The R2-COO group breaks off, reacts with the
removed Beta proton and forms carboxylic acid.

H
1

C-O-CO-R
R,COOH
11

H-C +
1
(Carboxylic Acid)
H - C - O - CO - R,
I
H

A new unsaturated ester is formed which also contains a Beta proton.

The reaction may repeat to fonn another carboxylic acid group.

218 SECTION 18
 SECTIN 19

Solvents and Cleaners

Russ Chambers - Quadra Chemicals Ud.

In general, solvents are classified as substances that can dissolve other materials without changing the
properties of the solvent or the material dissolved. This classification allows us to consider most liguids
as solvents, however, the characteristics of specific solvents dictate how and where they are utilized. This
discussion will be limited to solvents and cleaners used in lubricating oil and grease applications.

A cleaner is a solvent or a formulated solvent' that not only dissolves an unwanted substance (soil) on a
surface, but also keeps the substance in solution when the solvent is removed from the surface.

Solvent Types

There are two major classifications of solvents, organic and inorganic. We will focus mainly on organic
solvents but will discuss water (inorganic) and its uses as a cleaner later.

rganic solvents can be sub-classified into the following categories:

Hydrocarbon - aliphatic and aromatics,

xygenated - alcohols, ketones, esters and glycol ethers,
Halogenated - chlorinated solvents.

Although other types of solvents do exist, these are the rnost commonly used. Sorne factors, which
differentiate these solvents, aside from their chemical composition, are:

Flash point,
Evaporation rate,
Solvency,
Surface tension,
Coupling efficiency,
Toxicity.

Each of these factors needs to be considered when choosing a solvent to use as a cleaner. The most
efficient cleaner is the one that considers all the associated costs including equiprnent, health, safety and
the environment.

Flash Point

The flash point is the temperature at which the vapors of a solvent will ignite when mixed with air and an
ignition source.

I A formulated solvent s a combination of solvents or the addition of a surfactant to a solvent.

SECTIN 19 219
This is an important safety factor when using a solvent in an enclosed area. The production of
combustible vapors can result in an unsafe environment for workers; ventilation should be a major
consideration. The flash point will limit the highest temperature at which a solvent can be safely used.
As a general recommendation, the highest temperature that solvent should be used would be the flash
point minus 20C. If this recommendation cannot be adhered to then extreme caution must be used to
prevent ignition of the vapours.

A low flash point generally indicates a high evaporation rate however; this lS not the case with
halogenated solvents.

The main halogenated solvents being used today include trichloroethylene, methylene chloride and
perchloroethylene. These solvents do not have a flash point but do have a relatively high evaporation
rateo

Oxygenated solvents can have flash points that range from -20C (acetone) to 115C (propylene glycol
phenyl ether) while hydrocarbon solvents usually range from 7C for VM&P (Varnish Makers &
Painters) naphtha to 66C or 150F for aromatic ISO.

Evaporation Rate

The rate at which a liquid solvent turns into a gas is the evaporation rateo The rate is usually expressed as
a comparison. The standard solvent used to compare all others has typically been n-butyl acetate. When
n-butyl acetate is used for comparison it is generally shown as nBuOAc= 1. If a solvent has a faster
evaporation rate. it will be given a number higher than I and likewise a slower rate is given a number less
than 1.

Another solvent used to compare evaporation rates is ether. Ether evaporates much quicker than n-butyl
acetate and when used to compare rates it is also given a standard rate of l. However, when ether is used
to compare evaporation, a higher number indicates a slower rateo

A high evaporation rate can be required where a cleaning system does not have much time for drying or
when rinsing is detrimental to the surface being cleaned.

Evaporation rates vary among the three organic classes of solvents and a solvent selector chart is a useful
tool for selecting a solvent with the desired evaporation rate (solvent selector charts are available from
most solvent manufacturers).

Solvency

The degree to which a solvent can dissolve other materials is called its solvency power. The common
tenn used to describe a liquid's solvency is the Kauri Butanol value/ (KB Value).

A high KB value shows the degree to which a solvent is capable of dissolving other materials and
indicates the total aromatic content of a solvent. Solvents like toluene and xylene have KB values near
lOO and contain 100% aromatics. Aliphatic solvents (such as pentane 01' hexane) have KB values
between 26 and 30. To explain this further, Kauri gum is readily soluble in bntanol but is insoluble in

2 Since theKB value is a measure oftotal aromatics, it can only be related to solvents containing hydrocarbons
220 SECnON 19
hydrocarbons. The kauri-butanol value is a measure of solvent volume required to produce turbidity
(cloudiness) in a solution containing kauri gum dissolved in butano!. Turbidity in this case, shows the
point at which a solvent is no longer miscible.

