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ABSTRACT:
This paper to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for the three phase
supply system. The project output resets automatically after a brief interruption in the
event temporary fault while it remains in tripped condition in case of permanent fault.
The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumers, have failures due to
some faults which can be temporary or permanent. These faults lead to substantial
damage to the power system equipment. In India it is common, The faults might be LG
(Line to Ground), LL (Line to Line), 3L (Three lines) in the supply systems and these
faults in three phase supply system can affect the power system. To overcome this
problem a system is built, which can sense these faults and automatically disconnects the
supply to avoid large scale damage to the control gears in the grid sub-stations.
This system is built using three single phase transformers which are wired in star
input and star output, and 3 transformers are connected in delta connections, having input
220 volt and output at 12 volt. This concept low voltage testing of fault conditions is
followed as it is not advisable to create on mains line. 555 timers are used for handling
short duration and long duration fault conditions. A set of switches are used to create the
LL, LG and 3L fault in low voltage side, for activating the tripping mechanism. Short
duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip while
long duration shall result in permanent trip.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In a three-phase ac system, a power source with three wires delivers ac potentials of equal
frequency and amplitudes with respect to a zero-potential wire, each shifted in phase by
120 from one wire to the next. Two possibilities exist for establishing a phase sequence.
In the first, voltage on the second wire shifts by 120 relative to the first, and, in the
second, a 120 shift occurs with respect to the first wire. Phase order determines the
direction of rotation of three-phase ac motors and affects other equipment that requires
the correct phase sequence: a positive 120 shift. You can use a few low-cost passive
components to build a phase-sequence indicator.
1.3 Objectives
The objective of this project is to indicate the order of succession in time off the different
voltage peaks of a multiphase supply. In addition the knopp sequence indicaor enables
one to make continuity tests. It is valuable instrument in diverse fields involving
polyphase power apparatus, being employed by line and installations crews for public
utility systems and industrial plant electrical departments. It is, furthermore, helpful in the
testing department of public utility systems for laboratory and field testing.
Various studies have shown that anywhere from 70%, to as high as 90%, of faults
on most overhead lines are transient. A transient fault, such as an insulator flashover, is a
fault which is cleared by the immediate tripping of one or more circuit breakers to isolate
the fault, and which does not recur when the line is re-energized. Faults tend to be less
transient (near the 80% range) at lower, distribution voltages and more transient (near
the90% range) at higher, sub transmission and transmission voltages. Lightning is the
most common cause of transient faults, partially resulting from insulator flashover from
the high transient voltages induced by the lightning.
Other possible causes are swinging wires and temporary contact with foreign objects.
Thus, transient faults can be cleared by momentarily de-energizing the line, in order to
allow the fault to clear.Autoreclosing can then restore service to the line.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are
available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making
them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible.
If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although
designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
The project is designed to check the sequence of the 3 phase supply. It is very
important to know the phase sequence particularly for 3 phase motors. For example, if
the 3 phase motor is used for pumping action, any phase reversal accidentally resulting
in wrong sequence could force the motor run in the wrong direction. This could result
in dry run of the motor to develop permanent fault.
In this project direct 3-phase AC supply 50Hz is fed through voltage drop
arrangement duly stabilized by zener diodes to a logic circuit comprising of NAND
gates and OR gates to detect the proper sequence of RYB by series of pulses of fixed
duration.
In the event of changing the sequence from RYB to say YBR, the combination of
NAND and OR gates develops an output with a missing pulse during the fixed time
duration. This pulse is used in triggering a monostable 555 timer. Thus, while the
sequence is not there the triggering to the timer is missed which is indicated by an
LED driven from the output of the 555 timer. DC requirement of the circuit is powered
from a step down transformer along with a bridge rectifier and filter capacitor.
