1

PHY401/SE314: Classical Mechanics

(2014-2015: First Semester)

Instructor: Sagar Chakraborty, Department of Physics, I.I.T. Kanpur

Home Assignment # 1 Newtons Laws, Conserved Quantities

& Calculus of Variations

1. Consider two cartesian coordinate systems whose z-axes and origins coincide. Suppose one coordinate system
say, (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) is being rotated by a constant angular frequency about z-axis w.r.t. the other coordinate
system say, (x, y, z).

(a) Find primed coordinates in terms of the unprimed ones.

(b) Consider there is an unforced particle of unit mass in unprimed frame. Write down Newtons second law
of motion for the particle. Find out the expression of the pseudoforces by writing the Newtons second law
in the primed frame by using the transformation law between the primed and the unprimed coordinates.
(assume: t = t0 .)
(c) Repeat the problem assuming is a function of time.

2. Consider a mass M at position X acts gravitationally on a test mass m at position x. Of course, as you know,

GM m
m
x= (X x) . (1)
|X x|3

Show that this Newtons law of motion is symmetric under

(a) space translation,

(b) rotation of the coordinate system,
(c) time translation,
(d) Galilean transformation,
(e) time reversal,
(f) mirror reflection symmetry (mirror passing through mass M ).

3. In the following equation of simple harmonic oscillator

x + 2 x = 0 ,
m (2)

(a) is the force acting on the mass m conservative? Why/why not?

(b) Due to time translation symmetry, what is the conserved quantity? Verify your answer.
(c) Find x in terms of the constant of motion and x. Integrate it to find x as a function of t.
(d) By solving equation (2) using any other known method, compare the result with what you have found in
immediately preceding question (c).
 2

4. In the following simple nonlinear system

+ x3 = 0 ,
x (3)
(a) find a constant of motion.
(b) Use the constant of motion to reduce the order of the differential equation and express the solution as an
explicit integration.
(c) Hence, find out the time-period of the oscillations in terms of gamma function.
5. Use calculus of variations for the following problems.
(a) Show that among all closed smooth curves, a circle has the maximum area for a given perimeter.
(b) In a three dimensional space, find out the equation of curve passing between two fixed points (x1 , 0, z1 )
and (x2 , 0, z2 ) and revolving about z-axis such that the surface thus generated has minimum area among
any other curve chosen with the same end points.
(c) Find the equation for the shape of a string joining two points in a vertical plane, along which a bead
frictionlessly falling from rest under gravity moves from the higher to the lower point in the least time.
(d) Geodesics are the shortest path between points in the space. Find geodesics on a sphere of radius a. [Hint:
You may want to use spherical-polar coordinates for this problem.]
6. Consider a test particle of mass m moving under the influence of a fixed centre of force (taken as the origin of
the coordinate system). Supposed the force is derivable from a potential V which is explicit function of only
the magnitude of the radial distance r from the origin.
(a) Find dJ/dt where J is the angular momentum of the particle.
(b) Write down equations of motion for the particle in cylindrical coordinates.
(c) Find out the expressions for total energy (E) and magnitude of total angular momentum (J) in cylindrical
coordinates and verify that they are constants of motion.
(d) Using dE/dt = 0 and dJ/dt = 0, arrive at
s 
J2

2 J
r = EV , = .
m 2mr2 mr2
7. Prove that Laplace-Runge-Lenz (LRL) vector A p J mkr/r for a particle of mass m in a Keplerian central
force (kr/r3 ) is related to the total energy E and the magnitude of the angular momentum J via following
relations:
p
(a) A = mk 1 + 2EJ 2 /mk 2 and,
(b) A2 = m2 k 2 + 2mEJ 2 .
= 0.
(c) Also verify, using the definition of LRL vector, A
8. Let there be a simple pendulum consisting of a point mass m attached at the lower end of a massless unstretchable
string of length l (which is fixed at ceiling at the upper end) oscillating in a fixed vertical xz plane. Acceleration
due to gravity g = g z is acting vertically downwards,
(a) Use Newtons laws of motion to show that the simple pendulum, obeys equation of motion of the form:
+ 2 sin (t) = 0 .
(t) (4)
[Hint: Recognise as tan1 (x/z).]
(b) Let us be bit less clever and more methodical in deciding to work in cartesian coordinates (origin at the
fixed end of the string) with proper attention to the constraint functions. Of course, what we have in the
component form is:
f1 y = 0 , (5a)
f2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 l2 = 0 , (5b)
f1 f2
mx = 0 + 1 + 2 , (5c)
x x
f1 f2
my = 0 + 1 + 2 , (5d)
y y
f1 f2
mz = mg + 1 + 2 . (5e)
z z
 3

Lets focus on small oscillations so that z l. Show 1 = 0 and 2 = mg/2l and hence, the equation
+ 2 x = 0 ( 2 g/l). Verify that, within the approximations made, the equation of
of motion in x is x
motion in arctan(x/z) is + 2 = 0.
9. Suppose due to presence of air drag the equation of motion for a simple pendulum becomes

+ k + 2 sin = 0 ; k > 0. (6)

 k when one can approximate the preceding equation with a first order
Consider the overdamped limit (t)
ODE:

= a sin ; a 2 /k > 0 . (7)

(a) What is the phase space for the problem?

