Table of Contents

General types of air pollution control equipment used in industry ................................ 2

5.1 Wet scrubbers ........................................................................................... 2
5.1.1. Diagram ............................................................................................... 3
5.1.2. Advantages ........................................................................................... 3
5.1.3. Disadvantages ....................................................................................... 4
5.1.4. Collection mechanisms and efficiency ....................................................... 4
5.2. Dry cyclone collectors ............................................................................... 6
5.2.1. Diagram ............................................................................................... 7
5.2.3. Collection mechanism ............................................................................. 7
5.2.3. Advantages ........................................................................................... 8
5.2.4. Disadvantages ....................................................................................... 8
5.2.5. Typical cyclone dimensions ..................................................................... 8
5.3. Electrostatic precipitators......................................................................... 9
5.3.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 10
5.2.3. Collection mechanism ........................................................................... 10
5.3.2. Advantages ......................................................................................... 11
5.3.3. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 11
5.4. Fabric filter collectors ............................................................................. 12
5.4.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 12
5.4.2. Collection mechanism ........................................................................... 13
5.4.3. Types ................................................................................................. 13
5.4.4. Advantages ......................................................................................... 13
5.4.5. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 14
5.5. Settling Chambers .................................................................................. 14
5.5.1. Collection Mechanism ........................................................................... 15
5.5.2. Diagram ............................................................................................. 15
5.5.3. Advantages ......................................................................................... 16
5.5.4. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 16
Ch#5 Air pollution control equipment

General types of air pollution control equipment used in industry

5.1 Wet scrubbers

In wet scrubbing, an atomized liquid, usually water, is used to capture particulate dust
or to increase the size of aerosols. Increasing size facilitates separation of the particulate
from the carrier gas. Wet scrubbing can effectively remove fine particles in the range
from 0.1m to 20m.

The particles may be caught first by the liquid, or first on the scrubber structure, and
then washed off by the liquid. Because most conventional scrubbers depend upon some
form of inertial collection of particulates as the primary mechanism of capture, scrubbers
when used in a conventional way have a limited capacity for controlling fine particulates.
Unfortunately inertial forces become insignificantly small as particle size decreases, and
collection efficiency decreases rapidly as particle size decreases. As a result, it becomes
necessary to greatly increase the energy input to a wet scrubber to significantly improve
the efficiency of collection of fine particles.5
5.1.1. Diagram

Fig no.5.16

5.1.2. Advantages

Wet scrubbers have some unique characteristics useful for fine particulate control.
Since the captured particles are trapped in a liquid, re-entrainment is avoided,
and the trapped particles can be easily removed from the collection device.
Wet scrubbers can be used with high-temperature gases where cooling of the gas
is acceptable and also with potentially explosive gases.
Scrubbers are relatively inexpensive when removal of fine particulates is not
critical.
Also, scrubbers are operated more easily than other sophisticated types of
particulate removal equipment.
 Wet scrubbers can be employed for the dual purpose of absorbing gaseous
pollutants while removing particulates.
Both horizontal and vertical spray towers have been used extensively to control
gaseous emissions when particulates are present.
Cyclonic spray towers may provide slightly better particulate collection as well as
higher mass transfer coefficients and more transfer units per tower than other
designs.

5.1.3. Disadvantages

The disadvantages of wet scrubbers include the necessity of reheating cooled

scrubber effluents for discharge up a stack.
Furthermore, the water solutions may freeze in winter and become corrosive at
other times.
In some cases, the resultant liquid sludge discharge may have to be treated for
disposal.
It should be noted also that operating costs can become excessive due to the
high energy requirements to achieve high collection efficiencies for removal of
fine particulates.
Even with great energy inputs, wet scrubber collection efficiencies are not high
with particles less than 1.0m in size.7

5.1.4. Collection mechanisms and efficiency

In wet scrubbers, collection mechanisms such as inertial impaction, direct interception,

Brownian diffusion, and gravity settling apply in the collection process. Most wet
scrubbers will use a combination of these mechanisms; therefore, it is difficult to classify
a scrubber as predominately using one particular type of collection mechanism.
Nearly all wet separation devices use the same three capture mechanisms.
These are:
Impaction
Interception
Diffusion
As discussed above.
However, inertial impaction and direct interception play major roles in most wet
scrubbers. Thus, in order to capture finer particles efficiently, greater energy must be
expended on the gas. This energy may be expended primarily in the gas pressure drop
or in atomization of large quantities of water. Efficiency of collection may be
unexpectedly enhanced in a wet scrubber through methods that cause particle growth.
Particle growth can be brought about by vapor condensation, high turbulence, or thermal
forces in the confines of the narrow passages in the scrubber structure.