Further this project can be enhanced by providing an inbuilt digital sequence checker
comprising of LEDs in a circle to indicate wrong sequence by glowing of LEDs in anti-
clockwise direction. The LEDs can be driven from a programmable microcontroller
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The project uses 6numbers step-down transformers for handling the entire circuit under
low voltage conditions of 12v only to test the 3 phase fault analysis. The primaries of 3
transformers are connected to a 3 phase supply in star configuration, while the secondary
of the same is also connected in star configuration. The other set of 3 transformers with
its primary connected in star to 3 phase have their secondarys connected in delta
configuration.
The outputs of all the 6 transformers are rectified and filtered individually and are
given to 6 relay coils. 6 push buttons, one each connected across the relay coil is meant to
create a fault condition either at star i.e. LL Fault or 3L Fault. The NC contacts of all the
relays are made parallel while all the common points are grounded. The parallel
connected point of NC are given to pin2 through a resistor R5 to a 555 timer i.e. wired in
monostable mode. The output of the same timer is connected to the reset pin 4 of another
555 timer wired in astable mode. LEDS are connected at their output to indicate their
status.
The output of the U3 555 timer from pin3 is given to an Op-amp LM358 through
wire 11 and d12 to the non inverting input pin3, while the inverting input is kept at a
fixed voltage by a potential divider RV2. The voltage at pin2 coming from the potential
divider is so held that it is higher than the pin3 of the Op-amp used as a comparator so
that pin1 develops zero logic that fails to operate the relay through the driver transistor
Q1.
This relay Q1 is 3CO relay i.e. is meant for disconnecting the load to indicate fault
conditions.
Operating procedure:
While the board is powered from a 3phase supply all the 6 relay coils get DC voltage and
their common point disconnects from the NC and moves on to the NO points there by
providing logic high at pin2 of 555 timer U1 i.e. that is kept on monostable mode.
While any push button across the relay is pressed it disconnects that relay and in
the process in common contacts moves to the NC position to provide a logic low at
trigger pin of 555 timer to develop an output that brings the U3 555 timer which is used
in astable mode for its reset pin to high such that the astable operation takes place at its
output which is also indicated by flashing D11 LED.
If the fault is off temporary in nature i.e. if the push button pressed is released
immediately the U1 monostable disables U3 the output of which goes to zero in the event
of any push button kept pressed for a longer duration the monostable output provides a
longer duration active situation for U3 the astable timer the output of which charges
capacitor C13 through R11 such that the output of the comparator goes high that drives
the relay to switch off three phase load.
The output of Op-amp remains high indefinitely through a positive feedback
provided for its pin1 to pin3 through a forward biased diode and a resistor in series. This
results in the relay permanently switched on to disconnect the load connected at its NC
contacts permanently off. In order to maintain the flow of DC supply the star connected
secondary set DCS are paralleled through D8, D9 & D10 for uninterrupted supply to the
circuit voltage of 12v DC and 5v DC derived out of voltage regulator IC 7805.
HARDWARE TESTING
1. Conductivity Test:
In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if
current flows (that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by
placing a small voltage (wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such
as a piezoelectric speaker) across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken
conductors, damaged components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which
measure current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices,
generally with a simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two
ends belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance
between the "right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.
This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has
been completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the
soldering. Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper
soldering, wrong and rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron,
component failures and presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to
perform this test. We keep the multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground
terminal of the multi meter to the ground. We connect both the terminals across the path
that needs to be checked. If there is continuation then you will hear the beep sound.
Power ON Test:
This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is
according to the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode.
Remember that this test is performed without ICs. Firstly, if we are using a transformer
we check the output of the transformer; whether we get the required 12V AC voltage
(depends on the transformer used in for the circuit). If we use a battery then we check if
the battery is fully charged or not according to the specified voltage of the battery by
using multimeter.
Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test
without ICs because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the ICs.
If a circuit consists of voltage regulator then we check for the input to the voltage
regulator (like 7805, 7809, 7815, 7915 etc) i.e., are we getting an input of 12V and a
required output depending on the regulator used in the circuit.
EX: if we are using 7805 we get output of 5V and if using 7809 we get 9V at output pin
and so on. This output from the voltage regulator is given to the power supply pin of
specific ICs. Hence we check for the voltage level at those pins whether we are getting
required voltage. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In
this way we can assure that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.
