A HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Samuel K. Tan

Introduction

As human beings we are the only living things given the capacity to
think, we are intellectuals, and this capacity are limitless. This ability to think
would give us ways to overcome challenges, physical and mental. This
overcoming of our problems is what we call now as progress, a development
of oneself in different times and in different situations. When put together a
culture is formed and it becomes a part of the history of the land.

And when someone makes a great contribution to the society he

becomes a legend, when told becomes a myth, epics, a hero and it becomes
an oral literature, but time comes that early civilization will come to know the
importance of writing their literatures. All of these events and people who
contributed are part of the interaction of land and people. People without
land are not believable that an event actually occurred, who would even
believe a story about an event when no one witnessed the event itself. And
land would be meaningless if there are no inhabitants, how people would
exist in a land that is nowhere to be found. With this culture is now defined
as ways of life and habits of thoughts which are learned and acquired.

The first factor which helped in the formation of the Filipino identity is
the religion of Islam which succeeded in bringing its influence in the part of
central Luzon and Southern Visayas which paved way to a new ethnic
development but Islam gave a weak foundation of political and cultural unity,
which is very much observed in the frequent barangay wars and slave trade
and with that frequent wars, monolithic culture was not established and
stabilized strong enough and so it failed.

The second factor is Christianity which had a great impact in the early
Philippine societies, it greatly affected their religion, ways of life and political
ways which led to colonial administration for 300 years but Christianity,
affected the values and attitudes of the Filipino greatly that it had to
disrupt/destroy the identity that Islam gave to early Filipinos, disrupted in
way that early Philippine societies, they were confused on who and what to
believe between their old religion and the newly introduced religion. After
that the Philippine societies were arguing that a Muslim Christian
Dichotomy is not going to work well because of different views, people and
traditions. Some argued that it is possible, others says it wont work, but the
arguments still did not fix the broken identity of the early Filipinos.

It has been said that there are two levels to achieve in order to achieve
cultural unity and a known identity: (1) Intellectual level: (a) cultural
consciousness (b) cultural literature (c) cultural Ideology. (2) Practical Level:
(a) cultural organizations and (b) cultural traditions.

The intellectual level should be the first to witness and establish the
foundation of unity by giving the something to believe in like ideology, faith,
give them reasons believing in this would give them a solid identity. The
practical level is giving the people proof, give them evidence showing the
advantage and disadvantage of such ideology, but dont just give them
something sweet, give the people a bitter experience to see what that
ideology is about in both ways.

Chapter 1: Evolution of the land (100 2 million years)

1. The Cretaceous - Paleogene

The first geologic period is called the cretaceous paleogene,

here occurred the great changes in land and the appearance of the
earliest ancestors. Angiosperms appeared and multiplied rapidly, here
the presence of the carnivorous animal were seen with the capability of
being agile in order to hunt for food. Other insect relied on dinosaur
eggs for survival. Marine organism like corals and clams already
appeared in the western pacific during the pre cretaceous period.
Evidence are also seen in some places in the Philippines like Ilocos
Norte, Quezon, Camarines Sur, Cebu, Catanduanes, Samar, Palawan,
and Mindoro. Some believed that fish and crustacean existed before
but no evidence has been found. Some mangroves and beach trees
were also found in low lands and moss forest in high lands most of
which became extinct today.

2. The Neogene

This period is all about the volcanic characteristics of

archipelagic evolution as well as the role of earthquakes in shaping the
unique forms of the land. During this period of upheavals basaltic rocks
flooded large areas of the archipelago and extrusion of rocks brought
forth greenish spilites and submarine rock were found in the islands of
 Luzon cordilleras as well in the sierra madre and zambales ranges.
Also underwater volcanic eruption were present which pave way for
the creation of island and some areas disappeared due to the
movement of rocks in the area, some might have sunk.

3. The Quarternary

This period come the existence of man, where the Pleistocene

period already provided the necessary things for man to live like
natural resources and varieties of life which resulted to the formation
of culture. Here men come from other places through land bridges,
they came in many waves. In this period, it also showed the struggles
of man with natures forces which came about to a world that produced
the many little things which showed not only his remarkable triumphs
but also the limitless possibilities of his intelligence. These cultural
breakthroughs of his intellect and creativity may be classified into two
distinct period of pre historic Philippine culture; paleolithic and
Neolithic period.

