BIOLOGY 1 NOTES v.2.

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October 9, 2014
Skin, Bones, Muscles

I. Vertebrate Integument
Vertebrate Integument includes:
Epidermis-thin outer stratified epithelial layer derived from ectoderm
Dermis-thick inner layer derived from mesoderm
Epidermis
the epidermis gives rise to hair, feathers, claws, and hooves
epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium
cells in the basal part undergo frequent mitosis
as cells are displaced upward, cytoplasm is replaced by keratin
Keratin
Keratin is a tough protein that is also light and flexile
Reptile scales are composed of keratin
Birds have keratin in feathers, beaks, and claws
Mammals use keratin in hair, hooves, claws, and nails
Dermis
The dermis is a dense connective tissue layer containing blood vessels,
collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, and
fibroblasts
Dermis serves to support, nourish and cushion the epidermis
Outgrowths of the skin
1. Hair 4. Mammary glands
2. Sebaceous glands 5. Nails and horn
3. Sweat glands 6. Scales and feathers
7. Functions of the Skin
1. Protection
2. Heat regulation and excretion
3. Sensory organs receptors
4. Protection from light melanin pigments protect us from rays of the sun
8.
II. Skeletal Systems
Skeletons are supportive systems that provide protection, support and a
place for muscle attachment
Forms framework into which organs of the body fit
Supports the body and protects delicate organs within
Exoskeleton found in molluscs and anthropods and some other
invertebrates; organism needs to molt before it can grow
Endoskeleton found in echinoderms, chordates and some cnidarians,
can grow with the body
9. Vertebrate Endoskeleton
The vertebrate endoskeleton is composed of bones, cartilages, tendons and
ligaments
Functions:
Give the body shape and support
Protects the soft body parts, e.g. skull (to brain), rib cage (heart, lungs)
pelvic girdle (pelvic organs) making them less vulnerable to injury
Serves as a storage area for minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
Performs hemopoiesis (red blood cell formation) through bone marrow
Provides movement since they serve as points of attachment of
skeletal muscles
10. Cartilage
Cartilage is a soft, pliable tissue that resists compression and is variable in
form
Hyaline cartilage has a clear, glassy appearance with chondrocytes
surrounded by a matrix.
no blood vessels
11. Bones and Cartilages
12. Cartilage
is a type of connective tissue that bends easily
most of the skeleton of an embryo is cartilage
in adults, it only remains in the joints, ears, nose and at the end of the
ribs
cushions the joints
13. Vertebrate Endoskeleton
First laid down as cartilage, but during embryonic development, it is ossified
into a bone
14. Cartilage until adulthood
Found in ears, nose, front art of ribs, discs between vertebrae, and in
movable joints
15. Cartilage
Cartilage is often found at articulating surfaces of many bone joints, and as
supporting rings of the passageway in the respiratory system
16.*most bones develop by mitochondrial ossification while some by
intramembranous ossification
17. Bone
Bone is highly vascular tissue that contains significant deposits of inorganic
calcium salts
Endochondral (replacement) bone develops from another form of
connective tissue usually cartilage
Intramembranous bone develops directly from sheets of embryonic
cells
- Face, cranium. Clavicle, dermal bone
18. Bone Growth
Epiphyseal disks allow for growth of long bone during childhood
New cartilage is continuously formed
Older cartilages become ossified
- Cartilage is broken down
- Bone replaces cartilage
19. Developmental Aspects: Old Age
Intervertebral discs become thin
Loss of stature by several centimeters is common after age 55
All bones lose mass
20. 2 types of Bone Tissue by cross section
Compact/lamellar bone tissue composed of osteons = structural units of
compact bone
Spongy/cancellous bone tissue like a honeycomb composed of needle-like
structures called Trabeculae = structural units of spongy bone
21. Microscopic Structure of the Bone
Compact bone is composed of a calcified bone matrix arranged in sets of
concentric rings osteons
Bones consist of bundles of osteons interconnected with blood vessels
and nerves
22. Bone
Between the rings are lacunae (cavities) filled with osteocytes (bone cells)
connected by tiny passageways that distribute nutrients
23. Bone Dynamic Tissue
Bone is a dynamic tissue
Osteoclasts are bone resorbing cells
Osteoblasts are bone building cells
Both processes occur together so that new osteons are formed as old ones
are resorbed