(b) What are the fixed points? Using both analytical and numerical techniques, find out which ones are linearly
stable and which ones are linearly unstable?
(c) Solve equation (7) exactly for any initial condition and use it to verify the results you have found above
for this problem.
10. A particle of unit mass moving along a straight line in positive x-direction is under the action of a drag force
F = (ax + bx 2 )
x ; (a, b R).
(a) Is the force conservative? If yes, please find out a potential.
(b) Write down Newtons equation of motion and rewrite it as two first order ordinary differential equations.
note v = av bv 2 .
(c) With v x,
i. Find the fixed points (say, v ) and their linear stability properties.
ii. When a = 0, what does linear stability analysis tell you? Use graphical method to conclude about the
nature of stability of the fixed point(s).
iii. Non-dimensionalize the equation for v. Show that there is only one independent non-dimensional
parameter (say r)? Plot a bifurcation diagram: v 0 vs r, where v 0 is, of course, non-dimensionalized
v .

KQRNBp

Home Assignment # 2 Lagrangian

1. Consider one dimensional motion of a particle of mass M in a time dependent potential U (x, t).

(a) Write down Hamiltons action S for the particle.

(b) Invoke Hamiltons principle of least action (i.e., S = 0) and find out the equation of motion.
(c) Calculate 2 S and find the condition on U required to make the action least for worldlines of arbitrary
lengths.

2. What is the number of degrees of freedom (#DOF) for

(a) a free particle,
(b) N free particles,
(c) N particles with K constraints,
(d) the fixed fulcrum of a simple pendulum,
(e) the bob of a conical pendulum,
(f) two heavy point particles joined by a massless rod (a dumbbell, if you prefer),
(g) three point masses connected by three massless rods,
 4

(h) a rigid body a system a large number of particles not all lying in one line and with all its particles held
at fixed distance from each other,
(i) a rigid body fixed at one point, and,
(j) a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis in space?
3. A simple pendulum of mass m and length l oscillates in x z plane. Write down the equations of constraints,
#DOF and the Euler-Lagrange equations when the pendulums point of support
(a) oscillates horizontally in the plane of motion such that x = A cos t.
(b) oscillates vertically according to z = B sin t.
(c) rotates in a vertical circle of radius R with constant angular frequency .
(d) carries a mass m0 free to move in x-direction.
(e) is suspended from mass m0 of another simple pendulum of length l0 which, in turn, is suspended from a
rigid ceiling, and both the pendula are constrained to move in the same plane.
4. Consider a cycloid whose equation is
 
az p
x = a cos1 + 2az z 2 .
a
Suppose a particle of mass m moves from rest along the cycloid under the influence of constant gravitational
acceleration g
z.
(a) Sketch the cycloid.
(b) Write down the equations of the (holonomic) constraints and the number of degrees of freedom of this
system.
(c) It may be convenient for you to choose the arc-length (s, say) along the cycloid as the generalised coordinate.
Find s in terms of x and z.
(d) Derive the Euler-Lagrange equations and solve it.
(e) Prove that irrespective of its initial position on the cycloid, the particle will reach the bottom at the same
time.
5. Write down the Euler-Lagrange equations for a plane spring pendulum: a mass m suspended from a spring
(spring constant k and unstretched length l) restricted to swing in a vertical plane. Acceleration due to gravity
is constant and acting vertically downwards.
6. Consider a vertically oriented string of shape z = a|xn |, n > 2, which is opening upwards and is in a constant
gravitational field g
z. The string also has a constant angular velocity equal to z about z-axis. A bead of
mass m is free to slide in the string frictionlessly.
(a) Find the Euler-Lagranges equation of motion.
(b) Find the beads equilibrium height on the string.
(c) Assuming small displacement about the equilibrium position and thus, find the time period of the small
vibrations about the equilibrium point.
(d) How your answers to above questions change, if at all, for n = 2?
7. Using the Euler-Lagranges equations, prove the following:
(a) If a Lagrangian for a closed system with N generalised coordinates is not an explicit function of time, then
the quantity (called energy)
N
X
E pi qi L
i=1

is a constant of motion (i.e., dE/dt = 0). Here, pi L/ qi are called generalised momenta.
(b) E remains a conserved quantity even if the system is not closed as long as the external force field is
time-independent.
 5

(c) All the generalised momenta are constants of motions when generalised forces (defined as Fi L/qi )
are zero.