Chapter 2: CULTURAL BREAKTHROUGHS

Development of culture: a breakthrough in the interaction between

environment and life.
Rise of Homo Sapiens: marked the transition to a new kind of
revolutionary process now with the use of intelligence- distinctive
mark of man, to solve his problems, to subdue the challenges of
nature
Quarternary period/Pleistocene epoch: evolution of live which is culture

A. Paleolithic Age: Stone Age

o Prepared the grounds for the first appearance of a human culture in

the Philippines
o To survive, he merely collect from what was around or known as
collecting economy- earliest form of economic system.
o He made use of stones for the tools (survival from attack of animals
and other hazards to life), Small and large pebbles (for scrapping
purposes), larger stones (for cutting or felling trees) and breaking
stones (flaked for refining purposes)
o Wooden tools: to complement the stone tools
o So far, no pressures for new technological changes since the
population was quite small )not more than 30 people) needs can
 be easily met by the vast resources of the forest, rivers; no need to
go far to look for food, no need to alter land
o E.g. Tasadays of Cotabato- survivors of this long extinct
Paleolithic culture
o Nuclear family: earliest unit of social organization
o Authority: not maternal or paternal but all participates except
the young and smallness of group do not need delineation of
authority
o Primitive Communalism: private or individual ownership was
absent and unnecessary
o All the members of the family/group shared what was gather for the
day: not only instinctive to man but also socially agreeable
o VALUE SYSTEM the early man in the Philippines developed :

1.) maintain relation to the ecological environment that surround

him.

o Attachment to the land (the area that provided him with

everything he needed to survive
o Oneness with the land- foundation of Patriotism
o Sense of concern and solidarity with the kinship group
maternal/paternal love up to the need for social responsibility

o ECONOMIC VALUE: Resources of land and people belongs to the

society rather than to a certain individual or household units.
Preserves the richness and beauty of environment but also to avoid
exploitation and environmental issues.

B. Neolithic Culture-latest period of stone age characterized by polished

stone implements

o Breaking up from fishing, hunting, and collecting: no longer satisfy the

needs of increasing population
o Domestication: dog, chicken, pig including cereals and root crops
requires different kind of technology, techniques and organization and
values
o Tools: polished stone tools, chert instruments, adzes (thin curved
blade), sickles(curved metal blade attached to a small handle
o Male: hunting, cultivating land, raise crops
 o Female: household duties, nurse the young, care for old, food
preparations
o Need of Special leaders: old people> formulate rules and norms
o Pottery, hand molding for both interior and exterior purposes, larger
pots and jars were made by coiling but MASS MANUFACTURE WAS
NOT YET PRACTICE: every piece of pottery was an individual
creation.
o E.g. Manunggal jars from tabon cave, burial jars, sulu jar
o Weaving
o Some Evidences of Neolithic Age discoveries by Otley Beyer
o Shell midens in Lallo
o Trapezoidal adze in ifugao and pampang
o Two adzes and one chisel In isabela

C.Metal Age

o In Philippines, it started about 600 to 500 BC and is divided into two: a.)
Early Metal age: marked by bronze and glass b.)Developed Metal Age:
bronze, glass and iron
o Proofs: bronze and iron tools from duyung cave
o Beads of glass and stones and iron bracelets from Manunggul
Cave
o In phil, it is associated with remarkable changes. Pottery received
encouragement thus making this a golden age of pottery
o Pottery types: trays, bowls, jras, angle pots, vesseks, skull boxes, urns
and ritual vessels
o Jade ornamentshave affinity with ornaments in Vietnam: contact
between the archipelago and the rest of southeast asia leading to
trade

