NICOLE C.
MAPILI
CHAPTER 3: JUDGEMENT
Judgment
Second act of the intellect by
which it pronounces the
agreement or disagreement
between terms or ideas.
The intellect in
making a judgment
or assertion
therefore either
affirms or denies the
relation of at least
two concepts.
Ideas or concepts, in
themselves are neither true
or false.
Truth becomes a logical
issue when the intellect
relates, compares, and
pronounces whether
two ideas or concepts
agree or disagree with
each other.
The term student and the
term wise are by
themselves cannot be
considered true or false
But when the intellect
creates a judgment or
relates these two terms
(e.g. That student is wise.),
the possibility of truth or
falsity arises.
Proposition
The Judgment expressed in a
sentence or a sentence
pronouncing the agreement
or disagreement between
terms.
A proposition always has a
truth value: it can be may
be true or false but it
cannot be both true or
false.
All propositions are
sentences but not all
sentences are propositions.
e.g. Please keep
our environment
clean. it is a
sentence but not
necessarily a
proposition.
Types of Proposition
1. Categorical Proposition
a categorical proposition
expresses a direct
judgment or a direct
assertion of the
agreement or
disagreement of two
terms in the absolute
manner.
2. Hypothetical Proposition
a hypothetical proposition
does not express a direct
judgment, rather a
relation between two
judgments, in which the
NICOLE C. MAPILI

truth of one depends on the subject and the

the other. predicate.
Quantifier expresses the
Categorical Proposition
Two elements of a categorical application or extension of
proposition the proposition.

1. Matter is the sense orExamples:

meaning or theEvery streetlight is
substance of a working.
proposition. It is what the
proposition is all about or(Quantifier) (subject) (copula)
what the propositionpredicate
states. This is expressed
in the subject and the
predicate.
Almost all pastries are
2. Form is the structure of baked.
the proposition whether
it states an affirmation (Quantifier) (subject) (coplula)
or negation of the (predicate)
relation between the
subject and the
predicate, this is The Logical Form of the
expressed by the copula. Proposition

Subject the term The logical form of the

designating the idea categorical proposition
(thing) about which follows this pattern:
something is affirmed or Subject Copula
denied Predicate.

Generally in its logical form,

Predicate the term the proposition is always in
designating the idea (thing the present tense and uses
or attribute) which is as a copula the present
affirmed or denied of the tense, indicative mood of the
subject. verb to be.
Copula the term Original Form
expressing the mental
act which pronounces the
agreement or
disagreement between
NICOLE C. MAPILI

Pattern or Form of the

1. My large backpack Categorical Proposition
2. Our venerable master S Subject
Absolute Properties of Categorical P Predicate
Propositions + (plus sign) -affirmative
-(negative sign) negative
A.Quality
u Universal
1.Affirmative proposition who p Particular
predicate is always affirmed of itsExample:
subject according to the whole All wines are alcoholic
of its comprehension and part of its beverages. Su + Pp
extension.
The predicate of an affirmative Some alcoholic beverages
proposition is always particular are wines. Sp+ Pp
except if the predicate of the
proposition is a definition of the General Pattern of Vowel
subject. In such cases, the Letters
predicate applies only to one A Su + Ppor Su + Pu
individual (the subject) and
E Su Pu
therefore has a universal extension.
I Sp+ Pp
2. Negative A negative propositionO Sp-Pu
is one whose
predicate is always denied of its subject according to
a part of its comprehension and the whole of its
extension. Exercises on General Pattern
e.g. Some light bulbs are not incandescent of Vowel
bulbs. Letters
All architects are not good in physics.
1) Some commercial planes
are made by Boeing.
2) Some Thomasians are not
The Four Vowel Letters Filipino citizens.
3) Michael is a certified
A Universal Affirmative public accountant.
E Universal Negative 4) UST is the Pontifical,
I Particular Affirmative Royal, Catholic University
O Particular Negative of the Philippines.
The letters A E I O are taken from the5) All human
first beings are
two vowel
letters of the Latin words affirmo andmade
negoin the image of God.
NICOLE C. MAPILI

6) All professors are required the other is false, if one is

to have masteral degrees. false the other is true.
7) All glass wares are not Contradiction is the
very durable. highest opposition since
there is no middle ground.
Logical Opposition
Opposition is the relation
existing between Contradiction (examples)
propositions having the All things that are sterilized are
same subject and clean. If TRUE
predicate but different Some things that are sterilized
quality or quantity or both.are not clean. is Necessarily
There are four types of False
opposition: contradiction, Some phones are made in
contrariety, sub- China. If TRUE
contrariety, and sub- All phones are not made in
alternation. China. Necessarily False
The idea here is that in
Contradiction contradiction if one is true then
Contradiction is the the other statement is
opposition existing necessarily false and vice-versa.
between two propositions
having the same subject, Contrariety
the same predicate, but Contrariety is the opposition
different quality and existing between two
quantity. propositions having the same
Opposition between A (all subject and predicate, the same
is) and O (some is not). universal extension, but
Opposition between E (all different quality.
is not) and I (some is) It is the opposition between
Contradictory propositions universals A (All is) and E (all is
cannot be true at the not).
same time or false at the Contrary propositions cannot
same time. If one is true be both true but may be both
false.
NICOLE C. MAPILI

