Chapter 4

APPLIED ROCK EIECHANICS FOR BLASTHOLE STOPING

AT KIDD CREEK MINES

Thiann R. Yu and William J. Quesnel

Kidd Creek Mines Ltd.

Timnins, Ontario P4N 7K1

ABSTRACT

At Kidd Creek, the annual production of 4.5 million tonnes of ore has
been achieved primarily with sublevel blasthole stoping. This mining
method has allowed underground operations to meet the designed
production capacity wh.ile maintaining an outstanding safety record. To
achieve this goal, rock mechanics principles have been integrated into
each facet of mining in the planning stage, in the production stage, and
in various stages of ground support. This paper evaluates the two
adopted mining sequences based on ground stress patterns, blasting
control, ground reinforcement, backfill support, and numerical modelling
for stope stability at the mines.
 BLASTHOLESTOPING AT KlDD CREEK MINES
INTRODUCTION
The Kidd Creek Minesite is located 27 km
north of the city of Timmins, Ontario. The
orebody is a base metal massive sulphide
deposit with a maximum width of 168 m by a
length of 670 m on the pit horizon. It strikes
due north, dips 75 to 85 degrees east, and has
been evaluated to a depth of 1524 m from the
ground surface.
An open pit operation was used to mine the
orebody from 1966 until 1977, when the pit
bottom reached a depth of 219 m at the north
end.
Development of the underground mine
commenced in 1969 with a ramp driven from
surface to the 1200 level, and the No.1 shaft
which was sunk to a depth of 930 m, for
recovering ore between the pit bottom and the
2600 level at a depth of 792 m.
In 1978, the No.2 shaft was completed to a
depth of 1530 m for hoisting ore mined below
the No.1 mine. No.2 mine attained 1.1 million
tonnes, one quarter of the 4.3 million tonnes
total production from Kidd Creek, in 1982.
A rock mechanics program was initiated at
the mine in 1968, to monitor the pit wall
stability, and to aid in the perimeter blasting
of the final pit wall. The program was
subsequently expanded to provide information on
the rapidly deepening open pit.
The services of a rock mechanics consultant
were used in the early work, as well as the
resources of CANMET, formerly known as the
Mines Branch of the Department of Energy, Mines
and Resources, Ottawa. They were requested to
conduct a special study on the underground/pit
interface in the south zone.
In 1975, as underground mining became the
najor ore supply, the mine retained an in-house
rock mechanics engineer to coordinate the
program, and later a group of engineering and
technical staff were formed to supply necessary
services such as ground control, blasting
control, backfill control and ground support
for daily operations.
ROCK/ORE TYPES OF THE MINES
The geological pattern of the orebody is
shown in the typical transverse section at the
northern end of the open pit (Figure 1) [Ecstall,
19743. The rock types from the hanging wall to
the footwall are rhyolite, rhyolite volcanic-
lastics, stringer ore, massive ore, carbon-
aceous horizon, rhyolite volcaniclastics, and
andesiteldiorite.
The Kidd Creek ores are nainly composed of
three major petrologic types. The first type,
stringer ore, is characterized by irregular
chalcopyrite stringers in a siliceous, grey
rhyolite host.
n .-.,,,--m.
0 .YO... .a.
I W".Z -7.7
I
m
m
LT"'."*'"=-
I,.-#c
c-m-m
-.
. . .
..- m
..
rn Is,- m , , t
Eim m < m -c-.=.
I KID0 CREEK M I N E S E C T I O N 214,600N
I
FIGURE 1: A TYPICAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION
The second type encompasses massive, banded and
bedded ores, composed primarily of pyrite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena and pyrrhotite.
The third type is characterized by fragments of
pyrite and/or sphalerite variably mixed with
fragments of rhyolite, argillite, chert, and
dacite together with carbonaceous material.
The size and geometry of the orebody, and its
association with a relatively competent host rock
favoured the development of large openings without
causing serious instability problems. Sublevel
blasthole open stoping with delayed backfilling
has been primarily employed for underground
operations.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINE ROCKS
Intensive laboratory test work [Herget and
Miles, 19741 has resulted in a set of represen-
tative data for major ore and rock samples as
shown in Table 1. The shear resistance of various
rock samples containing geological discontinui-
ties, determined under tri-axial conditions, are
listed in Table 2. The physical parameters of
mine rocks used for numerical modelling are
illustrated in Table 3.
BLASTHOLE OPEN STOPING METHODS
To supply over 17,000 tonnes of ore daily,
dependability and flexibility are the two key
parameters in the design of underground workings
and production facilities at Kidd Creek. Rock
mechanics programs, therefore, play an important
role in every facet of the mining operation.
 GEOMECHANICS APPUCATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING

TABLE 1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME MINE ROCKS

Core Compressive *Elastic **

0 Density strength modulus Poisson's No. of
Rock Type (mat) (g/cm3) (MPa) (GPa) ratio Specimens

Rhyolite 32 2.7 87 77 0.14 14

41 150 81 10
72 120 82 12
245 82 73 3

~ndesite/ 32 2.96 160 94 0.23 9

diorite 41 200 82 10
72 163 85 10
245 120 81 3

Massive 32 3.33 132 81 0.21 10

sulphjde 41 160 73 13
ore 72 144 78 13
245 150 83 3

Sphalerite 41 3.49 150 94 0.27 8

Dacite 41 2.94 180 103 0.27 3

Ouartz 41 2.64 133 85 0.23 3

porphyry
* Tangent modulus at 50% ultimate strength.
** Determined at 50% ultimate strength.

TABLE 2 AVERAGE VALUES OF COHESION AND FRICTION ANGLE *

Average Average angle

cohesion of friction
Discontinuity (ma) (degree)

Smooth 0.4 26
slickensided

Rough 0.7 31
slickensided

Rough 1.8 30
geologic
fractures

* Values quoted are representative of major rock units.

 BLASTHOLE STOPING AT KIDD CREEK MINES

TABLE 3 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF ROCKS FOR NUMERICAL MODELLING

kst. Modulus Poisson's

Rating of ratio
Rock E l a s t i c i t y Boundary F i n i t e
Rock Type RQD % Strength* Mass GPa element element

Andesitel 82 High Fair t o 57 0.29 0.2

diorite good

Rhyolite 6.5 Low Very poor 5 - 0.2

(Footwall
shear)

Ore 83 High Good 54 0.24 0.2

t o very
high

Dikes 50 High Fair t o 8 - 0.2

(Hang. w a l l poor
shear)

Rhyolite 72 Medium Fair 15 0.14 0.2

* S t r e n g t h r a t i n g b a s e d on t h e r a t i o o f t h e e l a s t i c modulus and u n i a x i a l
compressive s t r e n g t h v a l u e s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 1.