24. Bone Development and Remodeling
During fetal development bones are formed by bone-forming cells, the
osteoblasts
 Osteoblasts secrete the protein collagen (forms strong fiber of the
bone)
Hydroxyapatite (present in tissue fluid and composed mainly of
calcium phosphate) crystalizes around collagen fibers and forms hard
matrix of the bone
Osteoblasts trapped within the lacunae are called osteocytes
Bones are modelled during growth and remodeled continuously through life
For bone to grow, tissues must be removed from walls of marrow cavity
(resorption keeps bone from becoming heavy)
Osteoclasts group of cells that take care of resorption by secreting
enzymes that digests the bone
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28. Bone Cells
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30. (Structure)
Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and Repair
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A. Nutrition
1. Vitamin D absorbs calcium in small intestine
2. Vitamin A bone resorption (controls activity distribution and coordination
of osteoblasts and osteoclasts during development)
3. Vitamin C Hardens bones (promotes production of collagen fibers and
bone matrix)
B. Hormones
1. Growth Hormone (from Pituitary gland) stimulates growth
2. Sex hormones promote bone formation, stimulate ossification of
epiphyseal plates
32.If calcium level is low,
3. Parathyroid release PTH that stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone
tissue increase calcium levels
33.If calcium level is high,
4. Thyroid release calcitonin that inhibits osteoclast activity and allows
osteoblast to form bone tissue
5. Physical stress stimulates bone growth
34. Human Skeleton
Number of bones depends on age and genetic factors of individuals
350 bones upon birth
275 bones in infancy
206 bones upon maturity
As one grows, some bones join together to form a singular bone
Two main parts
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
35. Axial Skeleton
Made up of:
Cranium
Vertebral column (backbone)
Sternum (breast bone)
Rib cage
36. Appendicular Skeleton
Pectorial girdle
Arm bones
Wrist and hand bones
Scapula (shoulder blades)
Clavicles (collar bones)
Pelvic girdle
Pelvis
Leg bones
 Ankle and foot bones
37. Joints
The place where bones meet is called a joint
Some are immovable for example, the skull
Most are moveable:
1. Hinge elbow and knee
2. Ball and socket shoulder and hip
3. Pivot base of the skull
4. Gliding joints wrists
38.Tendons and Ligaments consist of closely packed bundles of collagen
39.Tendon a connective tissue attaching muscle to bone. When a muscle
contracts to move a joint, it is the tendon which pulls on the bone.
40.Ligaments are strong bands which connect bones to bones at the joint.
Theyre elasticated to allow the movement of that joint, but are strong
enough to stop movement outside the normal range
41.
42.Ligaments maintain the contact between the bones of the joint, which is
sealed by the joint capsule
43. Outer fibrous layer
Of dense connective tissue
Continuous with the periosteum of the bones
44. Inner cellular synovial membrane
- Which covers all non-articular surfaces
- Synovial fluid inside synovial membrane acts as a lubricant
45.
III. Muscular System
46.Joints make movement of skeleton possible, but skeleton cannot move by
themselves
47.Muscles attached to skeleton responsible for movements
48.We are able to stand, walk, sit, speak, run, etc. by using our muscle tissues
49. Animal Movement
In response to stimuli, organisms move using their contractile proteins, actin
and myosin, which can change shape to relax or contract
Muscular contraction the most important mechanism that animals have in
response to environmental stimuli
50. The Human Muscular System
Muscles can exert force when they contract or shorten
When they contract, they move the parts of the skeleton they are attached to
There are three types of muscles
1. Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)
2. Smooth Muscle (muscles of the internal organs and blood vessels)
3. Skeletal muscles (muscles that move your skeleton bones)
51. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the heart, is striated and fast acting like skeletal
muscle
Involuntary, whit one nucleus per fiber like smooth muscle
Fibers are joined by junctional complexes called intercalated discs
52. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle lacks striations
Single nucleus
Involuntary (you do not have conscious control over their contractions)
Slow acting, but can maintain prolonged contractions
Muscles of the stomach, intestines, uterus, are smooth muscles
53. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal (striated) muscle appears to be striped
Multinucleate fibers
Attached to skeletal elements
Voluntary
Fast acting but fatigues quickly
 Muscle cells fuse together to form muscle fibers
Can only pull, not push
Move a joint in antagonistic pairs
54. Antagonistic Pairs
On one side of the joint, the muscle flexes (contracts) while the other side of
the joint extends (relaxes)
55. Muscles
A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long fibers running parallel to the
length of the muscle
A muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller myofibrils arranged longitudinally
Actin and myosin are contractile proteins
56. Muscle Contraction
Striated muscle contraction is explained by the sliding filament hypothesis
Actin and myosin filaments become linked together by cross bi=ridges
(myosin heads), which act as levers to pull the filaments past each other
Z-lines pulled closer together, sarcomere shortens
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60. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
In the resting state, the muscle shortening does not occur because thin
tropomyosin strands on the actin myofilaments lie in a position that prevents
the myosin heads from attaching to the actin.
When the muscle is stimulated, calcium ions are released that bind to
troponin
This causes a change in shape that causes the tropomyosin to move
out of the way exposing binding sites on the actin molecule
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77. Energy for Contraction
Energy for muscle contraction comes from ATP
ATP is synthesized during aerobic metabolism (or krebs cycle, 2 nd
stage in cellular respiration)
During strenuous exercise, this process of obtaining ATP is not enough
Other sources: glycogen stored in muscle fibers and liver is degraded,
yielding glucose to produce required quantities of ATP (anaerobic
metabolism or glycolysis, 1st stage of cellular respiration)
During prolonged exercise, blood flow cant supply oxygen fast enough for
aerobic metabolism to continue
Anaerobic glycolysis is not efficient, but still produces some ATP
Muscle fatigue results with depletion of ATP
An oxygen debt builds up because the accumulated lactic acid must be
oxidized
 Remedy: stop for breath and breathe in rapid succession to replenish
oxygen supply
78. Integration With Other Systems
To operate at maximum efficiency, the muscular system must be supported
by many other systems. Such as the cardiac system, respiratory,
integumentary, nervous and endocrine system
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80. OCTOBER 13, 2014
81. NEURAL AND CHEMICAL COORDINATION
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83. Coordination in Humans
Controlled by 2 systems, both respond to and send message throughout the
body
- Nervous system: electrical, like telephone
- Allowing rapid communication between different parts of the body
- Endocrine system: chemical, postal system
- Much slower form of communication
84. Basic Organization
85.Sensory receptor (Sensory Input) Integration Motor output effector
Sensory input triggered by stimuli
Conduction of signals to processing center
Integration
Interpretation of sensory signals within processing centers
Motor output
Conduction of signals to effector cells (muscles, glands, cells)
86. Nervous System
A system that controls all activities of the body
Made up of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, senses
87. Major Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory (to receive)
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes called stimuli which
occur inside and outside the body
Integration (to process)
Decisions that are made by brain and spinal cord based on the sensory
input
Motor (to respond)
Response of the nervous system by sending signals to muscles,
causing them to contract, or to glands causing them to produce
secretion
88. Major Functions of the Nervous System
Integration by the Central Nervous System (brain and Spinal cord)
Motor muscles
Voluntary use the somatic system
Involuntary use autonomic system
Glands = endocrine system that make hormone messengers
89. Nerve Cell or Neuron
Basic structural unit of nervous system
Nerve mainly neurons together
3 main parts:
- Dendrite carry nerve impulses or signals towards cell body
- Cell body/perikaryon contains the nucleus
- Axon carry signals away from cell body
Inner layer myelin/fatty non-cellular substance
Outer layer neurilemma/thin cellular layer
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Dendrites send signals to cell body

