Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)

Sheikh rahman

REPORT ON LINTEL
By:
Tandin Tshewang
Student I/D: 041608734

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................ 3
Function:............................................................................................................ 4
Construction Sequence:.......................................................................................... 4
Installation Notes.................................................................................................. 5
List of Engineering Material used for lintels:................................................................6
Stone................................................................................................................. 6
Timber............................................................................................................... 7
Concrete............................................................................................................. 8
Steel.................................................................................................................. 9
Brick............................................................................................................... 10
Concrete vs. Steel:.............................................................................................. 11
Safety Precautions:.............................................................................................. 12
Local Government Bylaws (Lintels).........................................................................12
Conclusion........................................................................................................ 13
References........................................................................................................ 13

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Introduction
Lintel are found wherever it is necessary to support a wall etc. over an opening which is
usually not more than about two metres wide. They provide support in completely different
ways and an understanding of this is fundamental to selecting, specifying and assessing them.
Lintels are much simpler than arches, and the forces involved are completely within the
lintel. They provide support by resisting the bending moments and shear forces resulting
from the loads that are applied to them. There are examples of stone being used as lintels as
far back as prehistoric times.
The earliest lintels were probably of stone, as used in The Great Pyramid of Giza, built about
2560 BC, and Stonehenge, built about 2300BC. The use of timber for lintels probably
developed in parallel with stone and was greatly assisted by the development of Bronze Age
tools in the Middle East before 3000BC. Much later, the introduction of iron tools in the Iron
Age after 1200BC greatly increased the ability to work both stone and timber.
There are many different shapes of lintels, determined by the properties of the material and
the purpose for which the lintel is required. Stone and timber lintels are generally rectangular
in cross section. Concrete lintels are usually either rectangular, L shaped (known as boot
lintels), or rectangular but with one vertical face sloping (used in cavity walls).
The development of concrete and steel lintels, together with the fashion for larger windows
introduced in the 1950s and extended further in the1960s, required the use of stronger lintels
to carry the increased loads. Windows up to 2.4m or more wide were not uncommon in the
1960s. These larger spans in turn required more attention to be paid to the bearings at the
ends of these lintels due to the greater loads from them onto the masonry below.
Further developments in building introduced corner lintels, which act as cantilevers, box
lintels, and eaves lintels. As steel lintels were developed designs for solid walls, and internal
walls became available. To improve the thermal insulation properties and provide easier
fixings for items such as curtain rails open back steel lintels were introduced.
As timber frame houses grew in popularity with developers timber frame lintels made of
steel appeared. In recent years the increased thermal insulation requirements have precluded
the continued use of some types of lintels for the external walls of buildings e.g. concrete
boot lintels. Others, such as combination steel lintels, have had their designs revised by the
inclusion of insulation within the cavity space of the lintel. These designs will need further
revision as the thermal insulation requirements of The Building Regulations become ever
more onerous.
Lintel can be a load-bearing, a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented
structural item. In many buildings Lintel acts as a structural member. However in some
applications it is used merely for aesthetics.It is often found over portals, doors, windows,
openings and firepalces

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Function:
A lintel is a structural member placed over an opening in a wall. In the case of a brick
masonry wall, lintels may consist of reinforced brick masonry, brick masonry arches, precast
concrete or structural steel shapes. Regardless of the material chosen for the lintel, its prime
function is to support the loads above the opening, and it must be designed properly. To
eliminate the possibility of structural cracks in the wall above these openings, the structural
design of the lintels should not involve the use of "rule-of thumb" methods, or the arbitrary
selection of structural sections without careful analysis of the loads to be carried and
calculation of the stresses developed. Many of the cracks which appear over openings in
masonry walls are due to excessive deflection of the lintels resulting from improper or
inadequate design.

Construction Sequence:
Ensure lintel is level along its length.

Ensure lintel is level along its width.

Lintel Position within a Cavity Wall

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Lintel should be centred in the cavity and the distance between lintel up-stand within the
cavity and masonry must not exceed 8.5mm.
Masonry should not overhang any flange by more than 25mm.

Propping
Propping a steel lintel is sometimes practiced to facilitate speed of construction. It should
only be introduced after initial masonry load has been applied to the lintel.

When propping a lintel, a horizontal timber plank should be placed along the underside of the
lintel and suitable* props secured into place at maximum 1200mm centres.
*Suitability of props is the responsibility of site management.

Damp Proof Course DPC

In accordance with BS EN 1996-2:2006 and NHBC requirements all external wall lintels
MUST be installed with a flexible damp proof course with the exception of those adequately
protected by an eaves overhang or similar form of protection.

