POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

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RESONANT CIRCUITS
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AC
CIRCUITS

There are several different definitions of power in AC circuits; all, however, have dimension of
V*A or W (watts).

1. Instantaneous power: p(t) is the time function of the power, p(t) = u(t)*i(t). It is the product of
the time functions of the voltage and current. This definition of instantaneous power is valid for
signals of any waveform. The unit for instantaneous power is VA.

2. Complex power: S

Complex power is the product of the complex effective voltage and the complex effective
conjugate current. In our notation here, the conjugate is indicated by an asterisk (*).Complex
power can also be computed using the peak values of the complex voltage and current, but then
the result must be divided by 2. Note that complex power is applicable only to circuits with
sinusoidal excitation because complex effective or peak values exist and are defined only for
sinusoidal signals. The unit for complex power is VA.

3. Real or average power: P can be defined in two ways: as the real part of the complex power or
as the simple average of the instantaneous power. The second definition is more general because
with it we can define the instantaneous power for any signal waveform, not just for sinusoids. It
is given explicitly in the following expression

The unit for real or average power is watts (W), just as for power in DC circuits. Real power is
dissipated as heat in resistances.

4. Reactive power: Q is the imaginary part of the complex power. It is given in units of volt-
amperes reactive (VAR). Reactive power is positive in an inductive circuit and negative in a
capacitive circuit. This power is defined only for sinusoidal excitation. The reactive power
doesn't do any useful work or heat and it is the power returned to the source by the reactive
components (inductors, capacitors) of the circuit

5. Apparent power: S is the product of the rms values of the voltage and the current, S = U*I.
The unit of apparent power is VA. The apparent power is the absolute value of the complex
power, so it is defined only for sinusoidal excitation.

Power Factor (cos )

The power factor is very important in power systems because it indicates how closely the
effective power equals the apparent power. Power factors near one are desirable. The definition:

TINA power-measuring instrument also measures the power factor.

In our first example, we calculate the powers in a simple circuit.

Example 1

Find the average (dissipated) and reactive powers of the resistor and the capacitor.

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Find the average and reactive powers provided by the source.

Check to see if the powers provided by the source equal those in the components.

First calculate the network current.

= 3.9 ej38.7BmA
PR= I2*R = (3.052+2.442)*2/2 = 15.2 mW

QC = -I2/C = -15.2/1.256 = -12.1mVAR

Where you see division by 2, remember that where the peak value is used for the source voltage
and the power definition, the power calculation requires the rms value.

Checking the results, you can see that the sum of all three powers is zero, confirming that the
power from the source appears at the two components.

The instantaneous power of the voltage source:

pV(t) = -vS(t)*i(t) = -10 cos t * 3.9 cos( t+38.7 ) = -39cos t*( cos t cos 38.7 -sin t
sin 38.7 ) = -30.45 cos t + 24.4 sin tVA

Next, we demonstrate how easy it is to obtain these results using a schematic and instruments in
TINA. Note that in the TINA schematics we use TINA jumpers to connect the power meters.

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You can obtain the above tables by selecting Analysis/AC Analysis/Calculate nodal voltages
from the menu and then clicking the power meters with the probe.

We can conveniently determine the apparent power of the voltage source using TINA
Interpreter:

S = VS*I = 10*3.9/2 = 19.5 VA

{ S o l u t i o n b y
o m : = 2 *
V : = 1 0 ;
I : = V /
I a q : = s
P R : = I a q
P R = [ 1 5
Q C : = I
Q C = [ 1 2
I c : = R e
S v : = - V * I
Sv=[-15.3068m+12.1808m*j]

You can see that there are ways other than the definitions themselves to calculate the power in
two-pole networks. The following table summarizes this:

P Q S

Z = R + jX R*I2 X*I2 Z*I2 Z*I2

Y = G + jB G*V2 -B*V2 Y*V2 V2

In this table, we have rows for circuits characterized by either their impedance or their
admittance. Be careful using the formulas. When considering the impedance form, think of the
impedance as representing a series circuit, for which you need the current. When considering the
admittance form, think of the admittance as representing a parallel circuit, for which you need
the voltage. And don forget that although Y = 1/Z, in general G 1/R. Except for the special
case X = 0 (pure resistance), G = R/( R2+ X2 ).

Example 2

Find the average power, the reactive power, p(t), and the power factor of the two-pole network
connected to the current source.