Surface Tension

Surface tension refers to the intermolecular forces that act near or on the surface of a liquid to give the
surface an elastic-like quality. These forces are usually expressed as Dyne/cm and are dependent upon
temperature.

The lower the surface tension the "wetter" a liquid is said to be. This relates to the ability of a liquid to
spread or penetrate on another surface. This property alone does not necessarily ensure that a solvent will
work well as a cleaner but can be used to fine tune the performance of a cleaner.

Surface tension varies from 22.1 Dyne/cm (isopropyl acetate) to 40.7 Dynelcm (n-methyl-z-pyrrolidone)
and is not associated with one particular type of solvent, although aleohols generally have the lowest
surface tension.

Many surfactants are available to help reduce surface tension and will be discussed in more detail later.

Coupling Efficiency

The ability of a liquid to create micelles or emulsions is referred to as its coupling efficiency. A micelle is
a compound composed usually of two polar components differing in charge or affinity for water.

A micelle can be thought of as a micro-sphere, To be effective as a cleaner, soil must be trapped on the
inside of the sphere. These spheres are also important for combining two solvents that are not miscible.
The resulting blend is called an emulsiono

The coupling efficiency of a solvent is usually only considered when formulating and by itself may not be
indicative of an appropriate solvent, We will consider this factor when we discuss water.

Toxicity

Many solvents can have toxic effects and this fact must be considered before using any solvent for
cleaning.

The areas to consider when discussing toxicity are human exposure and environmental effects. Human
exposure can occur in one ofthe following ways:

Ingestion
Inhalation
Skin contact

Each route of exposure is tested on animals to give a relative estimate of toxicity. The measure of toxicity
for ingestion is called the oral LDSO (lethal dose SO%) and is the quantity of a substance necessary to kill
SO% of a test population. Any substance having an oral LDSO of less than 400mg/kg of body weight is
considered highly toxico Likewise the measure for inhalation is termed the LCSO (lethal concentration
SECTION 19 221
50%) and is the required concentration of a substance in the air to kilI 50% of an animal test population.
Exposure through the skin is usualIy expressed as a descriptive term relating to the degree of irritation.

Sorne solvents have been found to be either mutagens or carcinogens and a material safety data sheet
(MSDS) should always be consulted before using a solvento

The effects solvents have on the environment are becoming key points in legislating how and where a
solvent can be used.

Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions have been scrutinized in recent years and legislation has
been passed in the United States to reduce these emissions into the atmosphere. These compounds can
convert into ground level ozone (smog) by undergoing a photochemical reaction.

Biodegradation is another aspect to be considered when using a solvento Sorne solvents are not readily
degraded by microorganisms in the environment and can cause ground water polIution or increase the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) resulting in the destruction of flora and fauna in waterways.

Sorne of the halogenated solvents have already been targeted for reduction in the first decade of the new
millennium. The Montreal Protocol and Clean Air Act of 1990 has already resulted in the ban of many
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and the halogenated solvent 1,1,1-trichloroethane. With the prospect ofmore
solvents being banned in the future, the type of cleaning system and the capital costs associated with
having to change equipment should be seriously considered.

Inorganic Solvents (Water)

Flash points and toxicity associated with sorne of the organic solvents have made aqueous (containing
water) cleaning an attractive alternative.

Water by itself is not a good solvent for oil based materials and it requires the addition of various other
components to boost it's cleaning efficiency.

Surface tension and coupling efficiency are extreme1y important when discussing formulating.
Surfactants (SURFace-ACTive AgeNTS) can reduce the surface tension of water and also allow water to
couple with organic solvents or hydrophobic (water insoluble) substances such as oils and greases.

Water based fonnulations that are used to clean hydrocarbons (oils, waxes and fats) have the ability to
produce micelles. A micelle, in this case, forms by utilizing the bipolar nature of surfactants. A
surfactant molecule has both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic end. When the surfactant is active in water
it forms a sphere with the hydrophilic end pointing out and the hydrophobic end pointing in. Oils can
then be kept suspended in solution within these micro-spheres and then removed from a surface. This is
an example of an "oil-in-water" emulsiono "Water-in-oil'' emulsions are achieved in the same manner
except with the polarity reversed.

These same micro-spheres can be used to suspend and organic solvent in water and thus increase the
solvency of an aqueous cleaner, The resulting blend can have lower toxicity and flash points while
maintaining a relatively high solvency.

222 SECTION 19
Surfactants can be classified into the following categories:

Anionic - negative charge

Cationic - positive charge
Nonionic - neutral charge
Amphoteric - positive or negative charge

Each class of surfactants exhibits certain traits, which can be useful for formulating a specific cleaner.