In this project direct 3-phase AC supply 50Hz is fed through voltage drop
arrangement duly stabilized by zener diodes to a logic circuit comprising of NAND gates
and OR gates to detect the proper sequence of RYB by series of pulses of fixed duration.
In the event of changing the sequence from RYB to say YBR, the combination of NAND
and OR gates develops an output with a missing pulse during the fixed time duration.
This pulse is used in triggering a monostable 555 timer. Thus, while the sequence is not
there the triggering to the timer is missed which is indicated by an LED driven from the
output of the 555 timer. DC requirement of the circuit is powered from a step down
transformer along with a bridge rectifier and filter capacitor.
Further this project can be enhanced by providing an inbuilt digital sequence checker
comprising of LEDs in a circle to indicate wrong sequence by glowing of LEDs in anti-
clockwise direction. The LEDs can be driven from a programmable microcontroller.
CHAPTER III
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The variable dc power supply and the main working principle of this
project is full wave rectification which is done by bridge configuration in which we are
using 4 diodes which rectifies the output of the step-down transformer which
step-down the 220 AC v to 9 AC volts .here we are using a voltage regulator
which give constant voltage, here we are using 7805 which give 5 volts . Now the main
task is to get variable output for this we use the pair of voltage divider resistors to
increase the output of the regulator and in which of resistance is variable so when we
increase or d ec r e as e t he va l ue o f t ha t r es is to r t he o ut pu t v ol t ag e o f t he
r eg ul a to r w il l a ls o change and we get a range of 5 to 12 v , here we cant get less
than 5 volts because of this is the output of the regulator In this circuit we use three
capacitor , c1 and c2are use to get constant input to the regulator moreover it also
help to reduce the sharp peaks in the output . connect the 0.27uF capacitor to
close to the input of the regu lator and the 10uf capacitor to the output because
these capacitor reduce the noise and also help to reduce the ripples produce by the
regulator so that regulated output has less ripples.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CHAPTER 3
LM78L05:
with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of
HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. The LM78LXX is available
in the plastic TO-92 (Z) package, the plastic SO-8 (M) package and a chip
sized package (8-Bump micro SMD) using Nationals micro SMD package
output current. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current
to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistors is provided to
over 0C to 125C for SO-8 package and 40C to 85C for micro SMD
Air Conditioner Wiring The figure 3.7.1 show how the connection of
the air conditioner is done.Firstly, this is how and where the wiring of the air
conditioner is done. It should be tested using the multi meter. The purpose of
testing with the multi meter is to identify which wires need to be bypassed at
the switch.There are two main devices that will be turned on during the
pairs to two single relays in the RCCS. It needs two different relays because
it will turn on two different devices which the pair of wiring should not be
connected together. The two devices are the air conditioner fan and the
compressor of the air conditioner. Both relays will energize during the
operation of turning on the air conditioner. At the same time it will turn on
the air conditioner. It will allow current to flow through and the air
conditioner will be turned on. Figure 7.3.1 shows how the complete
Features of LM78L05:
vi. Available in plastic TO-92 and plastic SO-8 low profile packages
3.2 TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized units hidden inside microphones to units
weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer
designs are used in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers are essential
for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.
Mount the power transistor on the heatsink. To do this follow the diagram and
remember to use the mica insulator between the transistor body and the heatsink and the
special fibber washers to insulate the screws from the heatsink. Remember to place the
soldering tag on one of the screws from the side of the transistor body, this is going to be
used as the collector lead of the transistor. Use a little amount of Heat Transfer
Compound between the transistor and the heatsink to ensure the maximum transfer of
heat between them, and tighten the screws as far as they will go.
Attach a piece of insulated wire to each lead taking care to make very good joints as
the current that flows in this part of the circuit is quite heavy, especially between the
emitter and the collector of the transistor.