Provide weep holes at a maximum of 450mm intervals (at least two per opening) with fair-
faced masonry.
Consider the use of soffit cladding for all coastal sites.

Installation Notes
1 Lintels should be installed with a minimum end bearing of 150mm, bedded on mortar and
levelled along its length and across its width.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

2 The masonry above the lintel should be built in accordance with National Construction
Code (NCC) 2016
3 Raise the inner and outer leaves simultaneously to avoid excessive eccentricity of loading,
with a maximum height difference of 225mm (masonry should be laid on a mortar bed and all
perpendicular joints should be filled).
4 Allow the mortar to cure before applying floor or roof loads (Temporary propping beneath a
steel lintel is practised to facilitate speed of construction).
5 The Code (NCC) 2016 recommend a damp proof course (DPC) or cavity tray should be
installed over all openings in external cavity walls.
6 When installing concrete floor units or other heavy components above a lintel, care should
be taken to avoid shock loading and floor units should not be dragged into position. Masonry
immediately above the lintel should be allowed to cure.
7 Point loads should not be applied directly onto lintel flanges. Lintels should have a
minimum of 150mm masonry between the flange and the application level of any form of
loading.
8 The external lintel flange must project beyond the window/door frame and it is
recommended that a flexible sealing compound is used between the underside of the lintel
flange and the frame.
9 When the underside of a lintel is exposed, its appearance can be enhanced by the addition
of lintel soffit cladding.
10 Do not cut lintels to length or modify them in any way without consulting an
Construction supervisor/engineer.

List of Engineering Material used for lintels:

1. Stone
2. Timber
3. Concrete
4. Steel
5. Brick

Stone.
Stone lintels can be found made from a variety of, usually local, stone. Hard durable stone,
such as granite, resists natural deterioration well, but softer stone, such as limestone, can be
significantly weathered away over time. In theory the stone has no tensile strength and thus
cannot be proven by calculation to be adequate to support the load. Stone is also vulnerable
to defects within it, and to fractures occurring either naturally, or as a result of the quarrying,
transporting and placing of the stone, or as a result of loading or thermal movement. For

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

layered stone, such as some limestones, the direction of the layering in the lintel can
significantly affect its weathering and strength.
Once the stone has fractured its actual strength can fall to zero. It would then require careful
removal and replacement, with adequate temporary support for the masonry above, in order
to restore the structural strength and the support to the wall.
Lintels can also be made from reconstructed stone, sometimes called cast stone. These are
common in areas where the external face of the wall is built of a local stone e.g. the Purbeck
area. Reconstructed stone lintels are usually reinforced with steel bar reinforcement of the
type used for reinforced concrete lintels. However, the stone and the manufacturing process
by casting can result in a porous texture in the lintel and this can allow moisture to reach and
then corrode the steel reinforcement. The lintels then require replacement which can be an
expensive process as they need to be specially manufactured to the same size and with the
same or matching stone as the original ones.

Timber.
Timber lintels probably developed in parallel with stone ones. Timber is much easier to
work, given suitable tools, and has good thermal properties. If it is kept dry and free from
wood boring insect and fungal decay it can last indefinitely. However, it is sometimes used
on the external face of a wall and can decay much sooner than the wall it is supporting.
Timber is also subject to initial drying and shrinkage after the tree has been cut down, and
this can result in the timber ceasing to provide support for the masonry above it after the wall
has been built. For this reason, only well-seasoned or kiln dried timber should be used for
lintels.
Timber lintels are light in weight, and easy to cut and fix. They also provide easy fixings for
items such as curtain rails, and have a relatively good thermal performance compared to stone
or concrete lintels.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Concrete.
Two types of concrete lintels, reinforced or pre-stressed, are commonly found in buildings.
The reinforced ones are reinforced with steel reinforcing bars and can be made either on site
or in a factory. Common problems with this type of lintel are: -
Poor quality concrete found in site made lintels. This is typically poor compaction and the
resultant honeycombing of the concrete.
Misplaced reinforcement. If the reinforcement is not in the correct position within the
concrete then the structural strength, durability, and fire resistance of the lintel can be greatly
reduced. Lintels with the reinforcement close to the surface of the concrete i.e. with less than
the specified cover to the reinforcement, can fail within a few years of installation.
Pre-stressed lintels have been in general use since the 1950s. They were widely used across
openings in both internal and external walls until the increasingly onerous requirements for
thermal insulation under The Building Regulations resulted in them being no longer suitable
for external walls.
The lintels are factory made by stretching steel wire along the length of a mould and then
casting the concrete around it. When the concrete has gained sufficient strength the ends of
the wires are released and the shrinkage in the length of the wire induces a compressive stress
into the concrete. The sooner the concrete can gain sufficient strength the sooner the transfer
can take place, the lintel removed and the mould re-used. This led to the use of High
Alumina Cement for the concrete. This cement gained strength so quickly that by steam
curing the concrete the transfer could be made 24 hours after casting. This led to a one-day
cycle for the production of lintels, and also the floor and roof beams widely used in buildings,
e.g. blocks of flats. Later, when failures of the beams occurred, it became clear that the high
temperatures used for steam curing the concrete caused the High Alumina Cement to
chemically convert to a different form, with a large reduction in strength. The lintels (and
beams) can be recognised because the High Alumina Cement concrete is usually dark grey in
colour, whereas Ordinary Portland Cement concrete is light grey. High Alumina Cement
which has undergone chemical conversion is often light brown in colour.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Pre-stressed lintels come in many shapes. Some, such as the L shaped lintels were designed
to be self-supporting when carrying the load from above, but others, such as the plank lintels
depend upon several courses of structural brickwork above them to provide the compressive
element of their total strength.
Sometimes the lintels have not been adequately propped and can be seen to sag at mid-span.
This is due to the weight of the wet masonry imposing too great a load on the un-propped
lintel. Once the masonry sets the lintel is permanently set in the sagged shape. Sometimes a
damp proof concrete is placed over the concrete lintel before the structural masonry is built.
This destroys the necessary bond between the concrete lintel and the structural brickwork
above it. The concrete lintel is likely to sag under the weight of the wet masonry. Over time
the compressive stresses in the concrete cause it to shorten in length. This can result in
cracks appearing at the ends of the lintel either above or below the lintel, or in both
locations.