CHAPTER 3: PATTERNS OF ETHNICIZATION

A.THE PEOPLING PROCESS- human beings making up a group

o Wave Theory- Otley Beyer

o Series of arrivals in the archipelago bringing in different types
and levels of culture
o Earliest possible group: dark skinned pygmies whose cultural
remains are preserved by the Negrito type Filipinos
o First migrations: inferior culture
o Second: Indonesians A and B: today are the Kalinga, Gaddang,
Isneg, Mangyan, Tagbanua, Manubo, Mandaya, Subanon, and
Sama
 o Last: Malay Migrations: represented the Christianized and
Islamized Filipinos who pushed the Indonesian group inland and
occupied much of the coastal, lowland and downstream areas
o The wave theory was questioned: the straight jacketed peopling
of the archipelago could not have been the actual process

B.THE CIVILIZATIONAL INFLUENCES

o Series of Migration: pigmy, indonesian and malay

o Chinese economic and socio-cultural influences thru porcelain, silk, and
traders
o India: indirect influence: religious and cultural aspect
o Srivijayan Empireintroduction of Indian Features particularly
Buddhistic and Hinduistic institutions
o Bathal, narka, surge etc
o Rajah

C.THE ETHNIC SYNTHESIS

o Emergence of ethno-linguistic groups : Emergent Period: Interaction

between indigenous cultural elements and migrants
o Iloko and Pangasinan: advanced lowland culture
o Igorot: it was actually applied to all the mountain peoples of Northernb\
Luzon separate from Iloko and Pangasinan
o Followed b yPampango, Tagalos (both lowland), Zambals. Negritoes,
Dumagats, and others (upland)
o Bikols- developed both the upland and lowland type of cultural patterns
o Visayans: speaking initially common language
o Mindanao: five nations: Caragans, Mandanaos, Lutaos, Subanuns,
Dapitans
o 1900: 38 groups discovered by Frederick Sawyer
o 1951: Marcelo Tangco: 45 ethno linguistic groups
o 1942:18 linguistic groups in luzon, 5 in visayas, 20 in Mindanao and 4
mixed historic group (caviteno, ermitano, chabacano, Davaweno)
o 1956: 39 major and 20 minor cultural linguistic groups
o Ethnicization began from three major linguistic groups )Negritoes,
Indonesians and Malays)
o Then the intermixture of peoples and races: Chinese, indian,
Japanese and indo-chinese
o From simplicity to multiplicity, variety and complexity as a pattern of
development

Influences
I.THE POLITICAL INSTITUTION

o Ivatan of BAtanes: two leaders shared authority

o Mampus as paramount leader and shared authority with few
subordinates called Mapolons
o Ilokano: Babacnang or Amaen ti ili exercised dominant influence
and power
o Igorot: Apo or called as elder philosophers
Slaves were the lowest in the society
o Ilongot: familial government families participate in decision
making
Benganganat: recognized head and assisted by a younger
successor to be called macotay
Zambal: fighting man the honor of being leader
o In central and Souther Luzon, political organization was more
developed
Tagalog
Rajahship in Manila
Datuship in the rest of the region
Bicol:Datuship, datu as leader and assisted by the duluyan
or workers and served by oripons or slaves
o In souther Phil
Mandaya: divided into small groups ruled by bagani- a
warrioi8r recognized by his great deed
Bukidnon: DAtuship and passed on the right to rule to son
or younger brother
Tagalambong Ha DAtu Patolawas: to confirm
succession
Datus subject was sakop
Manobo: community governemtn called banua in which
three or more datus ruled
Etc. p43 first paragraph

II. ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

o Communalism: mutual sharing of resources

o Ownership of land was unimportant
o The right of usufruct was what regulated the developments of land
o Marine resources and fishing grounds were free to all
o Angambit of the Sama: Komkoman-mundaan: only the recognized
leaders enjoy some economic privileges and benefits in exchange of
their protection and providing them with leadership and means of
survival
 o Internal and External Trade:
o Interbaranganic exchange: interdependence between lowland
and upland societies
E.g. Ilocano and Igorot, Tagalog and Mangyan, Visayan and
ManoboTausug and Sama, etc
o *the interdependence was one of the ancient foundation of
peace andd security
o Exposure to variety of trade items
Demands for new products such as chinese porcelain, silk
and coins; Indian peace goods, Malay metal works
Forest and sea products
o Lead to the entire upland, lowland and coastal communities in a
network of economic exchanges and interdependence extending
as far as China and India

