CF Pumps

TRAINING RELIANCE MODULE NO.
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
TRAINING MODULE
-
ON
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
CHECKED AND PAGE : 1 of 133

CENTRIFUGAL REV : 00
APPROVED BY ISSUE : 01
DATE :25/03/2003
DEEPAK PURI PUMPS AUTHOR : Jyoti
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
TRAINING MODULE OBJECTIVE
This Training manual is intended to help engineers to understand the basic

fundamentals and applications of centrifugal pumps in process industry. Thus, in this
module, an effort has been made to provide, a much needed source of information in
the field of centrifugal pumps.
To make the module easy to use, contents are divided into short sections like
Introduction to pumps
Principal of operation
Classification of pumps
Construction of Centrifugal pump
Operating parameters of centrifugal pump
Trouble shooting of centrifugal pumps
Hope the training module serves the purpose.

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CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
This Training manual is prepared exclusively for the technical knowledge

enhancement of the personnel of Reliance Group of Industries.
No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

system or otherwise. The document must be returned or when the recipient has no
further use of the same. The document or any part of the document is not allowed to
be taken out of the respective site or to be shared with any person outside Reliance
Group.
Reliance Group of Industries reserves the right to refuse access to the above document
on the grounds of confidentiality.
Authorization for information disclosure is allowed with the written permission of the
respective Site Engineering Head.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION DESCRIPTION PAGES
Introduction 1 to 5
1 Introduction to pumps 6 to 18
1.1 General
1.2 Centrifugal pumps
1.3 Positive displacement pumps
1.4 Application of pumps
1.5 Definitions
1.6 Pump selection
1.7 Pump standards
2 Centrifugal pumps 19 to 34
2.1 Principal of operation
2.2 Operating parameters
2.2.1 Head
2.2.2 Capacity
2.2.3 Power and efficiency, BEP
2.2.4 NPSH
2.2.5 Specific speed and suction specific speed
2.3 Significance of pump parameters in
pump selection
3 Components of centrifugal pump 35 to 56

3.1 General
3.2 Stationery parts: Casing, Seal chamber and
stuffing box, Bearing housing
3.3 Rotating parts: Impeller, W. rings, Shaft,
Shaft sleeve, Coupling, Auxiliary components
3.4 Drivers of centrifugal pumps
4 Performance of centrifugal pumps 57 to 82

4.1 Understanding and developing
pump curves
4.2 Effect of various parameters on
pump performance
4.3 Pump capacity control
4.4 Performance parameters
4.5 Affinity laws

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4.6 Radial and axial thrust

4.7 Cavitation
5 Installation, commissioning and start up of 83 to 89

centrifugal pumps
6 Vertical centrifugal pumps 90 to 94

6.1 Types of vertical pumps
6.2 Installation of vertical pumps
6.3 Typical characteristics of vertical pumps
6.4 Special type of vertical pumps
(Sundyne pumps)
7 Maintenance of centrifugal pumps 95 to 111

7.1 General
7.2 Vibration monitoring
7.3 Reconditioning of various pump parts
8 Troubleshooting 112 to 121

8.1 Troubleshooting guide
8.2 Centrifugal pump modification
9 Acceptance criteria and performance tests 122 to 127
10 DOs and DONTs of centrifugal pumps 128 to 130
11 Frequently asked questions & answers 131 to 133

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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION TO PUMPS
1.1 General
Pumps convert mechanical energy input into hydraulic or fluid energy. They
fall into two distinct categories depending upon the way in which the energy is
converted from high liquid velocity at the inlet into pressure head in a
diffusing flow passage. Dynamic pumps and positive displacement pumps.
Pump classification chart is shown:

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1.2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
A centrifugal pump consists of a set of rotating vanes, enclosed within a

housing or casing and used to impart energy to a fluid through centrifugal
force. The liquid is forced, by atmospheric or other pressure, into a set of
rotating vanes. These vanes constitute an impeller, which discharges the liquid
at its periphery at a higher velocity.
This velocity is converted to pressure energy by means of a volute or by a set

of stationery diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery. Pressure drop
across the centrifugal pump is shown in the figure.
Centrifugal pumps are made in a variety of configurations, such as horizontal,

vertical, radial split and axial split casings. The choice is a function of
hydraulic requirements such as flow rates and desired pressures. Other
important considerations are space constraints at the site and ease of
maintenance. Centrifugal pumps are well suited for large volume applications.
The system variables that dictate the selection are fluid viscosity, specific
gravity, system throughput and head requirements. Pumps are used
accordingly in series or parallel combination to meet system objectives.
These pumps have low efficiency than positive displacement pumps but
advantage lies in high flow rates, quiet operation, adaptability for use, low
maintenance expense, compactness and relatively high speeds.

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Main features of the centrifugal pumps are:
Simple in construction
Compact and less weight of pump per unit quantity pumped
Low initial and maintenance cost
Easy maintenance and smooth operation
Continuous flow
High speed of rotation can be achieved
Centrifugal pumps are discussed in details in this training module.
1.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:
Positive displacement pumps are the pumps in which the energy is

periodically added to one or more movable boundaries of any desired number
of enclosed fluid containing volumes, resulting in increase of pressure up to
the valve required to move the fluid through valves or ports to the discharge
line.
Displacement pumps are further divided into Reciprocating type and rotary
type pumps depending on movement of pressure producing parts. These
pumps operate by forcing a fixed volume of fluid from the inlet section to
discharge section. Reciprocating pumps are intermittent service and operate at
relatively lower speeds than dynamic pumps.
1.3.1 Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump with liquid discharge

pressure limited only by strength of the mechanical parts. Liquid volume or
capacity delivered is constant regardless of pressure and is varied only by speed
changes.

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1.3.2 Piston / plunger pumps: It primarily consists of a piston or a plunger

inside a closed cylinder. It moves forward and backward inside the
cylinder with the drive from crankshaft and connecting rod mechanism.
Crank shaft is driven by an electric motor or a diesel engine. See figure.
1.3.3 Diaphragm pumps: These are pumps with flexible membranes clamped at
their peripheries in sealing arrangement with a stationery housing. Central
portion moves in a reciprocating manner taking drive from crank or
eccentric cam. See figure.
Typical characteristics of the reciprocating pumps are
Positive displacement of liquid

High pulsation caused by sinusoidal motion of the piston
High volumetric efficiency
Low pump maintenance cost and high starting torque.
These pumps are used mainly for fuel oil pumping, sprinkling and irrigation
where high delivery pressure and low capacity is required
1.3.4 Rotary pumps: Rotor of the rotary pump displaces the liquid either by
rotating or by a rotating and orbiting motion. Following types of rotary pumps
are most commonly used.
1.3.5 Screw pumps: These pumps operate on a principle of progressively

moving a fluid between a set of counter rotating screws. See figure.

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1.3.6 Gear pumps: Gear pump trap liquid between the teeth of the gear on the
suction and carry it forward around to discharge side from where it is
thrown out into the discharge pipe.
1.3.7 Vane pumps: liquid is drawn into and discharged from an axial hole in
the rotor, which is divided into suction and discharge chambers by tight
fitting end covers. As the rotor rotates in the direction indicated, space
between the vanes grows in volume, resulting into liquid being drawn in
from suction chamber through radial holes. As the vanes run, the volume
of space is decreased and the liquid is discharged into discharge
chamber.

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Main features of rotary pumps:
Positive displacement
Self priming
Fairly constant discharge
Less vibration
Weight per unit flow is less compared to recip type
Less no. of parts, making it less complicated
Rotary pumps are often employed in service where small flows at large
pressures are required. They are used generally in lubrication and control
systems of large pumps, turbines and compressors.

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1.4 APPLICATION OF PUMPS
Application of suitable type of pump for a given service is dependent on

various factors. A guideline is given in the following figure. This represents
upper limits of pressure and capacity available currently. From the figure it is
evident that the reciprocating pumps run off the pressure scale whereas the
centrifugal pumps run off the capacity scale. Upper limits of pressure and
capacity by pump class are shown in the following figure.
1 10 100 1000 10000

100000 0 0
CAPACITY m3/hr
10000 RECIPROCATING 1000

CENTRIFUGAL
ROTARY
100
1000
10
100
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
lb/in2
bar 1
10
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

CAPACITY US gal/min
APPROXIMATE UPPER LIMIT OF PRESSURE AND CAPACITY BY PUMP CLASS

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Most of the centrifugal pumps find their application in column bottom pumps,
vacuum tower separation, hydrocarbon processing, removal of sulfur and
nitrogen. They are used in steam power plants as boiler feed water pumps,
condensate circulating pumps, fuel oil systems. In fire services, centrifugal
pumps are used as firewater pumps and as fire water jockey pumps (Smaller
pump which maintains pressure in the distribution system during periods of
low demand)
Reciprocating pumps are adapted to function as metering pumps for transfer of

fluids. The flow rates can be varied by changing the displacement per stroke.

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1.5 DEFINITIONS
Pumping is the addition of energy to a liquid to move it from one point to another.
Reciprocating pumps use pistons, plungers, diaphragms or other devices to displace

a given volume of liquid during each stroke of unit
Centrifugal pumps employ centrifugal force to develop a pressure rise for moving a
liquid.
Impeller is the rotating member in a centrifugal pump through which liquid passes
and by means of which energy is imparted to the liquid.
Casing of a centrifugal pump is the housing surrounding the impeller.
Critical speed of a centrifugal pump is that speed of the rotating shaft corresponds to
its natural frequency. At this speed, any minor imbalance of the shaft is magnified and
excessive vibration will occur.
Rotary pumps use gears, vanes, screws, cams etc in a fixed casing to produce
positive displacement of a liquid.
Packing is any material used to control leakage between a moving and stationery part
in the pump.
Mechanical seals are devices mounted on the shaft of centrifugal pump to seal the
liquid in the casing.
Cavitation is the phenomenon caused by vapourisation of a liquid inside a pump.
Viscosity is property of the liquid that resists any force tending to produce flow.
Specific gravity of a liquid is that number which denotes the ratio of the weight of the
liquid to the weight of the equal volume of water.
Net positive suction head required is the energy needed on the suction side of the
pump to fill the pump to the discharge valve during operation.

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1.6 SELECTION OF PUMPS
Following are important criteria for selection of any pump:
1. Fluid handled: Depending upon the process involved, fluid properties like
viscosity, density, boiling point, corrosiveness influence the on pump and system
design. Influence of operating pressures, temperatures on the fluid also needs to be
studied.
2. System head curves: A preliminary layout of the pumping system should be

drawn which will include equipment layout, piping and instrumentation diagram,
elevation, various components like valves, their sizes. This will help in developing
system head curve, which will include hydraulic losses. All such losses in the
piping may then be added in this graph. User can then determine the total head
requirement of the pumping equipment in order to overcome the system
resistance.
3. Mode of operation: Whether operation of pump is continuous or intermittent?

Criticality of the pump in service, which will decide upon the stand by equipment
4. Margins: Margins should be available for pumping parameters like capacity and
head in case of any unforseen problems like sudden voltage dips or malfunction of
the check valve. Future expansions would alter the operating parameters, which
need to be taken into account in the design stage only.
5. Life of the equipment need to be considered while design considering wear of

parts like sleeves, liners in abrasive services.

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Following guidelines can be adapted for selection of any type of pump in general:
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
GPM HEAD (PSI) TYPE RPM
20 700 50 560 Single stage process 2950
40 700 560 950 Two stage process 2950
80 1700 850 10000 Multistage Recommend
700 1900 0 250 Single stage process 1450
1900 8000 0 1050 Single stage double suction 1450/2950
700 2100 560 1100 Two stage process 2950
5 400 100 5800 Sundyne Recommend
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
10 100 0 4000 Multiplunger /direct acting -
ROTARY PUMPS
10 100 0 3500 Gear / Screw -

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1.7 PUMP STANDARDS
Pumps are generally procured and manufactured in conformance to various standards,

which stipulate the design considerations, materials, manufacturing process,
inspection and shipping etc. Standards generally used for hydrocarbon liquid include
API and ANSI. For non-hazardous services like water, IS standards are generally
used.
The nature and criticality of service decide application of a particular standard.

Generally a project standard is developed by the Engineering Consultant which also
considers the design standard of Process Licenser. However it is subjected to approval
of plant owners as these could have huge financial implications.
In recent times, many stringent clauses are included in the project standard looking
into the safety and environmental issues, which are assuming significant importance
worldwide.

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
2.1 PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION:
As discussed earlier also, a centrifugal pump is one of the simplest types of equipment
in any process plant. Its purpose is to convert energy of a prime mover (a electric
motor or turbine) first into velocity or kinetic energy and then into pressure energy of
a fluid that is being pumped. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of
the pump, the impeller and the volute or the diffuser. The impeller is the rotating part
that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy. The volute or diffuser is the
stationery part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
2.1.1 GENERATION OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into suction eye of a revolving
device known as the impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in
the cavities between the vanes outwards and provides centrifugal acceleration. As
liquid leaves the eye of the impeller, a low pressure area is formed causing more
liquid to flow towards the inlet. Because the impeller blades are curved, the fluid is
pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force. Figure below
depicts a side cross section of a centrifugal pump indicating the movement of the
liquid:

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2.1.2 CONVERSION OF KINETIC ENERGY INTO PRESSURE ENERGY:
The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The
amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane
tip of the impeller. The faster impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the
higher will be the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy
imparted to the liquid.
The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a

resistance to flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that
catches the liquid and slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further
decelerates and its velocity is converted to pressure according to Bernoullis principle.
Therefore, the head (pressure in terms of height of liquid) developed is approximately

equal to the velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller.