8. Let there be an inertial frame of reference (K) in which the Lagrangian of an isolated particle of mass m is
L = mv 2 /2. Another frame of reference (K 0 , non-inertial) is moving with velocity V(t) (not constant) w.r.t.
K. Using Euler-Lagranges equation, show that in K 0 a Lagrangian L0 mv 02 /2 mr0 .A(t) gives the same
equations of motion as given by Newtons laws of motion. Here, prime denotes the corresponding quantities in
K 0 , A dV/dt and r0 is the position vector of the particle in K 0 .

9. Consider, in an inertial frame K, an isolated free particle of mass m with no external force acting on it. Suppose
the particle is viewed from a non-inertial frame K 0 which has its origin coinciding with that of K and is rotating
w.r.t K with an angular velocity (t) about an axis passing through the origin.

(a) Show that if Euler-Lagranges equation has to give the same equations of motion as that given by Newtons
laws of motion in K 0 , then Lagrangian L0 should be chosen as

1 1
L0 = mv 02 + m( r)2 + mv0 ( r) .
2 2

(b) Noting that in K, the energy of the particle can be expressed as E = v (L/v) L. Using analogous
expression in K 0 , prove

1
E 0 = E m( r)2 .
2

(c) Since linear (generalised) momentum p L/v and v = v0 + r, prove that

i. p0 = p, and hence,
ii. angular momentum (J) is same in both K and K 0 .
iii. Also, show that E 0 = E J .

10. One calls h(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) (denoted as h(x) in what follows) a real homogeneous function of degree k, if h(ax) =
ak h(x), where a is a real number.
Pn h
(a) Prove/verify Eulers homogeneous function theorem: i=1 xi x i
= kh .
(b) What are the degrees of homogeneity of the potential energies of
i. simple harmonic oscillator,
ii. a particle moving a constant gravitational field, and,
iii. a particle moving in an inverse square law central force field.
(c) Suppose a closed system of N particles has potential energy function U (r1 , r2 , ..., rN ) which is a homoge-
neous function of degree k. Find out the relation between and used in the transformations: r r0 = r
and t t0 = t, such that the equations of motion in terms of primed coordinates are of the same form as
that in unprimed ones.
(d) Verify that the effect of the transformation outlined in the immediately preceding question is to multiply
the relevant Lagrangian by a constant factor k if = 1k/2 .
(e) Thus, for the problem in hand we have basically found that two geometrically similar trajectories in the
configuration space require times, and 0 say, related to the ratio of the linear dimensions of the two
paths as 0 / = (l0 /l)1k/2 . Using this, prove:
i. simple harmonic oscillations frequency is independent of amplitude,
ii. time of fall of a particle in constant gravity is proportional to the square-root of the initial altitude,
and,
iii. Keplers third law for planetary motion.

KQRNBp
 6

Home Assignment # 3 1D, 2D & 3D Dynamical Systems

1. You must have heard about the bletch a disgusting animal native to the jungle of Xkroo on the planet
Quintux. The bletch population (N) obeys the equation:

dN
= aN 2 bN 3 ; a, b are constants. (8)
dt
N 2 term is there because bletches reproduce asexually but only when another bletch is watching and N 3 term
models the fact that when there are three bletches around, the beat they $#!+ out of each other. Defining
n N b/a and ta2 /b, one can rewrite the immediately preceding equation in the following form:

dn
= n2 n3 . (9)
d
(a) Consider equation (9). Find the fixed points and, their linear and non-linear stability properties.
(b) Bletches are also harvested because their claws are used to make medicine for treating constipation. Let h
be the harvesting rate and the resulting model for their population is as follows:
dn
= hn + n2 n3 . (10)
d
Draw relevant bifurcation diagram. Remember to highlight all the steps you would require to draw the
diagram and label the plot in detail.
2. Consider the system:

= e a sin , (11)

which corresponds to a vector field on a circle which in other words mean that the state space is S1 . The
parameter a R1 .
(a) By finding stability of the fixed points, determine the kind of bifurcation the system undergoes as one
changes a.
(b) For what values of a, the system is in an oscillatory state? Find the time-period of the oscillations. [Hint:
You may require to use the substitution y = tan(/2).]
(c) Can one add 2 in the R.H.S. of equation (11) and still argue that corresponds to a vector field on a
circle? Why/Why not?
3. Saddle-node/tangent/blue-sky bifurcation: Consider the 2D autonomous dynamical system:

x = x2 , (12a)
y = y ; (12b)

where is a real parameter.