Anionic surfactants are useful for removing inorganic soils. Cationics are used for disinfecting, sanitizing
and reducing static. Nonionics are good for removing organic soils and high tolerance for hard water.
Amphoterics are useful as hydrotropes (coupling agents) and viscosity modifiers.

The diversity of surfactants permits their use in almost any cleaning application and mcreases the
performance ofmany solvents.

Selecting a Solvent or Cleaner

Understanding the properties of solvents can be useful for determining which solvent should be used in a
particular situation.

The following check-list can be used to help select the proper solvent for a cleaning application.

I. Determine the composition of the soil (material) to be removed. Most soils

are soluble in a solvent with a similar composition. For example, wax is a hydrocarbon and can
be removed with many hydrocarbon solvents (this may not always be true but it is a good place
to start).
2. Take into consideration the surface being cleaned and the degree to which it
needs to be cleaned. Does the surface need to be free of residue, can it be
rinsed, and does it react with certain solvents?
3. Select a solvent that can be used in the current environment of the surface to be cleaned. If the
surface is in a confined area or near an ignition source you would like to select a solvent that has
low toxicity and flammability (a high flash point).
4. Is the surface being cleaned porous or intricate? The addition of a surfactant
or a solvent with low surface tension can help to remove soil from these types of areas.
5. How is the solvent or cleaner being applied? The need to protect both human and environmental
exposure is extremely importan!. A vapor degreaser with a cold blankee can utilize solvents
that are toxic while cold dip or wipe applications should avoid toxic solvents if possible.

If all else fails the formulated cleaning industry will likely have a commercial product available that can
satisfy most of the aboye issues.

Many formulated products have been developed to deal with the problems surrounding today's cleaning
needs. The cleaning industry in the United States is estimated to be a $2 billion/year market and as
regulations regarding pollution continue to tighten, more money is being allocated for research.

3A cold blanket process uses a coollayer of a harmless gas (often air or nitrogen) that prevents harmful vapour emissions by
causing any risingsolvent vapours to condense.
SECTION 19 223
SEcnN20

Peter Wissner, CLS, MA II - Univar Canada Ltd.

Introducton

There is perhaps no more contentious issue in the lubricant market than that of aftennarket additives.
Consumers are purchasing these products in ever increasing volumes and this demand has resulted in a
great number of new products in the marketplace. Some of these products are of dubious quality and
efficacy while others have been shown to provide benefit in some applications. Historically, the market
has been looked upon with a certain disrespect by many, however it cannot be denied that there is a real,
consumer driven demand for improved lubrication and value add products.

Most major equipment manufacturers and lubricant formulators do not approve of aftermarket lubricant
products or remain silent about their use. Equipment manufacturers have concerns over potential damage
from harmful additives and are usually uninterested in evaluating additives since there are simply too
many on the market to evaluate. Most oil manufacturers are concerned with the balance of their original
additive packages and the potential for adverse effect on their fonnulation. Lubricant fonnulators are
always under pressure to reduce additive treatment costs and thus improve profitability. This can lead to
the production of lubricants which are of marginal quality, thus providing room for additive boosting.
There have been several companies (including two of the big three automakers and two major oil
companies) who themselves market lubricant additives which purport to provide increased lubrication
protection. It is this apparently contradictory stance that has consumers confused and most simply decide
for themselves or take the advice of their trusted mechanics or suppliers.

The issue continues to generate interest and debate and the Society of Autornotive Engineers (SAE) has
recently held discussions related to developing a specification for aftermarket additive products. The
need for some regulation or control is obvious since there is currently no limit or restriction to the types of
compounds that can be used in these additives. Many are based on hannful or dubious chemistry, while
others are proven (or have supporting evidence) to provide improved performance without adverse
effects. The final problem is that many of the marketers of these products make outrageous claims that
taint the efforts of those who are more responsible. The US Federal Trade Commission has brought
charges against several companies in the 1990's for making unsubstantiated claims. To better understand
the rnajor types of aftermarket products available, several typical types are discussed.

Typical Types of Aftermarket Additives

The most commonly available aftennarket additive products can be grouped into 6 different chemical
types.