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2.2 PUMP OPERATING PARAMETERS
Now, let us discuss various other parameters that are specified for a pump
independent of pump types:
Head, Capacity, Power, Speed and

Efficiency and NPSH
2.2.1 Head:
The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as being caused by a

vertical column of the liquid due to its weight. The height of this column is called
as the static head and is expressed in terms of meters of liquid. Head of a pump is
used to measure the kinetic energy created by the pump. In other words, head is a
measurement of the height of a liquid column that the pump could create from the
kinetic energy imparted to the liquid. Head is not equivalent to the pressure. Head
has units of meters and pressure has units of force per unit area. The main reason
for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pumps energy is
that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the
liquid changes, but the head will not change. Since any given centrifugal pump
can move a lot of different fluids, with different specific gravities, it is simpler to
discuss pumps head than its pressure.
Various heads are defined below for clarity:
Static suction head (hs): Head resulting from elevation of the liquid relative to
the pump centerline. If the liquid level is above pump centerline, hs is positive. If
the liquid level is below pump centerline, then hs is negative. Negative hs
condition is commonly denoted as a suction lift condition.
Static discharge head (hd): It is the vertical distance in meters between the pump
centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the
discharge tank.
Friction head (hf): The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the
pipe and fittings. It is dependent upon the size, condition and type of pipe, number
and type of pipe fittings, flow rate and nature of the liquid.
Vapour pressure head (hvp): Vapour pressure is the pressure at which a liquid
and its vapour coexist in equilibrium at a given temperature. The vapour pressure
of liquid can be obtained from vapour pressure tables, when the vapour pressure is
converted to head, it is referred as vapour pressure head hvp. The value of hvp of
a liquid increases with rising temperature and in effect, opposes the pressure on

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the liquid surface, the positive force that tends to cause liquid flow into the pump
suction i.e. it reduces the suction pressure head.
Pressure head (hp): Pressure head has to be considered when a pumping system
either begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than
atmospheric. The pressure in a tank shall first be converted into meters of liquid.
Denoted as hp, pressure head refers to absolute pressure on the surface of the
liquid reservoir supplying pump suction, converted to meters of head. If the
system is open, hp equals atmospheric head.
Velocity head (hv): This refers to the energy of the liquid as a result of its motion
at some velocity v. It is the equivalent head in meters through which the water
have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to
accelerate the water. The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored
in most of the high head systems. However, it can be a large factor and must be
considered in small head systems.
Total suction head (Hs): The suction reservoir pressure head (hps) plus the static
suction head (hs) plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange (hvs) minus
the friction head in the suction line (hfs). It is the reading of the gauge at the
suction flange, converted to meters of liquid.
Hs = hps + hs + hvs - hfs
Total discharge head (Hd): The discharge reservoir pressure head (hpd) plus the
static discharge head (hd) plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange
(hvd) plus the total friction head in the discharge line (hfd).
Hd = hpd + hd + hvd + hfd
The total discharge head is the reading of the gauge at the discharge flange,
converted to meters of liquid.
Total Differential head (HT): It is the total discharge head minus total suction
head.
HT = Hd + Hs (with a suction lift)

HT = Hd Hs (with a suction head)

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2.2.2 Capacity:
Capacity means the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed by the pump
to the desired point in the process. Quantity of flow is defined as the amount of
liquid passing through the pump in unit time. It is measured in m3/hr. The capacity
usually changes with the changes in operation of the process. For example, a
boiler feed water pump is an application that needs a constant pressure with
varying capacities to meet a changing steam demand.
The capacity depends on number of factors like:
Process liquid characteristics like density and viscosity

Size of the pump and its inlet and outlet sections
Impeller size
Impeller rotational speed RPM
Size and shape of the cavities between the vanes
Pump suction and discharge temperature and pressure conditions
For a pump with a particular impeller running at a certain speed in a liquid, the
only item on the list above that can change the amount of liquid flowing through
the pump are the pressures at the pump inlet and outlet. Hence pumping curves are
normally plotted as head Vs capacity curves. The effect on the flow through a
pump by changing the outlet pressures is graphed on the curve. Also power and
efficiency are plotted as functions of capacity for a constant speed.
As liquids are essentially incompressible, the capacity is directly proportional to

the velocity of flow in the suction pipe.
2.2.3 Power:
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of
the liquid pumped in a given time period. Pump input or brake power is the
actual power delivered to the pump shaft and pump output or the hydraulic
power is the liquid power delivered by the pump and is expressed in kW.
Brake power or the input power to the pump is always greater than the output
or hydraulic power due to mechanical and hydraulic losses incurred in the
pump. Power is expressed as follows:
P = QH
_____ kW
1000
Efficiency of the pump takes into account all the losses in the system. When
specifying a pump, the rated point should be at or to the left of the best
efficiency point. Efficiency is expressed as:

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Power used by the pump

= _____________________
Power required by the pump
BEP (Best Efficiency Point)
Head, NPSHr, Efficiency and BHP all vary with the flow rate Q. Best efficiency point
is the capacity at maximum impeller diameter at which efficiency is highest. All
points to the right or left of BEP on the pump curve have a lower efficiency.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BEP:
BEP as a measure of optimum energy conversion
When sizing and selecting centrifugal pumps for a given application, the pump
efficiency at design should be taken into consideration. The efficiency of centrifugal
pumps is stated as a percentage and represents a unit of measure describing the
change of centrifugal force (expressed as velocity of the fluid) into pressure energy.
The BEP is the area on the pump curve where the change of velocity energy into
pressure energy at a given capacity is optimum, in essence, the point where the pump
is most efficient.
BEP as a measure of mechanically stable operation
The impeller is subjected to non-symmetrical forces when operating to the left or right
point of BEP on the pump curve. These forces manifest themselves in many
mechanically unstable conditions like vibration, excessive hydraulic thrust,
temperature rise, erosion and separation cavitation. Thus the operation of centrifugal
pump should not be outside the furthest left or right efficiency curves published by the
manufacturer. Performance in these areas induces premature bearing and mechanical
seal failures due to shaft deflection and an increase in temperature of process fluid in
the pump casing causing seizure of close tolerance parts and cavitation.

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BEP as an important parameter in calculation
BEP is an important parameter in many calculations like specific speed, suction

specific speed, viscosity correction, head rise to shut off etc calculations are based on
capacity at BEP. Many users prefer that pumps operate within 70% to 110% of BEP
for optimum performance.
A typical pump curve showing efficiency

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2.2.4 NPSH (Net positive suction head):
The satisfactory operation of a pump requires that the vapourisation of the liquid
being pumped does not occur at any condition of operation. This is so desired
because when a liquid vapourises, its volume increases very much. For example, 1
ft3 of water at room temperature becomes 1700 ft3 of vapour at the same
temperature. Rise in temperature and fall in pressure induces vapourisation.
When the pressure at the impeller eye goes down below the vapor pressure of the
fluid at which liquid begins to boil at the existing temperature, the liquid will no
longer remain in the liquid state but in vapor state. These air bubbles are carried
along till they meet a region of higher pressure where they collapse damaging
pump internals. This phenomenon is called cavitation. Cavitation is always
associated with vibration and noise and pitting in the areas where it occurs.
Pumping should not be done under this condition and this condition has to be
avoided in all pumps. Phenomenon of cavitation and its damaging effects are
discussed in details in pump performance later.
NPSH is a measure to prevent liquid vapourisation.
It is expressed as additional head required above the vapor pressure of the liquid at
the pump centreline. Refer fig. The available NPSH at installation must be more
than required NPSH, if the cavitation is to be prevented. General guidelines
followed is, NPSH test is required to be carried out if (NPSHa NPSHr) is less
than 1.5m and pump is not accepted if the difference is below 1m.

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NPSH = Hp +- Hz - Hvp - Hf
Hp = Absolute pressure at surface of liquid
Hz = Height of liquid above or below pump centreline
Hvp = Vapor pressure of liquid
Hf = Friction loss between liquid surface and pump suction
NPSHr (required) is a function of pump design. It is determined based on actual

pump test by the vendor. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of
the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. The centrifugal
force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases the
pressure of the liquid. The NPSH required is the positive head in meters absolute
required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure drops in the pump and
maintain liquid above its vapour pressure.
The NPSHr is determined at a given flow by reducing NPSHa while maintaining

constant differential pressure across the pump. Common methods are suction
valve suppression or connection to a vacuum source. When NPSHa reaches
NPSHr, pump shall cavitate. One of the first symptoms of cavitation is loss of
head. By measuring head and determining at what NPSHa point the head begins to
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drop, its possible to plot NPSHr. A head loss of 3% is generally considered the
point of NPSHr.
NPSHa (available) is a function of the system design. It is the excess pressure of

the liquid in meters over its vapour pressure as it arrives at the pump impeller
centreline, to ensure that the pump does not cavitate.
Following points should be remembered when addressing cavitation:
Available NPSH should always be more than required NPSH.

Avoid low suction pressures if possible.
Reduce the fluid temperature
Use a larger pipe diameter and reduce minor losses in the pipe
Use cavitation-resistant materials or coatings
Using booster pump or an inducer
An effective way of reducing NPSH requirement is by using an Inducer. Inducer,

which is generally driven directly from the pump shaft, is designed to operate with
low NPSH and to provide enough head to meet NPSH requirements.

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2.2.5 SPECIFIC SPEED
2.2.5.1 Specific speed as a measure of geometric similarity of pumps
Specific speed (Ns) is a non dimensional design index that identifies the geometric
similarity of pumps. It is used to classify pump impellers as to their type and
proportions. Pumps of the same Ns but different size are considered to be
geometrically similar, one pump being a size factor of the other.
2.2.5.2 Specific speed calculation
Following formula is used to calculate specific speed:
Ns = N * Q0.5
---------
H0.75
Q: Capacity at BEP at max. impeller dia in m3/hr
H: head per stage at BEP at max. impeller dia in meters
N: pump speed RPM
Specific speed as a measure of the shape and class of the impellers:

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The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the impellers. As specific
speed increases, the ratio of impeller outlet diameter D2 to the inlet diameter or eye
diameter D1 decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for true axial flow impeller. Radial
flow impellers develop head principally through centrifugal force. Radial impellers
are generally low flow high head designs. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop
head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. A higher specific speed
indicates a pump design with head generation more by axial forces and less by
centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific speed above
10,000 (British units) or greater indicates its head exclusively through axial forces.
Axial flow impellers are high flow low head designs.
The following diagram illustrates the relationship between specific speed and pump
efficiency. In general, the efficiency increases as Ns increases.
Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of the impeller eye diameter
D1 to the maximum impeller diameter D2 in designing a good impeller.
In British system,
Ns: 500 to 5000 D1/D2 > 1.5: Radial flow pump
Ns: 5000 to 10000; D1/D2 < 1.5: Mixed flow pumps
Ns: 10000 to 15000; D1/D2 = 1: Axial flow pumps
Specific speed is also used in designing a new pump by size factoring a smaller pump
of the same specific speed. The performance and construction of the smaller pump are
used to predict the performance and model construction of the new pump.

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Specific speed also relates to the shape of the individual pump curve as it describes
head, capacity, power consumption and efficiency.
In the above diagram you will note that:
The steepness of the head/ capacity curve increases as specific speed

increases.
At low specific speed, power consumption is lowest at shut off and rises as
flow increases. This means that the motor could be over loaded at the higher
flow rates unless this was considered at the time of purchase.
At medium specific speed the power curve peaks at approximately the best
efficiency point. This is a non overloading feature meaning that the pump can
work safely over most of the fluid range with a motor speed to meet the B.E.P.
requirement.
High specific speed pumps have a falling power curve with maximum power
occurring at minimum flow. These pumps should never be started with the
discharge valve shut. If throttling is required a motor of greater power will be
necessary.
Keep in mind that efficiency and power consumption were calculated at the best
efficiency point (B.E.P.). In practice most pumps operate in a throttled condition
because the pump was oversized at the time it was purchased. Lower specific speed
pumps may have lower efficiency at the B.E.P., but at the same time will have lower
power consumption at reduced flow than many of the higher specific speed designs.

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The result is that it might prove to be more economical to select a lower specific
speed design if the pump had to operate over a broad range of capacity.
2.2.5.3 SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED (Nss)
Suction specific speed is a dimensionless number that defines the suction

characteristics of a pump. It is calculated from the same formula as Ns by substituting
H by NPSHr.
Nss = N * Q0.5
---------
NPSHr0.75
Nss is commonly used as a basis for estimating the safe operating range of the
capacity for a pump. Higher the Nss, narrower is its safe operating range from its
BEP. The numbers range from 3000 to 20000. Most users refer to have Nss in the
range of 8000 to 11000 for troublefree operation.
In a multistage pump, NPSHr is based on first stage impeller NPSHr.

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2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF PUMP PARAMETERS IN PUMP SELECTION
The selection and specification of centrifugal pumps for petroleum refinery

service should take into account the inherent variability of the process service.
Most process engineers have only rudimentary understanding of complexity of a
pump, let alone its seal system. As a result, they worry only about flow, head,
NPSH and motor power. Although pump specifications consider process
conditions such as fluid temperature, vapour pressure and flow rates, these
properties do not always reflect the operating realities. Arbitrary pump turndown
specifications and selection of lowest cost pump can result into high pump
maintenance costs and reliability problems.
The pump curve is a function of a specific pump design. It is fixed once the
mechanical design and pump speed are set. The system curve represents the
pressure drop in the system. A fixed speed develops a fixed differential head for a
given flow rate. The difference between system curve and the pump curve is the
variable pressure drop for the system. This value represents the action of the
control valve. The flow or level controller sets the flow requirement and the valve
moves to satisfy the pump head-flow requirement. Pump specification sheets
include data such as fluid specific gravity, NPSH, required suction and discharge
pressure. Using this data pump vendor selects the appropriate pump for the
service. Most often turndown requirements are assumed arbitrarily. Sometimes,
variations in fluid properties can vary e.g. in interstage receiver pumps of FCC
unit, changes in the fluid vapour pressure occurs rapidly and pump seal might get
affected adversely.
Pump efficiency is related to the specific mechanical design of the pump, its
impeller size and the pump speed. Horsepower is a function of pump efficiency,
fluid visocity and fluid specific gravity. Other design criteria such as available
NPSH, suction specific speed and pump power requirements at start up speed also
need to be considered. Suction speed is a function of required NPSH, which is
determined by impeller suction eye design. Pump service life is influenced by
NPSH and suction specific speed. Lower the required NPSH, the higher the
suction specific speed, the more likely suction eye recirculation will occur. Under
these conditions, cavitation will be induced at flow rates less than the pumps
BEP. While the pump with high suction specific speed can work well at the BEP,
it may have poor service life at 80% of the BEP.
Similarly some pumps have to handle a fluid that varies in composition from light
hydrocarbon to water. The pump bearings and seals must be able to handle
imbalances created by this variation.

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CH
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CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CLASSIFICATION
3.1 GENERAL
A centrifugal pump has two main components:
1. A rotating component comprised mainly of impeller, shaft, bearings

2. A stationery component comprised mainly of casing, casing cover and
bearing housing.
A typical single stage, overhung process type pump is the heart of the process
industry. A centrifugal pump essentially consists of an impeller with vanes,
surrounded by a volute casing. Impeller is mounted firmly on the shaft, which
is supported by two bearings, which are in turn is supported in the bearing
housing. Impeller rotates with close clearance with the casing. Stuffing box
prevents leakage of the process fluid from the impeller area to the atmosphere.
At the other end of the shaft, coupling is fitted which takes drive from the
primemover such as electric motor or turbine. Figure shows a simple single
stage centrifugal pump.