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iS(t)=(100 * cos t)mA = 1 krad/s

Refer to the table above and, since the two-pole network is a parallel circuit, use the equations in
the row for the admittance case.

Working with an admittance, we must first find the admittance itself. Fortunately, our two-pole
network is a purely parallel one.

Yeq= 1/R + j C + 1/j L = 1/5 + j250*10-6103 + 1/(j*20*10-3103) = 0.2+j0.2 S

We need the absolute value of the voltage:

V = Z *I= I/ Y = 0.1/ (0.2+j0.2) =0.3535 V

The powers:
P = V2*G = 0.125*0.2/2 = 0.0125 W

Q = -V2*B = - 0.125*0.2/2 = - 0.0125 var

= V2* =0.125* (0.2-j0.2)/2 = ( 12.5 - j 12.5 ) mVA

S = V2* Y = 0.125* 0.2+j0.2 /2 = 0.01768 VA

cos = P/S = 0.707

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter}
om:=1000;
Is:=0.1;
V:=Is*(1/(1/R+j*om*C+1/(j*om*L)));
V=[250m-250m*j]
S:=V*Is/2;
S=[12.5m-12.5m*j]
P:=Re(S);
Q:=Im(S);
P=[12.5m]
Q=[-12.5m]
abs(S)=[17.6777m]

Example 3

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Find the average and reactive powers of the two-pole network connected to the voltage
generator.

For this example, we will dispense with manual solutions and show how to use TINA
measuring instruments and Interpreter to obtain the answers.

Selec Analysis/AC Analysis/Calculate nodal voltages from the menu and then click the power
meter with the probe. The following table will appear:
{Solution by TINA's Interpreter!}
Vs:=100;
om:=1E8*2*pi;
Ie:=Vs/(R2+1/j/om/C2+replus(replus(R1,j*om*L),1/j/om/C1));
Ze:=(R2+1/j/om/C2+replus(replus(R1,j*om*L),1/j/om/C1));
P:=sqr(abs(Ie))*Re(Ze)/2;
Q:=sqr(abs(Ie))*Im(Ze)/2;
P=[14.6104]
Q=[-58.7055]

RESONANT CIRCUITS
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AC
CIRCUITS

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AC

CIRCUITS
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POWER IN AC CIRCUITS THREE PHASE NETWORKS

We have already seen that an AC circuit can (at one frequency) be replaced by a Thvenin or
Norton equivalent circuit. Based on this technique, and with the Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem for DC circuits, we can determine the conditions for an AC load to absorb maximum
power in an AC circuit. For an AC circuit, both the Thvenin impedance and the load can have a
reactive component. Although these reactances do not absorb any average power, they will limit
the circuit current unless the load reactance cancels the reactance of the Thvenin impedance.
Consequently, for maximum power transfer, the Thvenin and load reactances must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign; furthermore, the resistive parts -according to the DC maximum
power theorem- must be equal. In another words the load impedance must be the conjugate of
the equivalent Thvenin impedance. The same rule applies for the load and Norton admittances.

RL= Re{ZTh} and XL = - Im{ZTh}

The maximum power in this case:

Pmax =

Where V2Th and I2N represent the square of the sinusoidal peak values.

Well next illustrate the theorem with some examples.

Example 1

R1 = 5 kohm, L = 2 H, vS(t) = 100V cos t, = 1 krad/s.

a) Find C and R2 so that the average power of the R2-C two-pole will be maximum

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b) Find the maximum average power and the reactive power in this case.

c) Find v(t) in this case.

The solution by the theorem using V, mA, mW, kohm, mS, krad/s, ms, H, F units:v

a.) The network is already in Thvenin form, so we can use the conjugate form and determine the
real and imaginary components of ZTh:
 R2 = R1 = 5 kohm; L = 1/ C = 2 C = 1/2L = 0.5 F = 500 nF.

b.) The average power:

Pmax = V2/(4*R1) = 1002/(2*4*5) = 250 mW

The reactive power: first the current:

I = V / (R1 + R2 + j(L 1/C)) = 100/10 = 10 mA

Q = - I2/2 * XC = - 50*2 = - 100 mvar

c.) The load voltage in the case of maximum power transfer:

VL = I*(R2 + 1/ (j C ) = 10*(5-j/(1*0.5)) =50 j 20 = 53.852 e -j 21.8 V

and the time function: v(t) = 53.853 cos (t 21.8) V

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter}

V:=100;
om:=1000;
{a./} R2b:=R1;
C2:=1/sqr(om)/L;
C2=[500n]
{b./} I2:=V/(R1+R2b);
P2m:=sqr(abs(I2))*R2b/2;
Q2m:=-sqr(abs(I2))/om/C2/2;
P2m=[250m]
Q2m=[-100m]
{c./} V2:=V*(R2b+1/j/om/C2)/(R1+R2b);
abs(V2)=[53.8516]

Example 2

vS(t) = 1V cos t, f = 50 Hz,

R1 = 100 ohm, R2 = 200 ohm, R = 250 ohm, C = 40 uF, L = 0.5 H.

a.) Find the power in the load R-L

b.) Find R and L so that the average power of the R-L two-pole will be maximum.
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First we have to find the Thvenin generator which we will substitute for the circuit to the
left of the nodes of the R-L load.

The steps:

1. Remove the load R-L and substitute an open circuit for it

2. Measure (or compute) the open circuit voltage

3. Replace the voltage source with a short circuit (or replace the current sources by
open circuits)

4. Find the equivalent impedance

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Use V, mA, kohm, krad/s, F, H, ms units!

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And finally the simplified circuit:

Solution for power: I = VTh /(ZTh + R + j L) = 0.511/ (39.17 + 250 j 32.82 + j 314*0.5)

I =1.62 mA and P = I 2
* R/2 = 0.329 mW

We find the maximum power if

hence R = 39.17 ohm and L=104.4 mH.

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The maximum power:

Imax = 0.511/(2*39.17) = 6.52 mA and

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter!}

Vs:=1;
om:=100*pi;
va:=Vs*replus(replus(R2,(1/j/om/C)),(R+j*om*L))/(R1+replus(replus(R2,(1/j/om/C)),(R+j*om*L)));
abs(va)=[479.3901m]
PR:=sqr(abs(va/(R+j*om*L)))*R/2;
QL:=sqr(abs(va/(R+j*om*L)))*om*L/2;
PR=[329.5346u]
QL=[207.0527u]
{b./} Zb:=(replus(replus(R1,R2),1/j/om/C));
abs(Zb)=[51.1034]
VT:=Vs*replus(R2,1/j/om/C)/(R1+replus(R2,1/j/om/C));
VT=[391.7332m-328.1776m*j]
abs(VT)=[511.0337m]
R2b:=Re(Zb);
Lb:=-Im(Zb)/om;
Lb=[104.4622m]
R2b=[39.1733]

Here we used TINAs special function replus to find the parallel equivalent of two
impedances.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS THREE PHASE NETWORKS

THREE PHASE NETWORKS

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AC CIRCUITS OHM'S LAW

The alternating current networks that we have studied so far are widely used to model AC mains
electric power networks in homes. However, for industrial use and also for electric power
generation, a network of AC generators is more effective. This is realized by polyphase networks
consisting of a number of identical sinusoidal generators with a phase angle difference. The most
common polyphase networks are two- or three-phase networks. We will limit our discussion here
to three-phase networks.

Note that TINA provides special tools for drawing three-phase networks in the Special
component toolbar, under the Stars and Y buttons.

A three-phase network can be seen as a special connection of three single phase or simple AC
circuits. Three-phase networks consist of three simple networks, each having the same amplitude
and frequency, and a 120 phase difference between adjacent networks. The time diagram of the
voltages in a 120Veff system is shown in the diagram below.
We can also represent these voltages with phasors using TINAs Phasor Diagram.
Compared to single-phase systems, three phase networks are superior because both the power
stations and the transmission lines require thinner conductors for transmitting the same power.
Due to the fact that one of the three voltages is always non-zero, three-phase equipment has
better characteristics, and three-phase motors are self-starting without any additional circuitry. It
is also much easier to convert three-phase voltages into DC (rectification), due to the reduced
fluctuation in the rectified voltage.

The frequency of three-phase electric power networks is 60 Hz in United States and 50 Hz in

Europe. The single phase home network is simply one of the voltages from a three-phase
network.

In practice, the three phases are connected in one of two ways.

1) The Wye or Y-connection, where the negative terminals of each generator or load are
connected to form the neutral terminal. This results in a three-wire system, or if a neutral wire is
provided, a four-wire system.

