Ict Notes

Contents
WHAT IS ICT?.....................................................................................................................................2
ICT Tools..............................................................................................................................................2
USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE........................................................................................................2
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY.................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.................................................................................................5
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER......................................................................................................5
Advantages of using computers.........................................................................................................5
Disadvantages of computers..............................................................................................................6
Classification of computers.................................................................................................................6
2. Computer Generations...............................................................................................................6
_Toc424009468COMPUTER SYSTEM............................................................................................12
Its made up of the following..............................................................................................................12
Hardware components........................................................................................................................12
Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices..............................................................................23
Relationship between Hardware and Software...................................................................................37
Software..............................................................................................................................................37
Computer personel..............................................................................................................................39
Advantages of Computer Networking.............................................................................53
Internet, Intranet and Extranet............................................................................................................58
INTRODUCTION COMPUTER THREATS.....................................................................................63
ICT ETHICS......................................................................................................................................65
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES..........................................................................................................74
COMPUTER SECURITY..................................................................................................................77
PRIVACY IN COMPUTER USAGE.................................................................................................78
WHAT IS PRIVACY?........................................................................................................................78
Essential Life Skills............................................................................................................................80
Basics of Conflict Management.........................................................................................................82
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East Africa Institute Of Certified Studies 2015
WHAT IS ICT?
ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of electronic
computers, communication devices and software applications to convert, store, protect, process,
transmit and retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
INFORMATION
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation,study or research.
The tools to transmit information are the telephone, television and radio.
We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example, scientists can detect
the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to avoid disasters in the
affected areas.
Information is knowledge and helps us to fulfill our daily tasks. For example, forecasting the stock
exchange market.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is
exchanged between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people
communicated through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of
technology, these older forms of communication are less utilised as compared to the use of the
Internet, e-mail or video conferencing
Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With knowledge, we are more confident in
expressing our thoughts and ideas.
TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create processes and
products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in communication
ICT Tools
ICT tools are components associated with ICT. They are either hardware or software items used to
process information. They include;
Computers and Related Equipment Communication Equipment
Software programs .
Every year, a lots of ICT tools are manufactured by various companies in the world.
For example, Input output devices, application software etc.
Bar code readers Used in super markets & shops to read bar codes which contain
information about that particular product.
Bar code printers Used to print information about a particular product in Barcode format
Credit card readers Used to read credit cards
Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.

Software Edit Photos/Pictures and creating graphic arts.
USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE

1. EDUCATION
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Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for teacher
and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators benefits from
the usage of ICT.
Teachers Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online
forums and online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the
Internet to look for information
Researchers use computers tocollect and process data
School administrators use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire
operation runs smoothly.
2. Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence,accuracy, reliability, or
versatility has made it an integerated part in all business organisations. Computer used in business
organisation for:
Payroll Calculations Financial forcasting
Budgeting Managing employees database
Sales Analysis Maintenance of stocks etc.

3. Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide following facilities:
Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer .The Insurance
Companies, Finance houses and Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
how to continue with policies interests due
starting date of the policies survival benefits
next due installment of a policy bonus
maturity date
4. Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise
copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled
by the customers.
5. Health Care
Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems. The computers are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing
different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised
machines. Some of major fields of health care in which computer are used:
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Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System:All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System:These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in
Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System:Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side
effects etc.
Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purposes. One of major areas is CAD(Computer aided
design).CAD provides creation,edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering:Requires stress and strain analysis required for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
Industrial Engineering:Computers deals with design, implementation and improvement of
Integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
Architectural Engineering:Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings
6. Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.Some main areas in this
category are:
E-mail FTP
Chatting Telnet
Usenet Video-conferencing
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY
1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or
messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the
capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can
travel fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.
2. LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone,
mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low
cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet.
Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.
3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from
anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to
the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be
faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.
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GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced
according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4. EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can
share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and
forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of
knowledge based society.
5. PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be
stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails,
online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6. BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a
borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and
communication can be borderless.
7. SOCIAL PROBLEMS
There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays,
people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend
to become more individualistic and introvert.
8. Another negative effect of ICT is :
fraud
identity theft
Pornography
Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
9. HEALTH PROBLEMS
A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also
exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems,
an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back
strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device or set of devices that work under the control of stored program
accepting data from outside itself and processing it to produce information.
A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it

responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded
list of instructions (a program).
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES.
(i) Data - is a basic facts about any activity performed in a computer.

(ii) Information This is result obtained after processing data or reliable world.
(iii) Processing Turning data into meaningful information.
(iv) Input To type or to key-in into the computer
(v) Output To obtain a printout or softcopy of information fed into the computer
(vi) Retrieve Making data that was stored accessible on the screen.
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(vii) Store To make data permanent into the computer memory.
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER
(i) Its automatic i.e. can work with minimum human intervention once supplied with data
and instructions.
(ii) Its data processor processes raw facts and figures to produce information.
(iii) Its a storage device store information for later reference.
(iv) Its electrical Requires some form of power to drive it.
Advantages of using computers.
(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

(ii) Speed- performs tasks in very short periods ( in comparison to working manually)
(iii) Efficiency Creates an all round saving on space, time.
(iv) Consistency- Gives the same results given the same data and instructions
(v) Secrecy information is fairly protected if the computer system is well managed
(vi) Versatility can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.
Disadvantages of computers
i) Computers are expensive

ii) Cuts down on employment opportunities
iii) Need expertise, which is expensive to hire and maintain
iv) They create eye problems
v) Loss of information if not well managed
Classification of computers
1. According to size
A number of different dimensions can be used to classify computers into different types.
Traditionally, the size and the capabilities of computers are used as the main criterion and
the computers are classified into the following types.
PC The personal computer (PC) is small in size and is designed for general use by a
single person.
Desktop A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is typically

set up in a permanent location.
Laptops (Notebooks) A portable computer that includes a battery to provide
power for some specific period of time.
Palmtop More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs).
Palmtops are small, lightweight and tightly integrated computers which usually
do not have keyboards but rely on touch screen technology for user input.
Palmtops are equipped with a battery with reasonable life.
Workstation A desktop computer with a powerful processor, additional memory
and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of tasks, such as 3D
graphics.
Server A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers
over a network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large
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hard drives.
M
ainframe Mainframes are huge computers, which could fill an entire room or
even a whole floor. Over the years, the size of computers has diminished while the
power has increased; the term mainframe has fallen out of use. You will still
hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines
processing millions of transactions every day.
Supercomputer This type of computer is usually very expensive. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprised multiple high
performance computers working parallel as a single system. The best-known
supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.
2. Computer Generations
a. First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. First generation of computer started with using
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU(Central Processing Unit).
These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the
installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation Punched
cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. There were Machine code and
electric wired board languages used
The main features of First Generation are:

Vacuum tube technology Non portable
Unreliable Consumed lot of electricity
Supported Machine language only Some computer of this generation were:

ENIAC
Very costly
EDVAC
Generate lot of heat
UNIVAC
Slow Input/Output device
IBM-701
Huge size
IBM-650
Need of A.C.
b. Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. This generation using the transistor were cheaper,
consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation
machines made of vaccum tubes.In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory
and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly
language and high level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. There were
Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used
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The main features of Second Generation are:
Use of transistors Still very costly
Reliable as compared to First generation A.C. needed

computers
Support machine and assmebly languages
Smaller size as compared to First Some computer of this generation were:
generation computers IBM 1620
Generate less heat as compared to First IBM 7094

generation computers
CDC 1604
Consumed less electricity as compared to
First generation computers CDC 3600
Faster than first generation computers UNIVAC 1108

c. Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The third generation of computer is marked by the
use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors.A single I.C has many transistors, resistors
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation Remote
processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used. High level
language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation
IC used Consumed lesser electricity
More reliable Support high level language

Some computer of this generation were:
Smaller size IBM-360 series
Generate less heat Honeywell-6000 series
Faster PDP(Personal Data Processor)
Lesser maintenance IBM-370/168
Still costly TDC-316
A.C needed
d. Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked by
the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors
and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In
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this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. All the
Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation
The main features of Fourth Generation are: Concept of internet was introduced
VLSI technology used
Great developments in the fields of
Very cheap networks
Portable and reliable Computers became easily available
Use of PC's Some computer of this generation were:

DEC 10
Very small size
STAR 1000
Pipeline processing
No A.C. needed
5. Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer
science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the
Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes: Advancement in Superconductor
Robotics technology
Neural networks More user friendly interfaces with

multimedia features
Game Playing
Availability of very powerful and compact
Development of expert systems to make computers at cheaper rates
decisions in real life situations.
Some computer types of this generation are:
Natural language understanding and Desktop
generation
The main features of Fifth Generation are: Laptop
ULSI technology
NoteBook
Development of true artificial intelligence
UltraBook
Development of Natural language
processing ChromeBook
Advancement in Parallel Processing
3.
4.
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5.
6. In terms of purpose, computers are classified into special purpose or general
purpose.
7.
8. Special purpose computer is designed for only one purpose. A computer which
guides space shuttles, and which cannot be used for any other purpose is an example
of special purpose computer.
9.
10. General-purpose computer, on the other hand, can be used for many purposes. For
example, the same general-purpose computer may be used to handle payroll, do
balance sheet, and produce graphics for the design of buildings, solve complex
mathematical equations, or play games. It is possible to provide a long list under this
heading. Here is a least of varied examples are given below
11.
Home Computer This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed
for domestic use with programs that typically are used for such things as computer
game or controlling family finance.
Word Processor -- This is a special purpose computer used in the production of
office documents, letters, contracts, etc.
Personal Computer (PC) These are microcomputers designed for independent use
by individual at work or in home mainly for business purposes. Some PCs are
portable. Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe computers so that
the PC user can also gain access to the facilities offered by the larger machine.
Desktop Computer -- These are microcomputers designed to be placed on top the
desk for independent use by individual at work or in home mainly for business
purposes. It therefore implies that Home computers and Personal Computers are
example of Desktop Computers.
Workstation Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are also
examples of desktop computers. Although larger and more powerful PCs are
sometime called workstations in order to denote the presence of advanced features
not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their interconnection
and operation in conjunction with other computers.
Lap-top Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to desktop computers and as a result they can be placed on the lap
of an individual to do any job. Although smaller and sometime very powerful
features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their
interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that allows one to
work without direct power connection and also operation in conjunction with other
computers.
Notebook Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to desktop computers and the laptop computers as a result
they can placed on the lap of an individual, carried around easily to do any job.
Although smaller and sometime confused for Laptop computers, they can as well be
very powerful in their operations and usages. These include in-built capabilities for
their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that allows
one to work without direct power connection and also operation in conjunction with
other computers.
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Palmtop Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to the Laptop computers and the Notebook computer. They are
hand held computers and which can be easily carried around to do some jobs.
Although smaller and sometime confused for a calculator, they are actually
computers, they can as well be very powerful in their operations and usages. These
include in-built capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-
built backup battery that allows one to work without direct power connection and
also operation in conjunction with other computers.
Embedded Computers These are computers that are embedded within some other
devices or system but is not accessed directly. Examples of such system can be find
in watches, video recorder, petrol pumps, cameras, lift elevators, cars and a host of
other industrial and domestic devices.
12.
13.
14. Classification of computer according to technology
15. Analog Computers