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3.2 STATIONERY COMPONENTS:
3.2.1 CASINGS
Pumps with volute casings are generally called as Volute pumps in which the
casing section collects the liquid discharged by the impeller and converts
velocity energy into pressure energy. Volute increases in area from its initial
point till it encompasses the full 360 Deg. around the impeller and flares out to
the discharge opening. The wall dividing initial section and the discharge
nozzle of the volute is called the tongue of the volute.
In a single volute pump casing, uniform pressures act on the impeller when a
pump is operated at design capacity. At other capacities, the pressures around
the impeller are not uniform and there is a resultant radial load on the impeller
which, may deflect the pump shaft and cause wear at the impeller wear rings
and seal faces. Hence single volute designs are used in slurry and sewage
services to minimise plugging at the throat, and on low head pumps where
radial loads are nominal. Application of double volute casing design
eliminates radial loads. This design consists of two 180 Deg volutes, a passage
external to second joins the two volutes into a common discharge. Double
volute pumps are the preferred choice on higher head pumps. This design
provides added advantage of strengthening the casing in case of large capacity
high head, single stage pumps.

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Another method of reducing radial thrust is pumps with impellers having

diffusion vanes that are called as Diffuser pumps. In this type, the stationery
vanes and the concentric casing fulfill the same function of the volute i.e. they
provide gradually expanding path to change direction of flow and convert
liquid velocity into pressure as well as maintain uniform radial loads.
Application of diffuser pumps is limited to vertical pumps and in propeller
pumps where axial flow impellers are used.

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Solid casings
Solid casing implies a design in which discharge waterways leading to

discharge nozzle are all contained in one casting, or a fabricated piece. The
casing has one side open for entry of impeller. End suction pumps are made of
one piece solid casing. See figure.
Split casings
A split casing is made of two or more parts joined together. Horizontally split
casing pumps are having casing divided by a horizontal plane through the
shaft centreline. Both the suction and discharge nozzles are usually in the
same half of the casing. Other half may be removed for inspection of the
interior without disturbing the bearings or the piping. Radially split casing is
one in which casing is split in a plane, which is perpendicular to axis of
rotation. Figures of axially split and radially split casings are attached.

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12 FIG: Radially split casing
13 FIG: Axially split casing

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Multistage pump casings
While majority of single stage pumps is of volute casing type, both volute and
diffuser types of casings are used in multistage pumps. Because a volute
casing gives rise to radial thrust, axially split multistage casings generally have
staggered volutes so that the resultant of the individual radial thrusts is
balanced. See figure.
Interstage construction for axially split casing pumps:
A multistage pump inherently has adjoining chambers subjected to different

pressures. Hence, means must be made available to isolate these chambers
from one another so that the leakage from high to low pressure will take place
only at the clearance joints formed between the stationery and rotating
elements of the pumps. The leakage will be kept at a minimum. The isolating
wall used to separate two adjacent chambers of a multistage pump is called as
diaphragm. A diaphragm may be formed of a single piece or it may be fitted
with a renewable piece bushing at the clearance joint between the stationery
stage and the rotor.
Mechanical design of the casing classifies pumps as axially split or radially

split. Depending on casing shape, pumps are called Volute casing pumps in
case of spiral shaped casing surrounding the impeller.
According to direction of flow in reference to axis of rotation as follows:

Radial flow
Axial flow
Radial Mixed Axial

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3.2.2 SEAL CHAMBER AND STUFFING BOX
Seal chamber and stuffing box both have primary function of protecting the
pump against leakage at the point where the shaft passes through the pump
pressure casing. When the pressure at the bottom is below atmospheric, it
prevents air leakage into the pump. When the pressure is above atmospheric,
the chambers prevent liquid leakage out of the pump. Both refer to a chamber,
either integral with or separate from pump case housing that forms the region
between the shaft and casing where sealing media are installed. When the
sealing is achieved by means of a mechanical seal, the chamber is commonly
known referred to as a Seal chamber. When the sealing is achieved by means
of packing, the chamber is referred as Stuffing box. The seal chambers and
stuffing boxes are also provided with cooling or heating arrangement for
proper temperature control.
GLAND PACKING
To stop the pumped fluid from escaping along the shaft, one method of sealing
is a packed gland. Rings of packing material are fitted in a packing box and
they fit around the shaft sleeve. Harder shaft sleeve is fitted for the purpose of
good wearing properties and a means of replacing a normally wearing surface
without having to replace the shaft.

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In the centre of the packing box, a lantern ring is fitted to evenly distribute the
gland seal lubricant. The gland seal lubricant may be injected and circulated
into and out of the lantern rings. The pressure must be at least 15 to 20 psi
above the stuffing box pressure to assure adequate lubrication of the rings.
With lot of improvements, use of packing is reducing gradually with new

developments in mechanical seals, but they still have advantage of being less
expensive and more tolerable to shaft runout.

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PARTS OF A SIMPLE SEAL CHAMBER:
1. GLAND:
The gland is very important part of the seal chamber or the stuffing box. It
gives the packings or the mechanical seal the desired fit on the shaft sleeve. It
can easily be adjusted in axial direction. The gland comprises of the seal flush,
quench, cooling, drain and vent connection ports as per the standard codes like
API 682, API 610 etc.
2. THROAT BUSHING:
The bottom or inside end of the chamber is provided with a stationery device
called throat bushing that forms a restrictive close clearance around the sleeve
(or shaft) between the seal and the impeller.
3. THROTTLE BUSH:
This refers to a device that forms a restrictive close clearance around the
sleeve (or shaft) at the outboard end of the mechanical seal gland.
4. INETRNAL CIRCULATING DEVICE:
This refers to a device located in the seal chamber to circulate seal chamber
fluid through a cooler or barrier/ buffer fluid reservoir. It is also called as a
pumping ring.
3.2.3 BEARING HOUSING
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the shaft. The bearings
keep the shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the stationery parts under the
action of radial and transverse loads. The bearing housing also includes an oil
reservoir for lubrication, constant level oiler, jacket for cooling by circulating
cooling water.

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3.3 ROTATING COMPONENTS
3.3.1 IMPELLERS
The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration
to the fluid. They are often classified in many ways:
1. Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation:

Radial flow
Axial flow
Mixed flow
2. Based on suction type

Single suction: liquid inlet on one side
Double suction: liquid inlet to the impeller symmetrically
from both sides
3. Based on mechanical construction

Closed: Shrouds or sidewalls enclosing the vanes
Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes
Semiopen or vortex type
All the above types are described below:
As per the construction of the impellers, they are classified as

Enclosed with enclosed shrouds
Open with no shrouds
Semiopen
Open impeller consists of only vanes attached to a central hub for mounting
on the shaft without any shroud. They are used in small inexpensive services
handling suspended particles. Semiopen impeller employs a single shroud
usually at the back of the impeller. Closed impeller, which is most commonly
used in centrifugal pumps, incorporates shrouds that totally enclose the
impeller waterways from the suction eye to the periphery.
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Impellers are generally made of cast steel, bronze, 11-13 % Cr depending on

fluid properties.
Single suction pump, with a single inlet on one side
Double suction pump with fluid flowing to the impeller symmetrically from
both sides.
Pump in which head is developed by a single impeller is called Single Stage

pump. In Multistage pumps, two or more impellers are operating in series,
each taking its suction from the discharge of the preceding one.
If the pump shaft terminates at the impeller so that the impeller is supported by
bearings on one side, the impeller is called as Overhung pump. This type of
construction is best for end suction pumps with single suction impellers. See
fig.

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Similarly if the shaft is supported between two bearings with impeller

in the centre, then the arrangement is called as between bearing pump.
See fig.

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3.3.2 WEAR RINGS
Closed impellers require wear rings. Wear rings provide an easy and
economical renewable leakage joint between impeller and casing. As the wear
rings wear, the leakage loss increases and pumping efficiency goes down
causing heat and vibration problems. But, if the clearances are too tight, then
both the casing and impeller wear rings might sieze resulting in jamming the
pump. This is specifically true for hot service pumps. Commonly used
material for wear rings is 11-13% Cr steel series, with casing wear ring
material hardness more than the impeller wear ring material hardness by about
50BHN to prevent galling. Considerations need to be given to the clearances
between Impeller wear ring and casing wear ring and the material of
construction. API 610 provides guidelines on these clearances. It is normally
recommended to replace the wear rings when the clearances double.
Following graph shows relationship between percentage power loss and

specific speed. It can be seen that the percentage power losses due to wear ring
clearances are much higher in lower specific speed pumps (Low flow, high
head). Restoring back the clearances for such pumps gives higher returns in
terms of leakage loss reduction. Thus, such pumps need more attention with
respect to wearing ring clearances.

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3.3.3 SHAFT
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques
encountered when starting and during operation while supporting the
impeller and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a deflection less
than the minimum clearance between the rotating and stationery parts.
3.3.4 SHAFT SLEEVE:

Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion and wear at the
seal chambers, leakage joints, internal bearings and in the waterways by
renewable sleeves. Unless otherwise specified, a shaft sleeve of wear,
erosion and corrosion resistant material shall be provided to protect the
shaft. The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The shaft sleeve assembly
shall extend beyond outer face of the seal gland plate. (Leakage between
the shaft and the sleeve should not be confused with leakage through the
mechanical seal).

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3.3.5 MECHANICAL SEALS:
A mechanical seal has a rotating face and a stationery face. Means such as
bellows, wedges and O rings are used to seal the rotating face against the

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shaft sleeve. O rings are normally used to seal the stationery face to the
casing. One face with the springs is held stationery in most of the cases
and other face rotates. Both the faces are matched so they fit together
perfectly.
Stationery face is many times made of carbon and rotating face of Silicon
carbide. The seal head is driven by a spring loaded spring/s. it rotates with
the shaft and is held against the stationery face by spring pressure.
Mechanical seals are available either as internal or external, balanced or

unbalanced, single or double / tandem.
Cooling and flushing plans
Pumps with hot fluids require seal cooling and flushing to cool and clean the
seal faces. Various flushing and cooling plans are recommended by API 610
and 682 to combat various environments that are hostile to the seal face
integrity, elastomers etc. Usage of tandem and double seals is increasing due
to more stringent environmental regulations.
Typical single seal has been shown in the following figure.
Advantages of Mechanical seals as compared to gland packing can be summarized as:
Almost zero leakage

Can handle high pressures and speeds
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High reliability as compared to packing

Requires lower power consumption
Prevent sleeve wear to minimum
Once installed, require very less maintenance
Only disadvantages of the mechanical seal are high initial cost and usually require
disassembly of the pump.
3.3.6 SHAFT COUPLINGS
Shaft couplings can compensate for axial growth of the shaft and transmit
torque to the impeller. These can be broadly divided into rigid and flexible
types. Rigid couplings are mainly used to connect shafts in perfect alignment.
The smallest degree of misalignment will cause considerable stress on the
coupling and on the shafts. The types used are Sleeve couplings, Muff
couplings, serrated couplings, Split couplings, and Face plate coupling, Flange
couplings.
Flexible couplings are elastic, slip-free connecting elements between driver

and driven machine, which accommodate axial, radial and angular
misalignment and damp shock loads. The flexibility is usually achieved by the
deformation of damping and metallic disk elastic spring elements whose life is
governed largely by the degree of misalignment. Spacer between a pump and
driver permits removal of the pump rotating assembly without disturbing the
pump casing or drive.

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3.3.7 BEARINGS
Function of the bearings in centrifugal pumps is to keep the shaft or rotor in

correct alignment with the stationery parts under the action of radial and
transverse loads. Bearings that give radial positioning are called as Radial
bearings and those that locate the rotor axially are called as Thrust bearings.
The bearings are mounted in a housing that is supported by the brackets

attached to or integral with the pump casing. The housing also serves the
purpose of containing the lubricant necessary for proper operation of the
bearings. Because of heat generation by the bearings due to friction, some
means of cooling the bearings also is necessary for large pumping units.
To keep bearing operating efficiently, they must be adequately cooled and

lubricated either by splash, flooded, or forced and enclosed in a bearing
housing. The housing must be properly sealed against ingress of dirt and
moisture and oil. For a majority of light and medium duty pumps, ball bearing
with ring oil lubricators are used. In heavy duty or multistage pumps, sleeve
type radial bearings are used. Cooling is accomplished either by circulating oil
through a separate water to oil cooler or a jacket through which a cooling
liquid is circulated. Sometimes cooling is achieved by installing shaft mounted
fans also.

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Most common anti friction bearings used on centrifugal pumps are various
types of ball bearings. Roller bearings are used less often because they are
capable of carrying only radial loads.
In a ball bearing, load is carried on a point contact of the ball with the race.
Point of contact does not rub or slide over the race hence no appreciable wear
and thereby heat is generated. Also point of contact continuously keep
changing as the ball rolls over the race; making operation practically
frictionless. Most commonly bearing combination in a centrifugal pump is
angular type ball thrust bearing and roller bearing on other side.
API 610 gives following specifications of the bearing:
Bearing shall be one of the following arrangements: rolling element and thrust,
hydrodynamic radial and rolling thrust, or hydrodynamic radial and thrust.
Bearing shall be mounted directly on the shaft; bearing carriers are not
acceptable.
Except for the angular contact type, rolling element bearing shall have greater
than Normal internal clearance.
Ball thrust bearing shall be of duplex, single row, 40-deg. Angular type (7000
series).

