Spread SpectrumTechniques and

Technology
Need for spread spectrum
Spread spectrum modulation was originally developed
for military to be used in the battle ground and in the
hostile territories where the enemy always tries to
intrude into the communication system of the friendly
forces to steal information and to jam the systems.
The main objectives of spread spectrum modulation
were :-
To avoid being detected.
To prevent eavesdropping.
To prevent the jamming of signals.
 Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the signal
occupies a bandwidth in excess of the minimum necessary to send
the information: the band spread is accomplished by means of a
code which is independent of the data, and synchronized reception
with the code at the receive is used for de-spreading and
subsequent data recovery.
Or
A transmission technique in which a pseudo-noise code,
independent of the information data, is employed as a modulation
waveform to spread the signal energy over a bandwidth much
greater than the signal information bandwidth. At the receiver the
signal is despread using a synchronized replica of the pseudo-
noise code.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Anti-jamming (A/J)
Anti-interference (A/I)
Low Probability of Intercept (LPI)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Message Privacy
High Resolution Ranging and Timing
Spread Spectrum
A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is spread out to occupy a
bandwidth of Bss
All signals are spread to occupy the same bandwidth Bss
Signals are spread with different codes so that they can be
separated at the receivers.
Signals can be spread in the frequency domain or in the time
domain.
WHAT IS SPREAD SPECTRUM
A type of modulation in which the modulated signal bandwidth is
much greater than the message signal bandwidth.
The spreading of the message signal spectrum is done by a spreading
code called Pseudo Noise Code (PN Code) which is independent of
the message signal.
Spread Spectrum Criteria
Bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal has to be greater than
the information bandwidth.
The spreading sequence has to be independent from the
information. Thus, no possibility to calculate the information if
the sequence is known and vice versa.
Need to Know:
Spectrum Spreading Techniques
Processing Gain
System Comparison
PN-Codes
Gold Codes
Other Codes
Other way of classifying the spread
spectrum system is
Averaging system: In this system the interference
reduction takes place because the interference can be
averaged over a large time interval.

Avoidance system: In this system the reduction of

interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid
the interference over a large fraction of time.
 SS technique is a wideband modulation technique.
BW expansion factor is too large.
One major drawback:
It can not combat white noise like other wide band modulation
techniques.
because bandwidth expansion is achieved by something that is
independent of the message, rather than being uniquely related
to the message.
 Types of Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)

Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (TH/SS)

Hybrids
Basic principle of Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS )
For BPSK modulation the building blocks of a DSSS system
are:
 Spreading:
In the transmitter, the binary data dt (for BPSK, I and Q for
QPSK) is directly multiplied with the PN sequence pnt,
which is independent of the binary data, to produce the
transmitted baseband signal txb:
txb = dt . pnt
The effect of multiplication of dt with a PN sequence is to
spread the baseband bandwidth Rs of dt to a baseband
bandwidth of Rc.
Despreading:
The spread spectrum signal cannot be detected by a
conventional narrowband receiver. In the receiver, the
received baseband signal rxb is multiplied with the PN
sequence pnr.
If pnr = pnt and synchronized to the PN sequence in the
received data, than the recovered binary data is produced on dr.
If pnr pnt , than there is no despreading action. The signal dr
has a spread spectrum. A receiver not knowing the PN sequence
of the transmitter cannot reproduce the transmitted data.
To simplify the modulation and demodulation, the spread spectrum
system is considered for baseband BPSK communication (without
filtering) over an ideal channel.
Modulation
 Spread spectrum systems are spreading the information signal dt
which has a BWinfo, over a much larger bandwidth BWSS:

The SS-signal spectrum is white noise-like.

The amplitude and thus the power in the SS-signal txb is the same
as in the original information signal dt. Due to the increased
bandwidth of the SS signal the power spectral density must be
lower.
 The bandwidth expansion factor, being the ratio of the chip
rate Rc and the data symbol rate Rs, is usually selected to be
an integer in practical SS systems:
Demodulation

pnr = pnt
 To demodulate, the received signal is multiplied by pnr, this is the
same PN sequence as pnt synchronized to the PN sequence in the
received signal rxb.
This operation is called (spectrum) despreading, since the effect is
to undo the spreading operation at the transmitter.
The multiplier output in the receiver is then (pnr = synchronized
pnt) :
dr = rxb . pnr = (dt . pnt). pnt
The alternation is destroyed when the PN sequence pnt is
multiplied with itself (perfectly synchronized), because:
pnt . pnt = +1 for all t
 Thus:
autocorrelation Ra (t=0) = average (pnt . pnt) = +1
The data signal is reproduced at the multiplier output:
d r = dt
If the PN sequence at the receiver is not synchronized properly to
the received signal, the data cannot be recovered.
pnr pnt the multiplier output becomes:
dr = rxb . pnr = (dt . pnt ). pnr
 In the receiver, detection of the desired signal is achieved by
correlation against a local reference PN sequence. For secure
communications in a multi-user environment, the transmitted data
dt may not be recovered by a user that doesnt know the PN
sequence pnt used at the transmitter. Therefore:
crosscorrelation Rc (t) = average (pnt . pnr) << 1 for all t
is required. This orthogonal property of the allocated spreading
codes, means that the output of
the correlator used in the receiver is approximately zero for all
except the desired transmission.
 A pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator, is
used in conjunction with an M-ary PSK modulation to shift
the phase of the PSK signal pseudo randomly, at the chipping
rate Rc (=1/Tc) a rate that is an integer multiple of the
symbol rate Rs (=1/Ts).
The transmitted bandwidth is determined by the chip rate
and by the baseband filtering.
The implementation limits the maximum chip rate Rc (clock
rate) and thus the maximum spreading.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
For logic 0 = same PN code
For logic 1 = inverted PN code

XOR Logic in spread spectrum method

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Spreading by multiplication- also shows
relation between bit and chip durations
 Bit rate of PN code is called the chip rate, which is 10 times or
more than the data bit rate.
The clock rate is provided for generating each bit of a PN code
(with one clock cycle one bit of PN code comes out).
The longer the chip, the greater the probability that the original
data can be recovered, and the more bandwidth required.
Even if one or more bits in the chip are damaged during
transmission, it can be recovered the original data by using
statistical techniques without the necessity for retransmission.
To an unintended receiver, DSSS signals are received as low-
power wideband noise.
In a typical DSSS system a double balanced mixer is driven by the
PN code to switch a carriers phase between 0 and 180 degree.
This is known as BPSK.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Using
BPSK Example
 Approximate
Spectrum of
DSSS Signal
Advantages of DSSS Modulation
The DSSS allows greater capacity by allowing multiple access
communication.

Several users can occupy the same frequency spectrum

simultaneously, and frequency bands can be reused without
separation distance of users.