It is convenient to know where you are going to place every thing inside the case that is
going to accommodate your power supply, in order to calculate the length of the wires to
use between the PCB and the potentiometers, the power transistor and for the input and
output connections to the circuit. (It does not really matter if the wires are longer but it
makes a much neater project if the wires are trimmed at exactly the length necessary).
Connect the potentiometers, the LED and the power transistor and attach two pairs of
leads for the input and output connections. Make sure that you follow the circuit diagram
very care fully for these connections as there are 15 external connections to the circuit in
total and if you make a mistake it may be very difficult to find it afterwards. It is a good
idea to use cables of different colours in order to make trouble shooting easier.
When all the external connections have been finished make a very careful inspection
of the board and clean it to remove soldering flux residues. Make sure that there are no
bridges that may short circuit adjacent tracks and if everything seems to be all right
connect the input of the circuit with the secondary of a suitable mains transformer.
Connect a voltmeter across the output of the circuit and the primary of the transformer to
mains.
The voltmeter should measure a voltage between 0 and 30 VDC depending on the
setting of P1, and should follow any changes of this setting to indicate that the variable
voltage control is working properly. Turning P2 counter-clockwise should turn the LED
on, indicating that the current limiter is in operation.
Power supplies
Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into line-frequency
(or "conventional") and switching power supplies. The line-frequency supply is usually a
relatively simple design, but it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current
equipment due to the need for large mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked
electronic regulation circuitry. Conventional line-frequency power supplies are
sometimes called "linear," but that is a misnomer because the conversion from AC
voltage to DC is inherently non-linear when the rectifiers feed into capacitive reservoirs.
Linear voltage regulators produce regulated output voltage by means of an active voltage
divider that consumes energy, thus making efficiency low. A switched-mode supply of the
same rating as a line-frequency supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but
would be more complex.
AC power supply
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply)
and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well. Here 230V
AC is given to transformer.
TRANSFORMER
The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high
magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the
load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and
voltage in the directions indicated (each will be AC in practice).
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary
winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux
traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[46] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and
results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.[42]
Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the
magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply.
It is not directly a power loss (see Stray losses below), but results in inferior
voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to not be directly proportional to the
primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.[46] Transformers are therefore normally
designed to have very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate
all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The
combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around the windings is what
transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.[47]
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or
magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit
the short-circuit current it will supply.[42] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads
that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon
signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric
arc welders.[48]
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency
transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing through the windings.[49]
Knowledge of leakage inductance is for example useful when transformers are operated
in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding
leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically
exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective
volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit
would carry twice the current). However, the impedance tolerances of commercial
transformers are significant.
FUSE:
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse (from the French fuser, Italian
fuso, "spindle"[1]) is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to
provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its essential
component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which
interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overloading, mismatched
loads or device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current.
Diagram:
LED Discription:
An LED or IRED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type
semiconductors and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct
contact, forming a region called the P-N junction. In this respect, the LED or IRED
resembles most other diode types, but there are important differences. The LED or IRED
has a transparent package, allowing visible or IR energy to pass through. Also, the LED
or IRED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is tailored to the application.
Benefits of LEDs and IREDs, compared with incandescent and fluorescent illuminating
devices, include:
Low power requirement: Most types can be operated with battery power
supplies.
High efficiency: Most of the power supplied to an LED or IRED is converted into
radiation in the desired form, with minimal heat production.
Long life: When properly installed, an LED or IRED can function for decades.
CHAPTER IV
LOGIC CIRCUIT
OR GATE:
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical disjunction - it behaves according to
the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are HIGH
(1). If neither input is HIGH, a LOW output (0) results. In another sense, the function of OR
effectively finds the maximum between two binary digits, just as the complementary AND function
finds the minimum
Symbols:
There are two symbols for OR gates: the German (GNSI or 'military') symbol and the
IEC ('European' or 'rectangular') symbol, as well as the deprecated DIN symbol.[2][3] For
more information see Logic Gate Symbols.
74HC32: Quad 2-input OR gate (High Speed CMOS version) - has lower current
consumption/wider Voltage range
74LVC32: Low voltage CMOS version of the same.