Conventonal Additive Boosters - These types of additives are simply concentrated anti-wear and/or
detergent packages that contain the typical zinc-phosphorus anti-wear additive, ZDDP. Some of them
also contain higher levels of the conventional calcium sulfonate detergent/alkaline reserve compound that
is used nearly universally in engine oil formulations.
224 SECTIN20
Additives of this type advertise improved anti-wear performance from the higher levels of the same type
of anti-wear already present in most oils. They also claim to allow extended oil change intervals since the
oil's additive package is increased well beyond the levels formulated into the oil, This may be true to a
limited extent since the higher additive levels would mean a longer time before the additives become
depleted. However, there are many other factors that must be considered when extending oil intervals.
The oil viscosity, alkaline reserve, wear metal levels, and levels of other contaminants must also be
considered. The extension of oil drain intervals beyond those recommended by the equipment
manufacturer should only be done if comprehensive, routine oil analysis is part of the maintenance
programo

While they are unlikely to cause any hannful effects, there is a possibility that increasing the zinc anti-
wear level can actually cause increased wear under sorne tribological conditions. In addition, these
components in an engine oil are often of high viscosity and the aftennarket additive may adversely affect
the oil viscosity. This is the type of additive that is being soId by two major North American auto
manufacturers. As with all aftennarket products, careful monitoring of performance and/or oil analysis
can provide justification for use or may show no significant improvement.

Sulfur/Phosphorus EP - There are sorne aftermarket additive products that simply use the well-known
extreme pressure performance of sulfur or sulfur/phosphorus compounds typical of those in industrial
gear lubricants. While the sulfur/phosphorus combination does provide exceptional extreme pressure and
boundary lubrication performance, it does so because these compounds are relatively reactive types of EP
agents. They, therefore, compete with anti-wear and corrosion protection additives that are present in
lubricants for places on wear surfaces. Typically, sulfur compounds are less thermally stable and when
broken down can contribute to significant corrosion of copper alloys.

Chlorinated Paraffin - Chlorinated paraffins have been used in gear oils, greases, metalworking fluids
and are also used in sorne zinc-free engine oils to provide anti-wear performance. Recently, their use has
diminished, largely due to environmental pressures and to the increased use of zinc-phosphorus anti-wear
compounds. Sorne chlorinated compounds (especially low molecular weight chlorinated solvents) have
been identified and/or suspected to be carcinogenic. At this time, only the CID - C13, 60% chlorinated
paraffins have been classified as potentially carcinogenic by the US EPA. Testing of the more stable,
longer chain chlorinated paraffins does not support their inclusion as carcinogens. However, they are
often mistakenly associated with the more harmful, low molecular weight chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Under sorne conditions involving heat and moisture, sorne less stable chlorinated paraffins can degrade to
produce hydrochloric acid. Sorne chlorinated paraffins with poor thennal stability may be too reactive at
crankcase temperatures. In much the same way as carboxylic acids (or sulfuric, nitric, etc. in blow-by
gas) are fonned, these compounds can create corrosion in a crankcase if they are not suitably stable or
adequately inhibited. Another limitation is the disposal of used oils containing chlorinated paraffins. If
their chlorine levels are high enough, the used oil may not be suitable for waste oil recycling or as fuel for
industrial bumers. Chlorinated paraffins can provide excellent extreme pressure and boundary lubrication
films and are mostly used in metalworking fluids, gear oils and greases where extreme pressure wear
protection is necessary. Theyare still used in sorne engine oils where zinc anti-wear is not used (such as
EMD diesellocomotive oils where the zinc can cause corrosion of silver plated components).

Lead Naphthenate - Lead naphthenate was a common extreme pressure agent used in greases and gear
oil fonnulations, but its use has diminished considerably due to the toxicity of the lead compounds.
SECTIN20 225
While lead naphthenates make excellent extreme pressure agents in gear oil and grease applications, their
use in engine crankcases is less advisable. There is also the obvious problem of oil containing lead being
combusted and the toxic compounds being exhausted to the atmosphere.

A secondary problem with lead (or other metal) naphthenates is that they can catalyze and promote rapid
oxidation of the oil. This effect becomes more pronounced as temperatures rise. At the elevated
temperatures in an engine the oxidation can cause excessive oil degradation in service if it is not properly
inhibited. Oil drain intervals may need to be shortened if products such as these are used. Most often,
due to solubility requirements, these products are solvent based and have poor inherent oxidation stability.
They also have relatively low viscosity and poor viscosity indices that can adversely affect lubricant
viscosity properties.

Solid Suspensions - As with chlorinated paraffins, certain of these products are also used in some
conventionallubricant formulations. Fine particles of graphite, molybdenum disulfide, PTFE resin (often
referred to by the trade name Teflon) or calcium carbonate are suspended in a lubricating oil and provide
solid lubricating films that reduce friction or provide extreme pressure protection. Some of these products
use light solvents with poor thermal stability and low viscosity to carry the solids while others use higher
quality lube base oils or even synthetic fluids.

The graphite, molybdenum disulfide and calcium carbonate products all provide increased extreme
pressure protection. Graphite can carry loads of up to 345 MPa (50,000 psi). Molybdenum disulfide has
a load carrying limit as high as 690 MPa (100,000 psi) or greater. No infonnation on the load carrying
ability of calcium carbonate is available, though it is used as an EP additive to some greases. The PTFE
resin is a friction modifier with a very low coefficient of friction, but relatively poor load carrying ability
of only 34 MPa (5000 psi).