16. An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data
by manipulating the quantities. It is designed to process data in which the variable
quantities vary continuously (see analog circuit); it translates the relationships
between the variables of a problem into analogous relationships between electrical
quantities, such as current and voltage, and solves the original problem by solving
the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in its electrical circuits. Because of
this feature, analog computers were especially useful in the simulation and
evaluation of dynamic situations, such as the flight of a space capsule or the
changing weather patterns over a certain area. The key component of the analog
computer is the operational amplifier, and the computer's capacity is determined by
the number of amplifiers it contains (often over 100). Although analog computers are
commonly found in such forms as speedometers and watt-hour meters, they largely
have been made obsolete for general-purpose mathematical computations and data
storage by digital computers.
17. Digital Computers
18. A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital circuit);
its circuits perform directly the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are
expressed in the binary system; binary digits, or bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11,
100, 101, etc., correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Binary digits are easily expressed in
the computer circuitry by the presence (1) or absence (0) of a current or voltage. A
series of eight consecutive bits is called a "byte; the eight-bit byte permits 256
different "on-off combinations. Each byte can thus represent one of up to 256
alphanumeric characters, and such an arrangement is called a "single-byte character
set (SBCS); the de facto standard for this representation is the extended ASCII
character set. Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, require more
than 256 unique symbols. The use of two bytes, or 16 bits, for each symbol,
however, permits the representation of up to 65,536 characters or ideographs. Such
an arrangement is called a "double-byte character set (DBCS); Unicode is the
international standard for such a character set. One or more bytes, depending on the
computer's architecture, is sometimes called a digital word; it may specify not only
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the magnitude of the number in question, but also its sign (positive or negative), and
may also contain redundant bits that allow automatic detection, and in some cases
correction, of certain errors (see code; information theory). A digital computer can
store the results of its calculations for later use, can compare results with other data,
and on the basis of such comparisons can change the series of operations it performs.
Digital computers are used for reservations systems, scientific investigation, data
processing and word-processing applications, desktop publishing, electronic games,
and many other purposes.
19. Hybrid Computers
20.
21. A hybrid computer is designed as a combination of analog and digital computer (see
digital and analog computer); its circuits perform directly on the technology of both
analog and digital circuits as a result its more powerful than the other two logic
computers.
22. COMPUTER SYSTEM

23. Its made up of the following
(i) Hardware
24.
25.
a. Input devices
b. Output devices
c. Cpu
d. Storage devices
e. Bus sytem
f. Computer ports
26.
27.
(ii) Software
System software
Application software
28.
(iii) Orgware/Operator
29.
30. Hardware components

1. CPU Central Processing Unit
31.
32. CPU consists of the following features:
33. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
34. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
35. It stores data , intermediate resulta and instructions(program).
36. It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
37.
38. ` CPU itself has following three components.
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39. Memory Or Storage Unit:
40. Control Unit
41. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
42.
43. Memory Or Storage Unit:
44. This unit can store instruction, data and intermediate results.This unit supplies
information to the other units of the computer when needed.It is also known as
internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access
memory(RAM). Its size affects speed, power and capability.There are primary
memory and secondary memory two types of memories in the computer.Function of
Memory Unit are:
45. It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
46. It stores intermediate results of processing.
47. It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
48. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory
49. Control Unit
50. This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer.It does not carry out any
actual data processing operations. Functions of this unit are
51. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
52. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
53. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the
operation of the computer.
54. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
55. It does not process or store data.

56. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
57. This unit consists of two subsection namely
58. Arithmetic section
59. Logic Section

60. ARITHMETIC SECTION
61. Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
62. LOGIC SECTION
63. Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.
64.
65.
2. Input Devices
66. Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer
Systems
67. Keyboard 68. Mouse 69. Joy Stick
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70. Light pen 74. Reader(OCR
Microphone )
71. Track
Ball 75. Magnetic 77. Bar Code
Ink Card Reader
72. Scanner Reader(MIC
R) 78. Optical
73. Graphic Mark Reader
Tablet 76. Optical
Character
79.
80. Keyboard
81. Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in
inputting the data to the computer.The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing some additional functions. Keyboard are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102
keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for Windows and
Internet.
82. The keys 83. Ke 84. Description
are ys
following
Sr. No.
85. 1 86. Ty 87. These keys include the letter
pin keys (A-Z) and digits keys
g (0-9) which are generally
Ke give same layout as that of
ys typewriters.
88. 2 89. Nu 90. It is used to enter numeric
me data or cursor movement.
ric Generally, it consists of a set
Ke of 17 keys that are laid out in
yp the same configuration used
ad by most adding machine and
calculators.
91. 3 92. Fu 93. The twelve functions keys
nct are present on the keyboard.
ion These are arranged in a row
Ke along the top of the
ys keyboard.Each function key
has unique meaning and is
used for some specific
purpose.
94. 4 95. Co 96. These keys provides cursor
ntr and screen control. It
ol includes four directional
ke arrow key.Control keys also
ys include Home, End,Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page
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Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
97. 5 98. Sp 99. Keyboard also contains some
eci special purpose keys such as
al Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Pu Num Lock, Space bar, Tab,
rp and Print Screen.
os
e
Ke
ys
100.
101.
102. Mouse
103. Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device. It is a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the
movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the
buttons. Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is
present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but
it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
104. ADVANTAGES
105. Easy to use
106. Not very expensive

107.
108. Joystick
109. Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends.
The lower spherical ball moves in a socket.TheJoystic can be moved in all four
directions. The function of joystic is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games
110. Light Pen
111. Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.It consists of a photocell
and an optical system placed in a small tube. When light pen's tip is moved over the
monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the
screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
112. Track Ball
113. Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving
fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track
ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a
ball, a button and a square
114. Scanner
115. Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the
hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the
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source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the
disc.These images can be edited before they are printed.
116. Digitizer
117. Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known
as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing
and images manipulation applications.
118. Microphone
119. Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital
form. The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
120. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
121. MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are
printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic
material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition(MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and
less error prone.
122. Bar Code Readers
123. Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering
the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary
scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected
124.
3. Output Devices
125. Following are few of the important output devices which are used in
Computer Systems
126. Monitors
127. Graphic Plotter
128. Printer
129.
130. Monitors
131. Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
132. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
133. Flat- Panel Display

134.
135. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
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136. In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for
short.The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution.It takes more
than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e in the word
help. A finite number of character can be displayed on a screen at once.The screen
can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. The most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantage
of CRT
137. Large in Size
138. High Power consumption

139. Flat-Panel Display Monitor
140. The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include
calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display. The flat-panel
display are divided into two categories
141. Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert
electrical energy into light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting
Diodes).
142. Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to
convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.Example is
LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)
143. Printers
144. Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information
on paper. There are two types of printers
145. Impact Printers
146. Non-Impact Printers

147.
148. Impact Printers
149. The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto
the paper, are called impact printers. Characteristics of Impact Printers are following
150. Very low consumable costs
151. Impact printers are very noisy
152. Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
153. There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

154.
155. These printers are of two types
156. Character printers
157. Line printers
158. Character Printers:
159. Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time. These are
of further two types
160. Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
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161. Daisy Wheel
162.
163. Dot Matrix Printer
164. In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of
their ease of printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form
of pattern of Dot's and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
165. Advantages
166. Inexpensive
167. Widely Used
168. Other language characters can be printed

169.
170. Disadvantages
171. Slow Speed
172. Poor Quality

173. Daisy Wheel
174. Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals
of Daisy(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are
generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be send
here and there with very nice quality representation.
175. Advantages
176. More reliable than DMP's
177. Better quality
178. The fonts of character can be easily changed.

179.
180. Disadvantages
181. Slower than DMP's
182. Noisy
183. More expensive than DMP's

184. Line Printers
185. Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
186. These are of further two types
187. Drum Printer
188. Chain Printer

189.
190. Drum Printer
191. This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of
drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a
paper width of 132 characters, Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on track. The different characters sets are available in market 48 character
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set, 64 and 96 characters set.One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum Printers are
fast in speed and speed in between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
192. Advantages
193. Very high speed
194.
195. Disadvantages
196. Very expensive
197. Characters fonts can not be changed

198.
199. Chain Printer
200. In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers.A
standard character set may have 48, 64, 96 characters.
201. Advantages
202. Character fonts can easily be changed.
203. Different languages can be used with the same printer.

204. Disadvantages
205. Noisy
206. Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

207.
208. Non-impact Printers
209. The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and
onto the paper, are called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page
at a time, also called as Page Printers. These printers are of two types
210. Laser Printers
211. Inkjet Printers

212.
213. Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
214. Faster than impact printers.
215. They are not noisy.
216. High quality.
217. Support many fonts and different character size.

218.
219. Laser Printers
220. These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
221. Advantages
222. Very high speed.
223. Very high quality output.
224. Give good graphics quality.

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225. Support many fonts and different character size.
226.
227. Disadvantage
228. Expensive.
229. Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single

printing.
230. Inkjet Printers
231. Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features. They make less noise
because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can
produce multiple copies of printing also.
232. Advantages
233. High quality printing
234. More reliable

235.
236. Disadvantages
237. Expensive as cost per page is high
238. Slow as compare to laser printer

239.
240.
4. Computer Memory
241. Amemory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large
number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique
address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer
has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The
address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is primarily of three types
242. Cache Memory
243. Primary Memory/Main Memory
244. Secondary Memory

245.
246. Cache Memory
247. Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed
up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of
data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system,
from where CPU can access them.
248. ADVANTAGE
249. Cache memory is faster than main memory.
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250. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
251. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
252. It stores data for temporary use.

253. DISADVANTAGE:
254. Cache memory has limited capacity.
255. It is very expensive

256. Primary Memory (Main Memory)
257. Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast
as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed earlier reside in main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM. Characteristic of Main
Memory
258. These are semiconductor memories.
259. It known as main memory.
260. Usually volatile memory.
261. Data is lost in case power is switch off.
262. It is working memory of the computer.
263. Faster than secondary memories.
264. A computer cannot run without primary memory

265. Secondary Memory
266. This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than main memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main
memory, and then CPU can access it.For example: disk, CD-ROM,DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
267. These are magnetic and optical memories.
268. It is known as backup memory.
269. It is non-volatile memory.
270. Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
271. It is used for storage of the data in the computer.
272. Computer may run without secondary memory.
273. Slower than primary memories.

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274. Random Access Memory
275. ARAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program
and program result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory
(RAM). Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is,
each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes
the same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast
but can also be quite expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we
switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible
power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small , both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold. RAM is of two types
276. Static RAM (SRAM)
277. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

278. Static RAM (SRAM)
279. The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power remains applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to
volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be
refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses
more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the
manufacturing costs higher. Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very
fast and small. Characteristic of the Static RAM
280. It has long data lifetime
281. There is no need to refresh
282. Faster
283. Used as cache memory
284. Large size
285. Expensive
286.
287. High power consumption
288. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
289. DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells.
These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor. Characteristic of the
Dynamic RAM
290. It has short data lifetime
291. Need to refresh continuously
292. Slower as compared to SRAM
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293. Used as RAM
294. lesser in size
295. Less expensive
296. Less power consumption

297. Read Only Memory
298. ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such
instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first turned on, this
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer but
also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
299. Following are the varioys types of ROM
300. MROM (Masked ROM)

301. The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked
ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
302. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

303. PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
programmer.Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
304. EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

305. The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration
of upto 40 minutes. Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge
is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For
erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid).
This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.
306. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
307. The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about
4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the
entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
308. Advantages of ROM
309. Non-volatile in nature
310. These can not be accidentally changed

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311. Cheaper than RAMs
312. Easy to test
313. More Reliable than RAMs
314. These are static and do not require refreshing
315. Its contents are always known and can be verified

316.
317.
318.
319. Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices
320. This section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage device
(media). For each device you should be familiar with the following details:
seek time - Average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the requested data
Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a media
Access type - Whether a device is Random Access or Serial Access
Write type - Whether it is read only, write only or readable and writable
Cost - how much does it cost per megabyte
321.
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322.
323. sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be
read, before reaching it. Random access memory allows you to jump directly to the
memory location you are seeking
324. Pay special attention to devices with an orange background, you need to be
able to describe exactly how they work!
325. Contents
1 Magnetic media
o 1.1 Hard disk
o 1.2 Tape drive
2 Optical media
o 2.1 CD-ROM
3 Solid-state memory
o 3.1 USB Flash Drive
o 3.2 Memory cards
326. Magnetic media
327. Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This
metal is then processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and
zeros. Historically, magnetic media has been very popular for storing programs, data,
and making backups. It looks set to continue in this role for some time. However,
solid state technology to starting to be used more and more, storing programs and
data on new devices such as mobile phones and cameras.
328. Solid-state memory

