TITLE:

Tensile testing of metals.

OBJECTIVES:
To determine the tensile strength of metals.
To understand the general shape of the tensile stress and strain curve.

INTRODUCTION:

Tensile test are used in selecting materials for engineering applications. These tests provide
important information about properties of materials. Tensile properties often are measured during
development of new material and its process as well as predict the behavior of material under form
of uniaxial tension. Tensile testing is a way of determining how something will react when it is
pulled apart - when a force is applied to it in tension.

THEORY:

The load apply to the two ends of tensile specimen, the mechanical behavior may be predict by
stress and strain test. There are three types of load for it as tension, compression and shear.

This laboratory experiment based on the how the tension effect to the tensile specimen. The tensile
force can be apply until the specimen fracture. One of the most common stress and strain test is
perform from the tension test.
The ratio in between force and cross sectional area is defined as stress.
()
Stress () = ()

The ration in between elongations length and gauge length is defined as strain
()
Strain () = ()

There are two types of stress and strain as follows.

(1) True stress and true strain

(2) Engineering stress and engineering strain

For the true stress mean ration in between force and instantaneous area.
For the true strain mean ration in between elongate and instantaneous gauge length
For the engineering stress mean ration in between force and initial area
For the engineering strain mean ratio between elongate and initial gauge length
 For the tensile test calculations engineering stress and engineering strain are used.

Tensile test do to a metallic specimen. In SLIIT laboratory tensile test do to a steel

specimen. Tensile test can be apply to any materials such as polymers, ceramic, metal etc.
The measurement of the tensile specimen is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

The gage length the reduced diameter section length can be calculate as the gage length. In here
calculate cross sectional area from this length. The necking also happened somewhere in this
reduced section. Usually gage length has marked in specimen.
Diameter to calculate the cross sectional area the smallest diameter can be measured.

Larger diameter used to hold the specimen in the tensile testing machine. The necking cannot be
happened in here because as it has larger diameter its mass also high.

According to the American Standard for Testing Material (ASTM) all the materials have a standard
length and diameter respectively but at times it can vary about 1mm or 2mm.
There are two types of deformation that are occurred during the test of materials

Elastic deformation
Plastic deformation

Elastic deformation:
In this deformation the length of the specimen can come to the original length. This occur
until the upper yield point according to the force elongation diagram. After the test the
elastic deformation is zero. Therefore this is 100% recoverable by strain.
 Plastic deformation:
In this deformation occur after the specimen reaches to its upper yield point. Fracture of
the specimen occur during this region and ultimate tensile strength can be seen in here as
the necking point. After the test plastic deformation has some value.

Another important theory in tensile test is; as the maximum load the material can have is
at UTS point but it shows a plastic deformation. Actually the upper yield point can be used
to have a maximum load as it shows the elastic deformation , but the UTS point value
cannot applicable for choose a best material to build a structure. The reason for this is from
the UTS point the necking point dramatically increasing.

MATERIAL AND APPARATUS:

Steel tensile specimen
Tensile test machine
Extensometer to calculate percentage area reduce and calculate percentage

Figure 2

Figure 3
Figure 4
PROCEDURE:

First take a carbon steel with yield point phenomenon.

Then adjust percentage area reduction gauge and percentage elongation gauge in to
zero position.
Then measure the following using vernier caliper.
1. Gage length
2. Diameter of the steel specimen
Then hold the steel specimen inside the tensile test machine.
Fix it tiedly and check it everything was prepared well.
Next step tensile test machine was given a force to the two ends of the
phenomenon.
Values of force and displacement were calculated by the computer. Material
behavior can be observed by the force elongation diagram.
The force was plotted upward of vertical axis and elongation was plotted by the
right horizontal axis.
While the force was been given to steel specimen; at first force rise rapidly. This
was shown diagram as force and elongation proportional.
In here material behavior as elastics deformation. At this point if the specimen
piece unload it is going to its initial length. At the end of the plastic deformation
point is known as upper yield point.
After the upper yields point the specimen behaviors as the plastic deformation.
This plastic deformation occurs suddenly the drop of the force.
If the tensile specimen was unloaded it cannot go to its original length as it shows
permanent elongation.
The force is continuous force was shown from the diagram with slight changes of
values. When it has come to the lowest point is known as lower yield point.
After this lower yield point again the force was increase and near the maximum
force the specimen was longer and thinner but was kept as the cylindrical shape.
The maximum force is known as Ultimate tensile stress.
Soon as the maximum force was given the one point of the specimen was occurred
as the necking point and eventually fractures the specimen from there.
Next as the specimen fractured remove the two part of it from the tensile test
machine.
Then calculate the percentage elongation after fracture can be determine.
 As the final step the small diameter where the specimen was fractured can
determine the percentage area reduction at necking point by the percentage area
reduction gage.

Figure 5
CALCULATION
Original cross sectional area = r2 = * (2.25)2 = 15.9mm2
6750
Upper yield stress = = = 424.52 Nmm-2
15.9

6700
Lower yield stress = = 15.9 = 421.38 Nmm-2

9631
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) = = 15.9 = 605.7 Nmm-2

()
Engineering Stress () = = =
() 15.9

()
Engineering Strain () = = =
() 16.2

Percentage elongation = = 30%

Percentage area near (necking) =50%

Percentage area reduction = = 15%

Young modulus = slope = =

RESULTS
Gage length = 16.2 mm
Diameter = 4.5mm
Force at upper yield point (by assuming according to the graph) =6750 N
Force at lower yield point (by assuming according to the graph) = 6700N
Ultimate tensile force = 9631N

Percentage elongation = = 30%

Percentage area near (necking) =50%

Percentage area reduction = = 15%

CONCLUSION:

Only metallic materials can have two yields points on the graph. Other materials can have only
one yields point in the graph. The necking happened after reaches to the ultimate tensile strength
of the material. At this point the diameter reduce drastically only from one point. During the test
its difficult to predict this point. When diameter reduced necking is increasing.
The results from tensile test differ from each material. Some material takes fracture point only in
elastic deformation and some other material fracture during the plastic deformation.
The percentage area reduction and percentage elongation will be vary according to the limitation
on instrument because cannot measure it to the real decimal place and other reason is errors occur
during reading the measurements.
In industries these values helps to building a new structure with these different types of materials
which can apply the maximum load for it.

REFERENCES:

William D Callister, Jr & David G. Rethwisch (2009) Material science and

Engineering, New York John Wiley & sons.
Davis, Joseph R. (2004). Tensile testing (2nd ed.). ASM
International. ISBN 978-0-87170-806-9.
Czichos, Horst (2006). Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement
Methods. Berlin: Springer. pp. 303304. ISBN 978-3-540-20785-6.
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/
http://www.azom.com/
Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003,
Smith & Hashemi 2006,