Steel.
Steel lintels are made of mild steel or, more recently, of stainless steel as well. Mild steel
lintels can be hot dipped galvanised after manufacture (the best option) or made from pre-
galvanised steel which has a much thinner galvanised coating. Some lintels have an applied
finish to the steel, such as paint.
Historically steel lintels were often rolled structural steel angle sections. In more recent
decades the proprietary formed steel lintel was introduced and there are many different
shapes and types. Large openings may be spanned with a steel channel or joist / beam
section supporting the inner skin or face of a wall with a steel plate welded onto the bottom
flange of the section. The plate extends out to form the support for the outer part of the wall.
The corrosion protection of the lintel is particularly important if it is to last for the design life
of the building, normally 60 years, without the need for replacement. Hot dipped galvanised
lintels to BS EN ISO 1461 and its predecessors have proved to be durable in many locations,
but the Zinc Millennium Map should be consulted to determine the Annual Average
Atmospheric Corrosion rate for zinc in the UK and the Republic of Ireland. Lintels made
from pre-galvanised sheet may last as little as 15 years in some areas unless additional
protection is provided to the zinc. Additional protection may also be required if, for example,
the mortar contains substances which are aggressive to the zinc coating.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Generally, the simpler the lintel shape the less likelihood there is of corrosion starting in laps
or crevices. An example of a Top Hat design of lintel is shown in Figure 1 below. These
are formed from one piece of metal without welding or the crevices that result from two
pieces of metal being overlapped and spot welded. They maintain the continuity of the
brickwork and blockwork across the opening, (which makes the fixing of curtain rails etc.
much easier), have good thermal properties, and are less likely to cause cracks in the plaster
due to the differential expansion or shrinkage found with other types of lintels. However,
they have a continuous metal path from the inside of the wall to the outside and this is not
good for meeting the increasingly onerous thermal performance required by changes in
legislation.
In recent years the availability of stainless steel lintels at economic prices has greatly
improved the ability of the lintel to achieve the design life of the building with ease. They are
available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Non-standard lintels can be made within a
few days by some manufacturers.

Brick.
Lintels can be formed from brickwork, either reinforced or post-tensioned. Reinforced brick
lintels are made by including metal reinforcement within the bed joints of the brickwork. The
reinforcement is invisible from the outside of the finished lintel. The bed joint reinforcement
can either be expanded metal, welded lattice, (such as Murfor), twisted wire (such as
BrickTor), individual twisted strips (such as Spiro-Bars), or rectangular welded strips.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

The materials can be either galvanised steel or more commonly in recent years, stainless
steel. The absence of the front edge of a conventional lintel on the face of the brickwork
does not necessarily mean that there is no lintel in the wall. Reinforced brickwork is not
suitable for bricks laid on end (i.e. a soldier course) over an opening because of the absence
of bed joints in which to place the reinforcement. Proprietary reinforcement systems are also
available.
Brickwork lintels can be formed for soldier course brickwork by using bricks with holes in
them, commonly three hole bricks, and threading a bar or threaded rod through the holes. At
each end a thick spreader plate washer is placed on the bar and then the nuts added at each
end. After the mortar has set sufficiently the nuts are tightened and the lintel can take the
load from above. This type of lintel needs full support across the opening when the bricks are
laid and this is usually done by providing a timber or scaffold board. The lintel provides the
soldier course appearance over the opening, with no visible support. However, most soldier
courses are formed of plain brickwork and do not have reinforcement in them. Therefore
they need a separate lintel underneath to provide structural support. This would usually be a
teel lintel, the front edge of which should be visible below the soldier courses.