III. SOCIO CULTURAL PROCESSES

o Established line of coordination and economic identity: communities

consciously strengthen and preserve their ancient traditions from
external contact
o Social Structure of Pre-Islamic Philippines: datuship or baranganic set
up in which social classes formed a natural hierarchy of status
o Leaders: men of wealth and prestige
o Class of freemen: below the leaders, largest sector in society and
provided society with warriors artisan, and artists and other
special service
Maharlika in tagalog
Timawa in Visayas
o The last level included two classes
Alipin namamahay: forced labor for offenses committed
against society
Alipin saguiguilid: no rights and privileges and were
considered properties that could be sold or exchanged
o Cultural communities: p.45 last paragraph

CHAPTER 4: THE RISE OF COMMUNITIES

A. THE MOROS

o Three inter-related processes of Islamization

 o Political process embodies in both the structure and function of
the Sultanate
Establishment or spread of Islamic Roots in Maguindanao
Ummah: community of believers
Led to the development of a folk-ilamic tradition
which was a blend of Islam and indigenous tradition
o Sultanate: forced inhabitants of the sulu archipelago to accept
islam
Sulu sultanate claimed: Tawi-tawi, sulu, Palawan, basiulan,
and zamboanga
4 ethnic groupd were under this jurisdiction: Sama, tausug,
Yakan and Subanun
Sultan exercise paramount control over the peoples
The Sultanate as an Islamic Element brought to the
southern archipelago revolves around the praise and
worship of Allah and doing his will
o Spanish rule that evolve into three interrelated patterns
o Indigenous communities or the infieles
o Muslim community or Moros
o Christian community or indios

B. INDIOS

o The settlements that were Hispanized or Christianized were lowland

populations within the direct route or perimeter of Spanish military
influence
o The elimination of the Muslin in Manila secured Luzon and Visayas for
the eventual work of Christianization and pacification
o Distinction between Indio Community and Moro community was
established by the end of 16th century.

C. THE INFIELES

o Pagans
o The Spanish colonial strategy of pacification required the takeover first
of the lowland communities and the coastal villages especially those
vital to trade. Hence, the upland societies were naturally outside the
immediate concern of Spanish interest.
o Successful preservation of the upland communities was due to the
effort of the upland inhabitants to resist the new influence by
 withdrawing into deeper recesses of the hinterlands and into
inaccessible cliffs and forests often devastating for westerners.

CHAPTER 5: COLONIALISM AND TRADITIONS

A. Colonial System
-Spain established Spanish Colonialism which is summarized into
a. GOD- Religious fervor, to convert the natives
b. GLORY- adventure, power, national pride of the colonizers
c. GOLD- expand trade, gain profit from the colony

1. Colonial Aims
Spain as a colonial power is never complete without the use of
religion.
They always emphasize the need to spread Christianity
throughout the Spanish dominions.
Expeditions from 1521-1565 were accompanied by religious
missionaries who were all prepared to preach the Christian
faith
Its their way to explore and exploit the material resources of
the colonies.
One proof that Spain uses religion as their way to colonize is
when Magellan landed on Limasawa (Butuan) the first
significant act taken besides the procurement of needed
provisions, was the celebration of the mass. And then the
conversion of high ranked people like Rejah Humabon and
King Tupas
The Oriental Empire (Asian counties and people in terms of
their location relative to Europe) placed the Philippines
strategically in the heart of Spanish imperial design.
System of colonial rule Spain established in the Philippines
was determined by various colonial aims
Political, Economic, Social and cultural aspects of
administration had to be effectively designed to insure that
power, wealth and status in the colony were conveniently and
exclusively enjoyed by the Spaniards.
2. Economic Institutions
Necessitated the establishment of definite institutions to bring
in the economic and material benefits expected from the
colony
Effective use of the components of national economy
represented by income or benefits derived from land, trade
 and commerce, and labor. This all leads to the policies and
practices which also encouraged abuses and oppression.