Hardware description language[edit]
Implementations[edit]
CMOS OR Gate
OR gate using diodes
Alternatives[edit]
If no specific OR gates are available, one can be made from NAND or NOR gates in the
configuration shown in the image to the right of this text. Any logic gate can be made from a
combination of NAND or NOR gates.
NAND GATE:
In digital electronics, a NAND gate (Negated AND or NOT AND) is a logic gate which
produces an output that is false only if all its inputs are true. A LOW (0) output results
only if both the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a
HIGH (1) output results. It is made using transistors.
The NAND gate is significant because any boolean function can be implemented by
using a combination of NAND gates. This property is called functional completeness.
Digital systems employing certain logic circuits take advantage of NAND's functional
completeness.
The function NAND(a1, a2, ..., an) is logically equivalent to NOT(a1 AND a2 AND ...
AND an).
TIMER 555:
The 555 Integrated Circuit (IC) is an easy to use timer that has many
applications. It is widely used in electronic circuits and this popularity
means it is also very cheap to purchase, typically costing around 30p. A
'dual' version called the 556 is also available which includes two
independent 555 ICs in one package.
The following illustration shows both the 555 (8-pin) and the 556 (14-pin).
In a circuit diagram the 555 timer chip is often drawn like the illustration
below. Notice how the pins are not in the same order as the actual chip, this
is because it is much easier to recognize the function of each pin, and makes
drawing circuit diagrams much easier.
For the 555 to function it relies on both analogue and digital electronic
techniques, but if we consider its output only, it can be thought of as a digital
device. The output can be in one of two states at any time, the first state is
the 'low' state, which is 0v. The second state is the 'high' state, which is the
voltage Vs (The voltage of your power supply which can be anything from
4.5 to 15v. 18v absolute maximum).
When drawing a circuit diagram, always draw the 555 as a building block, as
shown below with the pins in the following locations. This will help you
instantly recognise the function of each pin:
Using the Output of a 555 Timer:
The output (Pin 3) of the 555 can be in one of two states at any time, which
means it is a digital output. It can be connected directly to the inputs of other
digital ICs, or it can control other devices with the help of a few extra
components. The first state is the 'low' state, which is the voltage 0V at the
power supply. The second state is the 'high' state, which is the voltage Vcc at
the power supply.
When the Output goes low, current will flow through the device and switch
it on. This is called 'sinking' current because the current is sourced from Vs
and flows through the device and the 555 to 0V.
When the Output goes high, current will flow through the device and switch
it on. This is called 'sourcing' current because the current is sourced from the
555 and flows through the device to 0V.
Sinking and sourcing can also be used together so that two devices can be
alternately switched on and off.
The device(s) could be anything that can be switched on and off, such as
LEDs, lamps, relays, motors or electromagnets. Unfortunately, these devices
have to be connected to the Output in different ways because the Output of
the 555 can only source or sink a current of up to 200mA. Make sure your
power supply can provide enough current for both the device and the 555,
otherwise the timing of the 555 will be affected.
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one
package.
CONTACTOR
In semiconductor testing, contactor can also refer to the specialised socket that
connects the device under test.In process industries a contactor is a vessel where
two streams interact, for example, air and liquid.
A contactor has three components. The contacts are the current carrying part of
the contactor. This includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact springs.
Theelectromagnet (or "coil") provides the driving force to close the contacts.
The enclosure is a frame housing the contact and the electromagnet. Enclosures are made
of insulating materials like Bakelite, Nylon 6, and thermosetting plastics to protect and
insulate the contacts and to provide some measure of protection against personnel
touching the contacts. Open-frame contactors may have a further enclosure to protect
against dust, oil, explosion hazards and weather.