Condensation, the most common growth mechanism, occurs when a hot gas is cooled or
compressed. The condensation will occur preferentially on existing particles rather than
producing new nuclei.

Thus, the dust particles will grow larger and will be more easily collected. When
hydrophobic dust particles must be collected, there is evidence that the addition of small
quantities of non foaming surfactants may enhance collection. The table given below
shows various collection efficiencies of different wet scrubbers.8

Table no.5.1

Figure 5.2 shows a target droplet being impacted by a particle. The particle has sufficient
inertia to follow a predicted course into the droplet. Once inside the droplet, the
combined particle/droplet size is aerodynamically much larger, therefore the separation
task becomes easier. Simply separate the droplet from the gas stream (more on that
later) and one removes the particle(s).

Fig no.5.2
Figure 5.3 shows a particle, perhaps a bit smaller, moving along the gas stream lines
and being intercepted at the droplet surface. The particle in this case comes close
enough to the droplet surface that it is attracted to that surface and is combined with the
droplet. Again, once the particles are intercepted, the bigger droplet is easier to remove.

Fig no.5.39

5.2. Dry cyclone collectors

Cyclone collectors are used for product recovery of dry dusts and powders and as
primary collectors on high dust loading (more than 2 to 5 grs/dscf) air pollution control
applications. Cyclones are very common particulate control devices used in many
applications, especially those where relatively large particles need to be collected.
Cyclones are very simple devices that use centrifugal force to separate particles from a
gas stream. They commonly are constructed of sheet metal, although other materials
can be used.

A common application is the rotary dryer. Used to dehydrate various products from grain
to manure, direct or indirect fired rotary dryers often use cyclone collectors to capture
the entrained dust prior to a secondary collector (such as a Venturi scrubber). The
rotating action of the dryer entrains a portion of the product as the product tumbles
through the hot, drying air. This product is often valuable in dry form so the cyclone is
used to disengage the dust from the gas stream and be recovered. The residual dust is
air-conveyed to the downstream device.

Another application is on woodwaste or bagasse (sugar cane) boilers where light

entrained ash can be collected in suitably designed cyclones. On woodwaste applications,
smaller diameter cyclones are often used in banks where each cyclone handles less
than 1000 acfm of flue gas. These are called multiple cyclone collectors.10
5.2.1. Diagram

Fig no. 5.410

5.2.3. Collection mechanism

The operating principle of a cyclone is based on using centrifugal force to move particles
to the cyclone wall. The gas stream is typically directed into a cylindrical portion of the
device so that a spinning motion is created and sustained for a required number of turns
or revolutions to achieve the desired separation.

In general, the more spin cycles or turns imparted to the gas stream, the greater the
separation efficiency. Cyclone collector housings are therefore designed to provide
varying number of spins or turns, depending on the application. Centrifugal force and, to
a lesser extent, settling are the forces used in cyclone collectors. Contradicting forces
and effects are same-charge electrostatic forces that could inhibit separation as well as
the friability of the particles themselves.
Some particulate acquires a charge as it passes through ductwork or a cyclone
(piezoelectric effect) thereby making separation more difficult. If the particulate or dust
becomes reduced in size, it makes it more difficult to collect because the effective
centrifugal force applied to the particle is a function of its mass.

5.2.3. Advantages

Cyclones are able to handle very heavy dust loading.

They can be used in high temperature gas streams.
Cyclones are cost-effective devices.
Require low maintenance.
They also reduce loading on the primary collector and allow for the dry recovery

of product.

5.2.4. Disadvantages

High operating costs (owing to power required to overcome pressure drop).

Cyclones have low efficiencies in removing fine particulate. Because small
particles have little mass that can generate a centrifugal force.11

5.2.5. Typical cyclone dimensions

Table no. 5.212

5.3. Electrostatic precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators are used for the purpose of removing dry particulate matter
from gas streams. They basically apply an electrostatic charge to the particulate and
provide sufficient surface area for that particulate to migrate to the collecting plate and
be captured. The collecting plates are rapped periodically to disengage the collected
particulate into a receiving hopper.

An ESP controls particulate emissions by: (1) charging the particles, (2) applying an
electric field to move the particles out of the gas stream, and then (3) removing the
collected dust. Particles are charged by gas ions that are formed by corona discharge
from the electrodes. The ions become attached to the particles, thus providing the
charge.