The institutions:

a. Encomienda
o Not a land grant
o A system of land distribution that brought greater benefits to
the colonial officials and institutions involved.
o More on personal benefits of the encomenderos
o Was abolished but did not affected religious orders (example:
Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans and Jesuits) who were
not freed from the temptation to profit from the ignorance and
weaknesses of the natives
-By purchase or donations
- landed interests (called: temporalities)
b. Haciendas
Marked feature of agrarian development in the archipelago in
which the religious was the central focus.
c. Taxation
Tributes and dues were imposed on the people and were used
for the benefit of the Spanish community. Very little went into
improving native conditions.
d. Monopolies and Galleon Trade
Establishment of a monopolistic foreign trade by Spain
through only two parts (Manila, Philippines and Acapulco,
Mexico) disputed and eventually destroyrd the dynamic
nature of Philippine external trade and commerce. It was done
through limitations to freedom of trade and strict legal
exactions on native trade by limiting foreign entry to only one
port.
e. Polos Y Servicios (Forced Labor)
Colonial laws/ordinances required the natives to provide either
free labor or labor with nominal compensation for all sorts of
Spanish needs, from domestic services at home to military
services in Spanish expeditions
3. Political Set-up
Colonialism needed a kind of power arrangement that would
allow the realization of colonial aims thus the creation of
dualistic-hierarchical pattern.
- Colonial structure consisted of a bureaucracy with
appropriate linkages between the home government
 and the colony that ensured the exercise of authority by
the Spaniards and the performance of responsibilities by
the natives.
- The colonial system allowed the natives to preserve
their ancient political structures because they found its
preservation and use effective in the collection of
tributes and in suppressing one group of natives by
another under the policy of divide and rule which
means to gain and maintain power by breaking up
larger concentrations of power into chunks that
individually have less power than the one implementing
the strategy.
4. Socio-Cultural Patterns
o Social structure: Spaniards relation to the natives more on
superior-inferior; civilized-primitive
- Rank or status in the native structure is set aside.
- Datu, timawa, and the alipin or oripon were just one class
level (lowest class) in the colonial society, not entitled to
any social importance and rights except to serve those
above them.
- Even datus were not treated as important even by the
ordinary Spaniards.
o Social Stratification: It was local to national level based on racial
and religious factors.
- Indios, moros and infieles divided the entire Philippines into
three national societies definitely beneficial to the
Spaniards.
- Indios (Christianized natives) allowed certain status,
although below Spanish, higher than that of the moros and
infieles who were regarded as the lowest.
- Moros and infieles were deprived, ridiculed and repressed
because of their religious traditions
B. Native Responses
1. Indio Response
o Indios interacted with the colonizers
o They manifested two types of attitude to colonialism
- Willingness to assimilate what was necessary for acquiring
benefits from the system.
Expressed by propaganda movement which sought
the reform to the colony through the expulsion of
the friars, the representation of the {hilippines in the
 Spanish Cortes, and the institution of specific
reforms.
- Separation from Spanish rule, but not necessarily from
Spanish civilization.
o It was the ideals of independence and freedom that unified the
natives of the archipelago, however divided or separated
geographically and culturally they might have been.
2. The Moro Struggle
o The Muslims learned the lessons of dealing with colonialism
when they were defeated and succeeded by Spain on 1570. Their
subsequent action was marked by uncompromising battles
against Spanish expeditions sent frequently against uslim beses
in Mindanao and Sulu, the two centers of Sultanate.
3. Response of Other Minorities
o Other non-Christians who were not Islamized who withdraw from
the pressures of colonialism.
o The Cordilleras was quite inaccessible under normal
circumstances.
o The kind of response the tribal minorities chose to deal with
colonial threat worked well to their advantage by making it
difficult for Christianity to really take a foothold in their
traditions.
o The religious missions did not achieve the level of success as
achieved in the lowland communities.