Resistant to multipath fading in ground based mobile radio

communication.
Performance in the presence of
interference
To simplify the influence of interference, the spread
spectrum system is considered for baseband BPSK
communication (without filtering).
 The received signal rxb consists of the transmitted signal txb plus
an additive interference i.
rxb = txb + i = dt . pnt + i
To recover the original data dt the received signal rxb is multiplied
with a locally generated PN sequence pnr (that is pnr = pnt and
synchronized). The multiplier output is therefore given by:
dr = rxb . pnt = dt . pnt . pnt + i . pnt
Due to the property of the PN sequnence:
pnt . pnt = +1 for all t
The multiplier output becomes:
dr = dt + i . pnt
 Spectra of desired received signal with interference: (a) wideband filter output
and (b) correlator output after despreading.

The greater the processing gain of the system, the greater will be its ability
to suppress in-band interference.
 After despreading, the data component dt is narrow band (Rs)
whereas the interference component is wideband (Rc).
By applying the dr signal to a baseband (low-pass) filter with a
bandwidth just large enough to accommodate the recovery of the
data signal, most of the interference component i is filtered out.
The effect of the interference is reduced by the processing gain
(Gp).
 Narrowband interference

The essence behind the interference rejection capability of a spread spectrum system: the useful
signal (data) gets multiplied twice by the PN sequence, but the interference signal gets multiplied
only once.
Wideband interference
 Multiplication of the received signal with the PN sequence of
the receiver gives a selective despread of the data signal
(smaller bandwidth, higher power density). The interference
signal is uncorrelated with the PN sequence and is spread.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Data signal is modulated with a narrowband carrier signal that
hops from frequency to frequency as a function of time over a
wide band of frequencies

Relies on frequency diversity to combat interference

This is accomplished by multiple frequencies, code selection

and Frequency Shift Keying methods
Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum
 FHSS divides the available bandwidth into N channels and hops
between these channels according to the PN sequence.
A pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator.
An M-ary FSK modulation to shift the carrier frequency of the FSK
signal pseudo randomly, at the hopping rate Rh.
The transmitted signal occupies a number of frequencies in time, each
for a period of time Th (=1/Rh), referred to as dwell time.
At each frequency hop time the PN generator feeds the frequency
synthesizer a frequency word FW which dictates one of the
frequency positions fhi.
Transmitter and receiver follow the same frequency hop pattern.
 Hopping pattern is known to both transmitter & receiver.
In order to properly receive the signal, the receiver must be
set to the same hopping code and listen to the incoming
signal at the right time and correct frequency.
The net effect is to maintain a single logical channel if
synchronizing sender and receiver properly.
Unintended receiver see FHSS to be short time impulse
noise.
 When the transmitter and receiver are synchronized, the
users are unaware that the transmitter and receivers are
changing the frequencies rapidly hence it provides anti-
jamming characteristics.
As a frequency hopping transmitter typically hops over tens
to thousands of frequencies per second (the hop rate), the
time it stays on a particular channel (the dwell time) is
very short and as a result the signal would appear as a burst
of interference.
 The type of spread spectrum in which carrier hops
randomly from one frequency to another is called
Frequency Hop (FH) spread spectrum.

FHSS are of two types:-

1 Slow frequency hopping
2 Fast frequency hopping
Slow and Fast FHSS
Frequency shifted every Tc seconds
Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
Slow FHSS has Tc Ts
Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise (or
jamming)
Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH) :-
One or more data symbols are transmitted within one
Frequency Hop.

Advantage:
Coherent data detection is possible.
Disadvantage:
If one frequency hop channel is jammed, one or more data bits
are lost. So we are forced to use error correcting codes.
Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum
Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
 Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH) :-
One data bit is divided over more Frequency Hops.
Fast frequency hopping where one complete, or a fraction of the
data symbol, is transmitted within the duration between carrier
hops.
Consequently, for a binary system, the frequency hopping rate may
exceed the data bit rate.
Advantage:
Error correcting codes are not needed.
Diversity can be applied. Every frequency hop a decision is made
whether a 0 or a 1 is transmitted, at the end of each data bit a majority
decision is made.
Disadvantage:
Coherent data detection is not possible because of phase discontinuities.
The applied modulation technique should be FSK or MFSK.
Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using
MFSK (M=4, k=2)
 As with the frequency hopper, the receiver must use a circuit
to adjust its clock rate so that the receivers PN code is at the
same point in the code as the transmitter and hence the
hopping pattern is also same.
A tracking circuit is necessary to maintain the synchronism
once it has been attained.
Example
Binary data is transmitted through an additive white Gaussian
noise (AWGN) channel with SNR=3.5 dB and bandwidth B.
Channel coding is used to ensure reliable communications.
Then:
i. What is the maximum bit rate that can be transmitted?
ii. If the bit rate is increased to 3B, how much must the
channel SNR be increased to ensure reliable transmission?
 Example
A binary data stream of 4 digits [1011] is spread using an 8-chip
code sequence C(t)= [01 10 10 01]. The spread data phase
modulates a carrier using binary phase shift keying.
The transmitted spread-spectrum signal is exposed to interference
from a tone at the carrier frequency but with 30 degrees phase
shift. The receiver generates an in-phase copy of the code
sequence and a coherent carrier from a local oscillator.
i. Determine the baseband transmitted signal.
ii. Express the signal received. Ignore the background noise.
iii. Assuming negligible noise, determine the detected signal at the
output of the receiver.
Other spread spectrum modulation
techniques are:
Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS))
Hybrid methods
Chirped Spread Spectrum (CSS)

Direct sequence system is an averaging system, while

frequency hopping, time hopping and chirping systems are
avoidance systems.
 Spread-Spectrum Theoretical
Justification
SS is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity
theorem:
S
C W log 2 1
N

C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the

maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER).
W is the required channel bandwidth in Hz,
S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio.
 C S
By Changing bases, log 2 e log e 1
W N
C S
1.44 log e
W N
By logarithmic expansion,
C S
1.44
W N
NC
W (approximation for the wider bandwidths)
S
From the derived relationship it can be clearly seen that a desired Signal to Noise Ratio for

a fixed data rate C can be achieved by increasing the transmission bandwidth.

 If data rate is 32 kbps and SNR is 0.001(-30 dB) then with the help
of Shannon's theorem, we can find out the necessary bandwidth
for SSM signal.