(a) Paying attention to the sign of , find the fixed points for all values of .
(b) Do the linear stability analysis about the fixed points for the cases > 0 and = 0. Recognize and write
down the types of the fixed points. Solve the relevant eigenvalue problem completely by finding all the
corresponding eigenvectors.
(c) Draw a schematic phase portrait for the case > 0.
4. Consider the following non-linear dynamical system:

x = ax by x(x2 + y 2 ) , (13a)
y = bx + ay y(x2 + y 2 ) ; (13b)

where a , b are real parameters.

 7

(a) Show that origin is a fixed point and do linear stability analysis about it in order to write down the fixed
points types for the following five cases: a = 0 , b 6= 0; a < 0 , b 6= 0; a > 0 , b 6= 0; a > 0 , b = 0; &
a < 0 , b = 0.
(b) Put b = 0 in equations (13) and think harder (if you have not done it already!) to determine if there are
any other fixed point(s). If yes, then how many more are there and what is/are that/they?
(c) Reduce equations (13) to the following form in polar coordinates (x = r cos , y = r sin ):
r = r(a r2 ) , (14a)
= b . (14b)

(d) In equations (14), note that the radial dynamics is decoupled from the angular dynamics. Treat the radial
equation as a 1D flow on a real line and find out the fixed points and their stability for all values of a.
(e) Draw a properly labelled bifurcation diagram for the aforementioned 1D flow. What is the name of this
particular bifurcation?
(f) By now, you may have already guessed that for a > 0, thelimiting solution (i.e. solution at t ) for
equations (14) corresponds to points on a circle of radius a in x y plane. Can you comment on the
difference between the limiting solutions for b = 0 and b 6= 0. (Hint: Take into account the evolution
equation for , and also it may help to think about x vs t plots.)

5. Consider the following equations:

x = y x(x2 + y 2 ) , (15a)
y = +x y(x2 + y 2 ) ; (15b)

where is a parameter: R1 .

(a) Do linear stability analysis about the fixed point(s) and draw an appropriate bifurcation diagram.
(b) Transform the equations using polar coordinates and show that the linearised system found in the cartesian
coordinates predicts incorrect behaviour of the trajectories in the neighbourhood of the fixed point(s).

6. In the following dynamical system

x = x(1 x2 y 2 ) y(1 + + x) , (16a)

y = x(1 + + x) + y(1 x2 y 2 ) ; (16b)

(a) find the fixed points for R1 and their types.

(b) When does a limit cycle appear in this system?
(c) Verify that this system is showing a bifurcation (known as saddle-node-homoclinic bifurcation) which is
global but still one can retrieve partial features of the bifurcation by focussing on the local neighbourhood
of the fixed points.

7. Lets learn about supercritical pitchfork bifurcation in 2D flows through the following 2D autonomous dynamical
system:

x = x x3 ,
y = y ;

where is a real parameter.

(a) Do the linear stability analysis about the fixed points for all values of and write down the types of the fixed
points. Solve the relevant eigenvalue problem completely by finding all the corresponding eigenvectors.
(b) Hence draw schematic phase portraits for all values of .
 8

8. Following is known as Rayleigh oscillator:

+ x 2 1 x + 2 x = 0 .


x (17)

(a) Do the linear stability analysis about the fixed point(s) of Rayleigh oscillator (17) and classify the type of
the fixed point(s).
(b) Argue the existence of limit cycle along the line of Hopf bifurcation theorem. Remember to discuss the
amplitude and the frequency of the limit cycle at its birth.
(c) Stay in the limit ||  1 and use the energy balance method to find the amplitude of the limit cycle and
also the stability of the limit cycle. How has it helped you in your analysis by remaining within the limit
||  1? Thus, conclude whether Hopf bifurcation here is subcritical or supercritical. [Hint on the energy
balance method: Assume there exists a periodic solution, x = A cos t. Multiply equation (17) by x and find
d/dt(x 2 + 2 x2 ) and identify the bracketed term as energy. Calculate the total energy gained or dissipated
by the oscillator for a full cycle of oscillation. Naturally, demanding zero energy change over the full cycle
corresponds to a closed orbit. This will give a value of amplitude A in terms of system parameters. Once,
you have established the closed orbit, try to argue similarly what happens to trajectories close to the limit
cycle on either side of the limit cycle i.e., compute their energy-changes over the full cycle and check if
they are negative or positive. Relate your conclusions with the stability of the limit cycle.]
(d) What is the reason for the limit cycle to appear with order one (0 ) amplitude? Do a relevant rescaling of
x to remove the degeneracy responsible for this behaviour of Rayleigh oscillator.
(e) What are the attractors in Rayleigh oscillator for different values of ? Find their box dimensions.
(f) Why nonlinear terms are necessary in general for the existence of limit cycles in any relevant system?
Argue systematically.
(g) Can there be any chaotic trajectory in Rayleigh oscillator? Why/Why not?

9. Consider the following example of a dynamical system [~x = f~(~x)]:

x = (y x) , (18a)
y = rx y xz , (18b)
z = xy bz . (18c)

Here , r , b are all positive real numbers. This system of equations is the celebrated Lorenz dynamical system.