Magnetic blowouts use blowout coils to lengthen and move the electric arc. These are
especially useful in DC power circuits. AC arcs have periods of low current, during
which the arc can be extinguished with relative ease, but DC arcs have continuous high
current, so blowing them out requires the arc to be stretched further than an AC arc of the
same current. The magnetic blowouts in the pictured Albright contactor (which is
designed for DC currents) more than double the current it can break, increasing it from
600 A to 1,500 A.
Sometimes an economizer circuit is also installed to reduce the power required to keep a
contactor closed; an auxiliary contact reduces coil current after the contactor closes. A
somewhat greater amount of power is required to initially close a contactor than is
required to keep it closed. Such a circuit can save a substantial amount of power and
allow the energized coil to stay cooler. Economizer circuits are nearly always applied on
direct-current contactor coils and on large alternating current contactor coils.
A basic contactor will have a coil input (which may be driven by either an AC or DC
supply depending on the contactor design). The coil may be energized at the same voltage
as a motor the contactor is controlling, or may be separately controlled with a lower coil
voltage better suited to control by programmable controllers and lower-voltage pilot
devices. Certain contactors have series coils connected in the motor circuit; these are
used, for example, for automatic acceleration control, where the next stage of resistance
is not cut out until the motor current has dropped.
Operating principle
For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is
surrounded with a shading coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The
effect is to average out the alternating pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core
from buzzing at twice line frequency.
Because arcing and consequent damage occurs just as the contacts are opening or
closing, contactors are designed to open and close very rapidly; there is often an
internal tipping point mechanism to ensure rapid action.
Rapid closing can, however, lead to increase contact bounce which causes
additional unwanted open-close cycles. One solution is to have bifurcated contacts to
minimize contact bounce; two contacts designed to close simultaneously, but bounce at
different times so the circuit will not be briefly disconnected and cause an arc.
A slight variant has multiple contacts designed to engage in rapid succession. The
first to make contact and last to break will experience the greatest contact wear and will
form a high-resistance connection that would cause excessive heating inside the
contactor. However, in doing so, it will protect the primary contact from arcing, so a low
contact resistance will be established a millisecond later.
Another technique for improving the life of contactors is contact wipe; the
contacts move past each other after initial contact on order to wipe off any contamination.
APPLICATION:
D.C. variable bench supply (a bench power supply usually refers to a power
supply capable of supplying a variety of output voltages useful for bench testing
electronic circuits, possibly with continuous variation of the output voltage, or
just some preset voltages; a laboratory (lab) power supply normally implies an
accurate bench power supply, while a balanced or tracking power supply refers to
twin supplies for use when a circuit requires both positive and negative supply
rails).
Mobile Phone power adaptors
Regulated power supplies in appliances
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
This project is designed in the form of Hardware for three single phase
transformers 230v to 12V of output for to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for
the three phase supply system while temporary fault and permanent fault occurs. Here we
used 555 timer with relay for the fault is temporary or permanent.
Short duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as
temporary trip while long duration shall result in permanent trip. The concept in the
future can be extended to developing a mechanism to send message to the authorities via
SMS by interfacing a GSM modem.
The phases sequence indicators that constitutes the current technical stage are
made after the principle: induction motor principle; direct and inverse filter sequence
principle; the stroboscopic effect principle.In all those cases the common deficiency
approached after a long period of analyze consists in reduced sensibility. The mentioned
indicators can be used only when the three-phases controlled source have circuit voltage
of volt decimal order. In indicator case made on induction motor principle intervene
another disadvantage connection with vulnerability at mechanically impulse and
vibration.
The authors contribution have like object the indicators sensibility increase so to
can be use forthree-phases controlled source with voltage of volt order. One of the
contributions is made on induction motor principle and on adhesion and cohesive force
manifested on liquid-solid interface. At this indicators the motive crew deceleration was
possible in a voltage three-phase system of 39 V; 50 Hz.
The second contribution has like object the realization of a indicator on direct and
inverse filter sequence principle. The determined sequence depends of electric signal
polarity delivered on the outlet, and the indicator sensibility depends of polarity indicator
sensibility. The galvanometer, with sensibility 110-6 A/div indicator needle,
appropriation make the premise of three-phases
source with circuit voltage of volt fraction order.