Axon from cell body to other nerve cells
Axon terminal end of 1st neuron

99. Anatomy of a Neuron

Myelin sheath lipid layer for protection over neurons that allow for increase
in speed of signal transmission, made by schwann cells
Nodes of Ranvier gaps in myelin sheath along the axon, where Na+ pumps
are located
Axon terminal end of an axon
Synaptic cleft gap between neurons, between the axon terminal of a neuron
and the dendrite of a 2nd neuron
100. Neuron axon terminal of 1st neuron dendrite of the next neuron
Dendrite conducts signal toward the cell body (input zone)
Often short numerous and highly branched
Signal comes from sensory cells or neighboring neuron
Axon usually a single fiber (conducting zone)
Conducts signal away from cell body to another neuron or effector cell
Axon ending
A circular of branches (100s to 1000s)
Each with a bulb0like synaptic knob
Relays signal to next neuron/effector cell

101. Neuron Communication

Neurotransmitters neurons communicate with each other through this
- Released from the other axons into the synaptic cleft (between
adjacent axons and dendrite)
102. Axon Ending: Terminal Bud
Transfers the electrical nerve impulse
Using chemical neuron-transmitters
From one neuron to the next
103. Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine transmit signal to skeletal muscle
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine fight DR FLIGHT RESPONSE
Dopamine widespread in brain
affects sleep, mood, attention and learning
lack of dopamine in brain associated with Parkinsons disease
excessive dopamine linked to schizophrenia
serotonin widespread in brain
affects sleep, mood, attention and learning
Weak point of Nervous System
Any substance that affects neuro-transmitters or mimics them affects
nerve function
- Gases, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide
- Mood altering drugs
 Stimulants
amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine
depressants
- hallucinogenic drugs
- prozae and poisons
104. Main Divisions of Nervous System
central nervous system (CNS) brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system, the nerves
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106. The Central Nervous System
controls all of the bodys activities
made of two main organs (brain and spinal cord)
107. The Brain
controls everything in the body
made of more than 10 billion nerves
divided into three parts and is protected by the skull
about 1.4 kg, 2% of body weight
protected by membranes and cranium/skull
12 pairs of cranial nerves are connected to it
Parts: forebrain/prosencephalon, telencephalon or cerebrum, diencephalon
that includes thalamus and hypothalamus

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A. Brain Parts
1. Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex - /Cerebral Hemispheres
- Largest and most prominent
- Responsible for voluntary or conscious activities of the body
- Site of intelligence, learning and judgment
- Divided into left and right hemispheres, which deal with opposite
sides of the body
- Folds and grooves on surface increases surface area
2. Diencephalon
Thalamus receives messages from sensory receptors and then relays
to cerebrum
Hypothalamus control center for recognition and analysis of hunger,
thirst, fatigue, anger and temperature
- Controls coordination of nervous and endocrine system
3. Midbrain or mesensephalon connects pons and cerebellum with cerebral
hemispheres/cortex by tracts of nerve fibers
- Responsible for certain eye reflexes
4.
A. Brain Stem connects brain and spinal cord
- Includes midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
Regulates the flow of information between the brain and the rest
of the body
 Some important body functions (heart rate, swallowing,
breathing) are controlled here.
B. Pons responsible for:
- Conducting messages to other parts of the brain
- Reflex actions such as chewing, production of saliva
C. Medulla Oblongata
- Lowest part of the brain stem
- Connects to the spinal cord
- Responsible for: regulating heartbeat, respiration, swallowing,
coughing, B/P
5. Cerebellum located at the back of the skull
- Coordinates and balances the actions of the muscles
- The tree of life
- Precision of actions vs. hesitant and clumsy
119. The Spinal Cord
Sends messages to the brain
Part of the nervous system that connects the brain to the rest of the nervous
system
Extends from tip of medulla oblongata, within vertebral column
Starts from the brain and extends through vertebral column
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Carries messages to and from the brain
Controls reflex actions