While solid suspensions are used extensively in greases, their application to fluid lubricants is limited due
to the possibility of solid dropout creating deposits and potentially clogging filters or oil passageways. As
with most lubricant additives, if their quality is high (ie. small particle sizes) they will not create hannful
deposits and may provide some anti-wear benefits.

Viscosity Index Improvers - Some products are available that are simply very thick polymeric viscosity
index improvers. These types of lubricant additives may have provided some benefits many years ago
when single grade oils were the nonn. Today, the vast majority of engine oils used are multi-grade
products with excellent viscosity characteristics and viscosity index improvement is not needed. In fact,
using products that dramatically alter the viscosity of the proper engine oil viscosity grade may be much
more harrnful than helpful. Adding high viscosity polymers can increase viscosity at cold start to the
point where flow is impeded and oil starvation can result in serious damage to components. Rather than
trying to alter the viscosity of the conventional engine oil, it is much better to select one with the correct
viscosity for the expected operating conditions.

Selection of an Aftermarket Additive

The onus for selection of an appropriate aftermarket additive to any lubricant application is entirely upon
the equipment operator. Most major lubricant suppliers and equipment manufacturers either recommend
against, or make no statements concerning, the use of aftermarket additives. This is because they cannot
be expected, in the absence of any required specifications for such products, to approve of their use, lest
they assume a portion of the liability resulting from such use.
226 SEcnON20
In making any lubricant product recommendation, there are several factors to be considered. These
include the quality of the lubricant, the ability of the product to meet the service requirements and
conditions, the suitability of the lubricant (with respect to physical properties, performance and
occupational health and safety), the reputation of the supplier and, ideally, a condition monitoring
program to establish whether the performance criteria are met by the lubricant. These apply equally or
even more critically to aftermarket products.

Conclusion

Aftermarket additives have a place in the lubrication industry today, but the best advice for the consumer
is to believe only those performance improvements that can be measured, monitored and documented.
Perhaps the most important thing to remember is that an aftermarket additive is no substitute for proper
equipment design, maintenance and lubricant selection. They should not be used as solutions to problems
that exist as a result of inadequate maintenance, nor should they be used to try to make a lower quality
lubricant suffice in a more extreme application. Benefits are possible, but applications need to be selected
and monitored to ensure that there are no harmful effects accompanying achieved performance
improvements.

SECTIN2 227
SEcnON 21

Bob Funston - Lubetech Solutions

The "perfect lubrication system" simply does not exist. Some compromises must be made in al1 systems.

A lubrication system can be anything from a tube with some holes dril1ed in it, to a highly engineered
network of valves and nozzles. For a machine with only a few bearings, the best choice might be sealed
bearings or self-lubricated bearing materials that don't need rnaintenance, For machinery that general1y is
not used continuously or has only a few lubrication points or the lubricant replacement rate is low,
manual1y lubricated bearings might be acceptable.

On the other hand, most production machinery can benefit from an automatic, centralized lubrication
system and should be considered for such a system if:

the cost ofthe machinery is high,

the cost oflost production is high,
the lubricant replacement flow is high,
the machine has many lubrication points or inaccessible points,
access to lubrication points is a safety consideration for the maintenance staff,
if positive lubrication is a requirement.

Breakdowns caused by poor lubrication far outweigh the initial cost of such equipment.

Labor economics can also favour an automatic system. If a maintenance oiler spends 15 minutes each
shift in locating and lubricating a smal1 number of points on a machine, the labor cost can be more than
$4,000 per machine per year. With an automatic system on the same machine, lubrication may cost no
more than $500 per year, with an initial equipment and instal1ation cost as low as $3,000.

Safety is another factor that may help to justify the use of an automatic system. The inevitable drips and
spills from an extensive manual lubrication program can create hazards from slippery floors. Automatic
lubrication equipment reduces the risk of personal injury from climbing on equipment and also provides
lubrication during operation or in continuous operation circumstances when access is prohibited.

Selecting and Designing a System

There is more than just safety and economics to selecting a lubrication system. The technical factors to be
considered in selecting a lubrication system are:
Number of bearings to be lubricated,
Type oflubricant,
Interval oflubrication,
Volume of Iubricant per machine cycle or per shift,
Resistance to lubricant delivery,
228 SBCnON 21
 Importance oflubrication to the design,
Customer maintenance requirements, and
Production requirements

Generally, the designer begins with the capabilities and requirements of the machine to be lubricated. The
first ofthese factors to consider is the lubricant flow required. The flow required for a bearing is based on
the concept of replacing the lubricant film in the bearing over a given period of time. It is determined by
multiplying the bearing surface area (or an approximation), times the desired film thickness replacement
rate per hour.