NC 32 103 1000
W 22MHz
1.44S 1.44
for data rate of 32 kbps, operation with lower value of SNR of -
30dB is achievable by spreading the signal over a bandwidth of 22
MHz.
By using a much wider bandwidth than that of the original data is
possible to maintain the data capacity without increasing the
transmitter output power.
Correlation functions
The interaction and the interdependence between two time
(or frequency) varying signals are defined by the correlation
function derived from the comparison of the two signals.
The comparison of a signal with itself is described as the
autocorrelation function.
On the other hand, the cross-correlation is a measure of
similarity between two autonomous signals.
The correlation processing forms the basis upon which
optimum detection algorithms in digital communication
systems are derived.
 Autocorrelation
Partial Autocorrelation
Cross correlation
Autocorrelation
It is the procedure by which the matching of the signal is
done with itself.
The auto correlation should be maximum for the DS or PN
codes with itself so that correct PN signal can be identified
from the number of co-existing signals.
 Note that on a normalized basis it has a maximum value of 1 that
repeats itself every period, but in between these peaks, the level is
at a constant value of (1/ Nc). If Nc is a very large number the
autocorrelation function is a very small in this region.
 For PN sequences the autocorrelation has a large peaked
maximum (only) for perfect synchronization of two identical
sequences.
The synchronization of the receiver is based on this property.
 The (normalized) autocorrelation of the spreading waveform
(PN signal) c(t) is represented mathematically as

1
R c ( ) 0 c(t )c(t )dt
T code
Tcode = Nctchip is the code period and
= represents a time shift variable.
Partial Autocorrelation
The Partial Autocorrelation is similar to the autocorrelation
but integrated only over a portion, may be over a
message bit duration.
This is done to avoid long processing time for matching
purpose.
If the partial sequence is auto correlated then obviously the
full sequence will be auto correlated because of uniqueness of
the code and that is the concept behind the partial auto
correlation.
Cross correlation
Different signals have different spreading codes. The cross
correlation between two codes i and j is

1
R c ( ) 0 c i (t ) c j (t )dt
T code
Which is equal to the autocorrelation if i = j.
When the cross-correlation Rc() is zero for all , the codes
are called orthogonal.
It is desirable to have poor cross correlation between two
different codes so that unwanted code will be rejected easily
by the receiver of the system.
Other Properties of PN codes:
Randomness of PN sequence is tested by following code
properties observed over one full period.

Balance property: In each period of the sequence, number of

binary ones differ from binary zeroes by at most one digit.
Consider a typical PN code
0001 0011 0101 111---- seven zeros and eight ones meets balance
condition
Run length property:
Run lengths of zeros and ones should be (Run property):
Half of all run lengths should be unity
One - quarter of all run lengths should be of length two
One - eighth of all run lengths should be of length three
A fraction 1/2n of all run lengths should be of length n for all
finite n

Consider the same code again

number of runs = 8
000 1 00 11 0 1 0 1111
3 1 2 2 1 1 1 4
 Autocorrelation property:
Auto correlation function of a maximal length sequence is periodic and
binary valued.
The autocorrelation function, equal to 1 if sequence are same, and -1/N
otherwise

Rc No. of (a) - No. of (d) in comparision of one full period

1
Nc
We can state autocorrelation function as

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 Where,
(a) = agreements (matching)
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 (d) = disagreements (mismatching)
_____________________________
d a a d d a d a d d d d a a a
Rc
1
15
Types of PN Sequences
Aperiodic
Periodic
 Aperiodic PN sequence
does note repeat itself in a periodic fashion.
usually assumed that the sequence has a value of zero outside its
stated interval.
an autocorrelation to be Nc for no shift and 0 or 1 with a shift
of one or more bits.
Such sequences also called Barker sequences.
Few value of Nc are possible, Specifically, they are Nc = 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 7, 11 and 13.
No larger sequences have been found and it has been
hypothesized.
too short for the spread spectrum system.
can be used for the synchronization purposes under some
conditions
 A seven digit aperiodic Barkers sequence has the form +1,+1,+1, -1,-
1,+1,-1. Determine the autocorrelation for this code. Does a cyclic shift
of this sequence (e.g.+1,+1, -1,-1,+1,-1, +1) have the same correlation
properties?
For Barker sequence k
Nc
Theoretically Autocorrelation function R c (k ) a n a n k
n 1
= Nc for k=0
= 0 or 1 for k0
where, k is the number of shifts in bit positions.
For this particular sequence for k=0
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
_______________________
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 = Nc (summing up all the values)

For one shift i.e. k =1

+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
__________________________
0 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1 0 = 0

For two shifts i.e. k = 2

+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
__________________________
0 0 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1 0 0 = -1
 Checking for the cyclic shift
For one cyclic shift i.e. k =1
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1
-1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1
__________________________
-1 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1 = -1 (summing up all the values)
Periodic PN sequences
Maximum Length sequences
Walsh Hadamard sequences
Gold codes/sequences
Kasami codes etc.
Maximum Length (ML) Sequences
A Simple Shift Register Generator (SSRG) has all the
feedback signals returned to a single input of a shift register
(delay line). The SSRG is linear if the feedback function can be
expressed as a modulo-2 sum (xor).
 Maximum Length (ML) Sequences
The feedback function f(x1,x2, ,xn) is a modulo-2 sum of the contents
xi of the shift register cells with ci being the feedback connection
coefficients (ci=0=open, ci=1=connect).
An SSRG with L flip- flops produces sequences that depend upon register
length L, feedback tap connections and initial conditions.
When the period (length) of the sequence is exactly Nc = 2L -1, the PN
sequence is called a maximum-length sequence or simply an m-sequence.
An L-stage shift register and a few EX-OR gates can be used to generate
an m-sequence of length 2L -1.
The number of 1-s in the complete sequence and the number of 0-s will
differ by one.
Note (L = P = no of shift registers)
 It is interesting to note that, multiple m-sequences exist for a
particular value of L > 2. The number of available m-
sequences is denoted by

The numerator is known as the Euler number, i.e. the number of

positive integers, including 1, that are relatively prime to L
and less than (2L -1).
For example, if L = 5, it is easy to find that the number of
possible sequences = 30/5 = 6.
 Lines that run from the output of one register within the LFSR
into XOR gates that determine input to another register within
the LFSR. These are chosen based on the primitive polynomial.

A polynomial of degree n that has the form: 1 + + xn, where

() are zero or more terms with a coefficient of 1.

xn and 1 are always present.

Reciprocal Generating Functions
The reciprocal of a primitive polynomial is
primitive
The reciprocal of an irreducible polynomial is
irreducible
Hence the reciprocal of a MLSGF is another
MLSGF
The reciprocal of a polynomial of degree N is
Table of MLSGFS
 For an n-bit LFSR, you need to discover a primitive polynomial associated with
it to implement it. Tap tables are available for such list taps as :
N = 3, Taps at 0, 1, 3 (this corresponds to 1 + x + x3)
 The short length sequences are Nc = 7, 15, 31, 63, 127,
255..
The reason for using shift register codes is that the period of
the PN sequence can easily be made very large by increasing
the number of register stages, so that apparently it looks
random to the users.
LFSR can be implemented in two ways:
1. Fibonacci implmentation
2. Galois implmentation
 Fibonacci implmentation

Linear feedback shift registers can be implemented in two ways. The

Fibonacci implementation consists of a simple shift register in which a
binary-weighted modulo-2 sum of the taps is fed back to the input.
For any given tap, weight gi is either 0, meaning "no connection," or 1,
meaning it is fed back.
Two exceptions are g0 and gm, which are always 1 and thus always
connected.
 Figure 2. Galois implementation of LFSR.