(a) Of course, the origin is a fixed point of equations (18) because at (0, 0, 0), ~x = 0. If we linearise equations
(18) about the origin, we arrive at:
= (y x) ,
x (19a)
= rx y ,
y (19b)
= bz .
z (19c)
Note that the equations for x and y are decoupled from z which decays as z exp(bt).
i. Cast the equations for x and y into the matrix form:
   
d x x
=A . (20)
dt y y

Find the matrix A.

ii. Find the trace and the determinant of A.
iii. If you completely forget about the z-axis, what kind of a fixed point the origin is in the x y plane
for different values of r. (Hint: Use the answers to the immediately preceding question.) When is the
origin a hyperbolic fixed point?
 9

10. Consider the system:

1
x = ( sin x + 5y 9z) ,
4
1
y = (4x ez + 1) ,
4
1
z = (4x 4 sin y + 3z) .
4
Do linear stability analysis about the origin which is a fixed point. Is the origin a hyperbolic fixed point? Also
find the relevant eigenvectors for the problem in hand.

KQRNBp

Home Assignment # 4 Conservative Systems &

Hamiltonian

1. Consider the following dynamical system

x = ay 2 ; (21a)
y = axy , (21b)

where a R.
(a) Show that x2 + y 2 is a constant of motion.
(b) Demonstrate that though x/x
+ y/y
= ax which is not equal to zero generally, the average value
of over any orbit in the phase space is zero.
(c) Is the system conservative? Does the system have a Hamiltonian?
2. The following dynamical system is known as Lotka-Volterra model

x = x xy , (22a)
y = y + xy . (22b)

(a) Find out the hyperbolic and the non-hyperbolic fixed points; and do linear stability analysis about them
in order to determine the local phase portrait around them.
(b) Find dy/dx and solve it exactly for a given initial condition (x0 , y0 ). By inspecting the solution, find out
the first integral of motion.
(c) Though the system is not a Hamiltonian system, would you call it a conservative system? Hence, comment
on the nature of the nonlinear stability of the fixed points.
3. Suppose there exists a smooth enough function H(x, y) such that

H
x = + , (23a)
y
H
y = . (23b)
x

(a) Calculate dH/dt and find whether H(x, y) is constant along any phase path.
(b) Suppose (x , y ) is a fixed point that, by definition, is also the stationary point of H(x, y). Do linear
stability analysis, and find the trace and the determinant of the Jacobian matrix calculated at the fixed
point.
(c) What are possible types of the fixed point for this system?
 10

(d) Prove that the condition that the stationary point of H(x, y) is a maximum or a minimum coincides with
the condition that the stationary point is a center.

4. For the dynamical system

x = y(13 x2 y 2 ) ; (24a)
y = 12 x(13 x2 y 2 ) , (24b)

(a) find x/x

+ y/y.
Does the system have a Hamiltonian?
(b) Assume a Hamiltonian H(x, y) and use definition to find out its explicit form.
(c) Find the fixed points, classify them and draw local phase portraits around them.
(d) Draw a rough sketch of global phase portrait.

5. Consider

x = y , (25a)
y = x 3ax2 . (25b)

(a) Is this system conservative? If yes, find out the possible Hamiltonian.
(b) Find the fixed points and draw the local phase portraits.
(c) Find the stable and the unstable manifolds, and thus, draw the global phase portrait schematically.

6. For the Hamiltonian H = 21 (x2 + y 2 ) + y 3 3x2 y, show that there exists a separatrix-cycle and find it.

7. Show that a contour H(x, y) = E (a constant) of a two dimensional autonomous dynamical system with
Hamiltonian H(x, y) is preserved by the differential equations

H
x = + + [H(x, y) E]f1 (x, y) (26a)
y
H
y = + [H(x, y) E]f2 (x, y) (26b)
x

where f1 and f2 are arbitrary smooth functions.

8. Consider a Hamiltonian system with Hamiltonian H(q, p). The canonical equations of motion are

H
q = + , (27a)
p
H
p = . (27b)
q

(a) Hamiltonian Saddle Node Bifurcation: Sketch phase portraits for greater than, equal to and lesser than
zero for H(q, p) = p + q 2 + p3 .
(b) Hamiltonian Pitchfork Bifurcation (Z2 symmetry): Illustrate how homoclinic orbit is generated as changes
sign in a Hamiltonian H(q, p) = p2 + q 2 + p4 . Find the equations of the separatrices.
(c) Hamiltonian S 1 Symmetry Bifurcation: Let H(q, p) = (p2 + q 2 ) + (p2 + q 2 )2 . Draw the phase portraits
for positive, negative and zero . Do all the closed orbits have same orientation?