For RoIling Element Bearings:

Flow rate (ml/hr) = d2 x number of rows x film thickness replacement rate (cm per hour)

For Plain Bearings:

Flow rate (ml/hr) = 3.14 x d x length ofbearing (cm) x film thickness replacement rate (cm per hour)

Where d = the shaft diameter in centimeters (cm)

For oils, a frequently used rule of thumb is to use a film thickness replacement rate of 0.00254 cm every
hour of operation (0.001 inches per hour).

For greases, the rule of thumb for an automatic system is a film thickness replacement rate of 0.000635
cm every hour of operation, (0.00025 inches every hour).

However, these rules should not be taken as anything more than guidelines. Factors such as shock
loading, extreme heat, high speed and lubricant contamination must also be taken into consideration.

(Editors Note: This method does not take into account the bearing type or rpm, for the grease lubrication
of rolling bearings, as does most other sources of this calculation. See Section 8 of this book for other
calculations on the application rate of grease to rolling bearings.)

If an automatic system is selected, sorne consideration must be given to the type of system to be used.

System Classifications

Lubrication system c1assifications are determined and established by exammmg the basic operating
principIes of a system. Any system, regardless of manufacturer, has certain characteristics, which allow it
to be categorized into a specific type.

There are nine general types of systems on the market today. They are:
Orifice system
Circulating oil system
Box Lubricators
Single-line Parallel system
SECTION21 229
 Dual-line Parallel system
Single-line Progressive system
Mist systems
Air-Oil systems
Air Line Lubricator systems

Orifice Control System

Figure 21.1 illustrates an orifice control system. This is the simplest centralized system and usually the
least expensive. A gravity feed 01' small pump draws oil from the reservoir to a header feeding individual
lines, which end in orifices. The system works very much like a water faucet, in that the amount of
lubricant delivered depends on the line pressure and the size of the orifice. A drawback of the orifice
system is that small orifices can easily become plugged, so the system does not provide positive
lubrication. Yet, it is acceptable for many non-critical applications such as small tooling machines,
weaving machines, chain drives, and gear drives. Since there is no means to recover and recirculate the
oil, it is a once-through system.

Figure 21.1 - Orifice Control System

For flow rates in the range from 4 to 190 L/min this type of system does a reasonable job, since the
orifices can be large enough to avoid plugging. In lower volume ranges, filtration - usually a small piece
offelt-like material- is neededjust upstream ofthe orifice. Ifan orifice becomes blocked, the oil for that
line is divided among the other lines. This factor makes it difficult to devise a warning system for
plugged lines, because the system operates with a fixed supply pressure.

Normally, an orifice system develops a maximum supply pressure of 400 kPa (60 psi). This pressure is
relatively low, so the system is not suitable for greases. Care must also be taken to increase the size ofthe
orifices at the end of the system to compensate for pressure losses in the header.

230 SEcnON21
Circulating Oil System

Figure 21.2 illustrates a circulating oil system. The typical circulating oil system is very similar to an
orifice system, except that drain lines are provided to return oil to the reservoir after it has been pumped to
the bearings. In sorne applications, however, where more precise fIow control is desired, circulating
systems have been equipped with divider blocks (as illustrated above) similar to those in series systems
(to be discussed below). The circulating system usually operates at pressures lower than those used in
series or parallel centralized systems.

Fig 21.2 - Circulating Oil System

MASTER DIVIDER VALVE

SECONDARY
DIVIDER
VALVrE,,-S- - - - - - '

1
RELlEF VALVE

..
GRAVffY RETURN FLOW OF LUBRICANT

Because of their design, circulating systems are limited to oil and cannot be used with grease. The most
common applications are automobile engines, large turbines, high-speed machines, and other applications
where cooling is required.

There are several types of devices to indicate malfunctions in circulating oil systems. Low-pressure
warnings indicate that oil is not reaching the system, high- pressure warnings indicate fIow blockage, and
low-Ievel warnings indicate lack of oil supply. Centralized warnings are avai!able if series-type valve
blocks are used.

Box Lubricator System

Figure 21.3 illustrates a box lubricator system, sometimes called a "pump-to-point" system. The left
portion of the diagram shows the reservoir with multiple pumps and individual oi! feed lines running to
each lubrication point. The right portion of the diagram shows the detail of a pump. The delivered
volume of oil is fairly accurate and can easily be adjusted by the operator for each lube point. However,
the delivered volume cannot be considered to be precise because of the possibi!ity of cavitation. The
pumps are usually grouped together in the oil reservoir and driven by a camshaft powered directly from
the machine being lubricated or from an electric motor.