If one is true, the other is false. Sub-contrariety

If one is false the other may be
true or false, meaning, doubtful
or undetermined.
Contrariety (examples)
Ex. All chairs are made of
wood.
All chairs are not made of
wood.
All laptops are portable. Sub-Contrariety (examples)
All laptops are not
portable.
Every minute is composed
of sixty seconds.
Every minute is not
composed of sixty
seconds.
propositions cannot be
both false, but may be
both true.
If one is false the other one
is true and if one is true
the other may be true or
false, meaning doubtful or
undetermined.
Ex. Some shoes are made
by Nike. TRUE
Some shoes are not made
by Nike. TRUE or Doubtful
Some trains are running
on electricity. TRUE
Some trains are not
running on electricity.
TRUE or doubtful

Sub-Altern

Sub-Contrariety Sub-alternation is the

Sub-contrariety is the
opposition existing
between two propositions
having the same subject
and predicate, the same
particular extension, but
different quality.
It is the opposition
between the two
particulars: I (some is) and
O (some is not)
opposition existing between
propositions having the same
subject and predicate, the
same quality but different
extension or quantity.
It is the opposition between A
and I; E and O
From the truth of the
universal, follows the truth of
the particular, but from the
truth of the particular, the
NICOLE C. MAPILI

truth of the universal does If E is true, I is

not follow. false* If E is false,
I is true
Sub-altern(cont.) * If I is true, E is
From the falsity of the false* If I is false,
particular, follows the falsity E is true
of the universal. But from
the falsity of the universal, 2. Law of Contrariety
States that two
the falsity of the particular contrary
does not follow. propositions
Even the falsity of one or a cannot be both
true but they may
few can disprove the be both false at
universality of the universal. the same time.
While the falsity of the If A is true, E is
false
universal does not If E is true, A is
necessarily follow that it is false
only applicable to some. But If A is false, E is
it is possible either that it is doubtful
applicable to some * If E is false, A is
doubtful
(therefore the particular is 3. Law of Sub-
true) or none at all Contrariety
(therefore the particular is States that two
false). contrary
propositions can
not be both false
Laws of Opposition but they maybe
1. Law of both true at the
Contradiction same time.
Two contradictory If I is false, O is
propositions true
cannot be both If O is false, I is
true and both true
false at the same If I is true, O is
time. doubtful
If A is true, O is * If O is true, I is
false* If A is false, doubtful
O is true
If O is true, A is
false* If O is false,
A is true 4. Law of Sub-
Alternation
NICOLE C. MAPILI

a) States that the the proposition. It is not

truth of the universal necessary that the
carries or implies the subject and predicate
truth of the be a single word. It can
particular but not be considered as a
vice versa. subject or predicate so
If A is true, I is long as it presents a
true single unified idea
If E is true, O is expressed as term.
true Ex. S is P = [S] is [P]
If I is true, A is
doubtful CONVERSION
* If O is true, E is Just interchange
doubtful the position of the
b) States that the subject and
falsity of the predicate of the
particular carries or proposition
implies the falsity of A: All [S] is [P]
the universal but not Some [P] are [S]
vice versa. (I)
If I is false, A is Reason: You will
false see in the Eulers
If O is false, E is circle that to
false convert A to A is
If A is false, I is erroneous for it
doubtful will change the
distribution of
* If E is false, O is terms. If one
doubtful changes the
distribution of
Immediate Inferences terms, one is
Eduction: Valid already talking
changes in a proposition beyond the
bounds of what
1. Conversion was given. In
2. Obversion logic, we can only
argue within the
To better facilitate bounds of what is
eduction, it is helpful to given.
bracket (excluding even All conversions of
the quantifier) the A propositions are
subject and predicate of I propositions
the proposition. In other
words, it necessitates Note: Through this, we
you to, first and can see that change in
foremost, locate the the distribution of terms
subject and predicate of can only be appreciated
NICOLE C. MAPILI

when it is a change Negate the

from a universal copula; negate
quantity towards a the predicate
particular quantity; Basis: Double
particular to universal negation results
movement is erroneous. to a positive result
For obvious reasons, (same result, in
when we speak of a other words)
universal term, we are
already speaking of all
references included in A: All [S] is [P] All S is
it. Whilst when we not non-P (E) / No S is
speak of particular, we non-P (E)
can never ascertain the E: No S is P No S is
applicability of it to a not non-P (A) / All S is
general or universal non-P (A)
term. I: Some S are P Some
S are not non-P (O) / Not
O: No Conversion for all S are non-P (O)
O propositions O: Not all S are P Not
Ex. Some mortals are all S are not non-P (I) /
not men Some men Some S are non-P (I)
are not mortals [Note:
Distribution] Therefore, valid
obversions are E;
Note further: (E) and EA; IO; OI
(I) propositions are
easily converted for it POINT OF GREAT
does not affect the CONSIDERATION
reference or distribution
of terms as depicted
very well in the Eulers Given all of this, it is but
circle. necessary therefore
that we reduce all
propositions to S is P
form to facilitate better
VALID CONVERSIONS Eduction. What is
E E required only from the
form of propositions is
A I that it should be in
I I declarative form thus,
E O whether linking verb or
not, it should be
considered. Given that
it is not in the S is P
OBVERSION form, the following
should be done:
NICOLE C. MAPILI

Ex: X grows Y = [X] is

[that whichgrows Y].
X is large = [X] is [that
which islarge].
Before a verb: that
which
Before an adjective:
that which is

In other words, one

should bring out the
copula is, are, are not,
is not. REDUCE THE
PROPOSITION TO
LOGICAL FORM OF
ONE OF THE FOUR
TYPES (FORMS) OF
PROPOSITIONS

THE
SQUARE OF
OPPOSITION