9. Consider the following well-studied differential equation describing the motion of a simple pendulum

+ 2 sin (t) = 0 ,
(t) (28)

where , R.

(a) Prove that the system is conservative and find one time independent constant of motion. Can there be any
more (functionally independent) time independent integral of motion?
 11

(b) Since the system is two dimensional autonomous conservative system, using definition, find a Hamiltonian
by solving relevant partial differential equations.
(c) Recognise that is the generalised coordinate q. Find the Lagrangian, the conjugate momentum (p) and,
thus, find the Hamiltonian by finding the Legendre dual of the Lagrangian.
(d) Write down the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion for the system in hand and sketch a qualitative
global phase portrait.
10. A bead of mass m is free to frictionlessly slide on a string of shape z = f (x) in a vertical xz plane. Acceleration
due to gravity is g
z.
0 (x) (prime denotes derivative
(a) Recognising that this is a one degree of freedom system and that z = xf
w.r.t. x), write down the Lagrangian (L) in terms of x and x.
(Choose potential energy U = 0 at z = 0.)
(b) Use the Euler-Lagranges equation to find equation of motion for the bead in the form: x
= F (x, x).

(c) Split x
= F (x, x)
into the system of two ODEs: x = y ; y = F . What is the divergence of the phase velocity
field at an arbitrary point in the phase space x y? Can you construct a Hamiltonian function H(x, y)?
(d) Find the generalised momentum (p). Denoting x by q, find H(q, p) using H(q, p) pq L(q, q) and thus,
find the canonical equations of motion in the form: q = g(q, p) ; p = h(q, p). What is the divergence of the
phase velocity field at an arbitrary point in the phase space q p?

KQRNBp

Home Assignment # 5 (Small) Oscillations

1. Consider a circular hoop of mass m suspended from seven uniformly-spaced massless strings, each of length l,
such that the plane of the hoop always remains horizontal (even when the hoop oscillates). Acceleration due to
gravity is acting downwards.
(a) What is the number of degrees of freedom?
(b) Write the Lagrangian using
i. the angle of rotation () of the hoop about the axis through the centre of mass ; and again,
ii. using z, the height of the center of mass above its equilibrium position.
(c) Using both the Lagrangians, find the normal coordinates and the corresponding characteristic angular
frequencies when the hoop executes small oscillations.
2. Model an isolated diatomic molecule as two masses m1 and m2 connected by a massless spring of spring constant
k. Suppose the molecule is free to move only along the line joining the two masses.
(a) Choosing proper generalised coordinate(s) to express the Lagrangian in terms of reduced mass [
m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 )] so that the problem reduces to an equivalent one-body problem.
(b) Find the normal modes and the resonant frequencies.
(c) Find the ratio of the angular frequencies of small oscillations between two diatomic molecules, if the other
diatomic molecule has same k but different masses (m01 and m02 , say).
3. Write down at least three sets of generalised coordinates for a plane spring pendulum: a mass m suspended
from a spring (spring constant k, unstretched length l0 and equilibrium length l) restricted to swing in a vertical
plane. Acceleration due to gravity g is constant and acting vertically downwards.
(a) Use the angle which the spring makes with a vertical line and the displacement x which is due to the
compressive/extensive motion along the spring, to write down the Lagrangian.
(b) Find the normal coordinates and the corresponding characteristic frequencies for the normal oscillations of
the system.
(c) Using the above Lagrangian, find the equations of motion.
 12

FIG. 1.

p
(d) Define the non-dimensional variables x0 = x/l and t0 = g/lt; and, the non-dimensional parameter
k 0 = kl/mg. Using these, rewrite the equations of motion in non-dimensional form.
+ kx = 1 + 2 2 /2 , & + = x 2x . Here, all the variables
(e) Verify that for small x and , one has x
and the parameters are non-dimensional (and primes have been omitted for convenience).
(f) Employing an initial condition that x(0)
= 0, solve the equation of motion for x neglecting the terms of
order higher than one in ; and, use the solution to recast the aforementioned equation of motion for
in the following Mathieu-equation 2
R form: X + 0 (1 + h cos t)X = 0. [Hint: You may want to use the
transformation: = exp( A k sin kt), where A is the non dimensional amplitude of the oscillatory
part of x.]
(g) Assuming A2  1 and remembering that parametric resonance happens in Mathieu equation when the
natural frequency is half of the frequency of the parametric forcing, show that in the case of the spring
pendulum parametric resonance (autoparametric
p resonance,
p to be precise) occurs when k = 2. Thus, in
2 2
dimensional parameters, the condition is ( k/m) = 2( g/l) .
p
(h) Argue that for small oscillations, there will be autoparametric resonance whenever k = (2/n) 1 1/k ,
where n I {0} . Here, k is non-dimensional.
4. Find the normal modes of oscillations and the corresponding eigen-frequencies for the small oscillations in the
following systems:
(a) A coplanar double pendulum swinging in a vertical plane on the Mars surface. In order to make algebra
less cumbersome, you may want to take the two individual simple pendula, which constitute the double
pendulum, as identical.
(b) Three point masses that can swing as illustrated in Figure 1. The horizontal line is a thin massless rigid
rod and the other lines are taut strings. You may want to take masses as m1 = m2 = m3 = m and the
lengths of the pieces of the strings as l1 = l2 = l3 = l in order to ease through rather monotonous algebra.