TABLE 4 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AT KIDD CREEK I N RELATION TO TRUE NORTH

Major 'prin. stress Interm. p r i n . s t r e s s Minor p r i n . s t r e s s

Magnitude D i r e c t i o n / Magnitude D i r e c t i o n / Magnitude ~ i r e c t i o n /
Depth dip dip dip
Site (m) (MPa) (degree) (ma) (degree) (MPa) (degree)

1600 L 488 33.1 094106 26.8 186123 10.7 350160

(1)

2400 L 732 72.6 258119 64.7 358125 34.4 135158

(1)

2800L 853 53.3 250110 51.9 342109 19.1 112177

-
(1)
(2 853 53.2 1 077112 39.9 170118 16.3 318170

( 1 ) Using CSIR b i a x i a l ( d o o r s t o p p e r )
(2) Using CSIR t r i a x i a l
98 CEOMECHANICS APPLICATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING
No.1 Mine
I n 1973 w h i l e p i t o p e r a t i o n s were i n p r o g r e s s
t o a d e p t h o f 144 m , t h e No.1 mine s h a f t ,
underground c r u s h e r , and o r e h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s
were commissioned.
With rock mechanics c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e under-
ground mining p l a n was t o l a y o u t b l a s t h o l e s t o p e s
of conservative dimensions, leaving a strong
l a t t i c e w o r k o f l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
p i l l a r s i n t h e wide o r e zone, t o s u p p o r t t h e crown
p i l l a r u n d e r n e a t h t h e p i t bottom. The primary o r e
e x t r a c t i o n r a t i o was planned f o r 30%.
S t o p i n g began i n t h e s o u t h s e c t i o n o f t h e s o u t h
zone above t h e 800 l e v e l a t t h e 240 m h o r i z o n .
The s t o p i n g b l o c k measured 240 m a l o n g t h e s t r i k e ,
90 m t o 180 m h i g h and 55 m t o 75 m wide. A
b u t t r e s s p i l l a r 36 m wide was l e f t i n t h e m i d d l e
o f t h e b l o c k , from t h e f o o t w a l l t o t h e hanging
w a l l , f o r ground s u p p o r t . The s t o p e w i d t h was
1 5 m and t h e h e i g h t v a r i e d from 90 m t o 150 m.
The v e r t i c a l r i b p i l l a r s between a d j a c e n t s t o p e s
were 1 5 m wide. I n t h e process of recovering t h e
p i t bottom from underground, unexpected h i g h
h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s wae e x p e r i e n c e d r e s u l t i n g i n
p i l l a r r o b b i n g and snapping ground.
The second s t o p i n g block above t h e 800 l e v e l
FIGURE 2: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF NO.l MINE STOPE AND PILLAR LAYOUT
was i n t h e c e n t r a l o r e zone. The proximity of a
s h e a r zone i n t h e hanging w a l l and v a r i o u s waste
i n c l u s i o n s r e s u l t e d i n t h e change of s t o p e - p i l l a r
w i d t h s t o 1 8 m wide s t o p e s w i t h 24 m wide
p i l l a r s . With wider p i l l a r s t h e development of a
new u n d e r c u t completely w i t h i n t h e p i l l a r was
made p o s s i b l e , f o l l o w i n g s t o p e b a c k f i l l i n g .
The a d v a n t a g e o f t h e above s t o p e - p i l l a r , l a y o u t
i n development work and t h e e x p e r i e n c e of h i g h
abutment s t r e s s underneath t h e p i t bottom
prompted t h e a d o p t i o n of 1 8 m wide s t o p e s and
24 m wide p i l l a r s below 800 l e v e l i n No.1 mine.
P r e s e n t l y p r o d u c t i o n s t o p i n g i n No.1 mine h a s
reached t h e 2000 l e v e l a t t h e 610 m horizon.
To d a t e no major problems w i t h ground i n s t a b i l i t y
have been encountered t o a l t e r t h e p r e s e n t
s t o p e - p i l l a r l a y o u t , a s shown i n F i g u r e 2.
However, t h e r e were some l o c a l c a s e s which were
r e l a t e d t o ground c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of
primary mining, i.e., s t o p e e x t r a c t i o n ; secondary
mining, i . e . , p i l l a r e x t r a c t i o n ; and t e r t i a r y
mining, i . e . , crown o r s i l l p i l l a r e x t r a c t i o n .
 BLASTHOLE STOPING AT KlDD CREEK MINES

NO .2 MINE with depth.

The b l a s t h o l e s t o p i n g method and The minor p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s i s about o n e - t h i r d

s t o p e - p i l l a r e x t r a c t i o n sequence used i n No.1
mine have proven t o b e h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e and
s a f e i n o p e r a t i o n . The s t o p e , however, must be
emptied p r i o r t o f i l l i n g . I n view o f mining
a c t i v i t i e s t o be carried out i n t h e deeper
No.2 mine, i t had been o f g r e a t c o n c e r n d u r i n g
t h e planning s t a g e a s t o whether t h e same mining
s t r a t e g y used i n No.1 mine would be a p p l i c a b l e
f o r No.2 mine.
I n 1978, f u l l s c a l e s t o p i n g e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h
two mining methods, t i g h t r i l l c u t and f i l l
(Avoca) and b l a s t h o l e open s t o p i n g were
conducted. The b l a s t h o l e s t o p i n g method was
e v a l u a t e d t o b e more f a v o u r a b l e f o r No.2 mine on
t h e b a s i s of p r o d u c t i o n and s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a .
The b l a s t h o l e s t o p e s i n No.2 mine were
modified from No.1 mine s t o p e s by s c a l i n g down
t h e s i z e , and changing t h e s t o p e geometry and
sequencing. To d a t e o v e r 30 s t o p e s have been
mined o u t s u c c e s s f u l l y . The modified s t o p e
was troughed a t t h e bottom and peaked a t t h e
t o p s o t h a t t h e s t o p e back would b e t i g h t l y
f i l l e d except f o r t h e a c c e s s d r i f t . Another
advantage o f such a s t o p e geometry was t h a t t h e
more uniform s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g
a n opening would make t h e s t o p e w a l l s more
s t a b l e . The mining s e q u e n c i n g was changed from
No.1 mine due t o t h e a n t i c i p a t e d h i g h e r s t r e s s e s
a t t h a t l e v e l , and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n a
separate section.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s a t Kidd Creek, rock
mechanics c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n d e t e r m i n i n g a n
optimum mining method, t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f
s t o p i n g and underground workings, and mining
sequencing were s t r i c t l t y e m p i r i c a l . To o b t a i n
background d a t a s o t h a t improvements c o u l d be made
with respect t o s t a b i l i t y analysis, in-situ
measurements were c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e mines.
included measurements of t h e p r e - m i n i n g f i e l d
s t r e s s , induced s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g
openings, b l a s t i n g e f f e c t s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
rock masses and m i c r o s e i s m i c i t y .
t h e magnitude of t h e major p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s and i t
l i e s i n a nearly v e r t i c a l orientation.
Except f o r t h e 2400 l e v e l r e a d i n g , t h e measured
maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s , 6 h , can b e b e s t
approximated by t h e e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) .
where H i s t h e d e p t h from s u r f a c e i n m e t r e s .
The a b n o r m a l i t y o f t h e measured 2400 l e v e l
f i e l d s t r e s s was p o s s i b l y due t o a g e o l o g i c a l
discontinuity near the t e s t s i t e , resulting i n
a l o c a l i z e d high s t r e s s area.
F i n i t e element m o d e l l i n g was used t o p r e d i c t
t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e p i t bottom, and i n
t h e crown p i l l a r , a s t h e underground mining
progessed upward towards t h e p i t f l o o r . I n a 2-D
n u m e r i c a l model, i . e . , i n a p l a i n s t r a i n c a s e ,
under a s i m u l a t e d s t r e s s f i e l d s i m i l a r t o t h a t
d e r i v e d from t h e above e q u a t i o n , a h o r i z o n t a l
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r o f 2.3 was shown a s
t h e abutment s t r e s s a t t h e p i t bottom [Yu, 19751.
It i n c r e a s e d t o a maximum o f 2.8 when t h e p i t
bottom became a crown p i l l a r r e s u l t i n g from a n
undercut s t o p e . T h i s a n a l y s i s was done b e f o r e
s t r e s s measurements had been t a k e n underground.
A s s t o p i n g c o n t i n u e d , u n t i l an i n t e r v e n i n g
p i l l a r was l e f t , t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n r o s e t o
3.3. T h i s f a c t o r was o b t a i n e d from 3-D n u m e r i c a l
m o d e l l i n g [Hedley e t a l . 19791. F i g u r e 3
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e change of t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a -
tion.
These