Concrete vs. Steel:

Concrete has some advantages; waste materials can be included within the mix such as
GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag) and PFA (Pulverised Fuel Ash). In addition,
moves are being made to assess the potential of using recycled concrete, however, issues such
as moisture content and material variability dictate that it is economically unviable.
Steel, while having a high lead time, is known for its fast erection on site. However, steel
needs fire protection whereas within concrete this is inherent. Prefabrication of steel can
allow thin film intumescent coatings to be applied offsite.
Efficiency within concrete construction is being improved by the adoption of hybrid solutions
and innovations in formwork such as self-climbing forms. The use of precast concrete
construction can also help to significantly reduce build time particularly where vertical
elements are considered to be the main limitation.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Sacrificial probes can be integrated within concrete to provide strength determination at an

early age and this is likely to help further improve construction methodologies.
Steel, being fast to erect, can allow the building to be occupied sooner. In addition, reduced
labour costs are possible through dryness of form in comparison with concrete.
The construction of a steel framework is comparatively lightweight, as much as sixty percent
lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame solution which might allow for a less
expensive foundation system. In addition, modification to the building can sometimes be
facilitated by simple removal of a structural steel member.

Safety Precautions:
-Suitable personal protective equipment should be worn at all times during handling and
installation.
-Gloves should be worn to avoid injury from any sharp edges or corners.
-When lifting or carrying a lintel undertake a personal risk assessment paying attention to the
size and weight of the product.

Local Government Bylaws (Lintels)

The National Construction Code (NCC) is an initiative of the Council of Australian

Governments (COAG) developed to incorporate all on-site building and plumbing
requirements into a single code.

The NCC sets the minimum requirements for the design, construction and performance of
buildings throughout Australia.

The manufacture and installation of lintels in Australia is governed by the Australian

Standard AS/NZS 2699.3:2000. (Part 3: Lintels and shelf angles). The Standard focuses on
the durability requirements of Lintels.

The Standard states that:

o The Lintels should be durable and serviceable and retain adequate strength.
o It is essential that lintels attached to supporting walls be installed so that they do not
permit water transfer across the cavity to the supporting frame.
o Features that present a safety hazard e.g. sharp edges and burrs, shall be removed.
o Materials for the manufacture of lintels shall be either inherently corrosion resistant or
suitably treated to ensure sufficient durability to achieve design life.
o Lintels shall be free from laminations, surface cracks, or surface imperfections, which
would otherwise reduce the life of the lintel.
o Lintels manufactured from any material shall be identified as durability classifications
R0 to R5, by application of the acceptance criteria.
o It is important for contractors to perform works in accordance with the applicable
version of the NCC. Failure to do so is a breach of their statutory and contractual
obligations.

Tandin Tshewang
041608734
Use Basic Construction in Engineering (35911)
Sheikh rahman

Conclusion
Lintels also provide a useful method of providing support over openings. There are many
different types, and some are more structurally stable than others. Being perceived as
simple building components they are sometimes not treated with the respect they deserve.
In specifying or assessing lintels the implications of the type and condition should be
carefully considered and where necessary, e.g. for a house purchase report, brought to the
attention of the present or future owner of the building. When selected and installed correctly
lintels should last for at least the 60 years design life of domestic dwellings, without the need
for structural repairs.
Construction Supervisors should also pay attention to the likelihood of lintels rusting and
discoloring the facade. On many projects, steel lintels rust through the paint after a year or
two and look bad. Sometimes steel lintels are required to be galvanized or factory powder
coated, in these cases the lintels only need to be protected from scratches before and after
installation. If no coating is specified, it's not uncommon for primed steel, or even rusty steel
to be installed and painted after it's in place. Since a lintel can't be effectively painted after it's
installed, the Construction Supervisor should attempt to make sure lintels are properly primed
and painted prior to installation

References
AS/NZS 2699.3:2002
http://www.standards.com.au/
http://faculty.arch.usyd.edu.au/pcbw/walls/lintels-and-openings/index.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lintel
AS 1684 Residential Timber Framed Construction of Australian standard
www.business.gov.au Run

Tandin Tshewang
041608734