In a typical ESP, vertical wires are used as the negative discharge electrode between
vertical, flat, grounded plates. The dirty gas stream passes horizontally between the
plates and a dust layer of particulate collects on the plates. The typical spacing between
the discharge electrode and the collector plate is 4 to 6 in. The dust layer is removed
from the plates by rapping, or in the case of a wet ESP, by washing with water.

An alternative to the alternative to the plate and wire design is the tube and wire design,
in which the discharge electrode wire is fixed in the center of a vertical tubular collection
electrode. In this configuration, the gas flow is parallel to the discharge electrode.

Dry electrostatic precipitators are used to remove particulate matter from flue gas
streams exiting cement kilns, utility and industrial power boilers, catalytic crackers,
paper mills, metals processing, glass furnaces, and a wide variety of industrial
applications. An electrostatic precipitator is a constant pressure drop, variable emission
particulate removal device offering exceptionally high particulate removal efficiency.13
5.3.1. Diagram

Fig no.5.514

5.2.3. Collection mechanism

The basic principle of an electrostatic precipitator is to attract charged dust particles to

the collecting plates where they can be removed from the gas stream. Dust entering the
precipitator is charged by a corona discharge leaving the electrodes. Corona is plasma
containing electrons and negatively charged ions. Most industrial electrostatic
precipitators use negative discharge corona for charging dust.

When charged, the dust particles are driven toward the collecting plates by the
electromagnetic force created by the voltage potential applied to the discharge
electrodes. An electrostatic precipitator contains multiple mechanical fields located in
series and parallel to the direction of gas flow.

Each mechanical field is comprised of a group of collecting plates that define a series of
parallel gas passages. These passages run in the direction of gas flow. Bisecting the gas
passage is a series of discharge electrodes, also running in the direction of gas flow. A
mechanical field contains one or more electrical fields. A single transformer rectifier
serves each electrical field. There can be multiple electrical sections contained in a single
electrical field.15
5.3.2. Advantages

An electrostatic precipitator is a constant pressure drop, variable emission

particulate removal device offering exceptionally high particulate removal
efficiency.
This is more effective to remove very small particles like smoke, mist and fly ash.
Its range of dust removal is sufficiently large (0.01 micron to 1.00 micron).
The small dust particles below 10 microns cannot be removed with the help of
mechanical separators and wet scrubbers cannot be used if sufficient water is not
available. Under these circumstances, this type is very effective.
This is also most effective for high dust loaded gas (as high as 100 grams per
cu.meter)
The draught loss of this system is the least of all forms(1 cm of water)
It provides ease of operation.
The dust is collected in dry form and can be removed either dry or wet.

5.3.3. Disadvantages

The direct current is not available with the modern plants, therefore considerable
electrical equipment is necessary to convert low voltage (400 V) A.C to high
voltage (60000 V) D.C. This increases the capital cost of the equipment as high
as 40 to 60 cents per 1000 kg of rated installed steam generating capacity.
The running charges are also considerably high as the amount of power required
for charging is considerably large.
The space required is larger than the wet system.
The efficiency of the collector is not maintained if the gas velocity exceeds that
for which the plant is designed. The dust carried with the gases increases with an
increase of gas velocity.
Because of closeness of the charged plates and high potential used, it is
necessary to protect the entire collector from sparking by providing a fine mesh
before the ionizing chamber. This is necessary because even a smallest piece of
paper might cause sparking when it would be carried across adjacent plates or
wires.16
5.4. Fabric filter collectors

Fabric filter collectors, or baghouses, separate particulate from gas stream by causing
the particulate to pass through a filtering media, a layer of previously collected (or
purposely deposited) particulate, or both. The gasborne particulate is intercepted by the
fibers of the filtering media, by the particulate already present on the media surface, or
both.

To prevent excessive pressure drop as the particulate accumulates, these devices use
various mechanisms to disengage the particulate from the media. The filter bags are
mounted on a tube sheet and enclosed in a sheet-metal housing. It must be understood
that the mechanism that achieves filtration of small particles from a gas stream is not
simple sieving. The spacing between fabric threads may be on the order of 50 to 75
microns, yet particles of 1 micron diameter and less are collected efficiently.17