FIELD STRESSES

Pre-mining s t r e s s e s were measured w i t h CSIR

b i - a x i a l s t r a i n c e l l s o n t h e 488 m (1600 l e v e l ) ,
732 m (2400 l e v e l ) , and 853 m (2800 l e v e l )
h o r i z o n s , and w i t h CSIR t r i a x i a l c e l l s on t h e 2800
l e v e l [ M i l e s and H e r g e t , 19761. The measured
r e s u l t s a r e shown i n T a b l e 4.

Measurements i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e major p r i n c i p l e
s t r e s s i s o r i e n t e d roughly i n t h e e a s t - u e s t
d i r e c t i o n and t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s i s
i n t h e north-south d i r e c t i o n . Both l i e w i t h i n a
s u b h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 , 10 and
3% d i f f e r e n c e i n magnitude a t t h e 1600, 2400 and
2800 l e v e l s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and become i s o t r o p i c FIGURE 3: STRESS CHkWGE AT PIT BOTTOM
 GEOMECHANICS APPLICATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING
By a p p l y i n g t h e same d e r i v e d s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n f a c t o r , t h e s t r e s s l e v e l i n a crown p i l l a r on
t h e 12-3 s u b l e v e l a t t h e 270 m h o r i z o n was
p r e d i c t e d t o be l a r g e r t h a n 58 MPa. Evidence
of t h e h i g h s t r e s s f i e l d was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e low
p e n e t r a t i o n r a t e o f l a r g e r o t a r y d r i l l i n g , and
a l s o by t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n b l a s t i n g t h e s l o t
opening of a r i b p i l l a r between two b a c k f i l l e d
stopes.
ABUTMENT STRESS MEASUREMENTS
V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e abutment s t r e s s f i e l d s
were measured d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n and back-
f i l l i n g of s t o p e s u s i n g IRAD v i b r a t i n g - w i r e
s t r e s s m e t e r s . Measurements i n d i c a t e d t h a t a
zone of h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d abutment s t r e s s
e x i s t e d a t a d i s t a n c e e q u i v a l e n t t o one h a l f
of t h e w i d t h of t h e opening from t h e e x c a v a t e d
f a c e . F i g u r e 4 shows t h e measured abutment
s t r e s s e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e stope face.
Cemented r o c k f i l l c r e a t e d a p a s s i v e
p r e s s u r e on t h e a d j a c e n t r o c k mass c a u s i n g a n
i n c r e a s e of b o t h l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s
by o v e r 10 MPa [Yu, 19821.
Recent measurements have shown t h e
t r a n s i t o r y phenomenon of t h e abutment s t r e s s
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e x p o s u r e t i m e of a s t o p e
f a c e , which w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l l a t e r .
"
,<-I ++'
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 4 : ABUTMENT STRESS AS A FUNCTION OF
DISTANCE
DYNAMIC LOADING FROM BLASTING EFFECTS
Kidd C r e e k ' s f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e i n f i r i n g
l a r g e 200 mm d i a m e t e r b l a s t h o l e s f o r s t o p e
b l a s t i n g c a u s e d e x c e s s i v e damage t o t h e
adjacent p i l l a r s . I n o n e c a s e , s l o u g h i n g of
p i l l a r w a l l a l o n g t h e s t o p e boundary amounted
t o some 15,000 t o n n e s of o v e r - s i z e d o r e , which
l e d t o s e c o n d a r y b l a s t i n g problems. In the
o t h e r c a s e s , o v e r b r e a k of t h e f o o t w a l l o r
hanging w a l l r e s u l t e d i n t h e d i l u t i o n of o r e
g r a d e . Some o f t h e o v e r b r e a k c o u l d b e
a t t r i b u t e d t o u n r e c o g n i z e d major g e o l o g i c
s t r u c t u r e s , b u t a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e was due t o
t h e dynamic l o a d i n g .
The h i g h i n s t a n t a n e o u s s t r e s s induced by
b l a s t i n g caused a s e r i e s of t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s
i n a competent s t o p e w a l l , r e s u l t i n g i n
s c a b b i n g f a i l u r e s a t t h e f r e e f a c e s . The
b l a s t i n g induced s t r e s s can be determined from
t h e product of t h r e e parameters. These a r e
t h e rock d e n s i t y , t h e compressional wave
v e l o c i t y , and t h e p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , which i n
t u r n , i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c h a r g e weight per
delay.
To minimize t h e b l a s t i n g damage, y e t
m a i n t a i n p r o p e r f r a g m e n t a t i o n of t h e o r e , a
s e q u e n t i a l b l a s t i n g system was i n t r o d u c e d i n
1975. A maximum of 160 k g s of decked charges
was d e t o n a t e d w i t h in-the-hole d e l a y
i n i t i a t i o n techniques f o r f i r i n g l a r g e
b l a s t h o l e s [Blakey e t a l . 19761. From t h e
m o n i t o r i n g of b l a s t v i b r a t i o n , Kidd Creek h a s
e s t a b l i s h e d damage c r i t e r i a r e l a t e d t o t h e
c h a r g e w e i g h t , i n terms of t h e peak p a r t i c l e
v e l o c i t y . These c r i t e r i a have been used a s a
g u i d e l i n e f o r b l a s t i n g c o n t r o l [Yu, 19801. A
c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and t h e
s c a l e d d i s t a n c e h a s been found a s follows:
V=80 ( R / W ~ / ~ ) f- o~r . R~ / w ~ / ~ >( 2~) o
~ = 3 0(R/W
3 1/3)-1.88 for R / w ~ <
/ ~ 1 0 (3)
where V = peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , (cm/sec)
R = d i s t a n c e from b l a s t i n g s o u r c e , (m)
W = c h a r g e weight p e r d e l a y (kg)
Our e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e
c h a r g e weight p e r d e l a y and t h e d e g r e e of
v i b r a t i o n damage appeared t o b e i n good agreement
w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e d work [ C o a t e s , 19811.
PILLAR STRENGTH
It i s known t h a t t h e i n - s i t u compressive
s t r e n g t h of l a r g e rock masses, such a s mine
p i l l a r s , i s much lower t h a n t h e l a b o r a t o r y
compressive s t r e n g t h of s m a l l rock specimens.
T h i s i s due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of g e o l o g i c a l
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s w i t h i n t h e rock mass. The
geometry of t h e p i l l a r and t h e d u r a t i o n of
e x p o s u r e have been i d e n t i f i e d as parameters
affecting the characteristics as well.
For g e n e r a l d e s i g n purposes t h e i n - s i t u
compressive s t r e n g t h of p i l l a r s , Qu, can be found
from e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) .
Where Oc = u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h of Bx
(41 m diameter) cores a t the length -
d i a m e t e r r a t i o of 2
Because of t h e h i g h e r h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d s t r e s s
i n t h e mines a s d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , e v a l u a t i o n of
p i l l a r s t a b i l i t y was r e l a t e d t o t h e p i l l a r l e n g t t
r a t h e r than its f r e e standing height.
 BLASTHOLE STOPING AT KlDD CREEK MINES
For a given p i l l a r w i d t h , t h e p i l l a r s t r e n g t h
has been found t o f o l l o w t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s :
Qu = 0.75 Qc ~ ~ . ~ / ~f o ~
r -m 5. 35 H ( 5 )
Qu = 1.45 Qc B ~ ' ~ / H f ~o r . ~B(LQ).3H
~ (6)
where Qc = u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h of Bx
cores a t t h e length -
diameter r a t i o
of 2 , ( m a )
B = width of p i l l a r (m)
L = l e n g t h of p i l l a r (m)
H = h e i g h t of p i l l a r (m)
Experience has shown t h a t t h e l e n g t h of a 24 m
wide r i b p i l l a r i n massive s u l p h i d e o r e , between