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3.4 DRIVERS FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Many options are available as primemovers to the centrifugal pumps such as

electric motors, steam turbines, and IC engines. However, the most commonly
used drivers are squirrel cage induction motors because of their versatility,
compactness and low maintenance. It operates at a speed defined as:
N = f * 50 * 2
------------
p
Where, N is speed
f is line frequency
p is no of poles
Thus, speed of the driven equipment gets fixed when an electric motor is used
unless a gear box is used for speed reduction or increase.
Steam turbine drivers are used to drive pumps for various reasons:
1. Process plants where the power is being produced in the steam generators,
steam is easily available as an economical option.
2. A pump driven by a steam turbine can be operated over a wide range of
speed, utilising the turbine governing system. The overall efficiency of the
turbine and the pump can be optimised by operating at reduced speeds and
at the resultant reduced power rating.
3. A turbine may be used as a driver for the stand by or emergency pump, so
that in case of a power failure, turbine driven pump shall come online.
4. Steam turbines can readily be altered to accommodate an increase in rating
for the increased pump output or for new pump installation within limits.
5. With respect to operation of various types of pump drivers and their
supporting systems, steam turbines afford minimum maintenance, low
vibration and quiet installation.
A typical motor driven pump with stand by turbine arrangement is shown

below:

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CH
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4.1 UNDERSTANDING AND DEVELOPING PUMP CURVES
The capacity and pressure needs of any pumping system can be defined with the help
of a graph called as SYSTEM CURVE. Similarly the capacity Vs pressure variation
graph for a particular pump defines its characteristic PUMP PERFORMANCE
CURVE.
The pump suppliers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump
curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible. A pumping system operates
where the pump curve and the system resistance curve intersect. The intersection of
the two curves defines the operating point of both the pump and the process.
However, it is impossible for one operating point to meet all desired operating
conditions. For example, when the discharge valve is throttled, the system resistance
curve shift left and so does the operating point.
Pump curve
Efficiency

BHP

Operating point
System curve
Capacity

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4.1.1 DEVELOPING A SYSTEM CURVE
The system resistance curve is the change in flow with respect to the head of the
system. It must be developed by the user based upon the conditions of service.
These include physical layout, process conditions and fluid characteristics. It
represents the relationship between the flow and hydraulic losses in a system in a
graphical form and since friction losses vary as a square of flow rate, the system curve
is parabolic in nature. Hydraulic losses in a piping system are composed of pipe
friction losses, valves, elbows and other fittings, entrance and exit losses and losses
from change in the enlargement or reduction in diameter.
4.1.2 DEVELOPING A PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVE
A pumps performance is shown in its characteristic curve where its capacity i.e. flow
rate is plotted against its developing head. The pump performance curve also shows
its efficiency (BEP), required input power (BHP), NPSHr, speed (RPM) and other
information such as pump size and type, impeller size etc. The curve is plotted for a
constant speed and a give impeller diameter (or series of diameter). It is generated by
tests performed by pump manufacturer.
4.1.3 NORMAL OPERATING RANGE
A typical performance curve is a plot of total head Vs flow rate for a specific impeller
diameter. The plot starts at zero flow. The head at this point corresponds to the Shut
off head point of the pump. The curve then decreases to a point where flow is
maximum and head is minimum. The pump curve is relatively flat and head decreases
gradually as the flow increases. This pattern is common for radial flow pumps.
By plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, we can determine:
1. Where the pump will operate on its curve?

2. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the pump performance
curve changes?

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3. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES
A pumping system may consist of piping, valves, fittings, open channels,

nozzles and other process equipment through which flow is required for
various reasons. When a particular system is being analysed for the purpose of
selecting a pump or pumps, the resistance to flow of liquid through these
components must be calculated. In addition to overcoming flow resistance, it
may be necessary to add head to raise the liquid from suction level to a higher
discharge level. In some systems the pressure at the discharge liquid surface
may be higher than the pressure at the suction liquid surface, a condition that
requires more pumping head. These two heads are called Fixed system heads
OR static heads, as they do not vary with flow.
A system-head curve is a plot of total system resistance, variable plus fixed,

for various flow rates. One such Curve is shown here. Figure represents the
characteristic performance curves of a centrifugal pump. When the system
head is required for several flows or when the pump flow is to be determined,
superimposing pump characteristic curve with the system-head curve shall
give the required flow.
The energy imparted by the impeller is a function of size and rotating speed of
the impeller. Once head versus capacity curve is established, it will be
constant regardless of fluid being pumped. Therefore, a given pump with
given impeller diameter and speed will raise a liquid to a certain height
regardless of the weight of the liquid.

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Effects of various parameters on pump performance
Pump selection becomes complicated when pump has to meet varying service
conditions. Pump operating point can be altered either by changing the speed
or by throttling the discharge. Following factors need to be considered while
doing this:
The slope of H-Q curve should not be too steep if the pump delivers into a
distribution system, since a small change in flow will cause large change
in delivery pressure. Similarly, Slope should not be too flat if the capacity
control is by valve positioning.
Maximum capacity requirement should be checked for adequate drive
power available and NPSH in case of parallel operation.

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4.2 Effect of various parameters on pump performance
4.2.1 Effects of oversizing:
Oversizing means rated capacity exceeds the required maximum flow.

Margins are required for making up wear and friction losses, Effect of
oversizing on the capacity delivered to the system and power consumption is
shown in following figure:
H-Q curve intersects the system head curve at a larger capacity than desired.
In turn, the power consumption exceeds the power, which would have been
sufficient to handle the desired flow. Power saving would have been made by
selection of a smaller size pump. Margins can be added to total head thus
keeping design capacities near to best efficiency point.
Efficiency

BHP

Head at desired
capacity Operating capacity
Static head
Desired Capacity
Capacity

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4.2.2 Effects of operation at reduced flow:
Figure illustrates the pump operation at low flow. This makes pump to operate
at less than best efficiency point. As the capacity is reduced, temperature rise
through the pump increases. To avoid exceeding limits, minimum flow bypass
must be provided.at certain flows below best efficiency point, centrifugal
pumps are subjected to internal circulation at suction and discharge areas of
the impeller. This can cause hydraulic surging and damages similar to
cavitation damage.
Following factors need to be considered when setting minimum flow for centrifugal
pumps:
1. Higher radial thrust developed by single volute pumps at reduced flows

2. Temperature rise in the liquid pumped
3. For pumps handling liquids with significant amounts of dissolved or entrained air
or gas or abrasive particles need to maintain sufficiently high fluid velocities

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4. Axial flow and mixed flow pumps with high specific speed give comparitively
higher head and take more power at low flow. Bypass system is needed not only
to reduce stress but also to prevent motor overload.
5. As described above, at low flows, internal recirculation occurs, both at suction and
discharge areas of the impeller; causing flashing alongwith vibrations.
Normally two flows are defined by pump manufacturers, which take care of above
considerations:
Minimum continuous thermal flow: This flow can be determined by the

formula for temperature rise inside a pump, which is as follows:
Temp rise in Deg C = 9.807 H

------
Cp *
This flow is normally 15% of the rated flow.
Minimum continuous stable flow: This flow is generally between 40 to 50 %

of the rated flow and takes care of the minimum thermal flow. Pump operation
above this flow is stable.

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4.3 PUMP CAPACITY CONTROL
Capacity regulation is accomplished by a change in pump head, speed, or both

simultaneously. The capacity and power input of radial and mixed flow pumps
with specific speeds up to about 4000; increase with decreasing head, so that
the drivers of such pumps may be overloaded if the head falls below a safe
minimum value. Increasing the head of high specific speed pumps decreases
the capacity but increases power input. The drivers of these pumps should
either be able to meet possible load increases or be equipped with suitable
overload protection.
4.3.1 DISCHARGE THROTTLING: This is the cheapest and most common

method of capacity modulation for low and medium specific speed pumps.
Partial closure of any type of valve in the discharge line will increase the
system head so that the system-head curve will intersect the head-capacity
curve at a smaller capacity. Discharge throttling moves the operating point to
one of lower efficiency and power is lost at throttle valve. Throttling to the
point of shut off may cause excessive heating of the liquid in the pump. This
may require a bypass to maintain the necessary minimum flow. This is
particularly important with pumps handling hot or volatile liquids.
4.3.2 SUCTION THROTTLING: If sufficient NPSH is available, some power can

be saved by throttling in the suction line. Jet engine fuel pumps frequently are
suction throttled because of throttling may cause overheating and vapourisation
of the liquid. At very low velocity, the impellers of these pumps are only
partially filled with liquid, so that the power input and temperature rise are
about one third the values for impellers running full with discharge throttling.

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4.3.3 BYPASS REGULATION: All or part of the pump capacity may be diverted
from the discharge line to the pump suction or other suitable point through a
bypass line. The bypass may contain one of more metering orifices and suitable
control valves. Metered bypasses are commonly used with boiler feed water
pumps for reduced capacity operation, mainly to prevent overheating. There is a
considerable power saving if excess capacity of propeller pumps is bypassed
instead of using discharge throttling.
1. SPEED REGULATION: This can be used to minimise power requirements and

eliminate overheating during capacity modulation. Steam turbines are readily
adaptable to speed regulation at small extra cost. Variable speed motors are also
available but are very expensive.
2. REGULATION BY ADJUSTABLE VANES:

Adjustable guide vanes ahead of impeller have been found effective with a
pump of specific speed of 5700. The vanes produce a positive prewhirl
which reduce the head, capacity and efficiency. This method is
complicated and limited to limited specific speeds hence has limited
applications.

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4.3.4 PARALLEL AND SERIES OPERATION
Pumps running in series:

If two pumps are running in series, the total head will be equal to the sum of
individual heads of each pump for the same discharge. Such a system is used
for high head requirement applications only.
Pumps running in parallel:

If two pumps A & B are running in parallel, quantity of flow will be sum of
individual pump capacities for the same head.

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4.4 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
4.4.1 Effects of pump speed:
Increasing the impeller speed increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pumps.
Within limits, cost of the pump and drivers usually decrease with increasing
speed. Abrasion and wear increase with increasing speed, particularly if the liquid
contains solid particles in suspension. Cavitation also increases with speed if the
certain suction parameters are not maintained.
4.4.2 Effects of clearances:
Wear ring clearance: As the clearance through the wear ring increase, losses
through pump increase resulting into loss of efficiency. API recommends
clearance values for wear ring for various diameters, different MOC, service
liquids and temperatures. It is a good practice to replace the wear rings when
clearances are doubled.
Vane tip clearance: Many impellers are made without an outer shroud and rely
on close running clearances between the vane tips and the casing to hold leakage
across the vane tips to a minimum. Both head and efficiency increase with
decreasing tip clearances. Abrasive solids in the liquid pumped increase tip
clearances rapidly.

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4.5 AFFINITY LAWS
In practice, it is desirable to be able to group service conditions in such a way

that large number of designs can be clubbed together for comparing
characteristics of two pumps. For this purpose, one dimensionless number Ns
is considered as per the following equation:
N Q1/2
Ns = _______
(gH)3/4
Normally term g is eliminated. For two geometrically similar pumps,
following equations can be derived which are called as Affinity Laws:
Q1 n1 D13
--- = --------
Q2 n2 D23
H1 n12 D12
--- = --------
H2 n22 D22
P1 n13 D15
--- = --------
P2 n23 D25
Comparison of two geometrically similar pumps is useful in pump modeling at the
design stage. Above equations are important for this purpose. Equations given below
are derived from the affinity laws based on certain assumptions. These are frequently
applied in a running plant for modifications in the existing impeller.

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MODIFICATIONS TO IMPELLER
Diameter reduction
To reduce cost, pump casings are usually designed to accommodate various

sizes of the impellers. Also, a variety of operating requirements can be met by
changing the outside diameter of a given radial impeller within limits. Below
equations are modified affinity laws, which apply only to a given impeller
with altered D and constant efficiency but not to a geometrically similar series
of impellers.
Q1 n1 D1
----- = --------
Q2 n2 D2
H1 n12 D12
----- = --------
H2 n22 D22
P1 n13 D13
----- = --------
P2 n23 D23

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4.6 RADIAL AND AXIAL THRUST
4.6.1 Radial Thrust:
In a single volute casing design, nearly uniform pressures act on the impeller
when the pump is operated at designed capacity. At other capacities, the
pressures around the impeller are not uniform and there is a resultant radial
reaction, which is called as radial thrust. Unbalanced radial thrust increases as
the capacity decreases from that of the designed flow.
Because of the increasing applications of pumps, which must operate at

reduced capacities, it is desirable to design standard units to accommodate
radial thrust. One such design is double volute design, which neutralises radial
reaction forces at reduced capacities. This design consists of two 180 Deg
volutes, a passage external to the second joins the two into a common
discharge. See figure.

Operating point
Single volute
Q
Rated capacity
Double volute pump neutralises radial Radial load Vs Capacity for single volute pump
forces at reduced capacities and double volute pump

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For any percentage of capacity, radial reaction is a function of total head and
of the width and diameter of the impeller. Thus a high head pump with a
large impeller diameter will have a greater reaction force at smaller capacities
than a low head pump with a smaller diameter. In a diffuser type pump,
reaction is limited to a small arc repeated all round the impeller. As a result,
the individual reactions cancel each other.
Axially split multistage casings generally have staggered volutes so that

resultant of the two individual radial thrusts is balanced out. Radial thrust is
expressed as:
Fr = k Kr (sp. gr) H D2 b2
Where k = 9790 (in SI units)

Kr = coefficient
Sp. gr. = specific gravity of the liq. pumped
H = pump head (m)
D2 = Outside diameter of the impeller (m)
b2 = Breadth of the impeller at discharge, including shrouds (m)
Following graph shows Kr as a function of specific speed and capacity for

single volute pumps

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4.6.2 Axial thrust
The pressures generated by a centrifugal pump exert forces on both stationery

as well as rotating parts. The design of pumps balances some of these forces,
but separate means may be required to counterbalance others. Axial hydraulic
thrust on an impeller is the sum of the unbalanced forces acting in the axial
direction.
Single suction closed radial flow impeller is subject to axial thrust because a
portion of the front wall is exposed to suction pressure and back wall surface
is exposed to discharge pressure. As reliable large capacity thrust bearings are
now readily available, axial thrust in single stage pumps remains a problem
only in large units.

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Prevention of Axial thrust
Various methods, which are employed to take care of axial thrust, are
described below:
In small pumps, a deep groove ball bearing generally takes care of the
axial thrust
By fitting vanes at the back of the impeller
By drilling holes in the impeller to allow passage of the liquid back to

suction to equalise the thrust areas. Thus leakage past the back-wearing
ring is returned to the suction area through these holes. However, with
large single stage pumps, balancing holes are considered undesirable as
leakage back to impeller suction opposes the main flow, creating
disturbance.
Double suction impeller is in hydraulic balance, as pressures on one side

are equal to and counterbalancing the pressures on other side. Effect on the
pressure balance is as shown in the figure.
In multistage pumps, where the magnitude of axial thrust is quite high,

following methods are employed:

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Mounting even number of impellers, with one half facing in one direction
and other half facing in opposite direction. With this arrangement, axial
thrust on the first half is compensated by the thrust in the opposite
direction. This mounting of impellers is called opposed impellers. See
figure.
Other method is to have several impellers mounted with suction facing in the
same direction and balancing axial thrust by a hydraulic device called
balancing drum or a balancing disc; which is described in details below.
BALANCING DRUMS
Balancing chamber at the back of the last stage impeller is separated from
pump interior by a drum that is either keyed or screwed to the shaft and rotates
with it. The drum is separated by a small radial clearance from the stationery
portion of the balancing device, called the balancing drum head, which is fixed
to the pump casing.