329. Device 330. Size 331.
332. Hard Disk 333. Up to 4 Terabytes 334.
335. Tape 336. Up to 2 Terabytes 337.
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338. Hard disk
339. Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)
340. Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data.
They are increasingly cheap and more and more companies are using them to back
things up. Hard disks can vary in physical size with some disks getting as small as
your thumb. The capacity of a commercial disk is currently up to about 2 terabytes
allowing users to read and write to them. They are constructed from several key
components:
Platter - Metallic disks where One or both sides of the platter are magnetized, allowing data
to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the spindle. There may be
several platters, with data stored across them
Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several platters there
may two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each
Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can be read
and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random fashion, you don't
need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of information, you
can jump right there. Seek time is very low.
Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run the
electronics
IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters
Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID
341.
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342. For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:
1. The platters spin around the spindle
2. data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
3. the actuator arm moves the read head to that track
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data is read
5. Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory
343.
344.
345. Description of a hard disk platter
346. Writing data is very similar:
1. The platters spin around the spindle
2. data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
3. the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
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4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is
written to the platter
347. Pros
348. Fast seek times

349. Random access
350. High capacities possible
351. Low cost per megabyte
352.
Cons
353. Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks
354.
355. Tape drive
356.
357.
358. DDS tape drive. Above, from left right: DDS-4 tape (20 GB), 112m Data8
tape (2.5 GB), QIC DC-6250 tape (250 MB), and a 3.5" floppy disk (1.44 MB)
359. Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and
back up data since the early days of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for
corporate backing up and archiving of data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning
that if you had information stored at the end of the tape you would have to wind your
way through the entirety of the tape before you could read it. There is no random
access like with a hard disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in size and reading and
writing can be very fast as long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape
at once.
360. Pros
361. Fast
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362. High capacity
363. Cheap per megabyte
364.
Cons
365. Serial read and write capabilities
366.
367. Optical media
368. Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface. There
are several different types of disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with
the pits and lands getting closer together for higher volume disks. The principle
behind how each of them works is the same.
369.
370.
371. pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!
372. Optical media
376.
373. 375.
374. Type Imag
Device Size
e
377.
650
CD-ROM Read Only
378.
CD-R Write once then Read only 100p
x
CD-RW re-Writable
379. 380.
DVD-ROM Read Only 4.7 -
DVD-R Write once then Read only
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DVD-RW re-Writable
DVD-RAM re-Writable
382.
25 - 383.
Blu-ray (BD) 381. Re-Writable and Read Only
versions available, using a Blue laser,
disc
that is able to recognise smaller pits
and lands. Allowing for the pits and
HD DVD lands to be more closely packed
384. CD-ROM
385.
386.
387. close up of the surface of a CD being read
1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track is
made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes.
2. A laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode sensor,
the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the difference between a 1 and a 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track
388. Pros
389. Cheap
390. Cons
391. Slow seek time

392. Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
393. Depending the on the disk, you might not be able to write to it, or re-write
to it
394.
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397. Device 398. Description 399.
400. USB flash drive 401. Up to 256 GB 402.
403. Memory card 404. Up to 256 GB 405.
406. USB Flash Drive
407.
Internals of a typical USB flash drive
408.
409. USB Standard-A plug
410.
411. USB mass storage controller device
412.
413. Test points
414.
415. Flash memory chip
416. 417. Crystal oscillator

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418.
419. LED
420.
421. Write-protect switch (Optional)
422.
423. Space for second flash memory chip
424. USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts.
This is very useful for seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement,
meaning seek time is very low and it allows for fast Random Access Memory. Flash
drives can be set to read only mode, but they will always allow for reading and
writing. The size of flash drives is not as great as a Hard Disk and they are generally
much more expensive per megabyte
1. put drive into USB socket
2. USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the USB
3. The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation Table)
to the Computer
4. [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the
USB port
5. [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
6. [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty space on the
drive
7. [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure
425. Pros
426. Very fast seek times

427. Very portable
428.
Cons
429. Limited capacity

430. expensive per MB when compared to Hard Disks
431.
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432. Memory cards
433. Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into
Flash Drives. They have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB
Flash drives allowing for them to be used in cameras, mobile phones and game
consoles.
434.
435.
436. comparison of different memory cards
437.
438.
439.
5. Ports
440. What is a Port?
441. A computer port is a physical docking point using which an extenal device
can be connected to the computer.
442. A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to computer or over the internet.
443.
444. Characteristics
445. External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
446. Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is
plugged in.
447. Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard,
monitor, microphone , speakers etc.
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448.
449.
450.
451. Following are few important types of ports
452. Serial Port
453. Used for external modems and older computer mouse.
454. Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model.
455. Data travels at 115 kilobits per second.

456.
457. Parallel Port
458. Used for scanners and printers
459. Also called printer port.
460. 25 pin model.
461. Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

462.
463. PS/2 Port
464. Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
465. Also called mouse port.
466. Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and
keyboard.
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467.
468. Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.
469. Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
470. Can connect all kind of external USB devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
471. Introduced in 1997.
472. Most of the computers provide two USB port as minimum.
473. Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
474. USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port
475.
476. VGA Port
477. Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
478. Has 15 holes.
479. Similar to serial port connector

480. Power Connector
481. Three-pronged plug
482. Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall
socket.
483.
484. Firewire Port
485. Transfer large amounts of data at very fast speed.
486. Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
487. Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
488. Invented by Apple
489. Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400
connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector
490. Ethernet Port
491. Connects to a network and high speed Internet
492. Connect network cable to a computer.
493. This port resides on an Eternet Card.
494. Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon
the network bandwidth.
495.
496. Game Port
497. Connect a PC to a joystick
498. Now replaced by USB.

499. Digital Video Interface , DVI port
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500. Connect a Flat panel LCD monitors to the computer's high end video
graphic cards.
501. Very popular among video card manufacturers.

502.
503. Sockets
504. Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer
505.
6. Bus System
506.
507. A bus, in computing, is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits,
etc.) which can be shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate
with one another.
508. The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for
communication between the components, by carrying out all communications over a
single data channel. This is why the metaphor of a "data highway" is sometimes
used. If only two hardware components communicate over the line, it is called a
hardware port (such as a serial port or parallel port).
509. Characteristics
510. A bus is characterised by the amount of information that can be transmitted at
once. This amount,expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines
over which data is sent simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits
in
511. 1. Data Bus
The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a
bidirectional bus.
512. Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to transfer data between
different components of computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the speed
of data transfer between different components. The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or
64 lines. A 64-line data bus can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.
513. The data bus lines are bi-directional. It means that:
1. CPU can read data from memory using these lines
2. CPU can write data to memory locations using these lines
514. 2. Address Bus.
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515. The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory
addresses which the processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a
unidirectional bus
516. Many components are connected to one another through buses. Each
component is assigned a unique ID. This ID is called the address of that component.
It a component wants to communicate with another component, it uses address bus to
specify the address of that component. The address bus is a unidirectional bus. It
can carry information only in one direction. It carries address of memory
location from microprocessor to the main memory.
517. 3. Control Bus
518. 3. Control bus

The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchonisation signals
coming from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a
bidirectional bus, as it also transmits response signals from the hardware
519. Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control signals from
one component to another component. Suppose CPU wants to read data from main
memory. It will use control is also used to transmit control signals like ASKS
(Acknowledgement signals). A control signal contains the following:
520. 1 Timing information: It specifies the time for which a device can use data
and address bus.
521. 2 Command Signal: It specifies the type of operation to be performed.
522. Suppose that CPU gives a command to the main memory to write data. The
memory sends acknowledgement signal to CPU after writing the data successfully.
CPU receives the signal and then moves to perform some other action.
523. The primary buses

524. There are generally two buses within a computer:
525. the internal bus (sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short). The
internal bus
526. allows the processor to communicate with the system's central memory (the
RAM).
527. the expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows various
motherboard
528. components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors,
hard drives,
529. CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one another.
However, it is mainly
530. used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to
the
531. input/outpur bus.
532.
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533.
534.
535.
536. Chipset
537. A chipset is the component which routes data between the computer's buses,
so that all thecomponents which make up the computer can communicate with each
other. The chipsetoriginally was made up of a large number of electronic chips,
hence the name. It generally hastwo components:
538. The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of
controlling transfersbetween the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located
physically near theprocessor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, forr Graphic and
Memory Controller Hub.
539. The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion
controller) handlescommunications between peripheral devices. It is also called the
ICH (I/O Controller Hub).
540. The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component which connects
two buses
541.
542.
543.
544. Relationship between Hardware and Software

545. Mutually dependent.Both of them must work together to make computer
produce a useful output.
546. Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
547. Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and
is useless.
548. To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be
loaded into the hardware
549. Hardware is a one time expense.
550. software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
551. Different software can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
552. A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
553. If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its

'soul'.Both are complimentary to each other.
554.
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555. Software
556. Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem. There are two types of software
557. System Software
558. Application Software

559.
560. System Software
561. The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control
and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are
generally prepared by computer manufactures. These softwares comprise of
programs written in low level languages which interact with the hardware at a very
basic level. System software serves as the interface between hardware and the end
users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,
Interpreter, Assemblers etc.
562. Difficult to understand.
563. Less interactive.
564. Smaller in size.
565. Difficult to manipulate.
566. Generally written in low level language.

567.
568. Application Software
569. Application software are the software that are designed to satisfy a particular
need of a particular environment. All software prepared by us in the computer lab
can come under the category of Application software. Application software may
consists of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing
simple text. It may also consists of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are following
570. Payroll Software 574. Railways
Reservation Software
571. Student Record
Software 575. Microsoft Office
Suite Software
572. Inventory
Management Software 576. Microsoft Word
573. Income Tax 577. Microsoft Excel

Software
578. Microsoft
Powerpoint
579.
580.
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581.
582.
583. Computer personel
584. The Role of a Computer Operator
585. What Is a Computer Operator?

586. A computer operator is an individual who works with computers on a daily
basis and partakes in a number of activities relative to such operation. These
individuals will have varying duties depending on their specific job title and place of
employment. In general, computer operators enter data , aid in fixing computer
problems and supervise others working in the computers department.
587. General Responsibilities of a Computer Operator