120. Reflexes an automatic reaction to some sense message, like pain

- Dont need to think or make decision about something
Spinal reflexes these doesnt go to the brain, instead they go to the spinal
cord (patellar reflex)
The information gets processed in your spinal cord
Reflex arc your muscles begin to react immediately even before your brain
gets the news of whats happening
121. Involuntary reflex arcs
Use only spinal cord
Do not go to the brain
Follow the R-sim pathway examples: knee jerk, eye blink, hot stove pull
back
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132. II. Peripheral Nervous System
B. Motor Division: signals away from CNS
1. Somatic Nervous System voluntary muscle control
- Neurons control the skeletal muscle
2. Autonomic nervous system automatic/involuntary
- Control heart rate, respirations, blood pressure, smooth muscle
 - Has two separate divisions
a. Sympathetic
b. Parasympathetic
133. Sympathetic (Thoracolumbas): shunting of blood from one part of
body to another, ex: stomach to heart
- Activated by physical or emotional stress
- Fight or Flight response
134. Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) routine-like, conserves energy,
heart rate lowers, digestive organs back to normal. Rest and ruminate
response
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136. Effectors that do actions are the:
Muscles voluntary use of the somatic system
Glands endocrine organs that make hormone messengers
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138. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Set of glands producing hormones
Chemical messengers that circulate in the blood
139. Hormone
Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the
blood
Similar to neurotransmitters in that they are also messengers
Slower communication system but with longer lasting effects
A. Hypothalamus
Brain region that controls the pituitary gland
Controls homeostasis bodys ability to remain at a status quo level
B. Pituitary Gland
Controls the other endocrine glands
Called the master gland
At the base of the brain
Connects to the hypothalamus
Controls thirst (controlling amount of water in body cells)
Controls female contractions, tells mammary glands to produce milk
May control grooming habits, companionship and sexual behavior
Controls flow of human growth hormones dwarfism and gigantism
C. Thyroid Glands
Helps regulate the energy level in the body
Located in the neck
Controls body temperature
Controls metabolism our bodys ability to transform the food we eat
into usable energy
Overactive-behaviors may include excitability, insomnia, ADD,
agitation, difficulty focusing
Reduced activity behaviors may include sleepiness, reduced muscle
tone, overweight
D. Adrenal Glands
Help to arouse the body in times of stress
Located just above the kidneys
Release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Increase heart rate, blood pressure and sugar
E. Pancreatic Gland
Regulates he level of blood sugar (insulin) in the blood
Insulin is needed in the body to break down sugar
Too much insulin the body devours all of the sugar
Behavior: sluggishness and inactiveness
F. Sex Glands
 Ovaries/females and Testes/male glands that influence emotion and
physical development
Testosterone primary male hormone
Estrogen primary female hormone
Males and females have both estrogen and testosterone in their
systems
Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone
Estrogen and progesterone responsible for maturation of the
reproductive organs and secondary characteristics in girls at
puberty
Testes- produce sperm and testosterone
Testosterone initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
and secondary sex characteristics in boys at puberty
140. Maintaining Homeostasis
Homeostasis maintenance of a stable internal state within an
organism
Organisms detect changes in their environment and respond to
changes in a variety of ways
Feedback mechanism when level of one substance influences the
level of another substance or activity of another organ
141. Feedback Mechanism (3 Parts)
Sensor- can detect change
Ex: structures in the brain detect change in CO2 level
Central unit- knows what the correct level should be
Ex: information in the brain is preset for the correct CO2 level
Effector take the instructions and make changes
Ex: muscles in the chest used for breathing
142. Positive Feedback
Designed to accelerate/enhance the output created by stimulus that has
already been activated
Designed to push levels out of normal ranges
Ex: release of oxytocin to intensify the contractions that take place during
childbirth
143. Negative Feedback
Stimulus produces a response opposing the original stimulus
Example: blood sugar regulation
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147. ANIMAL NUTRITION and HUMAN DIGESTION
Animals make energy using food and oxygen
Animals build bodies using:
Food for raw materials
ATP energy for synthesis
148. Filter feeding (whale) living in the food (bacteria)
fluid feeding (mosquito) bulk feeding (humans)
149.
150. DIGESTIVE TRACT
An incomplete digestive tract as in planaria (flatworm) has a single opening
through which nutrients enter and exit
A complete digestive tract as in birds and worms, has a mouth, anus and
specialized parts: crop (for storage), gizzard (for first mechanical digestion),
and intestine (for chemical digestion)
151. Different Diets, Different Lives
All animals eat other organisms
Herbivores eat mainly plants
 Carnivores eat meat
Omnivores meat and plants
152. Different Diets, Different bodies
Adaptations of herbivore vs. carnivore
Teeth
Length of digestive system
Number and size of stomachs
Teeth
Carnivore sharp ripping teeth (canines)
Herbivore- wide grinding teeth (molars)
Omnivore both
Length of Digestive System
Herbivores and omnivores
Long digestive systems
Harder to digest cellulose (cell wall)
Carnivores
Short digestive systems
Protein easier to digest than cellulose
153. Digestive System in Mammals
Carnivores have a short digestive tract as they obtain nutrients from meat
more easily. They also have a relatively small cecum
Herbivores have long digestive tract as it takes a long time to digest cellulose
from plants, and a large cecum with specialized enzymes
Some herbivores called ruminants (cows sheep) have specialized stomachs
divided into: rumen (1), reticulum (2), omasum (3) and abomasum (4) hosting
microbial flora
154. Getting and Using Food
Ingest taking in food
Digest
Mechanical digestion breaking up food in smaller pieces
Chemical digestion breaking down food into molecules small enough
to be absorbed into cells/enzymes
Absorb
Absorb nutrients across cell membranes
- Diffusion
- Active transport
Eliminate
Undigested material passes out of body
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157. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
158. Parts of the Human Digestive System
159. Allimentary Canal: Long tube-like structure
Mouth Small intestine
Tongue Large intestine
Pharynx (throat) Rectum
Esophagus Anus
Stomach
Digestive Glands: Produce enzymes, bile and other substances
important for digestion
Salivary Glands
Pancreas
Liver and gallbladder
Mouth
Functions
Mechanical digestion
 - Teeth: break up food
Chemical digestion (saliva)
- Amalyse enzyme: digests starch
- Mucus
protects soft lining of digestive system
lubricates food for easier swallowing
- buffers
neutralizes acid to prevent tooth decay
- anti-bacterial chemicals
kill bacteria that enter mouth with food
Swallowing (not choking)
Epiglottis
Flap of cartilage
Closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing
Food travels down esophagus
Peristalsis
Involuntary muscle contractions to move food along
Stomach
Functions
Disinfect food : hydrochloric acid- kills bacteria
Food Storage: can stretch to fit 2L food
Digests protein: pepsin enzyme
*But the stomach is made out of protein! What stops the stomach from
digesting itself? Mucus secreted by stomach cells protects stomach lining

