Elder 1

The Bandgap Energy of Germanium

Todd Elder, Nygel Jones, Colin Lewis

(Dated: October 21, 2014)

Abstract:

We test the band theory of solids in respect to the element germanium

in order to determine the bandgap energy of germanium. The band theory of
solids predicts variability in the available energies for electrons in materials
as temperature changes. The available energies form bands, or a range of
possible excitation energies, contrary to the discrete energy gaps in free
atoms. We determine the temperature of a sample of germanium, the
voltage across the sample, and the current of the circuit providing the
voltage across the sample. From this, we calculate the conductivity of the
germanium as a function of temperature. We find that the bandgap energy of
germanium is 0.72 eV .0036 eV .

Introduction:

Matter is composed of atoms. Atoms were thought to be indivisible

building blocks of matter. Following Einsteins discovery of the photoelectric
effect, and the later formulation of quantum mechanics, the belief of atomic
indivisibility was dismissed. In its stead, quantum mechanics explains that
there are subatomic particles, or constituent pieces of the atom, with
intrinsic properties. One such property is the quantization of atomic energy-
levels. Energy exchanges at the atomic level are limited to discrete,
predetermined quantities; arbitrary energy exchanges are not possible.

The electron is a fundamental charge-carrying fermion. A fermion is a

subatomic particle with half-integer spin which coincides with the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. The electron is also a constituent part of all atoms. As
such, the electron is subject to quantization.

Since matter is composed of atoms, and electrons are a constituent of

atoms, it can be concluded that electrons are present in all matter.
Furthermore, as electrons carry charge and electric current is the flow of
electric charge, and conductivity is the measure of a materials conduction of
an electrical current, it can be concluded that conductivity is dependent
upon the movement of electrons through the atomic lattice of matter.
Quantization deals with the movement of electrons through atomic orbitals.
Hence, there exists a relationship between conductivity and quantization.
 Elder 2

The relationship between conductivity and quantization begins with

Physicist Wolfgang Paulis formulation, the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The Pauli
Exclusion Principle, when applied to electrons, states that no two electrons in
an atom can have identical quantum numbers. As a result, the electrons of a
material which seek to minimize the total energy in the material by going to
the lowest energy-level in the atom are unable to, as they cannot share the
same lowest state. This means that the materials electrons fill all available
positions in the energy-level structure of the atom from the bottom up. When
a particle is at absolute zero, the top of the collection of electron energy
levels is called the Fermi level. This stems from Fermi-Dirac statistics, which
studies the distribution of fermions. The distribution is represented by the
1
f ( E)=
equation (E Ef )/( kT )
e +1 , [2] where f(E) represents the probability that a

particle will have energy E, k is the Boltzmann constant, E is a specific

EF
energy level, T is the temperature of the material in kelvin, and is the
Fermi energy level. Thus, the probability of an electron occupying a higher
energy-level is dependent upon the temperature of the material.
lim f ( E )=1 lim f ( E ) =0.
Mathematically this is expressed: T and T0 Explicitly, as

the temperature of a material increases, the probability of having an electron

E
at energy level E such that E> F increases. Conversely, as the
temperature of a material decreases, the probability of having an electron at
E
energy level E such that E> F decreases. In turn, this temperature
dependency explicitly influences quantization, as more energy levels are
accessible to an atoms electrons.

The Band theory of solids proposes that the available energy states of
atoms form bands. These bands are essentially groupings of discrete energy
levels which are similar enough to allow for a variety of energetic electrons
to occupy the levels of the band.