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The balancing is connected either to the pump suction or to the vessel from
which the pump takes its suction. Thus the back pressure in the balancing
chamber is only slightly higher than the suction pressure, the difference
between this chamber and the point of return. The leakage between the drum
and the drum head is a function of differential pressure across the drum and
the clearance area. Refer fig.
The forces acting on the balancing drum are following:
1. Towards the discharge end: the discharge pressure multiplied by the front
balancing area of the drum
2. Towards the suction end: the back pressure in the balancing chamber
multiplied by the back balancing area of the drum
The first force is greater than the second, thereby counterbalancing the axial
thrust exerted upon the single suction impellers. The drum diameter can be
selected to balance axial thrust completely or within 90 to 95%, depending on
desirability of carrying any thrust bearing loads. The balancing drum
satisfactorily balances the axial thrust of single suction impellers and reduces
pressure on the discharge side stuffing box. But automatic compensation of
any changes in axial thrust caused by impeller reaction.
Simple balancing disk is fixed to and rotates with the shaft. It is separated by a
small axial clearance from the disk head, which is fixed to the casing. The
leakage through this clearance flows into the balancing chamber and from
there either to pump suction or to the vessel from which pump takes its

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suction. The back of the balancing disk is subject to the balancing chamber
back pressure, whereas disk face experiences a range of pressures.
If the axial thrust of the impellers should exceed the thrust acting on the disk
during operation, the latter is moved towards the disk head, reducing the axial
clearance between the disk and the disk head.
Normally in operation, both the balancing disk and drum are used.

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4.7 CAVITATION
Requirements for trouble free operation of centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are simple machines. Generally two basic requirements need to be
met for a trouble free operation and long service life of centrifugal pumps.
First requirement is that no cavitation of the pump occurs throughout the broad
operating range and second requirement is that a certain minimum continuous flow is
always maintained during operation. A clear understanding of cavitation, its
symptoms, its causes and its consequences is very much essential in effective analysis
and troubleshooting of the cavitation problem.
CAVITATION
In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a dynamic process of
formation of bubbles inside the liquid, their growth and subsequent collapse as the
liquid flows through the pump.
According to type of bubbles formed (gaseous or vapour) there are two types of
cavitation:
Vapourous cavitation is the most common form of cavitation found in process

plants. Generally it occurs due to insufficiency of the available NPSH or the
internal recirculation phenomenon. It generally manifests itself in the form of
reduced pump performance, excessive noise and vibrations and the wear of
pump parts. The extent of cavitation damage can range from relatively minor
amount of pitting after years of service to catastrophic failure in a relatively
shorter period.
Vapourisation of liquid occurs due to the reduction of the static pressure to a value
below that of the liquid vapour pressure. The reduction in static pressure in the
external suction system occurs mainly due to friction in the suction piping. The
reduction of static pressure in the internal suction system occurs mainly due to
velocity at the impeller eye.

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Gaseous cavitation occurs when any gas (mostly air) enters a centrifugal
pump along with the liquid. A centrifugal pump can handle air in the range of
% by volume. If the amount of air is increased to 6 %, the pump starts
cavitating. The cavitation condition is also referred as Air binding. It seldom
causes damage to the impeller or casing. The main effect of gaseous cavitation
is loss of capacity.
General symptoms of cavitation and its effects on pump performance and pump
parts:
1. Reduction in capacity of the pump:
The formation of bubbles causes a volume increase decreasing the space available for
the liquid and thus diminish pumping capacity. For example, when water changes
state from liquid to gas, its volume increases by approx. 1700 times. If the bubbles get
big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump loses all suction resulting in a total
reduction of flow. The unequal and uneven formation and collapse of bubbles causes
fluctuations in the flow and pumping of liquid occurs in spurts. This symptom is
common in all types of cavitation.
2. Decrease in the head developed:
Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. The head developed diminishes drastically
because energy has to be expended to increase the velocity of the liquid used to fill up
the cavities, as the bubbles collapse. Hydraulic Institute defines cavitation as
condition of 3 % drop in the head developed across the pump.
Following figure shows the declination in the performance of a pump due to

cavitation:

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3. Abnormal sound and vibrations:
It is movement of bubbles with very high velocities from low pressure area to a high
pressure area and subsequent collapse that creates shock waves producing abnormal
sounds and vibrations. To distinguish bearing noise from cavitation noise, operate the
pump with no flow. If the sound disappears, it is an indication of cavitation. Also,
vibration is due to uneven loading of the impeller as the mixture of vapour and liquid
passes through it. Pump cavitation can produce various vibration frequencies
depending upon cavitation type, pump design, installation and use.

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4. Damage to pump parts:
Cavitation erosion / Pitting: Collapse of the bubbles occurs at very high

speeds ejecting destructive micro jets of extremely high velocity liquid
strong enough to cause erosion of pump parts, particularly impellers. The
most sensitive areas where cavitation erosion or pitting has been observed
are the low pressure sides of the impeller vanes near the inlet edge. One
such impeller has been shown in the figures:

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Mechanical deformations: Apart from erosion in pump parts, longer duration

of cavitation can result in unbalance of radial and axial thrusts on the
impellers. This can lead to following mechanical problems:
o Bending and deflection of shafts
o Bearing damage and rubs from radial vibration
o Thrust bearing damage from axial movement
o Breaking of impeller check nuts
o Seal face damage etc.
Cavitation corrosion: Frequently cavitation is combined with corrosion. The

implosion of bubbles destroys existing protective layers making metal surface
permanently activated for chemical attack. The rate of erosion may be
accelerated if the liquid has corrosive tendencies such as water with large
amounts of dissolved oxygen to acids.

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INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING, START UP
5.1 CHECKS UPON ARRIVAL
The pump is thoroughly inspected at the factory prior to shipment, to assure its
conformity with all specifications. Upon receipt of the unit, check for any
damage incurred during shipping. Any such damage should be reported to the
carrier immediately.
Any internal parts of the pump that are vulnerable to rust, as well as parts
shipped on parts orders, are protected with a film of rust inhibitor. This
coating can be removed by flushing the pump or parts with a mild alkali
solution at 180 deg.F, or with a petroleum solvent. The external machined
surfaces of the pump are protected with durable rust preventive. This can be
removed with kerosene or safety solvents.
Note: Pumps that are to be used in boiler feed, process or condensate service
are constructed of stainless steel, so rust inhibitors are not used, and flushing is
not necessary.
Before installation, the pump must be thoroughly flushed out, to remove the
rust inhibitor, as well as nay foreign matter that may have accumulated during
shipping, storage, or handling.
5.2 LONG TERM STORAGE
If a new pump must be stored for a period of time prior to installation, a

number of precautions should be observed to prevent damage. The pump and
its components, as shipped from the factory, are adequately protected for
indoor storage prior to installation, with the following stipulations:
1. Water must be prevented from accumulating in the pump. Note that the
plywood covers installed over the suction and discharge nozzles for shipping
are not watertight and will leak if exposed to prolonged moisture. If water
accumulates in the pump, then is allowed to freeze, the pump will be seriously
damaged.
2. To prevent condensation of atmospheric moisture in the pump, packages of

VPI crystals or silica gel desiccant should be put in the suction and discharge
openings before they are sealed. The active life of the desiccant and the
quantity required will depend on the climate to which it is exposed. A card
treated with a humidity-detecting chemical can be used to indicate when the

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desiccant should be replaced. These may be obtained through the same

sources as the desiccant.
3. Precautions must be taken to prevent small animals from nesting in the pump
casing while it is in storage. Since the debris such animals would leave in the
pump could cause serious damage if undetected, all openings in the pump
must be tightly sealed.
4. The pump should be located so as to permit air to circulate freely around it,
and should be protected from the possibility of damage by warehouse traffic.
A visual inspection of the exterior of the unit should be conducted every thirty
days.
5. All bearing surfaces are coated with a protective layer of protective oil prior to
shipping. When the pump is placed in storage and at least once every six
months thereafter, the bearings must be recoated, as follows:
Remove the filler plug on the top of the bearing housing, and fill the
housing to the specified oil level.
Rotate the pump shaft by hand, at least ten revolutions in the proper
direction of rotation as indicated on the tag. Position the shaft at least 90
deg. from its original position.
Remove the bearing housing drain plugs and drain the housings. Replace
the plugs, and clean up any stored preservative.
6. An inspection record should be maintained on the document,

containing the following information:
a) Date of inspection
b) Signature of person performing the inspection and
maintenance.
c) Results of all visual inspections.
d) Date of any maintenance performed.
e) Description of any maintenance performed.

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5.3 Installation
Following are some of the tips for good pump installation:
1. Working space should be checked for easy accessibility for maintenance.

Axially split-casing horizontal pumps require sufficient headroom to lift the
upper half; whereas assembly of radially split multistage pumps is removed
axially.
2. For large pumps with heavy casing, an EOT may be provided.
3. Whenever possible, the pump centreline should be placed below the level of
the liquid in the suction reservoir.
4. Foundations should be rigid enough to absorb any strains or shocks.
5. When the complete pump unit and the driver are mounted on the base plate,
coupling halves are accurately aligned by using the shims under the pumps
and driver.
6. When the pump handles a liquid at other than ambient temperature of when it
is driven by a steam turbine, expansion of pump or turbine at operating
temperature will alter the vertical alignment. In this case, alignment should be
done at ambient temperature making suitable allowances for changes in pump
and driver centrelines and final alignment should be done with pump and
driver at operating temperatures.
7. When the unit has been leveled and aligned, hold down bolts are tightened
uniformly before grouting. The alignment must be rechecked after bolting
suction and discharge piping to test the effect of piping strains. This can be
done by loosening the bolts and reading the movement of pump with dial
gauges.
8. Baseplate is grouted before the piping connections are made. Purpose of
grouting is to prevent lateral shifting of the baseplate and to increase the
stiffness to reduce vibration.
9. Temporary suction strainers with finer mesh size are installed in the suction
piping close to the pump, in case pumps are not designed to handle foreign
particles.
10. Vent valves are generally installed at one of more points on the pump to
provide a means to escape for air or vapor entrapped in the casing. These
valves are used while priming.
11. Warm up lines: when it is necessary for pump to come up to operating
temperature before starting it, or to keep it ready to start at rated temperature,
provision should be made for a warm up flow to pass through the pump. There
are various arrangements to accomplish this, most commonly used being, the
liquid is made to flow back from the discharge header through a jumper line
around the check valve into the pump and out into the suction header. An
orifice is provided in the jumper line to regulate the amount of warm up flow.
12. Instrumentation: Generally suction pressure and flow are measured by using
suitable instrumentation. Additionally speed, vibration indicators and bearing
temperature monitors are provided on the critical pumps.

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5.4 Start up and Operation
Though centrifugal pumps are generally selected for a given capacity and head
at a rated speed, they can operate over a wide range of capacities, from near
zero flow to beyond capacity. Because the centrifugal pump will always
operate at the intersection of its H-Q curve with system-head curve, pump
operating capacity may be altered by throttling the pump discharge or by
varying pump speed.
Reduced flow: Operation of pump at reduced flow causes heating up of the

liquid handled by the pump. In such a condition, means must be provided to
prevent pump operation below minimum permissible flow. This is
accomplished by installing a bypass in the discharge line from the pump side
to some low pressure point where excess heat may be dissipated.
Priming: No centrifugal pump should be started until it is fully primed, that

is, until it has been filled with the liquid pumped and all the air contained in
the pump has been allowed to escape.
Warm up the pump: Avoid severe thermal shocks to the pump as a result of
sudden temp changes. Unless otherwise specified the outside temp. of the
casing must be within 100F at the time of start-up. Due to heavy metal
section the casing will lag the liquid temp. during such changes and severe
temp. stresses and subsequent misalignment of machined fits may result.
Preheating is accomplished by circulating a small amount of hot fluid through
the casing by utilising vents, drains or by pass from discharge. Preheat pump
slowly at a rate not to exceed 100F per hour. Operation at low flows results
in pump HP heating the liquid.
Before start up, following points need to be checked:
1. Driver needs to be checked for correct direction of rotation with coupling

disconnected
2. Bearings should be flushed with kerosene and filled with the new lubricant
as per manufacturers guidelines
3. Rotor should be rotated by hand to check the freeness. This is also true for
hot service pumps.
4. If a pump is started with closed discharge valve (to reduce loading on the
driver), recirculation bypass line should be open to prevent overheating.
Low head pumps should be started with discharge valve in open condition.
5. Prime the pump, opening the suction valve, closing all the drain lines
6. Open the valves in the cooling water supply line to the bearing or stuffing
box and sealing liquid supply.

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7. Open the warm up valve. Close the valve after the pump is warmed up
8. Start the motor.
9. Open discharge valve slowly.
10. Observe leakage from the seals, stuffing box. Check the pressures and
flow and bearing temperatures and general operation of the pump and
motor.
11. Close the recirculating valve once sufficient flow is established
Stopping procedure is generally reverse of above procedure.
5.5 PIPING ARRANGEMENT
Suction and discharge piping
The piping should be as short and direct as possible. The suction pipe should
be set up in such a manner as to prevent the formation of air or vapour
pockets, and it should be atleast one size larger than the pump suction nozzle,
to minimise the effects of pipe friction on the suction pressure. A valve
should be installed on each side of the pump, so it can be isolated from the
system for servicing.
The suction and discharge pipes must be independently supported, to avoid

putting a stress on the pump nozzles. The piping must not be drawn into
position by the flange bolts. Provide an elbow or expansion joint in each pipe,
to prevent thermal expansion or contraction from placing unnecessary stress
on the pump nozzles.
In new installations, special care must be taken to prevent dirt, pipe scale, or
welding shot from entering the pump. The suction system and the pump
should be thoroughly flushed out before the piping is connected.
Suction strainer
It is recommended that a temporary suction strainer be installed in the suction

pipe to prevent any foreign matter from being drawn into the pump on initial
start-up or following any repair work on the suction system. The strainer
should be cone shaped.

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If possible, the suction strainer should be installed in a vertical section of pipe

with a downward direction of flow, to minimise the probability of debris
falling back into the system when the screen is removed for cleaning. The
strainer should be mounted in a spool piece, and pressure gauges should be
installed for monitoring the pressure drop across the screen.
Bypass piping
If the pump will be required to operate at reduced discharge, it is necessary to

install a bypass pipe from the discharge back to the suction source. This will
protect the pump from damage caused by the heat that would be generated in
the pumpage by simply throttling the discharge line.
To regulate the flow in the bypass line and control the break down in the
output pressure, a minimum-flow orifice should be installed in the bypass line.
The size of the orifice will depend on the desired amount of reduction in the
pumps discharge.
Auxiliary piping
Depending on the installation, auxiliary piping may be required for any or all
of the following: bearing lubrication, lube oil cooling, gland cooling: seal
injection, stuffing box drain, bearing bracket drain, or pump casing drain.
When required, this piping is normally installed at the factory. If any external
connections are needed, they will be shown on the certified outline drawing. If
at any time it is necessary to weld around the pumping equipment and driver,
be sure that the ground connection is located as close as possible to the place
to be welded, so that no electrical current passes through the pump of driver.