two 18 m wide open s t o p e s on t h e 1600 l e v e l
(488 m), should be l e s s t h a n 66 m. The average
h o r i z o n t a l p i l l a r s t r e s s , w i t h a s t r e s s concen-
t r a t i o n f a c t o r of 1.75 a r r i v e d a t from t h e
t r i b u t a r y a r e a t h e o r y , approaches t h e p i l l a r
s t r e n g t h a s c a l c u l a t e d from e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) .
Major sloughing o c c u r r e d i n one of t h e r i b
p i l l a r s on t h e 1200 l e v e l a f t e r t h e n o r t h zone p i t
f l o o r was recovered. The f a i l u r e could be
attributed t o geological features, blasting
e f f e c t s , and h i g h s t r e s s concentratipn. However,
t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l e n g t h o f t h e p i l l a r , 75 m, could
be t h e main c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r .
DAYS
FIGURE 5: VARIATION OF ABUTMENT STRESS AS A
FUNCTION OF EXPOSURE TIME
101
TIME EFFECTS ON ROCK STRENGTH
I n most hard rocks e s p e c i a l l y massive s u l p h i d e
o r e s , time dependent rock f a i l u r e h a s been
observed i n underground workings.
Normally a s t o p e f a c e w i l l s t a r t t o s e e
d e t e r i o r a t i o n f o u r weeks a f t e r b l a s t i n g . T h i s can
b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e phenomenon of a slow time
s t r a i n adjustment [Morrison, 19761.
I n a r e c e n t measurement of abutment s t r e s s e s ,
IRAD gauges were i n s t a l l e d on t h e 20-2 s u b l e v e l
(540 m), 12.5 m away from t h e f a c e of an i s o l a t e d
s t o p e opening. During t h e monitoring period t h e r e
was no b l a s t i n g , o n l y s t o p e mucking was t a k i n g
p l a c e . An e x i s t i n g v e r t i c a l t a n g e n t i a l c r a c k was
s e e n t o open a t a d i s t a n c e of 10 m from t h e IRAD
g a u g e s , towards t h e s t o p e f a c e . Following t h e
opening of t h i s c r a c k an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s was r e v e a l e d by t h e s t r e s s
gauges. The s t r e s s r e a d i n g s reached a peak v a l u e
of 76 MPa, a s shown i n F i g u r e 5 , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e
time dependency of r o c k f a i l u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o
t h e t r a n s f e r of abutment s t r e s s . S e v e r a l 114 mm
d i a m e t e r b l a s t h o l e s n e a r t h e gauge s i t e were
f r a c t u r e d a s c l o s e a s 4 m away from t h e d r i f t
face.
By superimposing t h e peak s t r e s s on t h e i n i t i a l
f i e l d , t h e t o t a l s t r e s s l e v e l , 112 MPa was
i n d i c a t i v e of t h e i n - s i t u compressive s t r e n g t h of
t h e rock mass a t t h e s i t e of monitoring. A l s o ,
t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r of 3.1 a t t h e
abutment was i n agreement w i t h t h e observed
r e s p o n s e of t h e ground shown i n F i g u r e 4. The
i n - s i t u s t r e n g t h deduced from t h e maximum s t r e s s
a p p l i e d t o f a i l u r e appeared t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
t h a t d e r i v e d from e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) .
GROUND SUPPORT
The t y p e of ground s u p p o r t s e l e c t e d depends upon
ground c o n d i t i o n s and t h e permanence of t h e
opening. I n g e n e r a l a c c e s s d r i f t s , such a s
c r o s s c u t s and development h e a d i n g s , mechanical
b o l t s o r f r i c t i o n s p l i t s e t s a r e used. In
permanent workings such a s main haulageways,
d r a w p o i n t s , ramps, s h a f t a c c e s s e s , o r a r e a s
subject t o frequent b l a s t i n g vibration, r e s i n
g r o u t e d r e b a r s a r e commonly i n s t a l l e d . Each t y p e
of b o l t i s i n s t a l l e d i n a 1.2 m by 1.2 m p a t t e r n
o n average; c l o s e r i f ground c o n d i t i o n s w a r r a n t
i t . Normally b o l t s a r e 1.5 m long.
S h o t c r e t i n g , mesh s c r e e n s , t i m b e r s e t s , and
c o n c r e t e w a l l s a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y used t o p r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n a l support.
I n t h e roof of some l a r g e e x c a v a t i o n s , o r i n
some s t o p e w a l l s , combinations of l o n g c a b l e b o l t s
g r o u t e d w i t h cembnt, and r e s i n g r o u t e d r e b a r s a r e
used. Most c a b l e b o l t s a r e t e n s i o n e d t o one-half
of t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h t o p r o v i d e a c t i v e
support.
 GEOMECHANICS APPLICATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING
I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e optimum l e n g t h and s p a c i n g
of b o l t s f o r e f f e c t i v e support o f a l a r g e opening,
a n a l y s i s h a s been done u s i n g two e s t a b l i s h e d
c o n c e p t s [ C o a t e s , 1981; Hoek and Brown, 19801.
The r o c k a r c h c o n c e p t was used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
l e n g t h o f b o l t s r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e back o f
l a r g e workings.
Measurement o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n z o n e o f a n
abutment s t r e s s , shown i n F i g u r e 4 p r o v i d e s a
g u i d e l i n e f o r t h e minimum l e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t o f
c a b l e b o l t s t o support s t o p e w a l l s , one-half t h e
s m a l l e r w i d t h of t h e o p e n i n g t o b e r e i n f o r c e d .
The s p a c i n g i s g e n e r a l l y 3.3 m x 3.3 m.
The l a m i n a t e d beam t h e o r y i s t h e n u s e d t o f i n d
t h e l e n g t h and s p a c i n g o f s h o r t b o l t s , i n s t a l l e d
between t h e c a b l e b o l t s . The s p a c i n g o f b o l t s i s
k e p t s m a l l e r t h a n t h e l e n g t h and i s l e s s t h a n
t h r e e times t h e average block s i z e , t o t a k e i n t o
consideration t h e degree of rock f r a c t u r i n g .
The m i n e s have been u s i n g c o n s o l i d a t e d r o c k f i l l
t o f i l l mined o u t s t o p e s t o s t a b i l i z e a d j a c e n t
p i l l a r s , and t o p r o v i d e o v e r a l l mine s u p p o r t s o
t h a t t h e maximum e x t r a c t i o n o f o r e c a n b e a c h i e v e d
s a f e l y w i t h a minimum d i l u t i o n [Yu and C o u n t e r ,
19831.
From t h e m o n i t o r e d s t r e s s c h a n g e i n a p i l l a r
a d j a c e n t t o a s t o p e b e i n g f i l l e d , i t was o b s e r v e d
t h a t t h e b a c k f i l l not only prevented stope wall
sloughing, but it a l s o applied a confining
p r e s s u r e on t h e p i l l a r , analogous t o a t r i a x i a l
c e l l . T h i s enhanced t h e p o s t y i e l d p i l l a r
s t r e n g t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y [Yu, 19831. To d a t e , t h e
b a c k f i l l produced from -150 mm a g g r e g a t e and 52
cement by w e i g h t h a s shown f r e e s t a n d i n g e x p o s u r e s
50 m wide x 135 m h i g h . No d i l u t i o n o f f i l l
m a t e r i a l was s e e n d u r i n g t h e s t o p e mucking.
MINE PLANNING
At Kidd C r e e k , i t h a s been a s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e
t h a t any underground m i n i n g p l a n s h o u l d b e
reviewed by a l l d e p a r t m e n t s c o n c e r n e d , i n c l u d i n g
r o c k m e c h a n i c s . Mining p l a n s car, g e n e r a l l y b e
divided i n t o t h r e e categories; these a r e t h e short
t e r m , i n t e r m e d i a t e t e r m and l o n g t e r m p l a n s .
Short term p l a n s d e a l mainly w i t h d a i l y
p r o d u c t i o n l a y o u t s . Rock m e c h a n i c s p r o v i d e s
b l a s t i n g c o n t r o l by r e v i e w i n g e v e r y b l a s t d e s i g n ,