CHAPTER 6: IMPERIALISM AND FILIPINISM

A. The Imperialist Thrust

The end of Spanish colonial rule in 1898 by the Treaty of Paris did
not mean for the Filipinos the end of their independence
struggle.
What happened is that just transfer of sovereignty from one
power to another (Spain-America)
Establishment of American Colonial rule was based on policies
and programs comprehensive enough to allow American
presence throughout the archipelago.
The United States declared their intention to establish
sovereignty over Philippines but would endeavor to pursue a
humane policy to assimilate the colony.
American rule and policies were actually implemented showed
the imperialistic character of the American colonial venture
through the following:
 - The complete exclusion of the Filipinos from the process of
participating in the capitulation of Manila during the
conclusions of the Treaty of Paris.
- Military suppression of Filipino resistance from 1899 to
1913 during which period thousands died including about
20,000 Muslims.
- The display of any nationalistic fervor in art, literature and
whatever was punished under the Sedition Law of 1907.
- Suppression of revolutionary movements continued after
the establishment of civil government in the Muslim South
in 1914.
- There were policies especially in the area of trade that was
made as an imperialist tool.
The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909-free trade
where Philippine exports to the United States would
be governed by quotas but that of US would enter
the Philippines without any limitation at all.
Philippines could only export products confined to
what American industries needed as raw materials.
Simmons-Underwood Tariff Act of 1913- eliminated
the quotas on Philippine products, thus establishing
free trade mutually and equally between the two
countries.
Tyddings-Mcduffie Law of 1934- Quotas were back
Reinforcing the political and economic control of US over the
Philippines was more subtle, indirect, and effective means of
socio-cultural reorientation of the Filipinos through schools,
sports, literature, language, art, music, religion, health and
sanitation and others related to value-charging and concept-
forming processes.
- The level of modernization made the socio-cultural
approach readily acceptable to the Filipinos.
B. The Nationalist Reaction
Unlike Spanish colonialism to which the Filipinos reacted negatively,
American imperialism evoked a kind of response that was clearly
marked dilemmas, dividing the Filipinos in a way into those who
opposed American presence and those who welcomed it.
1. military phase of American Rule (1898-1913)
o The Filipinos determinedly fought from Manila up to Northern
Luzon and down to Bicol Peninsula, the Visayas, and Mindanao
 but neutralized by the equally substantial sector of the people
opting to accept the American rule and reorganize themselves.
2. The revolutionary Continuum (1901-1935)
o The revolutionary struggle throughout the islands continued in
Luzon and the Visayas through messianic or nativistic
movements such as the Dios-Dios in Tayabas, the Pulahan in
Samar, Papa Isio in Bicol and others.
3. The Parliamentary Alternative (1919-1935)
o Parliamentary missions that were sent by the Philippine
Legislature to the United States to work for the independence of
the Philippines.
o The period was really a decade of political excitement involving
various Filipino politicos who were more interested in projecting
their national image rather than in the real question of
independence.
o The Filipino legislators used public funds for the independence
missions to the US where the members enjoyed the changing
seasons of Washington D.C. and whereabouts.
4. Reaction to Independence (1920-1935)
o The Filipino responses to the prospects of independence
(possibility of success)
o The Americans in the Philippines were not in favor of
abandoning the colony after spending time, effort and money
for what they believed was a good pioneering venture.
o The Muslims, especially their leaders, registered their
opposition to independence, although there were also those
who favored independence.
5. Test of Filipino Loyalty (1945-1946)
o The establishment of commonwealth gave the Filipinos the
opportunity to enjoy autonomy prior to independence. The
elite, who assumed the leadership during the period,
demonstrated that the American colonial experiment was
successful in the Philippines.
o The Filipino transformation during the period of American
colonialism had affected the nationalist movement.
o It was this uncertainty, confounded by dilemmas o f
developments that made the Filipino and his aspirations
vulnerable to external manipulation and exploitation.

Chapter 7: Neo colonialism and Nationalism(1946-1972)

A) Roots of Neocolonialism
Neocolonialism- context of tattered economy, political uncertainties, and
socio-cultural dislocations that a new reality emerged out of a strategic
colonial withdrawal and Filipino aspirations.

Tydings--McDuffie law- o free the U.S. legally and formally from obligations of
postwar reconstruction.

Four avenues opened to neo-colonialism:

1) political

2) economic

3) military

4) socio- cultural
Important measures:

Bell Trade Relations Act- gave economic assistance

Tydings Rehabilitation Act- gave financial help ($620M)

Another area of postwar relations:

Military affairs and security

-Military Bases Agreement (March 14, 1947)

-Military Assistance Pact (March 21, 1947)

-Mutual Defense Treaty (August 30, 1951)

B) Response to Neo-Colonialism

1) Ruling Sector- represented by political leaders, or social or economic elites

Manuel Roxas to Diosdago macapagal presidency

-marked by a dichotomy of national development and an ambivalent national

policy often dictated by the US.