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VERTICAL PUMPS
6.1 Types of vertical pump
Types of vertical pumps most commonly used in process plants include

multistage process and condensate pumps, single stage inline process pumps,
Fire water pumps, submersible pumps and sump pumps
Multistage process and condensate pumps are often used where available
NPSH is not sufficient to accommodate a horizontal pump, or where the space
is a premium. The first stage impeller is below foundation level, thus
providing additional NPSH.
6.1.1 Single stage inline pump
It is a simple design in which pump and motor assembly is mounted in a pipe

line without a base plate. Motor bearing handle radial and axial thrust coming
from pump and pipe strain has minimum impact on the rotating element
alignment. This type is selected when low initial cost of pump, foundation and
piping is significant.

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6.1.2 Sump pumps are those vertical pumps, which are supported by a foot on
the bottom of a well. They are either motor driven or diesel engine driven and
are automatically controlled by a float switch. These are primarily used for
collecting drainage collected in a sump. Generally suction is taken from
underground sump and the drive is generally located at zero meter level.
6.1.3 Submersible pumps are close coupled pumps driven by a submersible

motor and designed for submerged installation in a wet well.
6.2 Installation of vertical pumps

Installation of conventional vertical pumps with motor located above liquid
level requires a considerable length of drive shafting and external lubrication
system for bearings. Shaft alignment becomes more critical and power losses
and shaft elongation increase specially in case of deep well pumps.
Submersible pumps are developed for this purpose which are driven by a
submersible motor located at the bottom of the pump. Pump suction is taken
through a perforated strainer located between motor and first stage impeller
bowl. There is no shafting above the pump and pump and motor unit are
supported only by discharge piping. No external lubrication is required and
motor is enclosed, hermetically sealed and is provided with a thrust bearing
for carrying downthrust. Submersible pumps supply make-up and utility water
from wells.
The major features that differentiate horizontal pumps from vertical pumps are
described below:
1. Solid shaft drivers: solid shaft drivers are used to drive

pumps with relatively short shafts, less than 30 to 50 ft long. They provide
more positive shaft alignment, which is important, when pumps have
mechanical seals.
2. Shaft and coupling alignment:
3. Shaft straightness and repair: most vertical multistage
pumps have wearing surfaces on the shafts under the bowl bearing, bottom
bearing and packing. Large shafts can be built up using hard chrome
plating or metallizing. Grinding operation is then carried out for smooth
shaft surface. All shafts need to be checked for straightness prior to
installation. Generally limit is 0.025mm TIR within a length of 300mm.

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6.3 Typical characteristics of vertical pumps
6.3.1 Axial thrust in vertical pumps with single impeller
When pumps are installed in a vertical position, there are additional factors,
which need to be taken into consideration when determining amount and
direction of thrust absorbed in the thrust bearing. First important part is the
weight of the pump, which is constant downward force, independent of pump
capacity or head. Second factor involves the dynamic force caused by change
in the direction of flow, from vertical to either horizontal or partly horizontal,
as the pumped liquid flows through the impeller. This force acts upwards and
balances some amount of hydraulic downthrust and of the rotor weight.
Upward force caused by the change in momentum is negligible relative to the

downward hydraulic axial thrust. But, during start up, it takes pump to develop
total head from zero to the amount corresponding to capacity. Consequently,
pump will be operating at very high capacity. Since the upward thrust caused
by the change of momentum varies as the square of the capacity, while the
downward axial thrust caused by the pressure difference is very low, there can
be momentary net upward force. This means that the thrust bearings intended
to accommodate the axial thrust of vertical pumps must be capable of taking
some upward thrust in addition to normal downward force. Care must be taken
in this case to limit vertical movement allowed for thrust bearing because such
movement must remain within displacement limits of mechanical seal.
6.3.2 Shaft elongation in vertical pumps
The elongation of vertical pump shaft is caused by tensile stress caused by

weight of the rotor, tensile stress caused by the axial thrust and the thermal
expansion of the shaft.
Generally, tensile stress caused by the axial thrust is greater than that created
by the weight. Elongation due to thermal expansion can be reduced if the shaft
and the stationery parts are made of the same material, as both shall expend
and the relative movement will be less.

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6.4 Special purpose vertical pumps
For low flow and high head applications, Sundyne pumps are used which have
a capability of running at very high speeds. These are single stage pumps with
multistage performance in terms of achieving high pressures.
A typical Sundyne pump is shown in the figure.

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MAINTENANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

7.1 GENERAL
Centrifugal pump manufacturers give maintenance instructions in the manual, which

need to be followed with the recommended frequency. Despite all the care in
operation and maintenance, engineers often face the failure of the pump. Inability to
deliver the desired flow and head is just one of the most common conditions for
taking a pump out of service. There are many conditions in which a pump, despite
suffering no loss in flow or head, is considered to have failed and has to be pulled out
of service as soon as possible. These include seal related problems (leakages, loss of
flushing, cooling, quenching systems etc) and bearing related problems (loss of
lubrication, oil contamination, abnormal noise etc), leakages from pump casing, very
high noise and vibration levels or driver (motor or turbine) related troubles.
A little care when first symptoms of a problem appear can save the pump from major
failures. Thus the most important task in such situations is to find out whether the
pump has failed mechanically or if there is some process deficiency, or both. Thus,
the decision to pull a pump out of service for maintenance or repair should be made
after detailed analysis of the symptoms and root causes of pump failure. Also, in case
of mechanical failure or physical damage of the pump internals, the operating
personnel should be able to relate the failure to process units operating problems.
Though predictive maintenance philosophy is being practiced in most of the plants,

unexpected pump breakdowns occur. Most of the premature pump shutdowns are
related to seal and bearing failures and the classic predictive maintenance techniques
of machinery history, visual inspection and vibration analysis do not work well with
products that fail prematurely, rather than wear out.
Vibration analysis tells you that the destruction has already begun, not that it is
going to happen. To use vibration analysis with mechanical seals we would
have to know the frequency of a seal and with the many designs available, the
wide choice of seal materials and the many fluids being sealed that is just
about impossible.
Machinery history is only valid if the equipment experiences traditional wear.
Otherwise you are trying to predict an accident. Remember that no one wears
out seals and bearings. They always fail prematurely. The L10 life of pump
bearings is rated in hundreds of years Seals are supposed to run until the
carbon wears down; which occurs rarely.

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Back up sealing is valid if you want to prevent unexpected seal shut down, but
outside of purchasing a backup pump this approach is not practical for the
bearings.
Still, if we elected to monitor the pump performance and use this data to predict an
upcoming seal or bearing failure, following points can be monitored in a pump:
THE WET END OF THE PUMP

Following can be monitored:
The temperature at the pump suction and discharge flanges.
The pressure at the pump suction and discharge flanges.
Product flow can be measured by a variety of instruments without penetrating

the piping.
Vibration can be measured at several locations on the volute.
Noise is easily detected and a valuable source of emerging problems.
The amount of amperage being drawn by the motor combined with pump flow
and capacity can be an excellent indication of pump performance.
THE STUFFING BOX AND SEAL AREA

Following can be monitored:
Stuffing box temperature.
Stuffing box pressure.

Liquid leakage out of the stuffing box, or air leakage in.
Stuffing box jacket inlet and outlet flow
Stuffing box jacket inlet and outlet temperature.
Seal gland flush pressure, flow and temperature.
The temperature, pressure and flow of the fluid between dual seals.
Convection tank temperature, pressure and level.

Quench temperate and flow.

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THE BEARING CASE

We can monitor:
Oil temperature to let you know if the oil is about to form varnish or coke.
Oil level.
Shaft movement or thrust

The amount of water present in the oil.
Shaft speed.
Vibration
Cooling coil inlet and outlet temperature, pressure and flow.
In addition to above data which gives information about the health of the centrifugal
pump, we need process data in addition to information supplied by both the pump and
seal supplier. It would contain data about the fluid, critical dimensions, and
information about the bearing lubricant. It could include:
The specific gravity of the fluid.
The specific heat of the fluid and bearing lubricant.
The temperature/pressure at which the fluids would change state, vaporize

become viscous, solidify, coke, build a film on the seal faces or sliding metal
parts, become a non lubricant.
The bar tag would also contain information about:

The correct impeller clearance to the back plate or volute.
The temperature limit of the bearing lubricant.
The temperature limits of any of the seal components including the faces and
rubber parts.
The pump BEP.
Desired flow through the cooling/heating jacket. You get this from the seal
supplier.
Desired level, pressure and temperature in the dual seal convection tank.
The specified flush amount.

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Sampling particulate matter and checking the same for corrosive / erosive
elements
Now that we have an idea about what we can monitor, it will be prudent to predict
following parameters about pump performance:
1. The pump differential pressure, flow and amperage tells us if the pump is
running close to its designed point. Otherwise,
We will get excessive shaft deflection that translates to premature

wear ring, seal and bearing failure. The impeller could deflect into the
volute or back plate causing permanent damage to both pieces.
The lost power will convert to unwanted heat that can change critical
shaft dimensions and tolerances. This can be a big problem in the
bearing area where internal clearances are very critical.
If the suction pressure decreases or the suction temperature increases

there is a probability that we going to have a cavitation problem
during the operation of the pump.
2. Is the temperature or pressure change in the stuffing box going to affect any
of the seal components? Many of these affects are non-reversible.
3. There are many face combinations used in mechanical seals. Many of them
are sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure. Some ceramics, filled
carbons and plated hard faces are especially sensitive to temperature changes.
4. The elastomer (rubber part) is always sensitive to a temperature change and to
the fluid also.
5. Corrosion always increases with an increase in temperature. This can be very
important in acid applications.
6. A temperature change in the stuffing box tell us if the product going to change
from a lubricating liquid to a non lubricating gas or solid. Most of these
changes occur when the pump is shut down or a cleaner or solvent is being
flushed through the lines. Will shut down cause solid particles to appear in the
fluid? Every fluid has a maximum and minimum operating temperature.
Exceed these limits and all kinds of bad things happen. A change in stuffing
box temperature or pressure can cause a lubricating liquid to :
Vaporize and blow open the lapped seal faces.

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Crystallize and restrict the seal movement. Caustic is typical of this type
of problem.
Become viscous and interfere with the seal movement.
Solidify between the lapped seal faces and destroy them, as well as restrict
the free movement of the seal components..
Build a film on the sliding seal parts restricting their movement and
separating the lapped faces. Both paint and hard water can do this.
Become a non lubricant. This is a problem with hot water applications that
will lead to "slip stick" vibration problems between the lapped seal faces.
Cause the liquid to form solid particles that will get into the sliding
components and restrict their movement. This is the "coking problem" we
typically experience with all hot oil applications.
7. Are the bearings in danger of failing?
8. Is the lubricant temperature too high and increasing?

9. Is the lubrication level too high or low?
10. Has moisture penetrated the bearing case. Moisture can cause hydrogen
embrittlement problems in the bearing.
11. Are the seal faces glued together at start up? Any product that can solidify
will cause this failure.
12. Do the wear rings need replacement? Internal recirculation wastes power and
increases the pump internal temperature. Ten degrees centigrade (18F) is
considered the maximum temperature rise allowable across the pump volute.
13. Are the seal's environmental controls functioning?
14. Is the product getting diluted?
15. Is the quench working?
16. Is there enough stuffing box circulation to prevent the seal from being
overheated?
17. Is the cooling jacket becoming clogged from a build up in calcium?

18. Is the inner seal of a dual seal application functioning?
19. Is the flush fluid doing its job?

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20. Is the stuffing box being maintained at the correct temperature- especially at
pump shutdown?

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7.2 VIBRATION MONITORING
It is necessary to be interested in vibration because it has a major affect on the

performance of pump. At least six components are seriously affected by vibration:
The life of the mechanical seal is directly related to shaft movement. Vibration
can cause carbon face chipping and seal face opening. Drive lugs will wear,
and metal bellows seals will fatigue. In some instances the shaft movement
can cause the rotating seal components to contact the inside of the stuffing
box, or some other stationary object, causing the seal faces to open and
allowing solids to penetrate between the lapped faces. Vibration is also a
major cause of set screws becoming loose and slipping on the shaft, causing
the lapped seal faces to open..
Packing is sensitive to radial movement of the shaft. You will not only
experience excessive leakage, but excessive sleeve or shaft wear also.
Additional flushing will be required to compensate for the heat that will be
generated by the high friction packing.
Bearings are designed to handle both a radial and axial load. They were not
designed for the vibration that can cause a brinneling (denting) of the bearing
races.
Critical dimensions and tolerances such as wear ring clearance and impeller
setting will be affected by vibration. Bearing internal clearances are measured
in tenths of thousands of an inch. (thousands of a millimeter)
Pump components can be damaged by vibration. Wear rings, bushings and
impellers are three examples.
Bearing seals are very sensitive to shaft radial movement. Shaft damage will
increase and the seals will fail prematurely. Labyrinth seals operate with a
very close tolerance. Excessive movement can damage these tolerances also.
Pump and motor hold down bolts can become loose.
The vibration comes from a number of sources that include:
Mechanical causes of vibration

Unbalanced rotating components. Damaged impellers and non concentric shaft
sleeves are common.
A bent or warped shaft.

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Pump and driver misalignment.

Pipe strain. Either by design or as a result of thermal growth.
The mass of the pump base is too small.
Thermal growth of various components, especially shafts.
Rubbing parts.
Worn or loose bearings.
Loose hold down bolts.
Loose parts.
Product attaching to a rotating component.
Damaged parts.
Hydraulic causes of vibration

Operating off of the best efficiency point (BEP) of the pump.
Vaporization of the product
Impeller vane running too close to the pump cutwater.
Internal recirculation
Air getting into the system through vortexing etc..
Turbulence in the system ( non laminar flow).

Water hammer.

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Other causes of vibration.