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The Vp1,Vp2,Vp3 voltages of the generators are called phase voltages, while the voltages
VL1,VL2,VL3 between any two connecting lines (but excluding the neutral wire) are called line
voltages. Similarly, the Ip1,Ip2,Ip3 currents of the generators are called phase currents while the
currents IL1,IL2,IL3 in the connecting lines (excluding the neutral wire) are called line currents.

In Y-connection, the phase and line currents are obviously the same, but the line voltages are
greater than the phase voltages. In the balanced case:
Let s demonstrate this by a phasor diagram:

Lets calculate VL for the phasor diagram above using the cosine rule of trigonometry:

Now lets calculate the same quantity using complex peak values:

Vp1 = 169.7 ej 0 = 169.7

Vp2 = 169.7 ej 120 = -84.85+j146.96

VL = Vp2 - Vp1 = -254.55+j146.96 = 293.9 e j150

The same result with the TINA Interpreter:

Vp1:=169.7
Vp2:=169.7 *exp(j*degtorad(120))
Vp2=[-84.85+146.9645*j]
VL:=Vp2-Vp1
VL=[-254.55+146.9645*j]
radtodeg(arc(VL))=[150]
abs(VL)=[293.929]

Similarly the complex peak values of the line voltages

VL21 = 293.9 ej 150 V,

VL23 = 293.9 ej 270 V,
VL13 = 293.9 ej 30 V.

The complex effective values:

VL21eff = 207.85 ej 150 V,

VL23eff = 207.85 ej 270 V,
VL13eff = 207.85 ej 30 V.

Finally lets check the same results using TINA for a circuit with

120 Veff ; VP1 = VP2 = VP3 =169.7 V and Z1= Z2 =Z3 = 1 ohms

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2) The delta or D-connection of three phases is achieved by connecting the three loads in series
forming a closed loop. This is only used for three-wire systems.
As opposed to a Y-connection, in D -connection the phase and line voltages are obviously the
same, but the line currents are greater than the phase currents. In the balanced case:

Lets demonstrate this with TINA for a network with 120 Veff Z=10 ohms.

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Result:
Since either the generator or the load can be connected in D or in Y, there are four possible
interconnections: Y-Y, Y- D, D-Y and D- D. If the load impedances of the different phases are
equal, the three-phase network is balanced.

Some further important definitions and facts:

The phase difference between the phase voltage or current and the nearest line voltage and
current (if they are not the same) is 30 .

If the load is balanced (i.e. all the loads have the same impedance), each phases voltages and
currents are equal. Furthermore, in the Y-connection, there is no neutral current even if there is a
neutral wire.

If the load is unbalanced, the phase voltages and currents are different Also, in the YY-
connection with no neutral wire, the common nodes (star points) are not at the same potential. In
this case we can solve for node potential V0 (the common node of the loads) using a node
equation. Calculating V0 allows you to solve for the phase voltages of the load, current in the
neutral wire, etc. Y-connected generators always incorporate a neutral wire.

The power in a balanced three phase system is PT = 3 VpIp cos J = VLIL cos J

where J is the phase angle between the voltage and the current of the load.

The total apparent power in a balanced three phase system: ST = VLIL

The total reactive power in a balanced three phase system: QT = VL IL sin J

Example 1

The rms value of the phase voltages of a three-phase balanced Y-connected generator is 220 V;
its frequency is 50 Hz.

a/ Find the time function of the phase currents of the load!

b/ Calculate all the average and reactive powers of the load!
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Both the generator and the load are balanced, so we need to calculate only one phase and can get
the other voltages or currents by changing the phase angles. In the schematic above we did not
draw the neutral wire, but instead assigned earth at both sides. This can serve as a neutral wire;
however, because the circuit is balanced the neutral wire is not needed.

The load is connected in Y, so the phase currents are equal to the line currents: the peak values:

IP1 = VP/(R+j ) = 311/(100+j314*0.3) = 311/(100+j94.2) = 1.65-j1.55 = 2.26 e-j43.3 A

VP1 = 311 V

IP2 = IP1 e j 120 =2.26 ej76.7 A

IP3 = IP2 e j 120 =2.26 e-j163.3 A

iP1 = 2.26 cos ( t 44.3 ) A

iP2 = 2.26 cos ( t + 76.7 ) A

iP3 = 2.26 cos ( t 163.3 ) A

The powers are also equal: P1 = P2 = P3 = = 2.262*100/2 = 256.1 W

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter}

{Since both the generator and the load are balanced

we calculate only one phase and multiply by 3}
om:=314.159
Ipm1:=311/(R+j*om*L)
abs(Ipm1)=[2.2632]
radtodeg(arc(Ipm1))=[-43.3038]
Ipm2:=Ipm1;
fi2:=radtodeg(arc(Ipm1))+120;
fi2=[76.6962]
fi3:=fi2+120;
fi3=[196.6962]
fi3a:=-360+fi3;
fi3a=[-163.3038]
P1:=sqr(abs(Ipm))*R/2;
P1=[256.1111]

This is the same as calculated results by hand and TINAs Interpreter.