Mixing Chyme
A thick mixture of food and gastric fluid
High acidity kills many pathogens
Mixed and moved by waves of stomach contractions (peristalsis)
Ulcers
Used to think ulcers were caused by stress
Tried to control with antacids
Now know ulcers caused by bacterial infection of stomach
H. pylori bacteria, now cure with antibiotics
Stomach and Duodenum
Stomach and duodenum (the upper part of the intestine) are also endocrine
glands and secrete hormones. Stomach produces gastrin to help regulate
food digestion. Duodenum produces secretin and cholecystokinin for
stimulating the digestion of fats and proteins

The Small Intestine

Chemical digestion ends and absorption of nutrients takes place in the 5 to 9
meters long small intestine
Bile and pancreatic juices prepare carbohydrates, proteins and fats for
digestion by maltase, peptidase and lipase
Small Intestine
Functions
Digestion
- Digest carbohydrates: amylase from pancreas
- Digest proteins: trypsin and chymotrypsin from pancreas
- Digest lipids (fats) : bile from liver and lipase form pancreas
Absorption (jejunum and ileum)
- Nutrients move into the body cells by:
Diffusion
Active transport

Large Intestine
The large intestine absorb water, minerals and vitamins and prepare waste
for elimination. Is divided into cecum, colon and rectum
the cecum controls the flux of material through the intestine and the
appendix protects from infections
functions:
Re-absorbs water
- Use 9 liters of water every day in digestive juices
- 90% of water re absorbed
- Not enough water re absorbed: diarrhea
- Too much water re absorbed: constipation
Living in the large intestine is a community of helpful bacteria
Escherichia coli
- Digest cellulose
- Produce vitamins: K and B
- But generate gases: by product of bacterial metabolism,
methane, hydrogen, sulfide

Rectum
Last section of large intestine
Eliminate feces
Whats left over?
Undigested materials
- Mainly cellulose from plants
- Called roughage or fiber
- Keeps everything in motion and cleans out intestines
- Masses of bacteria
Pancreas and Liver
Accessory digestive organs that produce pancreatic juice and bile
respectively
Liver and Gallbladder
Produces bile
Breaks down fats
Gallbladder only stores bile
Liver Diseases
 Liver malfunctioning has effects on the whole organization
Jaundice- yellow pigmentation of the skin caused by increased levels of
bilirubin in the blood
Hepatitis- inflammation of the liver caused by viruses
Cirrhosis- damage of tissues leading to loss of liver functions

Nutrition
The most important nutrients are:
Carbohydrates Minerals
Lipids Vitamins
Proteins
Carbohydrates- provide immediate energy
Minerals- regulate biochemical reactions, maintain fluid balance, and are
incorporated into structures and compounds
Vitamins- are organic compounds that regulate metabolism and physiological
development. Vitamins are classified as lipo-soluble (A,D,E,K) or hydro soluble
(C and B)

Gas Exchange and Circulation

Animals can store food but not gases
To sustain life, animals need to take in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide
02 is final acceptor of electrons during cellular respiration which supplies
body with ATP energy needed for repair, growth and locomotion
If O2 is not take in, ATP may not be produced
If CO2 is not given off, cells will suffocated, convulse and eventually die
Functions of 2 Organ Systems
Journey of these gases to and from different parts of the body-function of
respiratory and circulatory systems
Respiratory System concerned with the exchange of gases
Circulatory system - concerned with transport of these gases to and
from exchange centers
Gas Exchange
 The respiratory system sustains cellular respiration by supplying oxygen to
body cells and removing carbon dioxide waste from cells
Respiration involves various processes:
Ventilation- breathing, the mechanical movement of the air into and out of
the lungs
External respiration- gas exchange between the air and the blood in the lungs
Internal respiration- gas exchange between the blood and the tissue fluid
Exchange of Gases
Takes place, provided the surfaces of respiratory organ are
o
o Thin for easy diffusion of gases
o Large in relation to body size
o Moist so that gases can be dissolved
Aquatic organisms spend up to 25% of the energies to extract
air from water
Terrestrial organisms need to moisten constantly the respiratory
surfaces
Small animals- use body surface or skin for gas exchange
Bigger animals- need more complex and specialized structures for gas
exchange
Organs for Gas Exchange
1. Aquatic environment
Skin- smaller animals use entire body surface thru simple diffusion
Gills- bigger ones use specialized gas exchange area