and a l s o p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e e f f e c t s o f
b l a s t i n g t o ground s t a b i l i t y . A d d i t i o n a l ground
s u p p o r t recommendations, p r i o r t o b l a s t i n g , a r e
also furnished.
The i n t e r m e d i a t e t e r m p l a n s i n c l u d e p r o p o s a l s
o n m i n i n g a m a j o r b l o c k between o n e l e v e l and
a n o t h e r , and t h e a s s o c i a t e d development work. In
such a p r o p o s a l , t h e e f f e c t s of s t o p e openings,
m i n i n g s e q u e n c i n g , and b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n s o n
l a r g e s c a l e ground s t a b i l i t y , a s w e l l a s b a c k f i l l
requirements a r e studied.
Evaluation of t h e s t a b i l i t y of s t o p e openings
includes a n a l y t i c a l a n a l y s i s , physical modelling,
and n u m e r i c a l m o d e l l i n g w i t h f i n i t e e l e m e n t and
boundary element programs.
The l o n g t e r m p l a n s c o v e r t h e mining method
f o r a g r o u p o f major mining b l o c k s o r a new
mine, s u c h a s t h e 1200 l e v e l c e n t r a l zone u s i n g
t h e s u b l e v e l c a v i n g method, and t h e modified
b l a s t h o l e s t o p i n g method i n No.2 mine.
EFFECTS OF GROUND STRESSES ON M I N I N G METHOD
I n s e l e c t i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e mining method
f o r No.2 mine t o e x t r a c t o r e below t h e 2600
l e v e l , r o c k mechanics c o n c e r n s had been
t h a t t h e ground p r e s s u r e s i n d e e p e r l e v e l s
would be c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e i n
No.1 m i n e , and t h a t t h e a v e r a g e h o r i z o n t a l
f i e l d s t r e s s would be about two and h a l f t i m e s
higher than t h e v e r t i c a l stress.
To m a i n t a i n a s a f e working environment,
mining o p e r a t i o n s were d e s i r e d such t h a t no
one would work under f r e s h l y b l a s t e d backs.
To s a t i s f y t h i s , b l a s t h o l e s t o p i n g was f i n a l l y
a d o p t e d . However, due t o t h e h i g h ground
p r e s s u r e , open s t o p i n g w i t h d e l a y e d
b a c k f i l l i n g might pose s t a b i l i t y problems f o r
s t o p e w a l l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y weak hanging w a l l s .
Hence s t o p e dimensions were l i m i t e d t o 1 5 m
wide by 30 m l o n g by 60 m h i g h , s m a l l e r t h a n
t h o s e i n No.1 mine. Also, t h e s t o p e was
t r o u g h e d a t t h e bottom and peaked a t t h e t o p
s o t h a t t h e s t o p e c o u l d be t i g h t l y f i l l e d , f o r
a d d i t i o n a l support.
The r e l a t i v e l y low s t i f f n e s s o f t h e
c o n s o l i d a t e d r o c k f i l l , o n e - t w e n t i e t h of t h e
r o c k m a s s , would h a r d l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
uniform s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n . As a r e s u l t , r i b
p i l l a r s would c a r r y a h i g h s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n p i l l a r r e c o v e r y problems.
F u r t h e r m o r e , i n view o f t h e " s p i t t i n g
ground" phenomena which o c c u r r e d d u r i n g
i n i t i a l development work t h r o u g h d a c i t e and
some o f t h e m a s s i v e s u l p h i d e o r e on t h e 2800
l e v e l , c a r e f u l mining sequencing was j u s t i f i e d
t o p r e v e n t t h e p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e of
r o c k b u r s t s , e v e n though most r o c k s i n No.2
mine would s t o r e o n l y one t h i r d o f t h e s t r a i n
e n e r g y o f b u r s t prone r o c k s , such a s R e v e t t e
q u a r t z i t e from Idaho mines [Chan, 19701.
A m i n i n g sequence which t o o k i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s was d e v e l o p e d , l e a v i n g no
remanent p i l l a r s . The sequence o f s t o p i n g was
t o open a l e a d s t o p e i n t h e c e n t r e of a n o r e
z o n e , a g a i n s t t h e hanging w a l l , and b a c k f i l l
i t . A second s t o p e was t h e n mined
i m m e d i a t e l y n e x t t o t h e f i r s t s t o p e towards
t h e f o o t w a l l [ B e l f o r d , 19811. S t o p e b l a s t i n g
o c c u r r e d on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e i n i t i a l s t o p e ,
f o u r weeks a f t e r t h e placement of c o n s o l i d a t e d
r o c k f i l l a s shown i n F i g u r e 6.
Mining s e q u e n c i n g f o r l o w e r b l o c k s h a s
f o l l o w e d t h e same p a t t e r n by commencing
s t o p i n g from t h e c e n t r a l z o n e , w i t h o u t l e a v i n g
a crown p i l l a r under t h e b a c k f i l l e d s t o p e abovl
 BLASTHOLESTOPING AT KlDD CREEK MINES
FIGURE 6: NUMBER 2 MINE NORTH ZONE MINING SEQUENCE
To date, most of the stopes on 2800 level
have been mined out and backfilled, creating a
filled block approximately 180 m along strike by
80 m wide by 60 m high. No deterioration of the
stope backs have been noticed, possibly because of
the tight stopefill.
Tangential compression cracking had been
observed at both sides of two 1.8 m diameter bored
vertical raises which were 7.5 m from the stope
faces. This indicated that the high abutment
stress, in the order of 100 MPa, had exceeded the
rock mass strength. The cracks, extending along
the entire height of the raises, were opposite
each other and were in a plane normal to the
advancing wall of the stope.
NO radial or diagonal tension cracks were
observed however.
During the course of production mining on the
2800 level, only two cases of snapping ground have
been reported. The first location was at the
extreme end of the mining zone, resulting from the
high abutment field stress. The other occurred at
the centre of the mining zone in the footwall
drift, where a major fault cut across a high grade
massive sulphide ore zone, creating a localized
high stress concentration.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
The recent introduction of a boundary
element program (BEP) [Hoek and Brown 19801 at
Kidd Creek, allows for a fast, detailed
analysis of the induced stress distributions
around various stope and/or pillar geometries.
This information is used for outlining active
failure zones in order to design ground
support, to ensure that development is not
located in overstressed ground, and to identify
critical stopes requiring prompt backfilling.
Various forms of back analysis combined with
underground observations, are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the modelled results. The following
sections describe some of the case studies used.
Case Study - No.1 Mine
As stated previously, one of the controlling
factors on the stability of underground
workings in a high horizontal stress field is
the length to width (L/B) ratio of the opening(s1.
Figure 7 is a contour plot of the induced
maximum and minimum stresses as a function of
the applied horizontal stress. The contours
outline the active failure zone for a typical
and initial stope/pillar arrangement in No.1
mine. The model satisfied the following
conditions:
o The major applied horizontal stress
(Q1) was in the E-W direction. It had
a magnitude of 40 MPa which was equivalent
to the stress field on the 2000 level
(610 m). Q1 was 1.25 times the N-S
component ( Q2).
o In reference to Table 1, the ore strength
was 160 MPa. The rock mass was of very
good quality and had CSIR and NGI ratings
of 85 and 100 respectively.
o The stope L/B ratio was 1.7, while the
pillar L/B ratio was 1.25.
It should be noted that in Figure 7, the
symmetry around the X-axis was taken advantage
of to minimize computer time. Therefore, only
one half of the stope/pillar layout was shown.
 GEOMECHANICS APPLICATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING

m ACT-
(a
FAILURE ZONE
-1 n-0.8 1

t
ID
(b)

-
0 5 D

FIGURE 7: STRESS CONTOUR PLOT OF A TYPICAL No. 1 MINE PILLAR

0 ACTIVE FAILURE ZONE

FIGURE 8: ACTIVE FAILURE ZONE FOR A No. 1 MINE PILLAR WITH A LOW ROCK MASS RATING

F i g u r e 7 a i s a p l o t of t h e Urnax/ U1
c o n t o u r s w h i l e F i g u r e 7b shows t h e
Umin/ U1 c o n t o u r s . The magnitude of t h e
maximum t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s a t mid l e n g t h a l o n g
t h e p i l l a r w a l l a t A , was 1.5 t i m e s g r e a t e r
t h a n a t t h e s t o p e w a l l a t B. Again a t mid
l e n g t h , t h e magnitude of t h e induced s t r e s s a t
t h e c e n t e r of t h e p i l l a r a t C , was 1.5 times
l a r g e r t h a n a t t h e p i l l a r w a l l s a t A. Review
of F i g u r e 7b shows t h a t t h e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s a t
t h e c e n t e r of t h e p i l l a r a t C was reduced by
o n l y 10% i n comparison t o t h e s t r e s s l e v e l i n
t h e s t o p e w a l l a t D. No t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s were
developed i n t h e p i l l a r .

The a c t i v e f a i l u r e zones around t h e s t o p e s a r e

s t r i c t l y due t o h i g h compressive s t r e s s e s
r e s u l t i n g i n c r u s h i n g along t h e c o r n e r s . The
s h a r p c o r n e r s t r e s s e s a r e an i m p o r t a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n s t o p e d e s i g n , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e
s t r e s s l e v e l approaches t h e c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h of
t h e rock mass. A t t h i s p o i n t , a r c h i n g f a i l u r e of
t h e stope o r p i l l a r walls can occur.