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Example 2
A three-phase balanced Y-connected generator is loaded by a delta-connected three-pole load
with equal impedances. f=50 Hz.

Find the time functions of a/ the phase voltages of the load,

b/ the phase currents of the load,

c/ the line currents!

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The phase voltage of the load equals the line voltage of the generator:

VL =

The phase currents of the load: I1 = VL/R1+VLj C = 1.228 + j1.337 = 1.815 ej 47.46 A

I2 = I1 * e-j120 = 1.815 e-j72.54 A = 0.543 j1.73 A

I3 = I1 * ej120 = 1.815 ej167.46 = -1.772 + j0.394

Seeing the directions: Ia = I1 I3 = 3+j0.933 A = 3.14 ej17.26 A.

ia(t) = 3.14 cos ( t + 17.3 ) A

According to the results calculated by hand and TINAs Interpreter.

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter. Since the symmetry we

calculate only one phase. The phase voltage of the load
equals to the line voltage of the generator.}

f:=60;
om:=2*pi*f;
VL:=sqrt(3)*120;
VLp:=sqrt(2)*VL;
VLp=[293.9388]
I1pp:=VLp/R1+VLp*j*om*C1;
I1pp=[2.9394E0+1.1081E0*j]
I1p:=I1pp*exp(j*pi/6);
I1p=[1.9915E0+2.4294E0*j]
abs(I1p)=[3.1413]
radtodeg(arc(I1p))=[50.656]
I2p:=I1p*exp(-j*2*pi/3);
I2p=[1.1081E0-2.9394E0*j]
abs(I2p)=[3.1413]
radtodeg(arc(I2p))=[-69.344]
I3p:=I1p*exp(j*pi/6);
abs(I3p)=[3.1413]
Ib:=I2p-I1p;
abs(Ib)=[5.4409]
radtodeg(arc(Ib))=[-99.344]
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Finally an example with an unbalanced load:

Example 3

The rms value of the phase voltages of a three-phase balanced

Y-connected generator is 220 V; its frequency is 50 Hz.

a/ Find the phasor of the voltage V0 !

b/ Find the amplitudes and initial phase angles of the phase currents !
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Now the load is an asymmetrical one and we have no neutral wire, so we can expect a potential
difference between the neutral points. Use an equation for the node potential V0:

hence V0 = 192.71+ j39.54 V = 196.7 ej11.6 V

and: I1 = (V1-V0)*j C = 0.125 ej71.5 A; I2 = (V2-V0)*j C = 0.465 e-j48.43

and I3 =(V3-V0)/R = 0.417 ej 146.6 A

v0(t) = 196.7 cos ( t + 11.6 ) V;

i1(t) = 0.125 cos ( t + 71.5 ) A;

i2(t) = 0.465 cos ( t - 48.4 ) A;

i3(t) = 0.417 cos ( t + 146.6 ) A;

{Solution by TINA's Interpreter}

{Because of nonsymmetry we have to

calculate all phases individually}

om:=314;
V1:=311;
V2:=311*exp(j*4*pi/3);
V3:=311*exp(j*2*pi/3);
Sys V0
(V0-V1)*j*om*C+(V0-V2)*j*om*C+(V0-V3)/R=0
end;
V0=[192.7123+39.5329*j]
abs(V0)=[196.7254]
I1:=(V1-V0)*j*om*C;
abs(I1)=[124.6519m]
radtodeg(arc(I1))=[71.5199]
I2:=(V2-V0)*j*om*C;
abs(I2)=[465.2069m]
radtodeg(arc(I2))=[-48.4267]
I3:=(V3-V0)/R;
abs(I3)=[417.2054m]
radtodeg(arc(I3))=[146.5774]
And, finally, the results calculated by TINA agree with the results calculated by the
other techniques.

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AC CIRCUITS OHM'S LAW