Harmonic vibration from nearby equipment.
Operating the pump at a critical speed. Watch out for this problem in variable
speed and pulley driven pumps.
Seal "slip stick" at the seal faces. This can occur if you are pumping a non
lubricating fluid, a gas or a dry solid.
A pump discharge recirculation line aimed at the seal faces.
Vibration can be read in a variety of ways:

Frequency
Amplitude
Velocity
Acceleration
Spike Energy
Acoustic emissions
Deflection
Many systems read vibration by recording acceleration. The problem with this method
is that if you do not know the frequency the readings are not very meaningful.
Because of this most systems read an average of all of the frequencies involved and
recommend taking action when this average reading doubles in a particular location.
Unfortunately, most vibration data references bearing operation. There is little to no
information available about mechanical seal vibration modes. The problem is further
compounded by:
The large variety of seal materials in use.
Major differences, in design between popular brands of single and multiple
seals.
Availability of vibration damping in these seal designs.
The wide spread use of environmental controls.
The variety of fluids surrounding the seal

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The vibration readings almost always mean that the equipment has started to destroy
its self. The obvious solution to all of this is to adopt good maintenance practices that
will eliminate most of the vibration and then try to install hardware that can live with
the vibration you have left. Recording vibration makes sense only after good
maintenance practices are in force.
Mechanical Problem Solutions

Do a proper pump/ driver alignment using either a Laser or the reverse
indicator method. Upgrading the pump power end to a "C" or "D" frame motor
adapter is a more sensible and economical decision. Once the conversion is
made misalignment ceases to be a concern. These adapters are available for
most motors and will maintain the proper alignment as the equipment goes
through its normal temperature transients.
Always pipe from the pump suction to the pipe rack, never the other way.
There are some more piping practices that you should follow:
o Try to use at least ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and
the first elbow.
o Valve stems, T branches and elbows should be perpendicular to the
pump shaft not at a right angle to it. This is especially important with
double suction pumps because uneven inlet flow will cause the
impeller to thrust in one direction causing bearing problems on one end
of the pump.
o Pipe supports and hangers should be installed at unequal distances..
o Use lots of hangers to support the piping.

o Use lots of loops and expansion joints in the piping system.
o After fabrication and testing remove all supports and lock pins from
the spring hangers, loosen pipe flanges and adjust the system to free
the pump from pipe strain.
o Reference the "Hydraulic Institute Manual", or a similar publication to
learn the proper methods of piping several pumps from the same
suction source to prevent vortexing etc..
The foundation should be three inches ( 75 mm) wider than the base plate, all
around, up to 500 horsepower (375 KW) and six inches (150 mm) above 500
horse power (375 KW).

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Imaginary lines, extended downward 30 degrees to either side of a vertical

through the pump shaft, should pass through the bottom of the foundation and
not the sides.
Every inch of stainless steel grows 0.001 inch for every 100 Fahrenheit rise in
temperature (0,001 mm/mm/50 Centigrade) This thermal growth can cause
the impeller to rub the pump casing as well as cause rubbing in many close
tolerance clearances such as the wear rings. Carbon steel grows about 30%
less than stainless steel.
Worn or loose bearings are caused by improper installation or allowing water
to enter the bearing cavity. Labyrinth seals or positive face seals are the easiest
solution to the water problem. Install bearings by using a proper induction
heater to prevent contamination during the installation process.
Hydraulic Problem Solutions

Ensure that you have enough NPSH for your application. If there is not
enough an inducer or booster pump might solve the problem. Another section
in this series explains "Cavitation" in great detail, and offers many solutions to
the problem.
An impeller, running too close to the pump cutwater will cause vibration and
damage. An impeller tip to cutwater clearance of 4% (of the impeller
diameter) in the smaller impeller sizes (to 14 inch/355 mm) and 6% in the
larger sizes will solve this problem. This becomes a problem with most self
priming pumps and the only solution is to contact your pump supplier for his
recommendation, if he has one. Repaired impellers sometimes experience this
problem.
Internal recirculation problems can be solved by either adjusting the open
impeller or replacing the closed impeller with an alternative design. This
problem was discussed in another volume of this technical series.
Air can get into a system through valves above the water line or flanges, but
the easiest way for air to enter a system is through the stuffing box of a packed
pump. The simplest solution is to replace the pump packing with a balanced
O-Ring seal. If vortexing is the problem, consult the "Hydraulic Institute
Manual" for information on vortex breakers and proper piping layouts to
prevent turbulence in the lines, and at the pump suction.
Water hammer is not very well understood by our industry, but we know how
important it is to keep air out of the piping system.
It is good practice to use one size larger suction pipe and then use a reducer to
connect the piping to the pump. Do not use concentric reducers. Eccentric
types are much better, as long as you do not install them upside down.
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Solutions to other types of vibration

The pump, or one of its components, can vibrate in harmony with another
piece of equipment located in close proximity. Isolation, by vibration
damping, is the easiest solution to this problem. This is a big problem with
many metal bellows seal designs because they are lacking an elastomer that
functions as a vibration damper.
Critical speed operation is not a common problem unless you are operating
with a variable speed drive. Changing the speed is the obvious solution. If that
is not practical, changing the impeller diameter is another solution.
Seal "slipstick" is a problem with non lubricants such as hot water or most
solvents. If you are using O-Ring seals, the O-Ring is a natural vibration
damper. Metal bellows seals require that a separate vibration damper be
installed, usually in the form of a metal component vibrating and sliding on
the shaft.
Pump discharge recirculation lines can cause a vibration every time the
impeller passes the recirculation line "tap off". This vibration will affect the
mechanical seal and like all vibration, can be recognized by chipping of the
outside diameter of the carbon face and worn drive lugs.
Most of us can not stop all of the vibration that is causing our seal, packing, bearing,
and critical clearance problems, so our only solution is to live with it. Unfortunately
the standard pump and original equipment seal is not prepared to handle vibration
without major modification.

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7.2.1 INSTALLATION OF VIBRATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT
With increase in the size of the pump, ratio of unbalanced dynamic forces to pump
stiffness increases disproportionately with size. Also, with increase in the speed,
unbalance forces increase. Vibration dampening and critical speeds alter this
relationship hence need to be taken into consideration. Critical speed is the rotational
speed of the rotor that corresponds to the lateral natural frequency of the rotor. Care
should be taken that pump should not be run at the critical speed.
Following are some of the guidelines for installing a vibration monitoring system on a
centrifugal pump:
1. Two 90 0 circumferential oriented probes are attached at each bearing of critical

equipment
2. Two level alarms are specified (High alarm and high-high alarm or trips) are
provided so that first alarm calls for troubleshooting and second one is for
automatic or manual shutdown.
3. All measuring points need to be covered in the vibration monitoring schedule and
analysis of high vibration tags to be done
4. As far as possible, provide installations that allow probe repairs or replacements
while operation
5. Thrust displacement probes are mounted for checking the axial movement of the
shaft

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As discussed earlier, following graph shows limitation on the machinery vibration

system and transducers:
Vibration is adopted as reliability based maintenance technique. It includes online

monitoring system on few critical pumps like charge pumps, multistage pumps and
hot pumps. Other critical pumps are covered under offline monitoring system;
wherein vibrations are taken based on the scheduled frequency. Interpretation of
vibration data is done in order to look for any deviation from the acceptable levels to
assess present health of the machine. Vibration measurement frequency is based on
operating speed, power and criticality of the equipment. Few guidelines regarding
selection of such equipment are:
1. Most critical in plant with regards to plant availability / reliability
2. Have high performance duty in terms of capacity
3. Long lead time for spares
4. Machine speed

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7.3 RECONDITIONING OF VARIOUS PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
General
Rotating parts like impeller, shaft, wear rings, bearings, sleeves, seals in a
centrifugal pump require more attention for repairs as they are subjected to
more wear and tear than stationery parts like casing, suction and discharge
flanges and bearing housings.
Impeller
Impellers are subjected to cavitation, corrosion and erosion in service and need
to be protected from damages resulting from these. Many a times, impellers
are coated with suitable anticorrosive coating. Rust, scaling on the impeller
can be removed by chemical cleaning or sand blasting. Badly worn out and
corroded impellers vibrate excessively. Balancing of impellers become
necessary in this case. Balancing of the rotor is normally carried out at ISO
grade 2.5
Shaft reconditioning
Shaft of the centrifugal pump need to be protected against corrosion, wear,
bending. Whenever a shaft is removed from a pump, it need to be checked for
bending if any. Shaft can be straightened on an arbor press to get required
straightness. Shaft can also be repaired by weld build up or thermal spraying
to achieve additional wear resistance.
Wear rings
Wear rings are the replaceable parts on a centrifugal pump. Although wear
rings are designed for having uniform clearances over the impeller and casing,
certain conditions may cause them to rub during operation. Increase in war
ring clearance reduces pumping efficiency, hence non galling materials are
used for wear rings. Typical combinations are cast iron with cast iron, steel
with bronze and steel with bronze.
Mechanical seals
These generally come in cartridge form so that the seal is replaced just by a
new seal just by tightening of bolts at site and can be reconditioned afterwards
in the workshop. Seals are reconditioned depending on the condition of
various parts. Generally all the soft packing are replaced. The mating faces are
checked for any cracks and chipping and are lapped to get required flatness.
Testing of seals is done in static condition to ensure that the assembly is done
properly.

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Bearing
Antifriction bearing are checked for any visual sign of wear to the balls, races
and cage. They are cleaned and checked for free rotation. API suggests 25000
hrs of bearing life at maximum radial and axial loads at rated speed., after
which they are to be replaced.

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TROUBLESHOOTING
8.1 Troubleshooting guide
There are three most likely types of problems encountered with centrifugal pumps:
Design errors
Poor operation
Poor maintenance practices
Some of the pump troubleshooting points includes:

1. What can happen if the stuffing box temperature gets too hot?
The product can change state. It can stop being a lubricant and quickly become
a destructive solid or vapor:
o It can vaporize, expand and blow the seal faces open and damage
leaving destructive solids between the faces.
o It can become viscous, interfering with the free movement of the
springs and bellows.
o It can solidify, gluing the faces together or making the moveable
components inoperable.
o It can crystallize and interfere with the moving parts of the seal.
o It can cause the product to build a film on the faces (hot oil as an
example) and sliding components, making them inoperable.
Corrosion increases with increasing temperatures.
Temperature causes materials to expand. Seal faces can go out of flat, and
pressed in carbon faces can loosen in their holder. Bellows vibration dampers
can stick to the shaft sleeve, opening the faces.
Some seal faces can be damaged by high heat. Plated materials and filled
carbons are two such examples. Voids in some carbon faces can expand
causing pits in the lapped faces
Elastomers can experience "compression set" problems, causing them to leak
or in some cases fail completely at higher heat levels.

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Loss of barrier or buffer fluid between two mechanical seals, or the convection
of the barrier fluid has stopped for some reason.
Loss of the quench in an A.P.I. gland.

Loss of the discharge recirculation line because of a clogged filter, cyclone
separator or heat exchanger.
Loss of suction recirculation because of solids in the fluid.
Loss of cooling in the stuffing box cooling jacket because of the circulating
water being "hard" and is depositing an insulating layer of calcium on the
inside of the cooling jacket.
The seal running dry because the stuffing box not vented in a vertical
application.
The seal was installed incorrectly causing too much spring load on the faces.
The unbalanced seal design cannot compensate for the high stuffing box
pressure.
Thermal shaft expansion is over compressing an outside seal design, or one of
the seals in a dual seal application.
The open impeller adjusting technique can over compress some seal designs.
The stuffing box running in a vacuum because the supply tank venting is not
proper or cold weather is freezing the tank vent.
Water hammer, pressure surges and cavitation will all alter seal face loading.
2. A change in the stuffing box pressure can cause:
The product to vaporize, opening the lapped faces.
O-rings and other elastomer designs to extrude and jam the sliding
components.
Lapped seal faces to distort and go out of flat.
A stuffing box vacuum can blow open unbalanced seals.
A differential pressure across the elastomer can cause ethylene oxide to
penetrate into the elastomer and destroy it as it expands in the lower pressure
side.

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If you are monitoring temperature and pressure in the stuffing box area you will note
the changes mentioned and depending upon your knowledge of the above, you will
have time to react before seal failure occurs.
An increase in the bearing case oil temperature is significant because the life of
bearing oil is directly related to the oil temperature. Lubricating oil has a useful life of
thirty years at 30oC and its life is cut in half for every 10oC increase in temperature.
You can figure out that the temperature in the bearing is at least 10oC higher than the
oil sump temperature. At elevated temperatures the oil will carbonize by first forming
a "varnish like" film that will turn into a hard black coke at these higher temperatures.
It is these formed solids that will destroy the bearing.
What is causing these elevated temperatures? There are a number of possibilities:
Loss of circulation in the stuffing box cooling jacket.
Loss of cooling in the bearing case cooling sump.

Additional cooling is given to the outside of the bearing casing causing the
outside diameter of the bearing to shrink, increasing the load.
The bearing is installed incorrectly.
The bearing is over lubricated. The oil level is too high or there is too much
grease in the bearing.
The lubricating oil is contaminated with water.
The shaft is overloaded because the pump is operating off of the B.E.P.,
misalignment, unbalance, etc.
There is too much axial thrust.
3. Oil sampling is always a good idea. It can tell you:
If water is getting into the oil.
If the oil additives are still present and functioning.

If the oil is carbonizing due to high temperature.
If there are solids due to corrosion, bearing cage destruction, or some other
reason.
If you monitor pump suction and discharge pressure and coordinate this information
with flow and motor amperage readings you can come up with a lot of useful
information such as:
You can tell if you have the right size pump.
DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
You can estimate where you are in respect to the B.E.P. and know if the shaft
is deflecting, or is about to deflect.
You can tell if the motor is close to an overload condition.