588. Computer operators will find themselves holding a number of responsibilities
in their job position. Some of these responsibilities include operating various
computer systems, fixing problems that may arise, contacting those who can remedy
computer problems when unable to do so and tracking computers operations on a
daily basis. These responsibilities may vary in nature and some computer operators
will have a wide range of responsibilities whereas others will have minimal amounts
of duties due to their job title.
589. Conclusion
590. A computer operator is an individual who is responsible for using computers,
fixing computer problems and monitoring computer usage by others in his/her
department. The true extent of the job role of a computer operator will be determined
by the exact position he/she holds, the company which the individual works for and
the amount of responsibility the individual is given. Overall, the job role of a
computer operator is one which is varied and fulfilling. Should one have a good
knowledge with regard to computers and be well rounded in such knowledge,
embarking on a career as a computer operator may be a wise move on their part.
591. What is Computer Programming?
592. Computer programming is the imputing of sequenced instructions that direct

a computer to take assigned actions or determine logical steps.
593. What is a Computer Programmer?
594. Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the programs that computers
follow when performing specific functions. While job titles and descriptions vary by
company, the main task of computer programmers is problem solving and
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development of systems solutions using the appropriate methodologies and
techniques.
595. Programmers often work on projects as a team, each team member assigned
according to strength and ability. A programmer uses programming languages, such
as C++, PHP, or Java to communicate with computer to perform a set of instructions.
By typing code in 2nd and 3rd level programming languages (which are languages
become more like words as the generation goes up and more like machine code as
the generation goes down , eg assembler) helps computer programmers easier to
code with. Once finished coding they compile the program into machine language so
the computer can follow the set of instructions.
596. What qualifications do Computer Programmers need?
597. A Bachelors degree in Computer Science is generally required for

employment at the more prestigious technology companies. However, the
combination of an associates degree with strong computer programming ability will
qualify programmers for many entry-level positions. Regardless of the degree
chosen, courses in information science, computer science, mathematics, and
engineering provide the kind of strong base knowledge employers look for.
Additional qualifications include:
598. Certification in a specific programming language or languages
Familiarity with database systems
Good communication skills
An eye for detail
An ability to think out of the box
An analytical mind and problem solving skills
599. What type of tasks are involved in Computer Programming?
600. In addition to writing new programs, computer programmers update and

maintain existing programs. They test programs to ensure efficiency, accuracy, and to
identify programming errors. Some of the tasks programmers might also do the
following:
601. System Analyst and Designers
602. Job Titles
Network Designer
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Systems Analyst
Solutions Architect
Senior Systems Engineer
Senior Solutions Architect
Systems Architect
Principal Solutions Architect
603. Duties The role of system analysts and designers is critical in contemporary
system development. The systems analyst is a key partner with project managers and
system developers.
604. Systems analysts define software requirements and specifications and guide
program design and development. A systems analyst may supervise a software
development or maintenance team of analyst / programmers and programmers.
605. Depending on the level of responsibility and the particular job role involved,
duties may also include:
1. Analyzing problems in software development and guiding the rectification of faults in

programs
2. Analyzing software requirements and defining program parameters and specifications
3. Undertaking analysis of current software products and determining approaches which will
improve their user interface, performance and integrity
4. Leading team members and third parties in client organisations in the integration of
technological methodologies and components of projects
5. Ensuring and being accountable for the technical integrity of the design in accordance with
the clients requirements
6. Ensuring that programs meet marketing/user requirements by testing and monitoring initial
field use and problems
7. Guiding the preparation of software manuals and guides
8. Improving the interface between systems users, the operating system and applications
software
9. Conducting user requirements analysis to match customer needs to company products and
services
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10. Assisting the sales force with pre-sales activity such as proposal preparation, systems
demonstrations and presentations, particularly in relation to larger and more important
clients.
606. Career Path Systems analysts and designers typically have a technical
background, often in software development and programming. A senior systems
engineer usually has substantial formal training and at least 7-10 years systems
engineering experience. A systems analyst will typically have at least 5 years
experience in software development and programming with at least 2 or more years
in systems analysis. A principal solutions architect would typically have at least 10
years experience in a technical field such as systems integration or systems
development, with at least 5 years experience in an ICT contracting environment.
607. Qualifications / Experience
608. The systems analyst/ designer is usually a more senior position in enterprises.
Professional qualifications will vary but a good understanding of ICT with technical
expertise is essential. Formal qualifications for systems analyst would typically
include studies of computing systems alongside studies typically found in a Bachelor
Degree of Engineering / Science / ICT.
609. Personal Qualities
A business outcome approach
An ability to conceptualise and think creatively
A capacity to articulate visions
Very good oral and written communications skills
Interpersonal skills to evoke commitment from the client
A high standard of ethics and integrity in all dealings
Sound administrative skills and good analytical and reporting abilities
Effective time management and personal organization skills
An understanding of user needs
610. Systems Designer (Information Technology)
614. State/Territory SpecificInformation
616. Systems designers (IT) create detailed design documentation for the
development and integration of computer systems to meet the needs ofbusinesses.
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617. Systems designers (IT) may perform the followingtasks:
work with analysts on the feasibility of a conceptual design by taking technical

specifications prepared by the analyst and designing system components to meet the set
requirements
draw up detailed design documentation including chartsand diagrams that indicate the
various components involved
prepare instructions for programmer implementation
talk with other team members (analysts and programmers) to ensure functionality according
to systems specifications, and develop solutions as problemsor issues arise
design monitoring and performance measurement processes.
618. Specialisations:
619. Applications System Designer

620. An applications system designer undertakes design tasks for business
computer systems such as payroll or stock control.
621. Database Design Specialist

622. A database design specialist plays an important role in devising databases to
suit large data acquisition, storage and retrieval requirements. Designers develop
database solutions that satisfy clients' needs for high-speed access, multiple views of
the same information, accuracy andsecurity, and the sharing of information between
systems.
623. Network Designer

624. A network designer is generally involved in design functions in contexts that
include in-house networks or larger, distributed mainframe systems. Design work in
this context can be very complex, with large numbers of protocols, platforms and
software solutions that need to communicate with each other.
625. Operations Systems Designer

626. An operations systems designer is involved in the design and implementation
of operational systems, with the objective of optimising systems performance. The
focus is on operational systems such as mainframes, desktop and mid-range
solutions.
627. Software Designer

628. A software designer works in the area of design and modification of the
operating environment software that links computersoftware and hardware. The role
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is sometimes also described as Software Engineer, implying some knowledge of the
associated hardware on which the software runs.
629. Systems Architect

630. A systems architect examines the hardware requirements that support systems
implementation across personal computers, mainframes or networks.
631. Systems Designer (Research)

632. A systems designer (research) specialises in systems investigation and
research for the ongoing development of hardware and software.
633. Personal Requirements:
able to understand and solve complex problems
logical and analytical approach to solving problems
good communication skills
able to work independently or as part of a team
able to direct the work of others
willing to actively maintain personal skills and knowledge of IT.
634.
635. Database Administrator
636. Job Description:
637. Also called Database Co-ordinator, Database Programmer Closely related

jobs Database Analyst, Database Modeller, Programmer Analyst, Systems Manager
638. In summary
639. Database administrators design, implement, maintain and repair an

organisations database. The role includes developing and designing the database
strategy, monitoring and improving database performance and capacity, and planning
for future expansion requirements. They may also plan, co-ordinate and implement
security measures to safeguard the database.
640. A database administrator may
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1. undertake daily administration, including monitoring system performance, ensuring
successful backups, and developing/implementing disaster recovery plans
2. manage data to give users the ability to access, relate and report information in different
ways
3. develop standards to guide the use and acquisition of software and to protect valuable
information
4. modify existing databases or instruct programmers and analysts on the required changes
5. test programs or databases, correct errors and make necessary modifications
6. train users and answer questions
641. What learning areas and study is needed?
A Bachelor degree in ICT
Specific training in vendor products
642. This career would appeal to people who
1. enjoy keeping up with the complexities of database technologies, and have a knowledge of
relational database technology (eg, Oracle, Sybase, DB2, MS Access) and operating systems
2. have well-developed interpersonal and communication skills
3. have an ability to understand data and how it will be used
4. possess good process management and problem solving skills
5. enjoy working within a team and taking a hands-on approach, but can also work
autonomously
6. are customer focussed
7. enjoy troubleshooting determining the causes of operating errors and deciding what to do
about it
8. are critical thinkers and can use logic and reason to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems
9. are active listeners and can give full attention to what people are saying and take the time to
understand the points being made
643. Remuneration and job prospects?
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644. Average salary according to the Victorian Governments Youth Central is
$71,596 based on around three years relevant IT experience. Job prospects are good,
and employment has remained steady over the last five years.
645. Career Path:
646. Starting out
647. Many database administrators have had experience in programming, and IT

vendor qualifications are increasingly popular with employers.
648. Going towards
649. Larger organisations may offer structured career paths with increasing
management and technical responsibilities, but many database administrators move
on to other areas such as systems development, project management, network
management or database architecture. Those with good management skills combined
with their technical expertise may move into more strategic roles.
650. Network Administrator
651. Job Description:
652. Closely related jobs: Network Technician, Network Engineer, Website

Administrator, Systems Administrator, Telecommunications Engineer
653. In summary
654. Network administrators provide operational support for and management of

computer networks to ensure they run efficiently. The IT networks can range from
internet and private networks to large communications networks.
655. A network administrator may
install, configure and maintain PCs, networking equipment and network operating systems
monitor and configure networks to optimise performance and resolve faults
undertake recovery action in the event of a system failure
establish and control system access and security levels
provide training and support for system software
implement and co-ordinate housekeeping procedures, including system back-ups, setting up

user accounts, monitoring file access etc
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plan and implement maintenance and upgrades for system software and hardware
maintain peripheral devices connected to the printer such as printers and scanners
656. What learning areas and study is needed?
657. Computing studies such as Bachelor Degree in Engineering (Electronics or

Computing) or Computer Science A good understanding of network operating
systems, network equipment and networking protocols is important Vendor
certification (eg, Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer, Cisco Certified Network
Associate) This career would appeal to people who
enjoy a highly technical role
are able to think logically and analytically in a troubleshooting and problem-solving

environment
can remain calm under high pressure and stressful situations
have good oral and written communication skills and are active listeners
are able to quickly understand complex issues
enjoy working as part of a team
are willing to continuously update IT skills and knowledge
658.
659. Computer Network

660. A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing
hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users
661.
662. What is Network?
663. A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.
664. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines,
radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams
665. Networks are used to:
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Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.
Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner
Enable file sharing across the network
Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems
Make information easier to access and maintain among network users
666. There are many types Metropolitan Area Networks

of networks, including: (MAN)
Local Area Networks (LAN) Enterprise Private Networks
Personal Area Networks (PAN) Internetworks
Home Area Networks (HAN) Backbone Networks (BBN)
Wide Area Networks (WAN) Global Area Networks (GAN)
Campus Networks The Internet
667. The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:
668. topology : The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example,
devices can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
669. protocols : The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols
also determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
670. media : Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber
optic cables. Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating
instead via radio waves.
671. Different Types of Networks
672. Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified

as:
Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
1 Local Area Network (LAN)
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673. A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices,
usually within small geographical area e.g. an office building or home. i.e. within
the same building or up to a radius 10m 5km.
LANs enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by
multiple users
Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters,and no more than a mile
Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
Has lower cost compared to MANs or WANs
LANs can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in
wired LANs.
Every LAN uses a protocol a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
Technical aspects
Network topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network
segments. At the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer, a wide variety of LAN topologies have
been used, including ring, bus, mesh and star, but the most common LAN topology in use today
is switched Ethernet.
Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include:
674. Bus
675. Ring
676. Star
677. LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).
678. Advantages of LAN

679. Speed Speed: The machine connected together via the internal
network should be very high speeds.- Data transfer rate higher.
680. Cost Low cost: Only need 2
computers connected together via a network card can become a Workgroup.
681. Security :increased security and data security in intranet.
682. Centralized management: data is stored centrally on the server, the
folders are also to shared account access management server.- Resource Sharing
683.
684. Disadvantages of LAN
685. Expensive To Install e.g due to server system
686. Requires Administrative Time
687. File Server May Fail
688. Cables May Break
689.
2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
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690. A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that
usually spans a city or a
691. large campus. formed whenever clients are connected within a medium
seized area i.e. entire city within a radius of 10km
692. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging
from several blocks of
693. buildings to entire cities.
694. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it
usually will be used
695. by many individuals and organizations.
696. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional
resources.
697. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
698. Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed
DSL to
699. customers and cable TV network
3 Wide Area Network (WAN)
700. WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even
whole of the world.
701. A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many
miles apart.
702. To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed
phone lines or
703. wireless links such as satellites.
704. Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges,
routers, or gateways, which enable them to share data.
705. The world's most popular WAN is the Internet
706.
4 Personal Area Network (PAN)
707. A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and
computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters
within a room
708. It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for
connecting to a larger network such as the internet.
709. PANs can be wired or wireless
710. A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for
communication among computer devices, including telephones and personal digital
assistants, in proximity to an
711. individual's body.
712. The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of
a PAN is typically a few meters.
713. Advantages
The scope of activities is not limited
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Do multiple LAN and MAN connections with each other so very complex
network andthe global organization to stand out and management regulations
714. disadvantages
Low bandwidth, easy to lose connection, usually only suitable for online applications such
as e - mail, ftp, web ....
Costs for equipment and technology is very expensive WAN
715. Importance of Networking

716. Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users,
and provides access to information. Networking of computers has several uses,
described as follows:
Resource Sharing In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and

scanners are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small
organizations it may not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual. Such
resources can be made available to different users of the organization on the network. It
results in availability of the resource to different users regardless of the physical location of
the resource or the user, enhances optimal use of the resource, leads to easy maintenance,
and saves cost too
Sharing of Information In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking

facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at
same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to the
network.
As a Communication Medium Networking helps in sending and receiving of

electronic-mail (e-mail) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text,
audio, video and pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate
online in a faster and cost effective manner. Video conferencing is another form of
communication made possible via networking. People in distant locations can hold a
meeting, and they can hear and see each other simultaneously.
For Back-up and Support Networked computers can be used to take back-up of
critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another
computer on the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.
717. NETWORKING COMPONENTS

718.
719. What are the hardware components of a LAN?
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720. The hardware components of a LAN consist of:
PCs/workstations and servers
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Cabling and connectors, for example, coaxial cable and BNC connector, Unshielded Twisted
Pair (UTP) and RJ-45 connector
Hub, concentrator, and more complicated network devices such as Bridge, LAN Switch and
Router
721. What are the software components of a LAN?
722. The software components of a LAN can be grouped into two categories:
723. 1. Inside PCs/workstations and servers
NIC Drivers
Network Operating System for servers, for example, Novell Netware 4.1 or Microsoft
Windows NT
Network Operating System for clients (PCs/workstations), for example, Novell Netware
4.1 client or Microsoft Windows 95
Networking protocol software, for example, TCP/IP, Novell IPX
Application software, for example, emails, Internet Web Browser
724. 2. Inside network devices (Hub/Bridge/LAN Switch/Router)
Network Management Software, for example, Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP), Remote Network Monitoring (RMC)
Forwarding/routing & control software, for examples, transparent bridging, spanning tree
and IP routing software
725. What is a Network Interface Card (NIC)?
726. A Network Interface Card, or NIC, is a circuit board inserted into each
network station (PC/workstation or server) to allow communication with other
stations. Depending on the stations, the bus of a NIC could be ISA, PCI, EISA,
MCA, S-busand so on.
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727. What is a Hub?
728. A Hub is a central device used on star network topology that repeats or
amplifies signals, allowing the network to be lengthened or expanded with additional
stations. For example, an Ethernet hub normally has 8 or 12 or 16 RJ-45 ports, each
port can be connected to a PC or workstation or server. Also, the hubs BNC port can
be connected to a coaxial cable to lengthen the network.
729. What is a Bridge?
730. A Bridge is a device used to connect two or more LANs. It operates at the
Media Access Control Layer (layer 2), checking and forwarding data packets
between different LANs.
731. What is a LAN Switch?
732. A LAN Switch is a device using switching hardware to speed-up the

checking and forwarding of data packets between LANs. LAN Switch is functionally
like a bridge, but its speed and performance is faster and better than a bridge.
733. What is a Router?
734. A Router is a device that operates at the network layer (layer 3), routing data
between similar or dissimilar networks. A router is more powerful than a bridge or
LAN Switch because the router checks the network protocols and addresses (for
example, IP or IPX).
735. What is a Network Management?
736. Network Management are functions that manage and control networks. It
consists of five major functions:
1 Fault Management
2 Accounting Management
3 Configuration Management
4 Performance Management
5 Security Management
737. What is SNMP?
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738. SNMP, or Simple Network Management Protocol, is a standard protocol
adopted for the network management of Internet and TCP/IP based networks.
739. What is RMON?
740. RMON are the functions that monitor the network performance, errors and
other summary information. RMON functions can be implemented in a network
device (HUB, LAN switch) or a station (PC, Server).
741. What is JAVA?
742. JAVA is a network programming language designed to solve problems in the

area of client-server programming. It is ideal for programming on the Internet. JAVA
capability is included in most new generation Internet Web Browser, e.g. Netscape
Navigator 2.0 and higher and Microsoft Explorer 3.0 and above.
743. Define a JAVA-based Network Management System.
744. A JAVA-based Network Management System is an integration of JAVA

language and network management functions. The network management software is
written in JAVA language and stored in a network device (HUB, LAN switch). The
user can manage the network by an Internet Web Browser. The operation of network
management is as simple as browsing WWW server.
745. What is a RMON software probe?
746. A RMON software probe is a RMON-like software that runs on PCS. The
software can do the function of monitoring the network traffics, errors and other
statistics. It can also store the records for later analysis.
747. Setting up a network
748. In order to create an Ethernet network, certain components are necessary for
the computers within the network to communicate with each other. The required
components to create an Ethernet network are:
10Base-T Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC)
Ethernet hub
BNC T-connectors (usually provided)
50-Ohm terminators (usually provided)
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Thin Ethernet (Thinnest) coaxial cable (usually provided)
749. Network Interface Card
750. A Network Interface Card (NIC) is an add-on adapter card that is installed to
the PCI or ISA slot on the PCs motherboard. The NIC sorts data on the computer
into bundles and transmits them to another computer while allowing the user to
access the data within the bundle simultaneously. The most common NIC used today
is the 10Base-T Ethernet card that is connected to an Ethernet hub.
751. Hub
752. All Ethernet 10Base-T networks are connected with an Ethernet hub. The hub
manages the traffic that passes between computers on a network and is connected to
all computers that are part of the network.
753. Other networking components
754. Other networking components are used to connect a PC or even a laptop to an

Ethernet network. AUI-BNC transceivers can be used to connect a PC or a laptop to
a different network interface. Some NIC can support a combination of interface, such
as an AUI and a BNC as well as a RJ45. Sometimes a combo transceiver may be
used to connect to a NIC on a PC or a laptop on one end and to another network
system on the other over the supported interface.
755. Most network interface cards today have PnP (Plug and Play) capability. The
following procedures assume that your NIC is PnP-compatible and that your PCs
operating system is Windows 95. Once the NIC is installed and you have powered
on your computer, Windows 95 will automatically detect the new modem and
assist you with its configuration. If this is not the case, refer to the documentation
that came with your NIC for proper configuration procedures such as setting IRQ
settings.
756.
757. communication network

758. Definition
759. A communication network is an infrastructure that allows users to exchange
information.
760. Key elements
761. User a person, a computer program, a sensor, and etc;
762. Information a text, a computer file, a webpage, a video, and etc.
763. Digital representation of information. Analog-to-digital conversion.
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764. Examples
765. Postal service, public telephone network (including cellular telephony),
766. cable TV, wireless local area network (wifi), Internet (a network of
networks).
767. The ability to exchange data and communicate efficiently is the main purpose
of networking computers. But we have to consider beyond these points to evaluate
the feasibility of networking for our own advantages.
A computer network can be identified as a group of computers that are interconnected for sharing
data between them or their users. There is a wide variety of networks and their advantages and
disadvantages mainly depend on the type of network.
Advantages of Computer Networking
768. 1. Easy Communication and Speed
769. It is very easy to communicate through a network. People can communicate

efficiently using a network with a group of people. They can enjoy the benefit of
emails, instant messaging, telephony, video conferencing, chat rooms, etc.
770. 2. Ability to Share Files, Data and Information
771. This is one of the major advantages of networking computers. People can
find and share information and data because of networking. This is beneficial for
large organizations to maintain their data in an organized manner and facilitate
access for desired people.
772. 3. Sharing Hardware
773. Another important advantage of networking is the ability to share hardware.

For an example, a printer can be shared among the users in a network so that theres
no need to have individual printers for each and every computer in the company.
This will significantly reduce the cost of purchasing hardware.
774. 4 . Sharing Software
775. Users can share software within the network easily. Networkable versions of
software are available at considerable savings compared to individually licensed
version of the same software. Therefore large companies can reduce the cost of
buying software by networking their computers.
776. 5. Security
777. Sensitive files and programs on a network can be password protected. Then
those files can only be accessed by the authorized users. This is another important
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advantage of networking when there are concerns about security issues. Also each
and every user has their own set of privileges to prevent them accessing restricted
files and programs.
778. 6. Speed
779. Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid, depending on the
type of network. This will save time while maintaining the integrity of files.
780. Disadvantages of Networking

781. 1. Breakdowns and Possible Loss of Resources
782. One major disadvantage of networking is the breakdown of the whole

network due to an issue of the server. Such breakdowns are frequent in networks
causing losses of thousands of dollars each year. Therefore once established it is vital
to maintain it properly to prevent such disastrous breakdowns. The worst scenario is
such breakdowns may lead to loss of important data of the server.
783. 2. Expensive to Build
784. Building a network is a serious business in many occasions, especially for

large scale organizations. Cables and other hardware are very pricey to buy and
replace.
785. 3. Security Threats
786. Security threats are always problems with large networks. There are hackers
who are trying to steal valuable data of large companies for their own benefit. So it is
necessary to take utmost care to facilitate the required security measures.
787. 4. Bandwidth Issues
788. In a network there are users who consume a lot more bandwidth than others.
Because of this some other people may experience difficulties.
789. Although there are disadvantages to networking, it is a vital need in todays

environment. People need to access the Internet, communicate and share information
and they cant live without that. Therefore engineers need to find alternatives and
improved technologies to overcome issues associated with networking. Therefore we
can say that computer networking is always beneficial to have even if there are some
drawbacks.
790. Considerations When Choosing a Topology
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Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do
not have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.
791. Definition - What does Network Topology mean?
792. Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a networ
1 Bus Topology: All the devices/nodes are connected sequentially to the same backbone or
transmission line. This is a simple, low-cost topology, but its single point of failure presents
a risk.
793. Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
794. Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
795.
796.
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2 Star Topology: All the nodes in the network are connected to a central device like a hub or
switch via cables. Failure of individual nodes or cables does not necessarily create downtime
in the network but the failure of a central device can. This topology is the most preferred and
popular model.
797.
798. Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
799. Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
800.
801.
802.
3 Ring Topology: All network devices are connected sequentially to a backbone as in bus
topology except that the backbone ends at the starting node, forming a ring. Ring topology
shares many of bus topology's disadvantages so its use is limited to networks that demand
high throughput.
803. Advantages
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804. See also: Ring Protection
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the computers
Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side (each
device is connected to its immediate neighbor), it is quite easy to install and reconfigure
since adding or removing a device requires moving just two connections.
Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.
805. Disadvantages
One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This can be
solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network
Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network
Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices
More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction = Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration
806.
4 Tree Topology: A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable
(See fig. 3). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable
schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
807. Advantages of a Tree Topology
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Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
808. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
809. .An example of this network could be cable TV technology. Other examples
are in dynamic tree based wireless networks for military, mining and otherwise
mobile applications.[
810.
811.
5 Mesh Topology: The topology in each node is directly connected to some or all the other
nodes present in the network. This redundancy makes the network highly fault tolerant but
the escalated costs may limit this topology to highly critical networks.
Page 62 of 97
812.
813.
814.
815.
816.
817. Internet, Intranet and Extranet

818. INTERNET
819. INTERNET is a global interconnection of networks that connects computers

and devices world wide.Variety of hardware and software are used to make
Internet functional.
Modem
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820. Device that enables computers to communicate through phone lines.
821. When we start internet the our modem communicates to modem of

ISP
Computer
822. In addition to a modem, you need a client capable of handling

multiple data types.
Software
823. Two types of softwares required to enable your PC as an Internet