T h i s mode of f a i l u r e was observed i n a f o o t w a l l

d r i f t on t h e 12-2 (305 m) s u b l e v e l . Photo 1 PHOTO 1: CRUSHING FAILURE OF A DRIFT CORNER
 BLASTHOLE STOPING AT KlDD CREEK MINES
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e x t e n t of c r u s h i n g o f t h e d r i f t
corners a s well a s t h e 'arched' f a i l u r e s u r f a c e of
the wall. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c a u s e of t h e h i g h
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n was due t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f
t h e abutement s t r e s s f i e l d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mining
of an a d j a c e n t p i l l a r . These c o n d i t i o n s of
extended s h e a r f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d more f r e q u e n t l y i n
e x c a v a t i o n s where t h e r o c k mass was o f low q u a l i t y
and t h e g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e ( f a u l t s , s c h i s t o s i t y )
was a l i g n e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e
opening.
F i g u r e 5, shows t h e a c t i v e f a i l u r e zone f o r t h e
same s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s a s i n F i g u r e 7 , however,
t h e rock q u a l i t y was down r a t e d t o s i m u l a t e a r o c k
mass s i m i l a r t o t h e h a n g i n g w a l l s h e a r zone. The
f a i l u r e zone extended t o a d e p t h of 7.0 m i n t o t h e
p i l l a r wall. T h i s zone h a s s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on
t h e s t a b i l i t y of s t o p e s , p i l l a r s and d e v e l o p m e n t ,
a s i l l u s t r a t e d below:
o P i l l a r development advanced w i t h i n t h i s
f r a c t u r e zone h a s g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a s w e l l a s a d d i t i o n a l ground
support a s depicted i n Photo 2 . This
c r o s s c u t on t h e 16-3 (396 m) s u b l e v e l was
l o c a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6.0 m from t h e f i n a l
s t o p e boundary. The main r o c k s t r u c t u r e i n
t h i s a r e a consisted of s t r o n g , c l o s e l y
s p a c e d (1.5 m), n e a r v e r t i c a l f a u l t s a l i g n e d
p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t o p e boundary. The r o c k
mass was f u r t h e r d i s s e c t e d by two
intersecting joint s e t s with d i p s ranging
fro12 45 t o 8 0 d e g r e e s .
o A post y i e l d p i l l a r s t r e n g t h can e x i s t i n a n
overstressed area. I f a stope i s allowed t o
r e m a i n empty l o n g e r t h a n t h e s t a n d u p t i m e o f
t h e r o c k mass, s l o u g h a g e of t h e p i l l a r w a l l s
w i l l occur. It h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d
llnderqround t h a t t h e s t a n d u p t i m e o f o r e i s
i n t h e o r d e r of s i x months w h i l e t h e
hanging w a l l s h e a r zone i s i n t h e r a n g e o f
one t o two months. In c r i t i c a l areas, the
s t o p e / p i l l a r walls a r e cable bolted o r
prompt b a c k f i l l i n g i s s c h e d u l e d .
7HCTU 2: PTLLAR FRACTURE ZONE CBSERVED 1 N A DRIFT
105
I n summary, t h e u s e of BEP h a s h e l p e d i n
defining the c r i t i c a l parameters f o r e v a l u a t i n g
t h e s t a b i l i t y of s t o p e s and p i l l a r s i n No.1 mine.
The most c r i t i c a l p a r a m e t e r f o r s t a b i l i t y , a s i d e
f r o m dynamic l o a d i n g , i s t h e g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e
which c o n t r o l s t h e e x t e n t of t h e a c t i v e f a i l u r e
zone. It c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t f o r ~ i l l a r sh a v i n g
t h e same geometry a s i n F i g u r e 7 , t h e c o n d i t i o n s
of o v e r s t r e s s e d ground i n p r i m a r y e x t r a c t i o n i s
h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t o o c c u r f o r mining above t h e 2000
level.
Case S t u d y - No.2 Mine
F i g u r e 9 shows t h e o u t l i n e of t h e a c t i v e
f a i l u r e zone f o r a h y p o t h e t i c a l s t o p e / p i l l a r
a r r a n g e m e n t i n No.2 mine. The model s a t i s f i e d
the following conditions:
o The h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s f i e l d was i s o t r o p i c
( 4 1 / 4 2 = 1 . 0 ) and had a m a g n i t u d e of
6 0 NPa ( W 1 / U 3 = 2 . 5 ) . This simulation
was e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s t r e s s f i e l d on t h e
3200 ( 9 5 0 m) l e v e l .
o The o r e s t r e n g t h was 160 MPa. The r o c k mass
was o f v e r y good q u a l i t y and had CSIR and
N G I r a t i n g s of 8 5 and 100 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
o The s t o p e and p i l l a r L/B r a t i o s were b o t h
equsl t o 2.0.
F1GUI:E 9: STRESS CONTOUR PLOT FOR A HYPOTHETICAL
NbJ1SER 2 MINE PILLAR
I n r e f e r e n c e t o F i g u r e 9 a , and u s i n g t h e
same for;;.at a s t h e p r e v i o u s example, t h e
t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s a l o n g t h e p i l l a r a t A was
2.2 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n a l o n g t h e s t o p e w a l l a t
H. The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s t r e s s a t t h e c e n t e r
of t h e p i l l a r , a t C, was 1 . 1 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h e boundary s t r e s s a t A . The a v e r a g e No.2
mine p i l l a r s t r e s , was 1 . 3 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n i n
t h e No.1 mine model ( F i g u r e 7 a ) .
F i g u r e 9 h , i s t h e p l o t of t h e minimum o r
c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e maximum
horizontal stress. Significant tensile stresses
were d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e p i l l a r c o r e ,
eliminati-ng the confining s t r e s s , r e s u l t i n g i n
t h e complete f a i l u r e of t h e p i l l a r .
106 GEOMECHANICS APPLICATIONS, UNDERGROUND MINING

The c r i t i c a l d e p t h f o r p i l l a r s t a b i l i t y c a n b e T h i s c u r v e c a n b e used t o a p p r o x i m a t e t h e
estimated using t h e following relationship. l i m i t i n g l e n g t h o f s t o p e s i n No.2 mine. For
e x a m p l e , a s t o p e o n t h e 3200 (975 m) b l o c k was
(7) e x c a v a t e d f o r a inaximum l e n g t h o f 45 m w i t h a L / R
r a t i o o f 3. Some s l o u g h a g e o c c u r r e d a l o n g t h e
Where Z = c r i t i c a l d e p t h (m) h a n g i n g w a l l o f t h e s t o p e . The c a l c u l a t e d s a f e t y
Qu = estimated i n - s i t u compressive f a c t o r a g a i n s t s l o u g h a g e was 0.77. This safety
s t r e n g t h (10-11 IIPa) f a c t o r was d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g a s t r e n g t h / s t r e s s
F = s a f e t y f a c t o r (1.2) r e l a t i o n s h i p and F i g u r e l o , a s shown below:
C = s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y (3.2)
A = ~ i l l a rb o u n d a r v s t r e s s r a t i o ( 1 . 3 6 )
K = h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s r a t i o (2.5)