2. Terrestrial environment
Tracheal system- insects and certain anthropods
Lungs- amphibians, reptiles birds and mammals

Human Respiratory System

Conducting Portion
Nostrils-opening of nose Trachea
Nasal cavity Bronchi
Pharynx Larger bronchioles
Larynx
 Respiratory Portion
Smallest and most delicate bronchioles
Alveoli in lungs

The Path of Air

Air enters your mouth or nose
Hair-like structures called cilia trap foreign objects from the air and sweep
them toward the throat
Filtered air then passes through the upper throat called the pharynx
The epiglottis allows air to pass from the larynx to a long tube in the chest
cavity called the trachea
The trachea branches into two large tubes called bronchi, which leads to the
lungs
o Each bronchus branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles
Each of these small tubes continues to branch into even smaller
passageways, which end in individual air sacs called alveoli
o Alveoli are the site of gas exchange with blood. There are 300 million
alveoli surrounded by capillaries
Lungs
Right and left lungs- in separate pleural cavities
Lined by a serous membrane called pleura
Right lung- 3 lobes
Left lung- 2 lobes
Light and spongy texture- actual volume consists of air-filled passageways
and alveoli
Possess elastic fibers that allows the lungs to tolerate large changes in
volume
Mechanism of Breathing
Inspiration consists of muscle contractions that (a) lower the diaphragm and
(b) raise and expand the ribs. The negative pressure causes the (c) air to flow
in
During expiration, (a) the diaphragm muscles relax, (b) rib cage goes down
and in, and (c) air flows out as the inner pressure increases

Respiratory Centers
Breathing rhythms are automatically controlled by the respiratory center
located at the medulla oblongata, in the lowermost part of the brain
Changing in blood pH can cause variation the respiration speed rate

The Circulatory System

The function is to transport 02 and nutrients to the cells of the body and to
carry away C02 and other wastes.
To do this, the system must keep blood constantly circulating
The Circulatory System
All vertebrates have a closed circulatory system where blood is transported in
vessels, separate from the intestinal fluid
 In an open circulatory system (as in arthropods) fluids return to the heart
through open vessels
Single-loop Circulation
Fish have a single-loop circulatory pathway: the heart has a single atrium and
a single ventricle
Two-circuit Circulation
Amphibians and most reptiles have a two-circuit circulatory pathway with the
heart divided into two atria and a single ventricle. Birds and mammals have
two atria and two ventricles
The Cardiovascular System
A circulatory system consists of a pump (the heart), a fluid (the blood) and a
series of blood vessels (the vascular system)
Altogether, those elements form the cardiovascular system
The Heart
A hollow muscular organ
Pumps oxygenated blood to the body
Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
A cardiac septum separates the heart into right and left halves
The Heart
An artery carries blood away from the heart while a vein takes the blood to
the heart.
Cardiac valves keep blood moving in the correct direction
A strong muscular wall called the septum separates the left side from the
right side
Valves separate the atria from the ventricles and keep blood flowing in one
direction

Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits

Cardiovascular systems includes two circuits
Pulmonary Circuit: pulmonary arteries take 02-poor blood to lungs while
pulmonary veins return 02-rich blood to the heart
Systemic circuit: left ventricles send O2-rich blood to aorta; vena cava takes
O2-poor blood to the atrium

 The Heartbeat
Electric rhythmic impulse move the heart. The contraction is called systole,
the relaxation of the chambers is called diastole
The Cardiac Conduction System
The heartbeat starts from the sinoatrial node (SA), the impulse-generating
(pacemaker) tissue. The atrioventricular node (AV) causes the ventricle
contraction
BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries
blood pressure in the arteries and arterioles carries blood away from the
heart
Veins
skeletal muscle contractions return blood in veins and venules to the heart
Capillaries
thin-walled capillaries permit exchange of materials and gas with the tissues