5. Consider an isolated free linear triatomic molecule consisting of three masses (m1 , m2 , & m3 ) such that at
equilibrium the central atom (m2 ) is equidistant from the other two atoms. We choose to model the actual
interatomic potential by two springs of force constant k.
(a) Find the normal nodes and the resonant frequencies. Present the result assuming m1 = m3 for the sake of
simplicity.
(b) What is the physical significance of the vanishing resonant frequency you have found for the problem?
(c) Thus, realising that the centre of mass remains in uniform motion, impose a new condition that the centre
of mass remains remains stationary at origin; and use the condition to rewrite an effective Lagrangian for
the system in terms of only two generalised coordinates.
(d) Find the eigen-frequencies and the normal modes again using the effective Lagrangian found above.
6. Consider the Lagrangian L = (q12 + q22 )/2 (q12 + q22 )/2 + q1 q2 + [q1 f1 (t) + q2 f2 (t)] ( and are constants).
 13

(a) Putting = 0, find the equations of motions. What kind of physical system do they describe?
(b) Put = 0 (and 6= 0) and, find the resonant frequencies and the normal coordinates (Q1 and Q2 , say).
(c) Now with , 6= 0, write down the equations of motion for Q1 and Q2 .
(d) If f1 (t) and f2 (t) were sinusoidal, what forms of theirs would effect resonance in the forced oscillating
system?
7. Write down the equations of motion for the small oscillations of a simple pendulum whose point of support
oscillates vertically sinusoidally with frequency 2 +  and amplitude (a) much smaller than the length (l) of
the pendulum. Here, is the natural frequency of the simple harmonic oscillations which the pendulum would
execute if the point of support was immovable and   is a constant.
(a) Find the conditions for the parametric resonance upto terms of first order in a/l.
(b) By including higher harmonics in your trial solution for the problem, find again the conditions of parametric
resonance upto next higher order.
(c) Determine the modification to the conditions you have found above when a damping term (proportional
to angular velocity) is suitably added to the equation.
(d) Parametric resonance is also known to occur when the frequency of the support varies close to any value
2/n, (n I {0}). However, the width of the range for resonance decreases with increasing n. Verify
these facts by using n = 2 in the present problem.
+ (x2 1)x + 02 x = 0, known as Van der Pol equation.
8. Consider a non-Hamiltonian system: x
(a) Does the system undergo Hopf bifurcation as is varied? If yes, then what is the critical value of the
bifurcation parameter?
(b) Using PoincareLindstedt method, find out the correction to the frequency (of a possible oscillatory state)
due to the nonlinear term. Making use of ||  1, present your answer upto second order in .
(c) While eliminating the resonating terms, note that you can also find out the amplitude of the oscillation if
present at all. What is its value at the leading order?
9. The following dynamical system is a modified version of Lotka-Volterra (LV) model

x = x xy ; (29a)
y = y + x y , (29b)

where , I+ .
(a) Does the system have a Hamiltonian with x and y as canonically conjugate variables? Give mathematical
arguments to support your answer.
(b) Show that C(x, y) = ln(xy) x / y / is a first integral of the equations.
(c) Write down the modified LV model in ( , ) coordinates where = ln x and = ln y; and show that C(x, y)
is Hamiltonian for the system. For what values of (x , y), ( , ) are defined?
(d) Note that C(x, y) = constant in the neighbourhood of the nonlinear center x = 1 , y = 1 describes closed,
and hence, periodic trajectories. Setting = = 1, use secular perturbation theory to find the angular
frequency upto second order (in , as explained in the hint below) for such a trajectory with very small
amplitude. [Hint: Shift the origin x0 = x 1 , y 0 = y 1 and write the LV model in primed coordinates.
Since the amplitude is small for the problem, the nonlinear terms are smaller in magnitude than the linear
terms. In order to capture this fact put a bookkeeping positive parameter in front of the nonlinear terms.]
10. A particle of mass m executing simple harmonic oscillations of angular frequency 0 along x-axis is subjected
to an additional potential x3 /3.
(a) Sketch the potential energy of the particle for = 0, = and some finite positive value of . Will the
particle always oscillate?
(b) Write down the Hamiltonian H(x, p) and show that it is a constant of motion. Hence, for a given energy
E for the particle, calculate the amplitude A of the particle when it oscillates. [Hint: When x = A, the
particle is instantaneously at rest. One should get two values of |A| different in either side of the origin.
Why? ]
 14

(c) Assuming ||  1, use secular perturbation theory to calculate the angular frequency upto order 1 of the
oscillations when present.
(d) Exact method: If T is the time period of oscillation, find that it will be given by
1/2
2x3
Z 
T = dx 2E 02 x2 .
3
Put the proper limits of integration to find the time-period and hence, the angular frequency upto first
order in .