Galois implmentation

The Galois implementation consists of a shift register, the contents of

which are modified at every step by a binary-weighted value of the
output stage.
Careful inspection reveals that the order of the Galois weights is opposite
that of the Fibonacci weights.
Given identical feedback weights, the two LFSR implementations will
produce the same sequence.
 The initial state of the Fibonacci form is called the initial fill which
comprises the first p bits output from the generator, while the initial
state of the Galois generator must be adjusted appropriately to
attain the equivalent initial fill.
the initial states of the two implementations must necessarily be
different for the two sequences to have identical phase.
It should be noted that, in some industries, the Fibonacci form
LFSR is referred to as a simple shift register generator (SSRG), and the
Galois form is referred to as a multiple-return shift register generator
(MRSRG) or modular shift register generator (MSRG).
Find:::::Which form is fasterGalois or Fibonacci?
 Conventions for Feedback Tap
Specification
A given set of feedback connections can be expressed in a convenient and
easy-to-use shor form, with the connection numbers being listed within a
pair of brackets.
In doing so, connection g0 is implied, and not listed, since it is always
connected.
Although gm is also always connected, it is listed in order to convey the
shift register size (number of registers).
A set of feedback taps for a Galois generator is denoted as
[f1, f2, f3, ..., fJ] g
where subscript J is the total number of feedback taps (not including g0),
f1 = m is the highest-order feedback tap (and the size of the LFSR), and
fj are the remaining feedback taps.
The g subscript signifies the Galois LFSR form.
 The set of feedback taps for the equivalent Fibonacci generator is
denoted as
[f1, m-f2, m-f3, ..., m-fJ] f
where the f subscript signifies the Fibonacci LFSR form.
Note that subtracting the feedback tap numbers from m is
equivalent to reversing the order of the feedback taps
As an example,
consider an LFSR of size m = 8 with feedback connections at g8, g6,
g5, g4, and implied g0. The feedback taps are specified as [8, 6, 5, 4]g
for the Galois form, and [8, 8-6, 8-5, 8-4]f = [8, 2, 3, 4]f = [8, 4, 3,
2]f for the Fibonacci form.
Note that the taps are customarily arranged in a descending order.
 For example, we may be asked to find all sets of maximal-length feedback
taps for an LFSR with m=3 registers.
We do this as follows:
The length of the m-sequences will be N=23-1=7.
We know that the solution lies in all the primitive factors of polynomial X7+1.
We use modulo-2 linear algebra to find the prime factors to be

The primitive polynomials are those factors whose order is the same
as the register size, m = 3.
Of the three prime factors, the last two meet this criterion.
Thus we see that there are exactly two sets of m-sequence feedback
taps, [3, 1]g and [3, 2]g.
 The feedback connections, or the corresponding realized
primitive polynomial, are represented by the notation
[p, h(p-1) (p-1), ..., h1]
Where, zero-entries are not written explicitly.
It can be summarized that, the code generator outputs a binary-
valued sequence.
This sequence repeats itself every Nc elements.
One period of the sequence, thus Nc chips, is called the pseudo noise
or spreading code.
In DS-CDMA practice, the sequence is transmitted mostly as a
bipolar waveform, called the spreading waveform.
 Suppose the clock frequency is 10 MHz, hence tchip=10-7
seconds. Suppose a shift register with 32 stages is used for
generating the PN sequence then compute the time to complete
one cycle of the sequence.
Total number of chips in a period Nc = 232-1 = 4.29 x 109
=> Nc x tchip = 4.29 x 109 x 10-7
= 4.29 x 102 seconds
= 429 seconds
 Draw a [3,1] PN code generator which realizes the polynomial and
generates [3,1] codes. Also draw the waveforms for the m-sequence for 3
periods.
Bracket [3,1] for ML code generation can be interpreted as follows.
The [3, 1] code has register length n = 3, the code length Nc = 23 -1 = 7
The primitive polynomial h(x) for this case is h(x) = x3 + x + 1 (polynomial
suggests the stages from which the output is fed back.
As can be seen h1 = 1, h2 = 0 and h3 = 1.
 [3,1] ML code generator
Fibonacci implementation of LFSR.
Galois implementation of LFSR.

Waveform of the [3,1] code sequence

 ML LFSR sequences have desirable autocorrelation
properties for spread spectrum applications.
a spread-spectrum receiver can "easily" recognize code
synchronization between the received code and the locally generated
(identical) code by examining their correlation value, and
a receiver locked to the dominant wave, only sees little interference
from delayed waves, which may be present in a multipath channel
It satisfies:
Balance properties
Run length property
autocorrelation
Walsh-Hadamard Sequences
Walsh code sequences are obtained from the Hadamard
matrix which is a square matrix where each row in the
matrix is orthogonal to all other rows, and each column in
the matrix is orthogonal to all other columns.
The Hadamard matrix Hn is generated by starting with zero
matrix and applying the Hadamard transform successively.
 Walsh-Hadamard Sequences
If perfectly synchronized with respect to each other, W-H codes are
perfectly orthogonal. That is, W-H are optimal codes to avoid
interference among users in the link from base station to terminals.
The Hadamard-Walsh codes are generated in a set of N = 2n codes with
length N = 2n. The generating algorithm is simple:

The rows (or columns) of the matrix HN are the Hadamard-Walsh

codes.
 In each case
the first row (row 0) of the matrix consist entirely of 1s and
each of the other rows contains N/2 0s and N/2 1s.
Row N/2 starts with N/2 1s and ends with N/2 0s.
The distance (number of different elements) between any pair of
rows is exactly N/2.
For H8 the distance between any two rows is 4, so the Hamming
distance of the Hadamard code is 4.
The Hadamard-Walsh code can be used as a block code in a
channel encoder: each sequence of n bits identifies one row of the
matrix (there are N =2n possible rows).
 All rows are mutually orthogonal for all rows i and j.

The code of user 1 is the first column, i.e., (1, 1), the code of user
2 is the second column, i.e., (1, -1). Clearly (1, 1) is orthogonal to
(1, -1). This matrix can be extended using a recursive technique.
 Gold codes/ Gold Sequences
The autocorrelation properties of the m-sequences cannot be bettered.
But a multi-user environment (CDMA) needs a set of codes with the
same length and with good cross-correlation properties.

These are constructed by EXOR-ing two m-sequences of the same

length with each other. Thus, for a Gold sequence of length Nc = 2p-1,
one uses two LFSRs, each of length 2p-1. If the LFSRs are chosen
appropriately, Gold sequences have better cross-correlation properties
than maximum length LSFR sequences.