Vascular Diseases
Cholesterol is an essential component of the cell membrane and is carried by
plasmic proteins (LDL and HDL). Anomalies in quantity of LDL and HDL can
lead to the formation of cholesterol plaque in the blood vessels.
A stroke (or cerebral ictus) occurs when a small cranial arteriole bursts or is
blocked by an embolus
A heart attack occurs when a coronary artery (the artery that brings O2-rich
blood to the heart) is completely blocked
Blood Functions
Transports substances to and from capillaries where exchanges occurs
Helps the organism defend against pathogens
Helps regulate body temperature
Forms clots to prevent hemorrhages
Blood Composition
Blood is composed of a liquid portion called plasma and formed elements: red
and white blood cells, and platelets.
Clotting
Blood clotting involves platelets that release clotting factors at the side of the
blood vessel damage. Fibrin threads provide a meshwork for a blood clot
Blood Stem Cells
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are multi-potent stem cells found in the
bone marrow of adults that can produce all the blood cell types. HSCs can be
easily transplanted from the pelvic bone
AB0 Classification System
 RBC membranes carry specific carbohydrates and proteins that behave as
antigens when transplanted in incompatible organisms. Those antigens are
classified as A and B and determine the blood type
Agglutination: clumping of RBC in the presence of an antibody that binds
multiple antigens and joins cells.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

A. Phagocytes
Produced throughout by the bone marrow
Scavengers- remove dead cells and microorganisms
Important in non-specific immune response
1. Neutrophils
60% of WBCs
Patrol Tissues as they squeeze out of the capillaries
Large numbers are released during infections
Short-lived die after digesting bacteria
Dead neutrophils make up a large proportion of pus
2. Macrophages
Larger than neutrophils
Found in the organs, not in the blood
Made in bone marrow as monocytes, called macrophages once they
reach organs
Long-lived. It initiate immune responses as they display antigens from
the pathogens to the lymphocytes
B. Lymphocytes
1. B Lymphocytes
Mature in bone marrow then concentrate in lymph nodes and major
organs
Involved in humoral or anti-body mediated immune response
When activated, develop into plasma cells that produce antibodies and
memory cells
2. T Lymphocytes
Mature in thymus
Involved in cell-mediated immune responses
Do not produce antibodies but have T cell receptors
Exist as helper T cells (regulate specific immunity) cytotoxic T cells
(attack and kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells
Major Categories of Defense Mechanism
Non-specific response: provide our first line of defense against disease-
producing organisms
Specific response
Nonspecific Lines of Defense
Physical and chemical barriers to pathogens
1st Line of Defense
o Skin- most important
o Hair- eyelashes, nose hairs
o Cilia- in nose and throat; push pathogens away from lungs
o Secretions- mucous, stomach, acid, sweat, tears, saliva, oil
The First Line of Defense
1. Physical Barrier
Skin
o The dead outer layer of the skin, known as the epidermis, forms a
shield against invaders and secretes chemicals that kill potential
invaders. You shed 40-50 thousand skin cells a day
Mucus and Cilia
o As you breathe in, foreign particles and bacteria bump into mucus
throughout your respiratory system and become stuck. Hair-like
structures called cilia sweep this mucus into the throat for coughing or
swallowing
Saliva
o Saliva contains chemicals that break down bacteria
o Thousands of different types of bacteria can survive these chemicals,
however
 Stomach Acid
o Swallowed bacteria are broken down by incredibly strong acids in the
stomach that break down your food
o The stomach must produce a coating of special mucus or this acid
would eat through the stomach!
o Escherichia Coli- aids in digesting materials we cannot
Second Line of Defense
2. White Blood Cells
If invaders actually get within the body, then WBC begin the attack

WBCs normally circulate throughout the blood, but will enter the bodys
tissues if invaders are detected
I. Non-specific mechanisms/responses
1. Inflammation
2. Fever
3. Phagocytes
4. Complement system
5. Interferons
6.
7. Immunological surveillance- Natural killer cells
The inflammatory response
o Injured body cells release chemicals called histamines, which begin
inflammatory response
Fever
o Body temperature rises above 37 degrees C in response to pyrogens
o
o Mobilizes defenses, accelerates repairs, inhibits pathogens
Phagocytes
o These white blood cells are responsible for eating foreign particles by
engulfing them
o
o Once engulfed, the phagocyte breaks the foreign particles apart