PC.
Communication software to establish connection
Client software for browsing, e-mail, news.
824. Applications Of Internet
Download programs and files
E-Mail
Voice and Video Conferencing
E-Commerce
File Sharing
Information browsing
Search the web addresses for access

through search engine
Chatting and many more
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Disadvantages of Internet
Theft of personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc.
Virus threats nothing but a program which disrupts the normal functioning of your
system.
Spamming refers to receiving unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and
needlessly obstruct the entire system.
Pornography This is perhaps the biggest threat related to childrens healthy mental life.
A very serious issue concerning the Internet.
Though, internet can also create havoc, destruction and its misuse can be very fatal,
the advantages of it outweigh its disadvantages.
INTRANET is a private network connection or a website that connects computers only within an
organization or a company that does not connect directly to the internet. Giving privacy to data to
avoid hacking by unauthorized people.
Intranet Security
Two levels of Security required:
Internal
It can be imposed by Public Key Security & Encryption Key.
External
Through Firewall.
Applications of Intranet
Sharing of company policies/rules & regulations
Access employee database
Distribution of circulars/Office Orders
Access product & customer data
Sharing of information of common interest
Launching of personal/departmental home pages

Submission of reports
Corporate telephone directories
Calendaring and Scheduling:

Using electronic calendars and other groupware features to automatically schedule,
notify, and remind the computer networked members of teams and workgroups of
meetings, appointments, and other events.
Chat Systems:
Software that enables two or more users at networked PCs to carry on online, real-time
text conversations.
Data Conferencing:
Data conferencing is a method where a groupware package connects two or more PCs
over the Internet or intranets so a team can share, mark up, and review a whiteboard of
drawings, documents, and other material displayed on their screens.
Desktop Videoconferencing:
The use of end user computer workstations to conduct two-way interactive
videoconferences.
Discussion Forums:
Provide an online network discussion platform to encourage and manage online text
discussions over a period of time among members of special interest groups or project
teams.
Electronic Communication Tools:

Software that helps you communicate and collaborate with others by electronically
sending messages, documents, and files in data, text, voice, or multimedia over the
Internet, intranets, extranets, and other computer networks.
Electronic Conferencing Tools:

Software that helps networked computer users share information and collaborate while
working together on joint assignments no matter where they are located.
Electronic Mail:
Sending and receiving text messages between networked PCs over telecommunications
networks. E-mail can also include data files, software, and multimedia messages and
documents as attachments.
Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS):

Using a meeting room with networked PCs, a large screen projector, and EMS software
to facilitate communication, collaboration and group decision making in business
meetings.
Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster
and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of
browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to
make available, anytime and - subject to security provisions - from anywhere within the
company workstations, increasing employees' ability to perform their jobs faster, more
accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information.
It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.
Disadvantages
Management problem:
A company may not have person to update their Intranet on a routine basis
Fear of sharing information and the loss of control
Limited bandwidth for the business
Security problem
Unauthorized acescs
Abuse of access
Denial of service
Productivity problem
Information overload lowers productivity
True purpose of the Intranet is unknown to many employees/departments
Hidden or unknown complexity and costs
Collaborative applications for Intranet are not as powerful as those offered by

traditional groupware -For instance, Intranet includes no built-in data replication or
directory services for remote users, while groupware packages such as Lotus Notes do.
Short-term risk -There are limited tools for linking an Intranet server to database or
other back-end mainframe-based applications. Programming standards for the Web, such
as common gateway interface (CGI) and Java are fairly new and just maturing.
Less back-end integration -With Intranets, firms have to set up and maintain separate
applications such as E-mail and Web servers, instead of using one unified system as with
groupware
Extranet
EXTRANET is an extension of an organizations intranet that can be accessed by users outside the
organization, usually partners, vendors, and suppliers with a username and password to access
the intranet.
Examples
Dealers/distributors have access to product files such as :-
i. product specification,
ii. pictures,
iii. images, etc.
to answer the queries of the customer.
Components of extranets ..
Some basic infrastructure components such as the internet Including :-
TCP/IP protocols,
E-mail,
Web-browsers,
External business partners &
Tele-commuting employees place order, check status & send E-mail.
Benefits of Extranet
Improved quality.
lower travel costs.
lower administrative & other overhead costs.
reduction in paperwork.
delivery of accurate information on time.
improved customer service.
better communication.
overall improvement in business
effectiveness.
Disadvantages
The suppliers & customer who dont
have technical knowledge feel problem.
Faceless contact.
Information can be misused by other competitors.
Fraud may be possible.
Technical Employees are required.
INTRODUCTION COMPUTER THREATS
The computer is a great tool to store important information. In certaincases, the information is
very vital that losing it will harm the computersystem.
Computer threats can come from many ways either from human or naturaldisasters. For example,
when someone is stealing your account informationfrom a trusted bank, this threat is considered
as a human threat. However,when your computer is soaked in heavy rain, then that is a natural
disaster
threat.
MALICIOUS CODE
Malicious code is also known as a rogue program. It is a threat to computing assets by causing
undesired effects in the programmers part. The effect is caused by an agent, with the intention to
cause damage.
The agent for malicious code is the writer of the code, or any person who causes its distribution.
There are various kinds of malicious code. They include virus, Trojan horse, logic door, trapdoor
and backdoor, worm and many others
a) VIRUS
a program that can pass on the malicious code to other programs by modifying them attaches
itself to the program, usually files with .doc, .xls and .exe extensions destroys or co-exists with
the program can overtake the entire computing system and spread to other systems
b) TROJAN HORSE
a program which can perform useful and unexpected action must be installed by users or
intruders before it can affect the systems assets an example of a Trojan horse is the login script
that requests for users login ID and password
the information is then used for malicious purposes
c) LOGIC BOMB
logic bomb is a malicious code that goes off when a specific condition occurs.
an example of a logic bomb is the time bomb it goes off and causes threats at a specified time
or date
e) TRAPDOOR OR BACKDOOR
a feature in a program that allows someone to access the program with special privileges
f) WORM
a program that copies and spreads itself through a network
HACKER
Hacking is a source of threat to security in computer.
It is defined as unauthorised access to the computer system by a hacker.
Hackers are persons who learn about the computer system in detail. They write program referred
to as hacks. Hackers may use a modem or cable to hack the targeted computers.
NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS
Computers are also threatened by natural or environmental disaster. Be it at home, stores, offices
and also automobiles.Examples of natural and environmental disasters:
Flood
Fire
Earthquakes, storms and tornados
Excessive Heat
Inadequate Power Supply
SECURITY MEASURES
Today, people rely on computers to create, store and manage critical information. It is important
that the computer and the data they store are accessible and available when needed. It is also
important that users take measures to protect their computers and data from lost, damage and
misused.
Security measures mean the precautionary measures taken toward possible danger or damage.
There are 6 type of security measures.
1) DATA BACKUP
Data Backup is a program of file duplication. Backups of data applications are necessary so that
they can be recovered in case of an emergency.
2) CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptography is a process of hiding information by altering the actual information into different
representation, for example, an APA can be written as I ?
Almost all cryptosystems depend on a key such as a password like the numbers or a phrase that
can be used to encrypt or decrypt a message.
4) ANTI-SPYWARE
Spyware is a program placed on a computer withoutthe users knowledge. It secretly collects
informationabout the user.
The spyware program communicates information to the outside source.
An anti-spyware application program sometime called tracking software or a spybot is used to
remove spyware.
Among of the popular anti-spyware programs are:
Spybot Search and Destroy
Ad-aware
Spyware Blaster
5) FIREWALL
Firewall is a piece of hardware or software which functions in a networked environment to
prevent somecommunications forbidden by the security policy.
Firewall implement a security policy. It might permit limited access from in or outside the
network
perimeters or from certain user or for certain activities
6) HUMAN ASPECTS OF SECURITY MEASURES
Human aspects refer to the user and also the intruderof a computer system.
It is one of the hardest aspects to give protection to.
The most common problem is the lack of achieving a good information security procedure
ICT ETHICS
Ethics is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individual.
computer ethics is set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers
Code of Ethics Is a guideline in ICT that help determine whether a specific computer
action is ethical or unethical
Intellectual Is works created by inventors, authors and artists
Property
Privacy Refers to the right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict the
collection and use of information about them
Computer Is any illegal acts involving computers
Crime
Cyber Law Is any laws relating to protect the Internet and other online communication
technologies
Some common issues of computer ethics include intellectual property rights such as copyrighted
electronic content, privacy concerns, and how computers affect society
For example, while it is easy to duplicate copyrighted electronic or digital content, computer
ethics would suggest that it is wrong to do so without the author's approval.
And while it may be possible to access someone's personal information on a computer system,
computer ethics would advise that such an action is unethical
Differentiate between ethics and law
ETHICS LAW
As a guideline to computer users As a rule to control computer users
Computers users are free to follow or ignore Computers users must follow the regulations
the code of ethics and law
Universal, can be applied anywhere, all over Depend on country and state where the
the world crime is committed
To produced ethical computers users To prevent misuse of computers
Not following ethics are called immoral Not obeying laws are called crime
INTELLECTUAL
You have certainly heard the word property before: it is generally used to mean a possession, or
more specifically, something to which the owner has legal rights.
You might have also encountered the phrase intellectual property. This term has become more
commonplace during the past few years, especially in the context of computer ethics. But what
exactly does it refer to?
Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect (hence, the name): inventions, literary and
artistic works, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce are a part of it.
Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property which
broadly speaking protects inventions and copyright, which protects literary and artistic works.
Four types of Intellectual

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1. Patents for inventions
2. Trademarks for brand identity
3. Design for product appearance
4. Copyright for materials
CATEGORISING INTELLECTUAL PROPERY
Intellectual property is divided into two categories:
Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs,

commercial names, designations and geographic indications (location specific brands)
etc.
Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays,
films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs, sculptures,
and architectural designs.
Copy rights
Copyright is a legal concept, enacted by most governments, giving the creator of an original
work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time
History of copy right
Copyright came about with the invention of the printing press and with wider public literacy. As
a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers' monopolies at the
beginning of the 18th century. Charles II of England was concerned by the
unregulated copying of books and passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662 by Act of
Parliament.
WHAT IT CAN PROTECT AND WHAT NOT
In summary, copyright laws protect intellectual property which includes literary and artistic
works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings,
paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs.
But unlike protection of inventions, copyright law protects only the form of expressions of
ideas, not the ideas themselves.
Remember that a created work is considered protected as soon as it exists, and a public register
of copyright protected work is not necessary
COPY RIGHT ON INTERNET
But what of works made available to the public on the Internet? Are they at all protected
by copyright? Once again, yes! For works made available over a communications
network (such as the Internet), the copyright protects original authorship.
But, according to the Copyright Law, it does not protect ideas, procedures, systems, or
methods of operation. This means that once such an online work has been made public,
nothing in the copyright laws prevents others from developing another work based on
similar principles, or ideas
NETIQUTTES
Netiquette are about the the various risks related to using the Internet.
It is about proper ways in which to use a network and to determine whether information is
reliable, while emphasizing four important points given in next slides.
REAL PEPOLE EXIST BEHIND THE COMPUTERS

You are dealing with people, not machines. So think twice before you click on Send button in the
mail/chat window
You are not the only one using the network
Keep these other people in mind when you say something on a network.
PROTECT YOUR PRIVACY
Just as you would in the real world, be aware of risks, fraud and false information which
exists on the Internet. Use common sense when deciding whether information is valid.
Don't trust or spread further any information about which you are in doubt. Always try to
obtain reliable information.
Protect your personal information to keep someone from using it in an unethical way.
(For example, when you enter a prize contest, your name, address, and phone number
may be given to a dealer of personal information.)
Ways of making personal data more privates:
1. Install personal firewall
2. Clear your history file when you are browsing
3. Purchase goods with cash, rather than credit card
Authentication
Authentication is a process where user verifies their
identity. Authentication deals with the problem of
determining whether a user should be allowed access to a particular system.
Four commonly authentication methods:

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AVOID SPAMMING
Spamming is sending unsolicited bulk and/or commercial messages over the Internet.
Spamming is morally bad if it is intended to destroy and done by infringing on the right
of privacy of others.
It could be good if the message sent benefits the recipients, like giving out warnings or
useful information to others
HELP MAKING NETWORK BETTER
The existence of the information society is based on give and take. Making a contribution is an
essential part of being a good network user. For example, if you make a request and find the
information you receive helpful, write a summary and report what you learned , publish it on the
Net or give links to others.
SOFTWARE PRIVACY
Software piracy is morally bad when someone reproduces a copy of the software and
sells it for profit, produces exactly the same or similar version without giving proper
credit to the original author, or simply produces it and distributes it to others.
It is not immoral to copy the software if someone who has a licensed copy of the software
and simply makes a backup copy of the original. One back-up copy of the commercial
software can be made, but the back-up copy cannot be used except when the original
package fails or is destroyed.
CREATION OF WORMS AND COMPUTER VIRUS

Creation of worms and computer viruses is morally bad when it is intended for malicious
purposes like to steal information or destroying of data.
However, it could be used like a vaccine poison to kill another poison to cure or
prevent a potentially destructive system from wreaking havoc in the network. The way
some worms and viruses work could be used to gather information that could help protect
the majority of computer users.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is copying someone else's work and then passing it off as one's own. It is
morally bad because it is an act of stealing.
Copying programs written by other programmers and claiming it as your own could be an
act of plagiarism. It involves lying, cheating, theft, and dishonesty.
FILE PRIVACY
Any computer document produced either by an individual in his private home or in his office
should remain private. No one has should open any document unless authorized by the individual
who created the file himself.
User identification
Is a unique combination of characters (letter, number or symbol) that identify specific

user
Examples:
pin number
password
Possessed object
Is a any item that you must carry to gain access to computer of computer facility
Examples:
ATM card
credit card
smart card
Biometric device
Is a device that translates personal characteristics into digital code that is compared
with the digital code stored in the database
Examples:
fingerprint reader
iris scanner
hand geometric scanner
signature verification system
Controversial Contents and Control
PORNOGRAPHY SLANDER
is any form media or material (like books, video is a false spoken statement
or photos) that show erotic behavior and about someone, intended to
intended to cause sexual excitement damage his or her reputation
the effects of pornography on society are: the effects of slander on
i) Can lead to criminal acts such as exploitation society are:
of women i) Can develop society that
ii) Can lead to sexual addiction disregards on honesty and
iii) Can develop lower moral values towards truth
other people ii) Can lead to bad habits of
iv) Can erode good religious, cultural, behaviors spreading rumors and untruth
and beliefs iii) Can cause people to have
nagative attitudes toward
another person
Computer ethical hacking
An ethical hacker is usually employed by an organization who trusts him or her to attempt to
penetrate networks and/or computer systems, using the same methods as a hacker, for the
purpose of finding and fixing computer security vulnerabilities. Unauthorized hacking (i.e.,
gaining access to computer systems without prior authorization from the owner) is a crime in
most countries, but penetration testing done by request of the owner of the victim system or
network is not.
A Certified Ethical Hacker has obtained a certification in how to look for the weaknesses and
vulnerabilities in target systems and uses the same knowledge and tools as a hacker.
Why we need cyber law?
i) Cyber laws are made to force people to be good
ii) To give protection against the misuse of computers and computer criminal
activities
Examples of cyber abuse on the users:
i) Sending a computer virus via e-mail
ii) Harassment through e-mail
iii) Hacking into your school's database to change your examination results
Malaysian Cyber Law
i) Computer Crime Act 1997
ii) Copyright (Amendment) Bill 1997
iii) Digital Signature Act 1997
iv) Telemedicine Bill 1997
v) Communication and Multimedia Act 1998
vi) Digital Signature Regulations 1998
4 examples of computer crimes:
i) Computer fraud - is the crime of obtaining money by deceiving (to trick) people
through the use of computers such as email hoaxes, program fraud, investment schemes
and claim of expertise on certain fields
ii) Copyright infringement - is a violation of the rights secured by a copyright. It occurs

when you break the copyright laws such as copying movie, software or CDs illegally
iii) Computer theft is defined as the unauthorized used of another persons property such
as transfer of payment to the wrong accounts, get online material with no cost and tap
into the data transmission lines
iv) Computer attack is defined as any activities taken to disrupt the equipments of
computers systems, change processing controls and corrupt stored data
NB: As technology advances, computers continue to have a greater impact on society. Therefore,
computer ethics promotes the discussion of how much influence computers should have in areas
such as artificial intelligence and human communication. As the world of computers evolves,
computer ethics continues to create ethical standards that address new issues raised by new
technologies.
UNETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS
With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from
the Internet. You may not realise that when you fill a form on the Internet, your
information may be exposed and stolen.
Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:
modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the

accuracy of the information
selling information to other parties without the owners

permission
using information without authorization
involvement in stealing software
invasion of privacy
Intellectual property refers to any product of human intellect that is unique and has
value in the market place. This covers ideas, inventions, unique name, computer
program codes and many more.
ETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS
Examples of ethical computer code of conducts include:
sending warning about viruses to other computer users
asking permission before sending any business advertisements to

others
using information with authorization
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Social responsibility is an ethical framework which suggests that an entity, be it an organization
or individual, has an obligation to act for the benefit of society at large. Social responsibility is a
duty every individual has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the
ecosystems
Ethics - set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior
Ethical behavior conforms to generally accepted social norms
Virtues - Habits that incline people to do what is acceptable
Vices - Habits of unacceptable behavior
Value system - Scheme of moral values
Basic responsibilities to society
Declared in formal statement of companys principles or beliefs
Include:
Making contributions to charitable organizations and nonprofit institutions
Providing benefits for employees in excess of legal requirements
Choosing economic opportunities that might be more socially desirable

than profitable
Many business values include:
Operating with honesty and integrity, staying true to corporate principles
Operating according to standards of ethical conduct, in words and action
Treating colleagues, customers, and consumers with respect
Striving to be the best at what matters most to the company
Accepting personal responsibility for actions
Valuing diversity
Making decisions based on facts and principles
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Best Interest of Business to Promote and Improve the Communities

Organizations, as members of society, have a moral obligation to help society deal with its
problems and to contribute to its welfare. It is the ethical thing to do by the business
organizations. A measurement should be made of whether the organization is performing such
activities as producing goods and services that people need, creating jobs for society, paying
fair wages, and ensuring worker safety.
Improves Public Image of the Firm
To many people, responsibilities to consumers may be seen as no more than a natural outcome
of good business. There are, however, broader social responsibilities including providing good
value for money; the safety and durability of products or services; standard of after-sales
service; prompt and courteous attention to queries and complaints; long-term satisfaction, for
example serviceability, adequate supply of products or services, and spare and replacement
parts; fair standards of advertising and trading; full and unambiguous information to potential
customers. Increasing concern for social responsibilities to consumers can be seen by the
activities of such bodies as the Consumers Association, and the number of television and radio
programmed devoted to this subject.
Improving Stock Price
To having the action of social responsibility of an organization would lead to their suppliers,
and business associates more confidence to the organization. The examples of social
responsibility might include: fair standards of trading, honoring terns and conditions of
purchase or sale, and settlement dates, for example payment of accounts, assistance to smaller
organization; engagement only in fair competition; respect for copyright and patents. By doing
that, the other organizations would view the company as less risky. This is in the stockholdrs
best interest. It will improve the price of stock in the long run because the stock market will
views the company as less risky and open to public attack. So, it would reduce the cost of the
production of the company. Therefore award it a high price-earnings ratio.
Solving Social Problems
Organizations have a responsibility not to misuse the scarce factors of production upon which
the wealth of the country depends. Organizations have a responsibility to society, to respect
environmental considerations and take care of amenities. For example, the effects and
potential dangers of pollution, noise, disposal of waste; the siting and appearance of new
buildings; transportation policies, such as the routing of heavy vehicles through narrow village
roads; and avoidance of excessive packaging and more use of biodegradable materials. All of
that must be think off since the decision making of the organizations to have their process of
production. For example, is the protest against aerosol sprays containing chlorofluorocarbons.
These have been blamed for damaging the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays from sun. Organizations should, of course, respect and obey the law which is
set up of government even where they regard it as not in their best interests. But what is
debatable is the extent to which organizations should co-operate voluntarily with actions
requested by the government. Some examples are: restraint from trading with certain overseas
countries, and the acceptance of controls over imports or exports; actions designed to combat
inflation.
Resource given by the organizations to solve the social problem
The measurement of social investment deals with the degree to which the organization is
investing both money and human resources to solve community social problems. Here, the
organization could be involved in assisting community organizations dedicated to education,
charities, and the arts.
CSR: core business
CSR is part of Imtechs core business . Imtech focuses its corporate activities on value creation
in the longer term in the three dimensions people, planet and profit, and enters into a dialogue on
this with its stakeholders.
Technology that improves society
Imtech uses its strong position for the benefit of a sustainable society. The world is looking at
organisations like Imtech for solutions to the problems of today and tomorrow. Every day,
Imtech proves its claim of Technology that improves society. Time and time again with literally
hundreds of green projects and numerous appealing internal CSR initiatives.
Frontrunner in sustainability
Imtech aims to be a frontrunner in sustainability. Imtech CEO Ren van der Bruggen: Society is
becoming greener at an increasingly high pace. Technology leads the way in this development.
The trend towards green technical infrastructure started in the energy and buildings sector.
This was followed by green data centres and now, this trend manifests itself in the markets for
marine technology, in the industrial sector and in the market for traffic technology. Imtech is a
leading player in all of these markets. As a technical service provider with an ability to deliver
green total solutions through the combination of electrical engineering, IT and mechanical
engineering, we provide our clients with all possible options that enable sustainable growth.
Governance and CSR
The governance of the CSR policy has been arranged at the highest level in the organisation and
is the responsibility of the Board of Management. The Board directs an international steering
committee made up of responsible managers from each division. The members of the steering
committee are authorised to jointly determine the CSR policy, and to implement the activities
that derive from this policy in the various business units. Imtech NV implements the ISO26000
guidelines. CSR principles are an integral component of the companys HR policy and business
principles.
COMPUTER SECURITY
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER SECURITY Computer security means protecting our

computer systems and the information they contain against unwanted access, damage,
destruction or modification.
We need to protect our computer from any intruders such as hackers, crackers and script kiddie.
We do not want strangers to read our e-mail, use our computer to
attack other systems, send forged e-mail from our computer, or examine personal information
stored on our computer such as financial statements.
TYPES OF COMPUTER SECURITY Three types of computer security are:
a) hardware security
b) software security/data security c) network security
a) HARDWARE SECURITY
Hardware security refers to security measures used to protect the hardware specifically the
computer and its related documents.
The examples of security measures used to protect the hardware include PC-locks, keyboard-
locks, smart cards and biometric devices.
b) SOFTWARE AND DATA SECURITY Software and data security refers to the security
measures used to protect the software and the loss of data files.
Examples of security measures used to protect the software are activation code and serial
number.
An example of security measure used to protect the
loss of data files is the disaster recovery plan method. The idea of this plan is to store data,
program and other important documents in a safe place that will not be affected by any major
destruction.
c) NETWORK SECURITY
The transfer of data through network has become a common practice and the need to implement
network security has become significant.
Network security refers to security measures used to protect the network system. One example of
network security measures is firewall. With firewall, network resources can be protected from
the outsiders.
PRIVACY IN COMPUTER USAGE
WHAT IS PRIVACY?
Privacy in IT refers to data and information privacy. Data refers to a collection of

raw unprocessed facts, figures and symbols. Then, computer is used to process data
into information. In general, data include texts, numbers, sounds, images and video.
Information privacy is described as the rights of individuals and companies to deny
or restrict the collection and use of information about them.
WAYS COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TH REATEN OUR PRIVACY
Every time you click on an advertisement or register a software product online, your
information is entered into a database. Computer technology can also threaten
privacy through spam. Do you know what spam is? Spam is unsolicited e-mail
messages, advertisements or newsgroup postings sent to many recipients at once.
How does computer technology threaten the privacy of our data?
It is done through:

Cookies
Electronic
profile
Spyware
Computer technology threatens our privacy through electronic profiling. For

example, when we fill out a form such as a magazine subscription, purchasing
products or contest entry form on the Internet, this data is kept in the database. It
will include age, address, marital status and other personal details.
Cookies
are used to identify users by web casting, e-

commerce and other web applications
contain user information and are saved in the
computer hard disk
are used by some websites to store passwords and

track how regularly we visit a website, thats how
we become potential targets for web advertisers
enable web sites to collect information about your
online activities and store them for future
use, then the collected details will be sold to any company that
requests for it.
Electronic profile
electronic profile is the combining of data in a database that can be sold to the Internet by
the company to the interested parties.
this database is in a form such as magazine subscription or product warranty cards that
had been filled by online subscribers.
the information in electronic profile includes
personal details such as your age, address and marital status.
Spyware
refers to a program that collects user information without the users knowledge.
can enter computers, sneaking in like a virus. is a result of installing new
programs.
communicates information it collects to some outside source while we are online.
WHY DO WE NEED PRIVACY?
We need privacy for anonymity. For example, the Internet creates an elaborate trail of data
detailing a person surfing on the Web because all information is stored inside cookies. We do not
want our trail to be detected.
We also need privacy for confidentiality. For example, online information generated in the course
of a business transaction is routinely used for
a variety of other purposes without the individuals knowledge or consent.
We do not want our private lives and habits exposed to third parties.
CAN PRIVACY BE PROTECTED? Privacy can be protected by:
(a) Privacy law

The privacy laws in Malaysia emphasises on the following: Security Services to review
the security policy
Security Management to protect the resources
Security Mechanism to implement the required security services Security Objects, the
important entities within the system
environment
(b) Utilities software
Example: anti-spam program, firewall, anti-spyware and antivirus.
Essential Life Skills
A Life Skill is an ability that makes a difference in everyday living.