SECTIN21 231
Figure 21.3 - Box Lubricator System

SIGHT FEED

STROKE PUMP
ADJUSTMENT_ PISTON
SCREW AND
LUBRICATION ! ~~~~N~N
~"-SUCTION
POINTS

TUBE
_DRIVE
SHAFT
! "-- SCREEN
CAM

RESERVOIR

Because of the suction pumps used on box lubricators, they are suitable only for oil, not for grease. The
box lubricator is most frequently found on small machines, natural gas engines, and natural gas
compressors.

A limiting feature of the box lubricator is that an individualline is required for each lubrication point. For
very large machines or for a system lubricating many machines, the line lengths and consequent pressure
losses can easily become excessive. The amount of plumbing required for systems with more than 30
lubrication points may also make the box lubricator impractical. A further limitation is that central
signaling of a malfunction is difficult, since an indicator must be provided for each individual oilline.

Single-Line Parallel System

Figure 21.4 iIlustrates a single-line parallel system, This positive displacement system has one pump and
an adjustable vent valve, located away from the bearings, to control lubricant flow. A group of
distributors or injectors are mounted in common manifolds and connected to individual bearings via feed
lines.

Figure 21.4 - Single-Line Parallel System

LUBRICATION
POINTS
t
PISTON PISTON
DISTRIBUTORS j<DISTRIBUTORS
OR OR
INJECTORS/r=c.--.Jc....=:I~~~~~J INJECTORS

........
!__ VENTLlNE

~'-,....l PUMPAND
RESERVOIR

232 sscnon n
This system uses the fluid pressure in the supply line to cycle the injectors. The term "single-line" refers
to the one supply line used to transfer the lubricant from the pump to the metering injectors. The term
"parallel" refers to the injectors. Each operates in parallel, independent of the other injectors. In this
system, should a single injector malfunction, none of the other injectors in the system will be affected.
The pump dispenses lubricant into the fully primed supply line, building system pressure. The pressure
enters the metering injector, forcing a pilot piston and a dispensing piston forward. When all the
dispensing pistons in the system have reached the end of their travel, the resulting backup of pressure will
place the system in a stall condition. This continues until the system timer times out and allows the
system to vent back to the reservoir, or when a pressure switch indicates that the system has reached
desired pressure which signals the timing control to de-activate, allowing system pressure to vent. With
pressure on the metering injectors reduced, a combination of low pressure and metal spring return action
resets both the pilot and dispensing pistons. The metering injector reloads with new lubricant and is ready
for the next cycle. Volume adjustabi!ity is obtained by controlling the stroke of the dispensing piston.
The spring is unique and critica! to the design of this system.

This system is used with both oils (at system pressures of approximately 5,850 lePa) or the appropriate
grade of grease (at system pressures of approximately 17,000 lePa). Individual pop-up indicators can be
used on each injector to monitor lube system performance.

Dual-Line Parallel System

Figure 21.5 illustrates a dual-line parallel system. Like the previous system, a dual-line parallel system
uses fluid pressure (up to 41,000 lePa) to cycle adjustable injectors to positively dispense a measured shot
of lubricant. In this case, the term "dual-line" refers to the two supply lines, while "parallel" again
describes the activation ofthe injectors.

Figure 21.5 - Dual-Line Parallel System

PUMPAND LUBRICATION
POINTS
r"L,"';;.J-+- RESERVOIR

VENT UNE :
~ liil..E-INDICATORS

.....

REVERSER
.>
(2 POSITION
4WAY)

System operation involves pressurizing, first one, and then the second supply line in an alternating
pattern. Each measuring injector is piped-in between these two supply lines. As pressure builds, a pilot
piston in each injector directs the lubricant to one side of the dispensing piston, delivering lubricant to the
bearing (volume adjustability is determined by controIling piston stroke). When this piston completes its
travel, pressure continues to build until a pre-determined level is reached. The hydraulic reverser valve
(located near the pump) reacts to this pressure level and reverses the lubricant flow. Supply line 2 now
pressurizes and line I vents back to the reservoir. This type of system can handle most oils and greases
SECTION 21 233
suitable for a pressure lubrication system. Individual pop-up indicators are available to monitor
individual injector performance.

Single-Line, Series System

Figure 21.6 illustrates a single line series (progressive) system. In this system, the pump is connected to
each dispensing piston successively, and each piston is moved progressively by the lubricant flow. When
al! pistons have moved in succession in one direction, pump flow is diverted automatical!y to the opposite
direction and the injector activation sequence is reversed.