The codes generated are of the same length as the two base codes
which are added together, but are nonmaximal.
LFSR 1
Gold Code Out

LFSR 2
Gold Code Cross Correlation
 Balanced Gold Codes

A balanced Gold code sequence is one in which the number of

ones exceeds the number of zeros by 1
Number of balanced and unbalanced Gold codes for odd N
 Balanced Gold Codes (cont.)

Any relative shift of the Gold code generator sequences such that
the initial 1 of one sequence corresponds to a 0 of the second
sequence will result in a balanced Gold code
 Kasami code
Kasami sequences are one of the most important types of binary
sequence sets because of their very low cross-correlation and their large
number of available sets
There are two different sets of Kasami sequences, Kasami sequences of
the small set and sequences of the large set
A procedure similar to that used for generating Gold sequences will
generate the small set of Kasami sequences with M = 2n/2 binary
sequences of period N = 2n/2 + 1
In this procedure, we begin with an m-sequence a and we form the
sequence a by decimating a by 2n/2 + 1
It can be verified that the resulting sequence a is an m-sequence with
period 2n/2 - 1
 KASAMI CODE IMPLEMENTATION
Example:
Let n=10, therefore, N=2n - 1 = 1023 (length of a)
The decimation value is 2n/2 + 1 = 33 which is used to create a
1023/33 = 31 which will be the length of a
If we observe 1023 bits of sequence a, we will see 33 repetitions of the
31-bit sequence which we will call sequence b
Now taking 1023 bits of sequence a and b we form a new set of
sequences by adding (modulo-2 addition) the bits from a and the bits
from b and all 2n/2 2 cyclic shifts of the bits from b
By including a in the set, we obtain a set of 2n/2 = 32 binary sequences
of length 1023
All the elements of a small set of Kasami sequences can be generated in
this manner
 KASAMI CODE IMPLEMENTATION

X4 + X + 1

a q = 2n/2 + 1 = 5

a=1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
m = 2n/2 - 1 = 3
Where,

a = 1 1 0 q = decimation
value
b=1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 m = period of a
Repeats 1 2 3 4 5
a xor b = 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Kasami codes are generated by cyclically shifting a 2n/2 -2 = 2 times
 KASAMI CODE IMPLEMENTATION
The autocorrelation and cross-correlation functions provide
excellent properties, as good or better, than Gold Codes

The large set of Kasami sequences is generated in a similar

manner with the addition of another register

The two registers are a preferred pair as in Gold Code and

therefore when combined with the decimated sequence,
produce all the associated Gold Codes and the Kasami
sequences for an even larger set of sequences
m-sequences
Walsh Sequences
Gold Sequences
Kasami Sequences
 Quadratic Residue Sequences (q-r)
These sequences have lengths that are prime numbers of the form
Nc = 4q-1= prime, where, q is an integer.
Since prime numbers are fairly distributed and since half of the
prime numbers can form quadratic residue sequences, there are
many more sequences of this type than there are m sequences.
It implementation is little complex as not generated
directly by using shift registers.
There are some values of m for which both q-r and m sequences
may exist, e.g. Nc= 3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071.However
except Nc =3 and 7, q-r and m sequences are distinct.
q-r sequences have the same correlation properties as m-
sequences have.
 Hall Sequences
Hall sequences also have a length that is a prime number
described by Nc = 4q-1= 4r2+27 = prime, where, both q and r
are integers.
Since both the conditions are to be satisfied there are very few
Hall sequences.
It is having same properties as q-r sequences, but there is no
particular advantage of using such sequences.
 Twin Prime Sequences
The twin-prime sequences are ones in which the length of the
sequence is defined by Nc = pp(pp+2), where both pp and pp+2 are
prime numbers.
The only advantage of twin prime sequences is that it is possible
to achieve some lengths that are not readily achieved by any of
other form otherwise the implementation is not simple.
 Criteria to Select Code/Sequence
In synchronous DS-CDMA, the link performance is affected by
Multi-User interference
the asynchronous multipath interference, arising from the delayed signals from
the other users as well as user himself
The user capacity of a synchronous CDMA system is limited by the number of
different codes.
With a spread factor Nc and K users, perfectly orthogonal codes are chosen if K
<= Nc .
A bound for the maximum normalized cross correlation Rmax (at zero time offset)
between user codes can be given as shown formula.
For Walsh-Hadamard codes Nc = K, so Rmax =0, and for Gold codes Nc = K - 1, so
Rmax=1/Nc
( K / N c) 1
R 2max
K 1
General Block Diagrams of DSSS
Transmitter and Receiver
 Simplified diagram for biphase
modulation (transmitter)

For biphase modulation a MOD 2 adder is used

For quadriphase modulation two MOD 2 adders are used with two
alternate chips available from PN code generator.
Two balanced modulators are fed with 90 degree phase shifted carriers
(just like QPSK generation). Adding both the signals the SSM output is
available.
Receiver diagram
 Receiver for a spreaded signal must perform three distinct
functions;
Detection of presence of signal,
despreading or carrier removal and
demodulation using PN sequence.
Detection of signal and despreading operations can be either
active or passive.
Active Passive
method method
involves searching for only require that the
the signals presence in signal be searched for in
both time and frequency i.e. only
frequency domain carrier

The despreading is
tracking the sequence
accomplished in a
after it has been
matched filter rather
acquired
than a correlator.

demodulating the signal demodulating the signal

i.e.PN sequence again. i.e.PN sequence again.

passive methods may be

despreading the signal preferred when the
with the correlator sequence is short or
when used as an aid to
acquisition.

Active methods are

preferred when the
sequence is too long
and the processing gain
is very large.
 PN Signal Characteristics
Spectral Density
Bandwidth
Processing Gain
 Spectral Density of PN signal
PN signal means the waveform generated due to PN sequence
The frequency domain representation of a time domain pulse is a
sinc ( sin x/x) form of envelope.
PN code and data both are pulsed / square wave nature
it is straight forward to show that the spectral density of it is,

2 2

t
sin ( f f 0)t chip
chip

sin ( f f 0)t chip
S( f )
2

( f f 0)t chip ( f f 0)t chip

fo represents the center frequency of the sync shaped spectrum
 The bandwidth Bs of a PN signal can be defined as the
frequency increment between the two zeroes of the spectral
density that are closest to the center frequency. i.e. 2/ tchip.
The message is binary/square wave it will have similar
spectral density but centered on zero.
Thus the message signal spectral density is 2
sin f t m
S m ( f ) tm
f tm
 As we know that processing gain is the term which gives the amount
of spreading of the message signal.
Considering,
Bs = Bandwidth of the PN signal = 2/ tchip
Bm = Bandwidth of the message signal = 1/tm
Processing gain is defined as
Processing Gain = Bs/ Bm = 2 tm/ tchip
 If the chip rate of a DSSS transmitter is 20 MHz, the message
bit rate is 10 kbps. Find out the Processing Gain achieved
finally, if the biphase modulation is used.
Chip rate is 20 MHz i.e. tchip = 1/ 20 *106
Bandwidth of the PN signal Bs =2/ tchip = 40 *106
the message bit rate Bm = 1/tm = 10 kbps=104
Processing Gain = Bs/ Bm = 2 tm/ tchip = 4000
In dB Processing gain can be represented as 10 log10 (4000) =
36 dB
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver
Considerations
The receiver for DSSS system is a specially designed RAKE
receiver.