The Band theory of solids relates to conductivity in that the difference

between the conduction band and Fermi level of a material dictate electrical
properties of materials. The conduction band of a material quantifies the
energy band required to free an electron from its bound state, thereby
allowing the electron to move freely within the atomic lattice of the material.
This is essentially the flow of charge within the material.
 Elder 3

By combining the Band theory of solids, the Pauli Exclusion Principle,

and Fermi-Dirac statistics, a deeper understanding of the relationship
between conductivity and quantization becomes apparent. As the
temperature of a material increases, the probability that an electron will
E EF
occupy an energy level E such that E> F where is the Fermi level of
the material increases. In turn, a higher fraction of the electrons of the atoms
of the material can bridge the gap between the Fermi level and the
conduction band, thereby allowing the electrons to participate in electrical
conduction. Therefore, conduction is dependent upon the temperature of a
material. Since resistivity is simply the inverse of conductivity, resistivity is also
dependent upon the temperature of a material. As temperature increases, electrons
move more easily through the atomic lattice, and are thus more conductive. As
temperature decreases, electrons are not able to move as freely, and thus the
material has a higher resistivity. This concept is explained mathematically by the
Eg

equation R=R 0 e 2 kT
, where R is the resistivity,
R0 is an unknown constant, T is

the temperature in kelvin,

E g is the bandgap energy, and k is the Boltzmann

constant.

Method:

The experiment was accomplished using a 15V power supply to provide

current to a heater, a 12V power supply to provide a voltage across a sample of
undoped and pure germanium, three digital voltmeters which measure the current
across the heater, the voltage across the sample, and the voltage across the heater,
and a timer.

The circuit connecting all of the above apparatus was connected and
provided a voltage. The current and voltages across the germanium sample were
recorded by hand in 5-second intervals. After 100 data points were recorded from
each voltmeter, the heater was turned off, and another set of 100 data points were
taken in 5-second intervals as the sample of germanium dropped in temperature.

Results:

The data set for the voltage across the sample was subject to the conversion
100
T ( ) =V which produced a data set of the temperature of the sample of
1.00 V

germanium. The temperature in Celsius was then converted to degrees Kelvin.

 Elder 4

Eg /2 kT
The equation R=R 0 e , where k is the Boltzmann constant, was

Eg
manipulated to produce ln ( R )= + ln ( R0 ) . The data should produce a linear
2 kT

function such that the energy gap of germanium can be derived from the slope of
the line.

The resistivity of germanium was derived from the voltage and the current
through the sample of germanium. Thus, the natural logarithm of the resistivity of
the germanium was plotted as a function of temperature as shown in Fig. 1. This
Eg
produced a linear function. The slope of the function produced a value for 2k .

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1
f(x) = 4211.22x - 15.49
-2
R = 1
-3
ln(R)
-4 ln[R]
Linear (ln[R])
-5

-6

-7

1/T [k^-1]

Figure 1 Ln[R] as a function of the temperature of the sample of germanium

Analysis:

Eg
The slope seen in Figure 1 is set equal to 2 k , yielding a bandgap energy

E g=0.72 eV .0036 eV . This result is in accordance with previously measured

bandgap energies of germanium, which are measured to be 0.66 [eV]. Thus, there is
10% error in the accuracy of the experiment.

Discussion:
 Elder 5

The results indicate that there was error of 10% in the methodology outlined
by the experiment. The error is likely a product of an unpure sample of germanium
or a lack of precision in the instrumentation. As well, the method in which data was
taken was particularly inconsistent, as each member read the data at arbitrarily
defined 5-second intervals. This is the most likely candidate for error.

Summary:

The experimentally determined value for

E g was determined to be

0.72 eV .0036 eV The results indicate a 10% error in the accuracy of the value.
However, given that limitations of proper methodical data recording existed, the
error is explicable and expected. The bandgap energy of germanium is a
fundamental characteristic of undoped germanium which makes it a favored
component of many semiconductor devices. As such, knowing the bandgap energy
of germanium is of significant applied importance.

References:

[1] Zeghbroeck, B. (2011, January 1). Chapter 2: Semiconductor Fundamentals. Retrieved

October 21, 2014, from http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/chapter2/ch2_3.htm

[2] Nave, C. (n.d.). Band Theory. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html