The advantage of this type of system is that a flow blockage anywhere in the system keeps every divider
block from cycling, thereby providing a centralized warning of system failure. Specialized, sophisticated
equipment is available to pinpoint the malfunction in cases where the additional cost of pinpointing is
warranted. Equipment is also available to bypass the blocked point so that other machines serviced by the
system can continue to function.

Bypass blocks have been developed, making it possible to add or delete lubrication points without
disturbing existing piping. Altering the volume dispensed to an individuallube point requires replacing a
divider (distribution) block.

Figure 21.6 - Single-line, Series System

RESERVOIR

MOTOR

PUMP

MASTER DIVIDER VALVE

SECONDARY DIVIDER
VALVES

A single-line series system is suitable for either grease or oil. It is used on al! types of production-line
equipment, including numerical control machines, machine tools, transfer machines, large presses, steel-
mili and mining machinery.

Mist Lubrication Systems

Mist lubricators use a heated mist generator to vapourize oil into fine droplets in a Iow velocity air stream.
The mist generator uses a venturi affect to create droplets in the order of 3 microns in size. Piping is used
to channel the mist at low velocity (less than 8 meters per second) and low pressure (less than 15 kPa) to
fittings Iocated at each point of Iubrication. Three types of fittings are used: spray fittings, condensing
234 SECTlN21
fittings and mist fittings. Spray fittings are used to direct a liquid spray of oil at chains, rol!ing bearings
and gears. Condensing fittings are used to reform oil droplets, which then fal! onto journal bearings and
slides. Mist fittings direct the mist onto moving machine elements, within an enclosed housing, where the
mist reclassifies into an oil film. "Stray mist" into the building workplace must be control!ed to minimize
health concerns of inhaling the oi!.

Air-Oil Lubrication Systems

In an air-oillubrication system, oil remains as a liquid and is transported, as a film, along the inside wal!
of a pipe to the point of lubrication. Oil is metered into a compressed air stream. The movement of air
within the tubing pushes the oil along the wal! of the tubing in a wave-like motion. The oil is typical!y
not heated and no stray mist is generated. The bearing housing is pressurized due to the air movement
and thus prevents outside contaminants from entering. Spindle bearings, fan bearings, gears and chains
mayal! use this type of system.

Air Une lubricators

Air line lubricators vapourize lubricating oil into a high velocity, dry air stream. The oil droplets created
are typical!y between 10 and 100 microns in size and are transported to the point of lubrication within a
pipe. The oil droplets strike the object to be lubricated and form an oil film. The amount of oil reaching a
lubrication point is not tightly control!ed. These systems are typicalIy not heated and are used to lubricate
non-critical equipment.

Other System Equipment

Malfunction Indicators

An important consideration in selecting the type of automatic system is the type of malfunction waming
system desired. The only kind of malfunction warning usual!y available with the orifice system or the
circulating system is a warning that the reservoir is out of oil. The multiple pumps of the box system
usual!y dictate that the warning devices be located at the pumps, but this need not be a major problem if
the pumps can be placed in a central, visible area. With either of the two paral!el systems, warnings can
be provided at the metering blocks, but are difficult to centralize. The single-line series system provides a
centralized warning system, but sophisticated additional equipment is needed to show which lubricant
point is in trouble.

Although not a prime consideration in the selection of an automatic system, the malfunction waming
indicator is also important. Visual indicators are fine if somebody is looking at them, but they can be easy
to miss, particularly if they are placed in out-of-thc-way locations. An audible warning alarm is easy to
miss if it is placed in a normal!y noisy location. An automatic cutoff switch can solve both problems.

Pump Drive

Once the type of automatic system is chosen, pumping power needs to be carefulIy considered. The pump
can be driven with a direct mechanicallink from the machine being lubricated. In this way, the amount of
lubricant supplied can be directly related to the machine duty cycle. In cases where this is impractical,
consider using any available pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical power at the instal!ation site. There is

SEcnON 21 235
such a variety of pumps available that this decision usually depends upon available power sources rather
than lubrication requirements.

OH Reservoir

With the pump selected and the required lubricant flow known, the type and size of reservoir must be
considered. The size of the reservoir should be selected so that the refilling schedule is convenient. The
design key is to choose a size that demands a regular refilling schedule. A reservoir that needs refilling
every seventh shift will be easy to forget.

In either oil or grease systems, pumps and controls can be fitted to operate from standard lubricant
container sizes.

Conclusion

Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. In examining the various alternatives, the following
factors should be considered:

Lubricant requirements of the system,

Environmental factors,
Physicallimitations,
Maintenance personnel's technical expertise, and
Economic factors.

Generally speaking, there are not likely any investments that will produce higher cost reductions or
produce greater equipment reliability than good lubricants and high quality lubrication equipment.

236 SECTION21