Roxas (1946-1948)-pursuit of liberal democracy

Quirino(1948-1952)-economic goals and programs and obtained $250M
aid package
Magsysay(1953-1957)-pursued a populist approach by looking at the
tao-a little man in the society
Garcia(1957-1961)- Filipino First Policy and Retail Trade Nationalization
Law
Macapagal(1961-1965)-promised land reform to emancipate the
farmers from bondage
 New profile of leadership:
Marcos- his economic plans reflected a conscious effort to gradually
free the economy from foreign control
-labeled his government as US-Marcos Fascist
dictatorship

2) Proletarian and peasant classes

Motivation: inertia of social struggle
They seek: radical change of condition/social order
Huk Movement- role in the anti-japanese struggle

Jose Ma. Sison, Edgar Jopson, Voltaire Garcia III- the parliament of streets
-collectively fighting the new US-Marcos dictatorship
Nur Misuari-led the separatist struggle in radicalizing the Muslim youth
September 21, 1972-declaration of martial law through P.D. 1081

Cultural expressions of protest, resistance:

-speeches and essays (C. Recto)
-Summons to greatness (Taada)
-The untold Philippine society and Revolution (J.Ma. Sison)

Chapter 8: Democracy on Trial (1972-1986)

a) Constitutional Authoritarianism
-marcos established a regime of authoritarianism
it was not democratic, yet it was rationalized under the concept of
constitutional authoritarianism
Crisis (because of the regime) affects:
-economy, social stability, political effectiveness of government and even
morality.

New Society- aim to initiate a kind of social transformation that would not
only improve social, economic and political well-being but also to free from
neo-colonial control.
August 23, 1983- assassination of Aquino
-finally put the opposition forces in a powerful juggernaut and produce
people power
Filipino Ideology- theoretical answer of the regime to the problem of unity.
1) political emancipation
2) economic liberation
3)social concord

b) Yellow Revolution (February 23, 1986)

revolutionary government- installed by enrile-ramos military and Aquino-sin
faction which took immediate action to dismantle the previous regime.
Freedom constitution- promulgated by Aquino providing her government a
temporary lega foundation.

c) The National Community

3 historic communities:
The Christian sector
Protestant groups
Cultural communities

Chapter 9: Democracy at Work (1992-1997)

1) The New Rhetorics
-to bring a nation politically divided to focus attention on certain principles of
leadership, ideals of governance, and visions of development.
President Ramos- thumbs up sign to stress positive note of the will and
capacity to carry out promises, commitments in contrast to the previous
admin. Whose symbol of purpose and interest was the negative laban sign
(L).
Political measures taken to pursue development:
1) peace talks with military faction
2) peace initiatives and negotiations with Chairman Nur Misuari(MNLF)
3) peace process seeking to bring NDF-NPA to a peace agreement
4) pursuit of people empowerment through Autonomy law for muslim
Mindanao of 1989 and LGC(1991)

2) Breakthrough, Recovery, and Progress

By mid 1995- visible signs of economic recovery, political stability and
renewed faith in the Filipino began to be positively portrayed in both
domestic and foreign media during Ramos administration.
3) Tests of Stability
-oppositions tried to shake the structure of the Ramos administration
December 8, 1997- ramos pair tribute to Filipino creativity and genius in the
field of culture and challenged others of equal potentials to follow in their
steps.

Conclusion:
Indeed, the history of the Philippines is the story of a people struggling to
create a nation they can truly call their own. Instead of recovering from the
cord of primordial unity, they had developed a particular fondness for their
habitat and, consequently, received the stimulus to human development and
progress which is called culture. The Filipino nation had only removed the
rags of colonial bondage but the chains had remained. The struggle has
become even more burdensome and complex because of the failure to
strengthen the cultural bonds between the communities and to decolonize
the values that have governed their relations. In a word, the bond of national
unity is as elusive as the reality of peace.