What is RAKE Receiver? Or How RAKE receiver works?

A RAKE receiver consists of a bank of correlators, each of which
correlate to a particular multipath component of the desired signal.
The correlator outputs may be weighted according to their relative
strengths and summed to obtain the final signal estimate.
 In CDMA spread spectrum systems, the chip rate is typically much
greater than the flat fading bandwidth of the channel
Conventional modulation and receiver techniques require an equalizer
to undo the ISI between adjacent symbols
CDMA spreading codes are designed to provide very low correlation
between successive chips
Propagation delay spread in the radio channel provides multipath signal
at the receiver
If multipath components are delayed in time by more than one chip
duration (1/Rc), they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA
receiver, and equalization is not required
-> RAKE type correlator receiver can be used!!!
 RAKE receiver, used specially in CDMA cellular systems, can combine
multipath components
To improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver
Provides a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath
signals
Multipath components are practically uncorrelated when their
relative propagation delay exceeds one chip period
The basic idea of A RAKE receiver was first proposed by Price and
Green and patented in 1956
 CDMA receivers may combine the time delayed versions of the original
signal transmission in order to improve the signal to noise ratio at the
receiver.
RAKE receiver does just this it attempts to collect the time-shifted
versions of the original signal by providing a separate correlation
receiver for each of the multipath signals.
 Multipath Channel
Due to reflections from obstacles a radio channel can consist of many
copies of originally transmitted signals having
different amplitudes, phases, and delays
Multipath can occur in radio channel in various ways
Reflection, diffraction, scattering
The RAKE receiver uses a multipath diversity principle
It rakes the energy from the multipath propagated signal components
M-ray multipath model can be used
Each of the M paths has an independent delay, t, and an independent
complex time variant gain, G
t(t) is transmitted signal
r(t) is received signal
 M-finger RAKE Receiver
RAKE receiver utilizes multiple correlators to separately
detect M strongest multipath components
Each correlator detects a time-shifted version of the original
transmission, and each finger correlates to a portion of the
signal, which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the
other fingers
The outputs of each correlator are weighted to provide better
estimate of the transmitted signal than is provided by a single
component
Demodulation and bit decisions are then based on the weighted
outputs of the M correlators
RAKE Receiver Blocks
 Matched filter
Impulse Response Measurement
Largest peaks to RAKE fingers
Timing to delay equalizer
Tracks and monitors peaks with a measurement rate depending on
speeds of mobile station and on propagation environment
Code Generators
PN codes for the user or channel
Correlator
Despreading and integration of user data symbols
Channel Estimator
Channel state estimate
Channel effect corrections
 Phase Rotator
Phase correction
Delay Equalizer
Compensates delay for the difference in the arrival times of
the symbols in each finger
Combiner
Adding of the channel compensated symbol
Multipath diversity against fading
 RAKE Receiver Requirements
RAKE receiver has to know
Multipath delays -> time delay synchronization
Phases of the multipath components -> carrier phase
synchronization
Amplitudes of the multipath components -> amplitude
tracking
Number of multipath components -> RAKE allocation
Time delay synchronization is based on correlation
measurements
Delay acquisition
Delay tracking by feedback loops
 Number of available fingers depends on the channel
profile and the chip rate
The higher the chip rate, the more resolvable paths are
there
A very large number of fingers lead to combining
losses and practical implementation problems
The main challenges for RAKE receivers operating in
fading channels are in receiver synchronization
 The order of diversity achieved by the rake receiver
depends on the number of resolvable paths L with
L = round(max / tchip) + 1
Where, max is the maximum delay spread of the
multipath channel
Partial Correlation of PN Sequences at the rake receiver
can also be applied.
 Transmitted coded signal for data signal {1,0,1} is,

Received multiple copies of transmitted signal on different

paths.
 The use of a correlation window in the receiver is proposed which is
equal to the full period of the spreading code.
However, the spreading sequence used by the transmitter is longer than
the period used by the correlator for detection. The extension consists
of a cyclic prefix.
In an OFDM symbol the cyclic prefix is a repeat of the end of
the symbol at the beginning.
The purpose is to allow multipath to settle before the main data arrives
at the receiver.
The length of the cyclic prefix is often equal to the guard interval.
In the prefix example of an m-sequence {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}, the
transmitter creates the spreading code {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}.
The receiver correlates during the same window, for every branch of the
rake, but uses different, cyclically shifted sequences.
 Due to cyclic prefix, all ISI terms disappear influencing the BER
performance but at the same time:
Cyclic prefixes waste some transmit bandwidth and energy
Correlated fading of the signal amplitudes in the various diversity
branches of the rake degrades the performance.
The best performance is achieved with uncorrelated fading.
Signal processing at the rake
receiver
Mainly three partitions
reconfigurable hardware
Dataflow oriented tasks that operate on a word-level coarse
data stream are executed using the reconfigurable hardware
dedicated hardware
Bit-level data processing tasks that execute continuously are
mapped onto dedicated hardware resources
DSP
is used to execute the control-flow and synchronization tasks
 Signal processing at the rake
receiver multiplication of the
the complex multiplication of the corresponding spreading code
aligned incoming data with with the real and imaginary part
scrambling codes. of the descrambled data

Calculates the channel coefficients

channel coefficients are calculated on that are used for the channel
the basis of a specific sequence of correction then transferred to the
pilot signals. reconfigurable hardware
Characteristics of DSSS System
Interference Rejection
Antijam Characteristics
Energy and Bandwidth Efficiency
Near Far Problem and Power Control
Characteristics of DSSS System
Interference Rejection

Narrowband and wideband interference rejection

 The SNR is an important parameter for a spread spectrum system
because it decides the detectability of the signal as well as the output
signal quality.
Maximum SNR will occur when there is no delay spread.
output SNR will be,
-> Pr is the received power,
-> No is the noise power spectral density
SNR =
out
Pr -> tm is the message bit duration
N o
/ 2tm

SNR depends upon the ratio of received power to noise spectral density
and bit duration.
 Now the mean square value of the output interference signal is given by
J J is the total interference power and
j 2
PG PG is the processing gain
This is the case when interfering signal bandwidth is less than
transmission bandwidth.
The interference power can be reduced by a factor equal to processing
gain.
consider the situation in which interference bandwidth Bj is greater than
spread spectrum bandwidth Bs. In this case
J
-> J is the interference power in its total bandwidth
Bs
j2
2 B j PG -> the factor 2B s J represents simply that portion of the
Bj
interference power that exists in the receiver bandwidth.
 This power is again reduced by a factor equal to the processing
gain.
Considering the interference signal as a noise the SNR is again to
be calculated as follows.
SNRout = P r PG
B
s
Bs
N / 2 t J / PG
but B m
o m t m Bm