5.4.1. Diagram

Figure no.5.618
5.4.2. Collection mechanism

Fabric filter collectors primarily use sieving (a combination of impaction and interception)
as the collecting mechanism. The combined porosity of the media and any previously
accumulated particulate serve to produce small pores through which the new particulate
must attempt to pass. This filtering or sieving action relies on the fact that the net
opening at any given time is smaller than the particulate. Because the particle is bigger
than the opening, it cannot pass through. After collection on the media surface or in the
dust cake, various mechanisms are used to remove the particulate from the media. After
that, the particulate settles by gravity in the devices housing.19

5.4.3. Types

The three common types of baghouses based on cleaning methods

Reverse-air
Shaker
Pulse-jet

5.4.4. Advantages

Very high collection efficiencies possible (99.9 + per cent) with a wide range of
inlet grain loadings and particle size variations. Within certain limits fabric
collectors have a constancy of static pressure and efficiency, for a wider range of
particle sizes and concentrations than any other type of single dust collector.
Collection efficiency not affected by sulfur content of the combustion fuel as in
ESPs.
Reduced sensitivity to particle size distribution.
No high voltage requirements.
Flammable dust may be collected.
Use of special fibers or filter aids enables sub-micron removal of smoke and
fumes.
Collectors available in a wide range of configurations, sizes, and inlet and outlet
locations.
They can operate over a wide range of volumetric flow rates
The pressure drops are reasonably low.
 Fabric Filter houses are modular in design, and can be pre-assembled at the
factory.

5.4.5. Disadvantages

Fabric life may be substantially shortened in the presence of high acid or alkaline
atmospheres, especially at elevated temperatures.
Maximum operating temperature is limited to 550 degrees Fahrenheit, unless
special fabrics are used.
Collection of hygroscopic materials or condensation of moisture can lead to fabric
plugging, loss of cleaning efficiency, large pressure losses.
Certain dusts may require special fabric treatments to aid in reducing leakage or
to assist in cake removal.
Fabric bags tend to burn or melt readily at temperature extremes.
Fabric Filters require a large floor area.
The fabric is damaged at high temperature.
Ordinary fabrics cannot handle corrosive gases.20

5.5. Settling Chambers

One of the simplest (and oldest) air pollution control devices is the Settling chamber
These are also sometimes called knock out boxes or drop out boxes .The equipment is in
the form of a large chamber, which allows reduction of the gas velocity to a point where
the particulate it carries simply drops out. Today, settling chambers are used for coarse
removal of large particulate in advance of higher efficiency particulate control
equipment. They are rarely, if ever, used as the final gas cleaning device.

Settling chambers are primarily used to reduce the loading of particulate from sources
such as kilns, calciners, and mills or grinders that inherently produce high particulate
concentrations. If the particulate is valuable in a dry form, the settling chamber usually
is designed to settle out the smallest size particle that can economically be separated. If
the product is not valuable or further downstream particulate separation is to be used
(such as a cyclone, scrubber, or fabric filter collector), the chamber is usually sized to
afford some basic separation at low cost. They are often followed by product recovery
cyclones which are, in turn, followed by collectors designed for high efficiency collection
of the fine particulate that pass through the upstream devices.21
5.5.1. Collection Mechanism

A settling chamber operates on the principle that if you slow a gas stream down
sufficiently, the solid particulate contained within that gas stream will settle out by
gravity. In general, the larger the particle, the faster the settling rate. In addition, larger
particles will settle out faster in a given moving gas stream than smaller particles.
Settling chambers are therefore designed to allow the mean gas stream velocity to slow
down to a point at or below the target particles settling velocity so that the particle
drops out within the confines of the chamber.

Because the particle settles at a given rate (i.e., distance per unit time) as predicted by
Stokes Law, the chamber must be sufficiently long to allow this settling to be completed
before the gas reaches the devices gas outlet. Settling chambers are therefore large in
cross-sectional area (to slow the gas stream down), and long, to allow sufficient time for
settling. The primary mechanism used is the drag force applied on the particle by the
viscosity of the carrier gas. As the gas stream slows down, the influence of the viscous
force of the gas on the particle is reduced and the particle begins to settle by primarily
gravitational forces.

5.5.2. Diagram

Figure no.5.722
5.5.3. Advantages

Low capital cost.

Very low energy cost.
No moving parts therefore low maintenance requirements and low operating cost.
Excellent reliability.
Low pressure drop through device.
Device not subjected to abrasion due to low gas velocity.
Provide incidental cooling of gas stream.
Temperature and pressure limitations only dependant on the material of
construction.

5.5.4. Disadvantages

Relatively low PM collection efficiencies, particularly for PM less than 50m in

size.
Unable to handle sticky materials.
Large physical size.
Trays may warp during high temperature operations.23