You will know when the impeller needs adjusting or the wear rings need
replacement.
You can spot poor operating practices if you have a chart recorder installed,
instead of pressure and temperature gages.
You can tell if the tank you are pumping from is losing the proper level or if
the suction lines are clogging.
You can tell if you are getting close to cavitation.
It goes without saying that constant monitoring is the most sensible answer to
predictive maintenance and troubleshooting.
Following chart shall give general idea of the troubleshooting of the centrifugal pump
and its components:
Symptom Possible cause of trouble

Pump does not deliver 1,2,3,4,6,11,14,16,17,22,23
Insufficient capacity delivered 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,14,17,20,22,23,29,30,31
Insufficient pressure developed 5,14,16,17,20,22,29,31
Pump loses prime after starting 2,3,5,6,7,8,11,12,13
Pump requires excessive power 15,16,17,18,19,20,23,24,26,27,29,33,34,37
Stuffing box leaks excessively 13,24,26,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40
Packing/ seal has short life 12,13,24,26,28,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40
Pump vibrates too much or is too 2,3,4,9,10,11,21,23,24,25,26,27,28,30,35,36,41,42,43,
noisy 44,45,46,47
Bearings have short life 24,26,27,28,35,36,41,42,43,44,45,46,47
Pump overheats and seizes 1,4,21,22,24,27,28,35,36,41
(Numbers in the above list are defined in the next page)

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
SUCTION TROUBLES:
1. Pump not primed

2. Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
3. Suction lift too high
4. Insufficient margin between suction pressure and vapour pressure
5. Excessive amount of air/gas in liquid
6. Air pocket in the suction line
7. Air leaks into suction line
8. Air leaks into pump through stuffing box
9. Foot valve too small
10. Foot valve partially clogged
11. Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
12. Water seal pipe plugged
13. Seal cage improperly located in stuffing box, preventing sealing fluid from
entering space to form seal
SYSTEM TROUBLES:
14. Speed too low

15. Speed too high
16. Direction of rotation wrong
17. Total head of system higher than design head of pump
18. Total head of system lower than design head of pump
19. Specific gravity of liquid different from design
20. Viscosity of liquid different from design
21. Operation at very low capacity
22. Parallel operation of pumps unsuitable for such operation

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MODULE RG-CM-R-002
MECHANICAL TROUBLES:
23. Foreign matter in the impeller

24. Misalignment
25. Foundation not rigid
26. Shaft bent
27. Rotating part rubbing on stationery part
28. Bearing worn
29. Wearing ring worn
30. Impeller damaged
31. Casing gasket defective, permitting internal leakage
32. Shaft or shaft sleeves worn out or scored at packing
33. Packing improperly installed
34. Type of packing incorrect for operating conditions
35. Shaft running off centered because of worn out bearing or misalignment
36. Rotor out of balance causing vibration
37. Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of liquid to lubricate packing
38. Cooling liquid not being provided to water cooled stuffing box
39. Excessive clearance at bottom of stuffing box between shaft and casing
causing packing to be forced into pump interior
40. Dirt or grit in sealing liquid leading to scoring of shaft or shaft sleeve
41. Excessive thrust caused by mechanical failure inside pump or by failure of
hydraulic balancing device if any
42. Excessive grease or oil in antifriction bearing housing or lack of cooling,
causing excessive bearing temperature
43. Lack of lubrication
44. Improper installation of antifriction bearing (damage during assembly, use of
unmatched bearings etc)
45. Dirt in bearing
46. Rusting of bearings from water in housing
47. Excessive cooling of water cooled bearing resulting in condensation of
atmospheric moisture in bearing housing

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
The problem with centrifugal pumps is that seals and bearings account for over 90%
of premature pump failures and neither of these items ever "wears out". Seals should
run until the sacrificial carbon face has worn away, but a close look at used seals will
demonstrate that wear is actually a minor problem. In excess of 85% of mechanical
seals leak with plenty of wearable face still visible.
Bearings do not "wear out" like mechanical seals. They have a predictive fatigue life
that is based on load and cycles. Properly loaded they could last a hundred years, but
like seals, they experience a very high premature failure rate. All this means that the
measurements we are taking today are no indication of what is going to happen
tomorrow. Most companies base their predictive maintenance programs on vibration
analysis or interval timed, visual inspection and that is why we find "Reactive
maintenance" the norm in most plants.
A more sensible approach to predictive maintenance is to monitor the equipment for
changes that could be destructive in the future, but allow you to correct them before
the destruction starts. Any operating engineer, who typically has a chemical
engineering background and who desires to protect his pump from frequent failures
must develop not only a good understanding of the process but also thorough
knowledge of the mechanics of the pump. Effective troubleshooting requires an
ability to observe changes in performance over time, and take measures to prevent the
problem from re-occurring.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
8.2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP MODIFICATION

Inspite of all troubleshooting that we carry out at plant level, few problems may
persist; which may not affect the performance of the pump but may impair integrity of
the equipment in the long run if not attended properly.
If we find that our present centrifugal pump is not satisfying the application or not
running as trouble free as we would like, first we check the following:
All of the internal tolerances are correct.
There is no excessive pipe strain.
The rotating parts are dynamically balanced.
The wear ring clearance is within manufacturer specifications.
The pump is running at the correct speed, in the right direction, with the
correct size impeller.
Then we may have to purchase a different centrifugal pump or we might want to
consider modifying the existing pump to get the performance and reliability we are
looking for.
Here are a few modifications and pump upgrades we can consider:
Modifying the impeller diameter could get it closer to the best efficiency
point. The affinity laws will predict the affect the trimming will have on the
pump's head; capacity, net positive suction head required (NPSHR), and
horsepower requirement.
Changing the wet end to a double volute configuration will allow the pump to
operate in a larger window without the danger of deflecting the shaft too
much.
Change the flushing connection from the top lantern ring connection to the
bottom of the stuffing box to insure a better fluid flow through the stuffing
box.
Enlarging the inside diameter of the stuffing box or going to an oversize
stuffing box can solve some persistent seal problems.
Converting the wet end of the pump to a centerline design might solve some
pipe strain problems by compensating for radial thermal growth.
Increasing the impeller to cutwater clearance could stop a cavitation problem

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
Installing a sight glass in the bearing case can help you maintain the correct oil
level and prevent overheating problems in the bearings.
Replacing the bearing case grease or lip seals with either labyrinth or positive
face seals for bearings will keep moisture out of the bearing case and eliminate
a lot of premature bearing failure.
Converting the radial bearing retention snap ring to a more rugged holding
device will eliminate many of the problems associated with axial movement of
the shaft.
Converting the packed pump to a good mechanical seal will reduce power
consumption and product leakage.
Converting to an impeller with a different specific speed number will change

the shape of the pump curve and the NPSH required.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
C
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AC
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DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Centrifugal pumps when manufactured are subjected to various tests as per

purchaser's requirements. These tests are performed to ascertain the performance of
the pump with reference to the total flow rate, head, NPSH and power absorbed.
Check of satisfactory running of the pump must be made from the point of view of
cavitation, temperature of glands, bearings, axial thrust, possible leakage to ensure
the performance guarantees given by the manufacturer.
Following tests are generally carried out depending on agreement between purchaser
and manufacturer:
[A] Material tests: Following test certificates shall be made available to the
purchaser:
Chemical composition
Mechanical properties
Non destructive tests
[B] Pump tests and inspection:
Hydrostatic test:
These are performed to pressure containing parts like casing, cover at a

pressure of 1.5 times the basic design pressure. Test shall be carried out for at
least 10 min. without visible leakage.
Performance test:
During performance test, following parameters shall be checked:
NPSH test
Vibration levels
Bearing temperatures
Seal leakage
Following checks form the acceptance criteria for testing of any centrifugal pump:
1. Verification of NPSH
2. Gear / cable losses

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
3. Arrangement for providing priming ability of self priming pumps

4. Liquid to be used
5. To check whether rotational speed variations are outside permissible
tolerance: API recommends test speed to be within 3% of the rated speed.
6. Prediction of pump performance from tests
7. Inlet and transmission losses in vertical well pumps
8. Cavitation test: when specified, NPSH test may be carried out to certify that
NPSH required by the pump is less than the specified NPSH.
TESTING OF PUMPS
Any pump is tested normally with load test for determination of head-discharge
characteristics, power, and efficiency characteristics at different operating conditions.
Cavitation test is carried out for determining NPSH values at different operating
parameters.
LOAD TEST
Test set up for load test consists of a prime mover, suction sump or a tank, delivery
tank, suction and delivery pipelines, discharge valve for regulating flow rate, power,
flow, pressure and speed measuring instruments. The liquid from delivery pipe falls
back into the suction sump for recirculation.
Load test is conducted at different flow rates by regulating discharge valve from full
close to full open condition. The speed is maintained constant through out the test.
Refer to below figure:

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
The performance of the pump is plotted in the graphical form like figure.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
CAVITATION TEST
A cavitation test set up consists of a closed tank. Suction and delivery pipelines are
connected to the tank with all measuring instrumentation for speed, flow, and
pressure. A mercury manometer is fitted at the suction pipe for measurement of
positive or negative pressures. The closed tank is connected to a vacuum pump, by

which the pressure in the tank can be altered. The tank is filled with water upto of
its height. Following is the testing procedure:
1. The pump to be tested is mounted on a base and connected to the prime mover.
Following steps are carried out:

1. Adjust the flow rate by operating the discharge valve to the required value. Note
the readings of the head, flow and power and calculate efficiency. Plot the graph
2. Change the suction pressure in the tank by operating of vacuum pump. Note down
the reading after maintaining constant vacuum at the suction eye.
3. Increase the vacuum further till maximum vacuum is achieved. At one point, there
will be sudden drop in one or all the parameters and it will fluctuate. The pump
shall start producing noise and vibration due to cavitation.
4. The limit of cavitation is maintained as 1% lower than that of the suction head
where the fluctuation is observed.
5. This experiment is repeated at various values of head and discharge and at each
value of limiting suction head or NPSH is determined.
A combined NPSH Vs flow rate curve is plotted. This graph represents Minimum
suction head at each point. The minimum most point on the NPSH is the best

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
operating point for cavitation free operation. Note that the best efficiency point and
best NPSH points need not be at the same discharge.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
C
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APPT
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MP

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
DOS AND DONTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
DOs:
1. Maintain specified DBSE between pump and the motor coupling

2. Check alignment of the suction and the discharge piping before starting pump for
the first time.
3. Start seal flushing and cooling lines before starting the pump
4. Monitor any leakage through the bearing, seal, pump casing in running condition
5. Use bearing puller for removal of the bearing
6. Ensure that the seal is locked on the shaft before starting pump
7. Use correct grade of oil as specified by OEM.
8. Check shaft runout before assembly
9. Prime and vent the pump before starting
10. Ensure that the packing is installed with each ring seated so that all rings are
acting as seals
11. Whenever possible, flush cooling water on the gland follower to help keep the
shaft sleeve cool.
12. Balance corroded or eroded shaft of the pump; with high RPM; with suitable
balancing grade before using
13. Always ensure that sufficient NPSH is available at the pump suction while
regulating pump capacity
14. Align the pump and the driver before starting the pump after any overhaul.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
DONTs:
1. Never start a centrifugal pump with its discharge valve fully closed
2. Used bearings should never be rotated unless cleaned properly
3. Never reuse soft packing while assembly
4. Dont tighten the packing gland too quickly or too much, the packing can overheat
5. Dont disturb the balancing drum setting or machine any pressure bearing parts
6. Dont use the pump continuously below rated design capacity.
7. Dont start a pump without knowing fluid hazards
8. Dont start dismantling a pump before electrical and mechanical isolation is done
9. Dont remove protection guards while pump is running
10. Dont mount impeller in the opposite direction
11. Dont dismantle a pump unless dismantling and assembly procedure is known.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
CH
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DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1. Gear pump is a ______ type of pump.

2. Centrifugal pumps have ______ efficiency than reciprocating pumps.
3. ______ pumps are used as metering pumps.
4. Inducer is installed in a pump to ______ NPSH requirement.
5. Double volute casings are used to reduce ________ on the impellers.
6. Diffuser pumps have ________ vanes.
7. In _______ pumps, fluid flows to the impeller symmetrically from both sides.
8. Pumps in which head is developed by a single impeller is called ______ pump.
9. ______ type impeller is used in slurry services.
10. Typical difference of hardness between casing wear ring and impeller wear ring is
______ BHN.
11. Packing / mechanical seal is used in hydrocarbon service.
12. Variable speed is generally achieved by using ______ as a driver.
13. Double suction impellers are used for reducing ______.
14. When two pumps are run in parallel, ______ is the sum of individual pump
capacity.
15. Pump efficiency increases / decreases with increase in wear ring clearance.
16. Priming needs to be done before starting any pump. (True / False)
17. Driver needs to be checked for correct _______ before starting pump.
18. Hydrostatic test pressure for the casing is usually ______ times basic design
pressure.
19. ______ speed decides the shape and class of impeller.
20. Two forms of cavitation are ______ cavitation and ______ cavitation.
21. Affinity laws are applied to two ______ similar pumps.

DATE :25/03/2003
MODULE RG-CM-R-002
Answers:
1. Rotary
2. Less
3. Reciprocating
4. Reduce
5. Radial thrust
6. Stationery
7. Double suction
8. Single stage
9. Open
10. 50
11. Mechanical seal
12. Steam turbine
13. Axial thrust
14. Quantity
15. Decreases
16. True
17. Direction of rotation
18. 1.5
19. Specific
20. Gaseous and vapourous
21. Geometrically

DATE :25/03/2003

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TRAINING RELIANCE MODULE NO.

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TRAINING MODULE OBJECTIVE

This Training manual is intended to help engineers to understand the basic

Hope the training module serves the purpose.

CHECKED AND PAGE : 2 of 133

This Training manual is prepared exclusively for the technical knowledge

No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

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SECTION DESCRIPTION PAGES

3 Components of centrifugal pump 35 to 56

4 Performance of centrifugal pumps 57 to 82

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4.6 Radial and axial thrust

5 Installation, commissioning and start up of 83 to 89

6 Vertical centrifugal pumps 90 to 94

7 Maintenance of centrifugal pumps 95 to 111

8 Troubleshooting 112 to 121

9 Acceptance criteria and performance tests 122 to 127

10 DOs and DONTs of centrifugal pumps 128 to 130

11 Frequently asked questions & answers 131 to 133

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1.2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:

A centrifugal pump consists of a set of rotating vanes, enclosed within a

This velocity is converted to pressure energy by means of a volute or by a set

Centrifugal pumps are made in a variety of configurations, such as horizontal,

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Main features of the centrifugal pumps are:

Centrifugal pumps are discussed in details in this training module.

1.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

Positive displacement pumps are the pumps in which the energy is

1.3.1 Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump with liquid discharge

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1.3.2 Piston / plunger pumps: It primarily consists of a piston or a plunger

Typical characteristics of the reciprocating pumps are

Positive displacement of liquid

1.3.5 Screw pumps: These pumps operate on a principle of progressively

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Main features of rotary pumps:

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1.4 APPLICATION OF PUMPS

Application of suitable type of pump for a given service is dependent on

1 10 100 1000 10000

10000 RECIPROCATING 1000

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

APPROXIMATE UPPER LIMIT OF PRESSURE AND CAPACITY BY PUMP CLASS

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Reciprocating pumps are adapted to function as metering pumps for transfer of

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Reciprocating pumps use pistons, plungers, diaphragms or other devices to displace

Casing of a centrifugal pump is the housing surrounding the impeller.

Cavitation is the phenomenon caused by vapourisation of a liquid inside a pump.

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1.6 SELECTION OF PUMPS

Following are important criteria for selection of any pump:

2. System head curves: A preliminary layout of the pumping system should be

3. Mode of operation: Whether operation of pump is continuous or intermittent?

5. Life of the equipment need to be considered while design considering wear of

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