Hence the output SNR becomes SNRout = PGP r

( N B / 2) J
o s

Now, SNRin = P r

( N B / 2) J
o s

The new relationship can be written SNRout = (PG). SNRin

Here the losses in the system are not considered.
 Antijam Characteristics
Another most important characteristics of spread spectrum is Antijam
characteristic.
SS System is having great rejection capabilities to reduce the effects of
intentional jamming.
This ability can be expressed in terms of jamming margin or
sometimes called antijam (AJ) margin expressed in dB.
It can be expressed as, SNRin (dB) = SNRout(dB) PG (dB)
Antijam margin can be defined as, Margin(AJ) = - SNRin (dB) L (dB)
o Where L = the losses in the system (dB)
The Antijam margin can be written as,
Margin(AJ) = PG (dB) L (dB) SNRout (dB)
Energy and Bandwidth Efficiency
The output SNR of the spread spectrum receiver in presence
of noise and interference is given as

SNRout P r

N / 2 t J / PG
o m

the energy associated with a message bit is

Eb = Pr tm = Energy per bit
the output SNR can be represented again with the following
expression
E Eb / N o
P .t r m

b

SNRout
N /2 J t
o m
/ PG N o
/ 2 J / Bs 1/ 2 J / N o Bs
 Rewriting the above equation
Eb 1 J
SNRout
N o 2 N o Bs

Two important comments can be made from this result.

When the interference is narrowband, increasing the spreading
improves the energy efficiency
When the interference is wideband, such as white noise, increasing
the spreading does not improve the energy efficiency because the
interference power J increases directly with the signal bandwidth Bs.
Narrowband interference

Wideband interference
 To obtain the bandwidth utilization efficiency B/R
B , where, Rm = the message bit rate
Bs
R 2 Rm Bs/2 = the equivalent energy bandwidth of the signal.
If the interference is narrowband compared to the bandwidth of the
spread spectrum signal then combining the results

Eb 1 J 1 J / N o Rm
SNR out 1
No 2 2N o Rm ( B / R ) 2 B / R SNRout

If the interference is wide band compared to the bandwidth of the

spread spectrum signal then
The quantity J0 is the spectral density of the
E b 1 1 J o interfering signal.
SNRout
N o 2 N o
 Near Far Problem
Each user is a source of interference for the other users, and if one
is received with more power, than that user generates more
interference for the other users.
It is important that the receiver gets the same power from each
transmitter.
The use of power control ensures that all users arrive at about the same
power at the receiver, and therefore no user is unfairly
disadvantaged relative to the others.
Near far problem in spread spectrum system relates to the
problem of very strong signals at the receiver swamping
out the effects of weaker signals.
Near Far Problem
In short, the near-far problem is one of detecting and receiving a
weaker signal amongst stronger signals

The receiver level fluctuates quickly due to fading at receiver.

In order to maintain the strength of received signal level at BS, power
control technique must be employed in CDMA systems.
 Power control is implemented to overcome the near-far problem and to
maximize the capacity of the system
It tries to control the powers of the mobile stations in the system so that
the received powers at the base station stay equal
It tries also to compensate the effects of slow fading and fast fading
There is no near-far problem in downlink due to a one-to-many situation
 Power Control in CDMA
CDMA goal is to maximize the number of simultaneous
users
Capacity is maximized by maintaining the signal to
interference ratio at the minimum acceptable
Power transmitted by mobile station must be therefore
controlled
Transmit power enough to achieve target BER: no
less no more
 Power Control
It uses dynamic output power adjustment of the transmitters.
That is the closer transmitters use less power so that the SNR for all
transmitters at the receiver is roughly the same.
The two issues must be satisfied simultaneously:
1. The transmit power from each mobile must be controlled to limit
interference.
2. The power level should be adequate for a satisfactory voice quality.
The objective of the power control is to limit transmitted
power on the forward and reverse links while maintaining
link quality under all conditions.
 Power control is capable of compensating the fading fluctuation.
Received power from all MS are controlled to be equal.
Near-Far problem is mitigated by the power control.
 Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum Transmitter and Receiver
In frequency hopping systems, the transmitter changes the carrier
frequency according to a certain "hopping" pattern.
The meaning is the frequency is constant in each time chip, but changes
from chip to chip. The advantage is that the signal sees a different channel
and a different set of interfering signals during each hop.
Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies
Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
This avoids the problem of failing communication at a particular
frequency, because of a fade or a particular interferer.
 Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH)
One data bit is divided over multiple
hops. i.e. frequency hopping rate is
greater than message bit rate. In fast
hopping, coherent signal detection is
difficult, and seldom used. Mostly, FSK
or MFSK modulation is used.
Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH)
In this case one or more data bits are
transmitted within one hop. i.e
hopping rate is less than the message
bit rate. An advantage is that coherent
data detection is possible. Often,
systems using slow hopping also
employ (burst) error control coding to
restore loss of (multiple) bits in one
hop.
 Consider, a fast hop system in which there are k frequency
hops in every message bit duration tm.
Thus the chip duration is tchip = tm /k k=1,2,3.
The number of frequencies over which the signal may hop is
usually a power of 2.
The frequency hopping is accomplished by means of a digital
frequency synthesizer, which in turn is driven by PN code
generator.
The ML-sequence i.e. p chips will produce M=2p frequencies
for each distinct combination of these digits.
 FHSS transmitter
1 bit from message and p-1 bits come from PN code generator.
If a bit from message produces the smallest frequency change, then by itself it
will produce a binary FSK signal.
The p-1 bits from PN code generator then hop this FSK signal over the range
of possible frequencies.
There is a frequency multiplier K at the output of the system. It is to increase
the bandwidth and thereby increase the processing gain.
 Considering again fast hopping case, if M frequencies are separated by f1=1/ tchip
= k/ tm ,
then the signal bandwidth is given by
Bs = KMf1 = KM/ tchip
So the processing gain PG = Bs/ Bm KM/ t chip kKM / t m = kKM

1/ t m 1/ t m
Noncoherent frequency hopping
receiver The error correction is
made to improve the
BER response.