The c a l c u l a t e d c r i t i c a l d e p t h f o r t h e
s t o p e / p i l l a r g e o m e t r y i n F i g u r e 9 was 8 1 3 m,
and c o r r e l a t e d v e r y w e l l w i t h u n d e r g r o u n d
observations. For example, due t o p r o d u c t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t s , a t e m p o r a r y p i l l a r was d e v e l o p e d
b e t w e e n t h e 2600 ( 8 0 0 m) a n d t h e 2800 ( 8 5 3 m)
l e v e l s a t No.? mine. The p i l l a r had d i m e n s i o n s
o f 1 5 m w i d e , by 3 0 m l o n g , b y 6 0 m h i g h . D u r i n g
the preparation of the adjacent stope for
b a c k f i l l i n g , sloughage i n t h e o r d e r of 9,000
tonnes occurred along t h e p i l l a r wall. The f a i l e d
zone e x t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e 28-3 ( 8 2 3 m) s u b l e v e l
and t h e 2600 l e v e l . A f t e r b a c k f i l l i n g was
c o m p l e t e d , a c r o s s c u t was d e v e l o p e d a l o n g t h e
center l i n e of the pillar. L a r g e , o p e n ( 2 5 mm)
r a d i a l and t a n g e n t i a l c r a c k i n g was o b s e r v e d i n t h e
crosscut. The r a d i a l c r a c k s a p p e a r e d t o e x t e n d
a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e width of t h e p i l l a r .
Figure 10, is a plot of the variation of the
boundary s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a s a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e L/B r a t i o o f a s i n g l e o p e n i n g ( s t o p e ) u n d e r a n
i s o t r o p i c s t r e s s f i e l d . The v a l u e s p l o t t e d w e r e
g e n e r a t e d u s i n g REP. The s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
were c a l c u l a t e d a l o n g t h e s t o p e w a l l s a t
mid-length ( Q t l ) , mid-width ( Q t w ) , and
near t h e c o r n e r s ( On,).
Where F = safety factor
Qu = e s t i m a t e d i n - s i t u
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h ( 7 6 MPa)
U 1 = p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s ( 6 0 MPa)
Qtw = s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( 1 . 6 5 )
f o r L/B=3
F o r c o m p a r i s o n , a c o n v e n t i o n a l s t o p e i n No.2
m i n e h a s a L/B r a t i o o f 2.0. Using t h e same
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s m a g n i t u d e a s d e f i n e d above and
F i g u r e 1 0 , t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r a g a i n s t hanging w a l l
s l o u g h a g e would a p p r o a c h 1.0.
I n summary, t h e u s e o f BEP h a s p r o v i d e d
v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e v a r i o u s [nodes o f f a i l u r e
observed underground. This information can then
b e u s e d f o r e v a l u a t i n g and d e v e l o p i n g o p e r a t i n g
p r o c e d u r e s f o r proposed mining p l a n s with a
r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l of confidence.
ROCK MECHANICS INSTRUMENTATION
Kidd C r e e k h a s r e g a r d e d r o c k m e c h a n i c s i n s t r u -
ments a s indispendable t o o l s , a i d i n g i n t h e
d e t e c t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n o f g r o u n d i n s t a b i l i t y .
The m e a s u r e d d a t a have a l s o p r o v i d e d u s e f u l
p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e d e s i g n o f more s t a b l e under-
g r o u n d w o r k i n g s , which w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d
e m p i r i c a l l y i n t h e past.

V a r i o u s c o n v e n t i o n a l and c u s t o m b u i l t
i n s t r u m e n t s a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r m o n i t o r i n g ground
movement, g r o u n d s t r e s s , b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n , and
r o c k p r o p e r t i e s b o t h i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y and i n t h e
w o r k i n g a r e a s [Yu, 19831.

.4n AGA G e o d i m e t e r 7 1 0 , u t i l i z i n g 5 7 p r i s m
r e f l e c t o r s i n s t a l l e d on t h e p i t benches, has been
m o n i t o r i n g t h e p i t w a l l f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . The
a v e r a g e r e l a x a t i o n rates i n t h e h a n g i n g w a l l and
t h e f o o t w a l l a r e 1 . 6 a n d 1 . 1 cm p e r y e a r
respectively.

Various extensometers i n c l u d i n g multi-wire,

t u b e , t a p e , and r o d t y p e s , a n d a m u l t i - p o s i t i o n
g a u g e (Whitemore t y p e ) a r e u s e d underground f o r

1 s
1
. . .
2 3 4 5
I m
6
p r e c i s e movement m o n i t o r i n g .

Some c u s t o m b u i l t d e v i c e s s u c h a s c r a c k g a u g e s ,
c r a c k m e t e r s , s l o u g h n e t e r s , and reinote r e a d i n g
LIB c o n v e r g e n c e m e t e r s h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d t o meet
FIGURE 1 0 : VARIATION OF STOPE WALL STRESS WITH t h e s p e c i a l monitoring requirements of c e r t a i n
SPAN OF OPENIWG areas.
 A b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n monitor was assembled t o
monitor t h e peak p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n and peak
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y u s i n g a c c e l e r o m e t e r s and
velocity sensors.
A SINCO MS-2 Geo-monitor w i t h e i g h t t r a n s d u c e r s
i s o c c a s i o n a l l y used t o monitor s e i s m i c
a c t i v i t y i n a r e a s f r e e from any machine made
n o i s e t o avoid i n t e r f e r e n c e .
A McPhar s t r e s s monitor, capable of
d e t e c t i n g high frequency m i c r o s e i s m i c i t y , i s
undergoing t e s t i n g on rock specimens and
underground f o r a g r e a t e r understanding of s e i s m i c
phenomena.
Pre-mining f i e l d s t r e s s e s i n t h e mines were
measured p r e v i o u s l y u s i n g CSIR s t r a i n c e l l s by
t h e over-coring method, w h i l e abutment s t r e s s
changes have been measured w i t h IRAD v i b r a t i n g
w i r e s t r e s s meters a s mentioned i n t h e
preceding s e c t i o n s .
Laboratory and f i e l d t e s t i n g equipment
i n c l u d e a 30 tonne c a p a c i t y Versa t e s t e r ,
p o i n t l o a d t e s t e r , rock b o l t p u l l t e s t e r , and
assembled p l a t e load t e s t e r .
CONCLUSIONS
This paper i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h e development
of s i t e s p e c i f i c empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
coupled w i t h numerical a n a l y s i s , c a n b e an
important t o o l f o r d e f i n i n g c r i t i c a l d e s i g n
l i m i t s t o underground workings, when d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e complexity of g e o l o g i c m a t e r i a l s .
Although t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s may n o t be
u n i v e r s a l , t h e y a r e a p p l i c a b l e i n o u r mines t o
b r i d g e t h e gap between t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e i n
ground c o n t r o l .
A s mining p r o g r e s s e s w i t h d e p t h , t h e i n t e g r a -
t i o n of a p p l i e d rock mechanics i n t o t h e
planning and o p e r a t i o n s t a g e s w i l l become even
more important. Continued emphasis on t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of e s t a b l i s h e d knowledge i n
geomechanics w i l l h e l p m a i n t a i n Kidd C r e e k ' s
performance a s one of t h e l o w e s t a c c i d e n t
frequency o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e Canadian mining
industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The a u t h o r s wish t o thank t h e management of
Kidd Creek Mines Ltd. f o r t h e i r permission t o
p u b l i s h t h i s paper. Thanks a r e a l s o due t o
D. Counter and R. Wheeler of t h e Rock Mechanics
Group a t t h e mine f o r h e l p i n g w i t h d a t a
compilation. The a s s i s t a n c e i n t a s k b u i l d i n g
f o r t h e boundary element program was o b t a i n e d
from t h e mine's computer s e r v i c e s group,
p a r t i c u l a r l y M. McCormick.
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