Many writers have tried to define life skills :
A Life Skill equips a person to perceive and respond to significant life events.
A Life Skill is a competency which enables a person to live in an interdependent
society.
A Life Skill equips a person to be self directing and productive ,to lead a
satisfying life and to contribute to society.
A Life Skill enables a person to function effectively in a changing world
Critical Thinking :
Critical Thinking It is an ability to analyze information and experience in an objective manner
Creative Thinking:
It is an ability that helps us look beyond our direct experience and address issues in a perspective
which is different from the obvious or the norm. It adds novelty and flexibility to the situation of
our daily life.
Decision Making
The process of making assessment of an issue by considering all possible options and the effects
different decision might have on them.
Problem solving
Having made decisions about each of the options, choosing the one which is the best suited,
following it through the process again till positive outcome of the problem achieved.
Interpersonal Relationships
It is a skill that helps us to understand our relations with others and relate in a positive manner
with them. It helps us to maintain relationship with friends and family member and also be able
to end relationship constructively.
Effective Communication:
It is an ability to express ourselves both verbally and non-verbally in an appropriate manner.

This means being able to express desires, options and fears and seek assistance and advice in
times of need.
Coping with emotions:
It is an ability, which involves recognizing emotions in others, and ourselves, being aware of
how emotions influence behaviors and being able to respond to emotions appropriately.
Coping with Stress:

It is an ability to recognize the source of stress in our life, its effect on us and acting in ways that
helps to control our levels of stress. This may taking action to reduce some stress for example
changes in physical environment, life styles, learning to relax etc.
Self awareness:
Includes our recognition of ourselves, our character, strengths and weaknesses, desires and
dislikes. It is a pre-requisite for effective communication, interpersonal relationship and
developing empathy.
Empathy:
Is an ability to imagine what life is like for another person even in a situation that we may not be
familiar with. It helps us to understand and accept others and their behavior that may be very
different from ourselves.
Basics of Conflict Management

Clarifying Confusion About Conflict
Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in nature and
haven't been aligned or agreed about yet, including:
1. Within yourself when you're not living according to your values;
2. When your values and perspectives are threatened; or
3. Discomfort from fear of the unknown or from lack of fulfillment.
Conflict is inevitable and often good, for example, good teams always go through a "form, storm,
norm and perform" period. Getting the most out of diversity means often-contradictory values,
perspectives and opinions.
Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-Awareness

about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a Structure for
management of conflict in your environment.
Conflict is often needed. It:

1. Helps to raise and address problems.
2. Energizes work to be on the most appropriate issues.
3. Helps people "be real", for example, it motivates them to participate.
4. Helps people learn how to recognize and benefit from their differences.
Conflict is not the same as discomfort. The conflict isn't the problem - it is when conflict is
poorly managed that is the problem.
Conflict is a problem when it:
1. Hampers productivity.
2. Lowers morale.
3. Causes more and continued conflicts.
4. Causes inappropriate behaviors.
STRATEGIES FOR CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Mediation:
The goal is to identify multiple possible select one that is acceptable to all
involved parties and in the interest of project objectives.
Arbitration:
This strategy requires the project manager to provide a safe and productive
opportunity for the conflicted parties After careful attention and fully
listening to each party, the project manager should formulate, define, and
provide a solution to the parties. This strategy is based on the forcing
approach to conflict described earlier. Arbitroften be effectivelycombined
with mediation by forcing an initial conflict solution and then allowing the
parties to negotiate to a more mutually acceptable alternative
Control:
Based on the smoothing approach described earlier, this strategy to bring tension and emotions
down to a level at which productive discussion and negotiation canoccur. Humour is often an
effective tool, as well as the use of temporary breaks or time parties.
Acceptance:
The decision can be made that the conflict consequences are negligible
relative to project objectives and, therefore, require no action. This strategy
carries significant risk of later escalation and should be combined with
specific plans for monitoring the situation to ensure that the conflict remains
at an acceptable level
Elimination:
Finally, the elimination strategy is reserved for those conflicts that have
become so dysfunctional that the project can no longer tolerate any impacts
from them. elimination involves the removal of the conflicted parties from
involvement with the project.
Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts
1. Poor communications
a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of new
decisions, programs, etc.
b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved in
decision-making.
c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management.
2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:

a. Disagreement about "who does what".
b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.
3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managers and

employees, for example:
a. Strong personal natures don't match.
b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.
4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformed leadership (at

any level in the organization), evidenced by:
a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions.
b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.
c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates.
Key Managerial Actions / Structures to Minimize Conflicts
1. Regularly review job descriptions. Get your employee's input to them. Write down and date
job descriptions. Ensure:
a. Job roles don't conflict.
b. No tasks "fall in a crack".
2. Intentionally build relationships with all subordinates.

a. Meet at least once a month alone with them in office.
b. Ask about accomplishments, challenges and issues.
3. Get regular, written status reports and include:

a. Accomplishments.
b. Currents issues and needs from management.
c. Plans for the upcoming period.
4. Conduct basic training about:

a. Interpersonal communications.
b. Conflict management.
c. Delegation.
5. Develop procedures for routine tasks and include the employees' input.
a. Have employees write procedures when possible and appropriate.
b. Get employees' review of the procedures.
c. Distribute the procedures.
d. Train employees about the procedures.
6. Regularly hold management meetings, for example, every month, to communicate new
initiatives and status of current programs.
7. Consider an anonymous suggestion box in which employees can provide suggestions.
Ways People Deal With Conflict
There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the
major ways that people use to deal with conflict.
1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.
a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends
to worsen the conflict over time.
2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself.
a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations
when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very
near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and
causes conflicts within yourself.
3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors
love accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.

a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.

a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
To Manage a Conflict Within Yourself - "Core Process"

It's often in the trying that we find solace, not in getting the best solution. The following steps
will help you in this regard.
1. Name the conflict, or identify the issue, including what you want that you aren't getting.
Consider:
a. Writing your thoughts down to come to a conclusion.
b. Talk to someone, including asking them to help you summarize the conflict in 5
sentences or less.
2. Get perspective by discussing the issue with your friend or by putting it down in writing.
Consider:
a. How important is this issue?
b. Does the issue seem worse because you're tired, angry at something else, etc.?
c. What's your role in this issue?
3. Pick at least one thing you can do about the conflict.

a. Identify at least three courses of action.
b. For each course, write at least three pros and cons.
c. Select an action - if there is no clear course of action, pick the alternative that
will not hurt, or be least hurtful, to yourself and others.
d. Briefly discuss that course of action with a friend.
4. Then do something.
a. Wait at least a day before you do anything about the conflict. This gives you
a cooling off period.
b. Then take an action.
c. Have in your own mind, a date when you will act again if you see no clear
improvement.
To Manage a Conflict With Another - "Core Process"
1. Know what you don't like about yourself, early on in your career. We often don't like in others
what we don't want to see in ourselves.
a. Write down 5 traits that really bug you when see them in others.
b. Be aware that these traits are your "hot buttons".
2. Manage yourself. If you and/or the other person are getting heated up, then manage yourself to
stay calm by
a. Speaking to the person as if the other person is not heated up - this can be very
effective!
b. Avoid use of the word "you" - this avoids blaming.
c. Nod your head to assure them you heard them.
d. Maintain eye contact with them.
3. Move the discussion to a private area, if possible.
4. Give the other person time to vent.

a. Don't interrupt them or judge what they are saying.
5. Verify that you're accurately hearing each other. When they are done speaking:}
a. Ask the other person to let you rephrase (uninterrupted) what you are hearing from
them to ensure you are hearing them.
b. To understand them more, ask open-ended questions. Avoid "why" questions -
those questions often make people feel defensive.
6. Repeat the above step, this time for them to verify that they are hearing you. When you present
your position
a. Use "I", not "you".
b. Talk in terms of the present as much as possible.
c. Mention your feelings.
7. Acknowledge where you disagree and where you agree.
8. Work the issue, not the person. When they are convinced that you understand them:
a. Ask "What can we do fix the problem?" They will likely begin to complain again.
Then ask the same question. Focus on actions they can do, too.
9. If possible, identify at least one action that can be done by one or both of you.
a. Ask the other person if they will support the action.
b. If they will not, then ask for a "cooling off period".
10. Thank the person for working with you.
11. If the situation remains a conflict, then:

a. Conclude if the other person's behavior conflicts with policies and procedures in
the workplace and if so, present the issue to your supervisor.
b. Consider whether to agree to disagree.
c. Consider seeking a third party to mediate.

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Contents

Credit card readers Used to read credit cards

Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.

USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE

Budgeting Managing employees database

Sales Analysis Maintenance of stocks etc.

starting date of the policies survival benefits

next due installment of a policy bonus

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it

(i) Data - is a basic facts about any activity performed in a computer.

(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

i) Computers are expensive

Desktop A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is typically

The main features of First Generation are:

Unreliable Consumed lot of electricity

Supported Machine language only Some computer of this generation were:

Reliable as compared to First generation A.C. needed

Generate less heat as compared to First IBM 7094

Faster than first generation computers UNIVAC 1108

IC used Consumed lesser electricity

More reliable Support high level language

Generate less heat Honeywell-6000 series

Faster PDP(Personal Data Processor)

Lesser maintenance IBM-370/168

Still costly TDC-316

Portable and reliable Computers became easily available

Use of PC's Some computer of this generation were:

Neural networks More user friendly interfaces with

Advancement in Parallel Processing

15. Analog Computers

22. COMPUTER SYSTEM

30. Hardware components

55. It does not process or store data.

59. Logic Section

106. Not very expensive

127. Graphic Plotter

133. Flat- Panel Display

138. High Power consumption

146. Non-Impact Printers

151. Impact printers are very noisy

152. Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

153. There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

167. Widely Used

168. Other language characters can be printed

172. Poor Quality

177. Better quality

178. The fonts of character can be easily changed.

183. More expensive than DMP's

188. Chain Printer

197. Characters fonts can not be changed

203. Different languages can be used with the same printer.

206. Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

211. Inkjet Printers

215. They are not noisy.

216. High quality.

217. Support many fonts and different character size.

223. Very high quality output.

224. Give good graphics quality.

229. Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single

234. More reliable