The output of the mixer

is also applied to early
and late gates that
produce an error signal
to control the clock
frequency. This keeps
locally generated
frequency hop pattern in
synchronism with the
incoming signal.
Time Hopping
 The time axis is divided into intervals known as frames and each frame
is subdivided into M time slots.
The total number of slots is decided on the basis of PN code or length
of m-sequence.
During each frame one and only one time slot is modulated with a
message by any reasonable modulation method.
The particular time slot that is chosen for a given frame is
selected by means of a PN code generator.
All of the message bits accumulated in the previous frame are
transmitted in a burst during the selected time slot. Frame duration Tf ,
number of message bits k and message bit duration tm are related to
each other by the equation Tf = ktm
 The width of each time slot in a frame is Tf /M and
width of each bit in the time slot is Tf /kM or simply tm/M.
Processing gain = Bs/ Bm =2 tm /(tm/M)= 2M for biphase modulation
= tm /(tm/M) = M for quadriphase modulation
Interference among simultaneous users in time hopping system can be
minimized by coordinating the times at which each user can transmit a
signal. This also avoids the near far problem.
In a noncoordinated system, overlapping transmission bursts will result
in message errors and this will normally require the use of error
correction coding to restore the message bits.
Waveforms showing time hopping spread spectrum signal formation in one
frame duration
Self study.
Comparison of Spread
Spectrum Modulation
Methods
Hybrid Spread
Spectrum Systems
 Chirp Spread Spectrum
The standard IEEE 802.15.4a uses chirp spread spectrum standard.
A chirp is a sinusoidal signal whose frequency increases or decreases over a
certain amount of time.
A chirp spread spectrum system utilizes linear frequency modulation of the
carrier to spread the bandwidth.
It is a very common technique in radar system but also used in
communication systems.
Consider, T = the duration of a given signal waveform and B = the bandwidth
over which the frequency is varied. In this case the processing gain = BT.
It is also possible to use nonlinear frequency modulation and in some cases
this may be desirable.
Self inter symbol interference reduction is achieved in chirp spread spectrum
communication systems.
Advantages:
Chirp Spread Spectrum uses its entire allocated bandwidth to
broadcast a signal, making it robust to channel noise.
Chirp Spread Spectrum is also resistant to multi-path fading
even when operating at very low power.
it does not add any pseudo-random elements to the signal to
help distinguish it from noise on the channel, instead relying
on the linear nature of the chirp pulse.
Chirp Spread Spectrum is resistant to the Doppler effect,
which is typical in mobile radio applications
Chirp spread spectrum transceiver
Examples
Example 1
In a frequency hopping spread spectrum system for the
generation of hopping frequencies suppose 3 bit PN code
generator is used. If the carrier frequency is 8 KHz and
frequency spacing is 0.5 kHz. Corresponding to code pattern
000 the frequency is 9.75 kHz. Find out all the hopping
frequencies. Show all this frequencies on the frequency time
plane.
Control Carrier Derivation of Output
Codes Freque output freque
ncy frequency (kHz) ncy
(kHz) (kHz)
000 8 8+1.75 9.75
001 8 8+1.25 9.25
010 8 8+0.75 8.75
011 8 8+0.25 8.25
100 8 8-0.25 7.75
101 8 8-0.75 7.25
110 8 8-1.25 6.75
111 8 8-1.75 6.25
 Example 2
A frequency hopping spread spectrum system is to have the
following parameter.
Message bit rate=2400 bps
Hops per message bit =16
Frequency multiplication = 8
Processing gain 45dB
(a) Find the smallest number of frequencies required if this number
is to be a power of 2.
(b) Find the bandwidth of the FH spread spectrum signal.
(a) Bm = 2400 bps
k =16, K=8, M=?
Now, Processing gain 45 dB = 10 log10 PG PG = Bs/ Bm = 31623
Bs = 31623 x Bm =31623 x 2400 = 75.9 Mbps
For frequency hopping system
Bs = KMf1 = KM/ tchip = kKM/ tm Bs = 8 x 16 x M x 2400/240 = 75.9
Mbps
=> M = 75.9 x 106/8 x 16 x 2400 = 247
But to make M power of 2 next selected value =256 = number of hopping
frequencies
(b) Bandwidth of the FH spread spectrum signal
Bs = 8 x 16 x 256 x 2400 =78.64 Mbps
Now check for processing gain:
PG = Bs/ Bm = 78.64 x 106/2400 = 32768 = 45.13 dB which is higher than
the required, So condition for processing gain is satisfied.
Example 3
A certain time hopping spread spectrum system is allocated a
maximum signal bandwidth of 8 MHz. Assuming the message
bit rate after error correction is 3200 bps (a) find the number
of bits necessary from the code generator to control the
ON/OFF switching time. (b) If biphase modulation is used
what is the processing gain.
 PG= Bs/B m =2M for biphase ss modulation system
8 x 106/3200 = 2500 =2M= 33.97 dB
M=1250 = total number of slots
It is not power of 2 but bandwidth must not exceed 8 MHz,
we shall choose M=1024 (previous lowest power of 2)
Now M=2p => p=10 bits are required from the code
generator to control the ON/OFF switching time.
PG will be now 2M = 2048 =33dB (Note: This value is not
much differed than the previous value of PG)
Example 4
Consider the spread spectrum system in which the chip rate
is 107 chips per second and the message bit rate is 100 bps. If
it is desired to obtain an output SNR of 25, which is about 15
dB and if losses are determined to be 2 dB, then find out
antijam margin.
 Processing gain PG = 2 / =2 x 107/ 100 = 2 x 105 = 53 dB
Margin (AJ) = 53- 2 -15 = 36 dB
i.e the desired output SNR can be obtained if the jamming
signal is less than 36 dB.
Example 5
A direct sequence system has a PN code rate of 192 x
106 chips per second and a binary message bit rate at
7500 bps
If quadriphase modulation is used find PG.
Assuming the received signal power is 4 x 10-14 watts and the
one sided noise spectral density level No is 1.6 x 10-20 W/Hz.
Find the signal to noise power ratio in the input bandwidth of
the receiver.
(a) tchip = 1/ 192 x 106 =0.0052 s and tm = 1/7500 = 0.133 msec
For quadriphase modulation PG= tm/ tchip = 0.133 x 10-3/ 0.0052 x 10-6 =
25,577 Processing gain in dB =10log10(25,577) = 44.08 dB
(b) Pr = Received power = 4 x 10-14 watts
One sided noise spectral density = 1.6 x 10-20 W/Hz
For biphase modulation
Signal bandwidth = 2/tchip = 2/ 0.0052 x 10-6 =384.6 MHz
Noise power = No x B.W. = 1.6 x 10-20 x 384.6 x 106 = 615 x 10-14 W
Signal to noise ratio = Pr/No = 4 x 10-14 /615 x 10-14 = 0.065
In dB scale (SNR) dB = 10log10(Pr/ No) = -21.86 dB
For quadriphase modulation
Signal bandwidth = 1/tchip = 1/ 0.0052 x 10-6 = 192.3 MHz
Noise power = No x B.W. = 1.6 x 10-20 x 192.3 x 106 = 307.7 x 10-14 W
Signal to noise ratio = Pr/ No = 4 x 10-14 /307.7 x 10-14 = 0.013
In dB scale (SNR) dB = 10log10(Pr/ No) = -18.86 dB