KQRNBp

Home Assignment # 6 Canonical Transformations &

Poisson Bracket

1. Let f (q, p, t), g(q, p, t), and h(q, p, t) be some smooth enough functions of generalised co-ordinate, generalised
momentum and time. Let H be the relevant Hamiltonian. Prove the following relations concerning Poisson
bracket [ , ].
(a) Jacobis identity: [f, [g, h]] + [g, [h, f ]] + [h, [f, g]] = 0 .
(b) df /dt = f /t + [f, H] .
(c) Poissons theorem: If f and g are constants of motion, then [f, g] is also a constant of motion.
(d) Consider a canonical transformation given by Q = Q(q, p, t) , P = P (q, p, t).
i. We write f (q, p, t) = f (q(Q, P, t), p(Q, p, t), t) = f(Q, P, t) and similar definition goes for g(Q, P, t).
Prove [f, g]q,p = [f, g]Q,P .
ii. Show that the known necessary and sufficient conditions for canonical transformations in terms Poisson
brackets, viz. [Q, Q] = [P, P ] = 0 & [Q, P ] = 1, trivially boils down to Jacobian determinant of the
transformation being unity.
iii. However, unit Jacobian is in general only a necessary condition for arbitrary dimensional phase space
as can be seen from the following counterexample: Q1 = p1 , Q2 = p2 , P1 = q1 , P2 = q2 / (here
R {0, 1}). Show that the Jacobian determinant is equal to one but it is still not a canonical
transformation. [Hint: Verify the later by calculating relevant Poisson brackets.]
(e) Wherever possible, repeat the aforementioned problems for the case where the number of generalised
coordinates is arbitrarily more than one.
2. Consider the Hamiltonian of a two-dimensional isotropic simple harmonic oscillator:
1 2
H(q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 ) = (q + q22 + p21 + p22 ) .
2 1
(a) Show that Poisson bracket [ , ] of J q1 p2 q2 p1 with H vanishes or in other words, J is a constant
of motion.
(b) Prove [G, H] = 0, where G (p21 p22 )/2 + (q12 q2 )2 /2.
(c) Hence, using Jacobi identity for Poisson bracket argue that A [J, G] is a constant of motion. By doing
explicit calculations show that A = 2(p1 p2 + q1 q2 ) and verify dA/dt = 0 by using equations of motion.
(d) Also, prove that H 2 = G2 + A2 /4 + J 2 , thus, showing that H, G, A, & J are not all independent of each
other; any three out of the four can be chosen as independent constants of motion.
(e) Show (i) [A, J] = 4G, and (ii) [A, G] = 4J, and thus note that no new independent constant of motion is
generated.
3. Consider two Lagrangians L0 (q, q,
t) and L(q, q,
t).
(a) Show that they describe the same motion if L0 L = dF/dt, where F is a function of q and t only.
 15

(b) Calculate generalised momenta p0 and p using L0 and L respectively, and find a relation relating p0 to p and
F . Prove that this relation along with q 0 = q constitute a canonical transformation and find the related
generating function of type 2.
(c) Using Legendre transformation find the Hamiltonians (H 0 and H respectively) corresponding to L0 and L.
How are F , H 0 and H related?
4. Consider four sets of transformations: (i) Q = q , P = p2 ; (ii) Q = p , P = q; (iii) Q = p sin q , P = p cos q; and

(iv) Q = q , P = p q. Following problems concern all these transformations.

(a) Let there be a Hamiltonian H(q, p) = p2 /2. Find Q and P in terms of P and Q.
(b) Assuming that there exists a function K(Q, P ) such that Q = K/P ; P = K/Q , find out K explicitly.
(c) Suppose H = p2 /2 + q 2 /2, does a function K(Q, P ) exist such that canonical equations in terms of Q
and P (and K as Hamiltonian) can be written down? If yes, then find it out. Repeat the problem for
H = p2 /2 + q.
(d) Using only your answers to the previous parts of this problem, mention which of the four transformations
has/have a chance of being canonical. Verify your answer by making use of Poisson bracket.
5. Setting mass, length and acceleration due to gravity to unity, we note that for small oscillations of simple pendu-
lum we can use H(q, p) = p2 /2+q 2 /2 (please verify) as Hamiltonian. Here q and p are generalised coordinate and
generalised momentum respectively. Consider the following transformation: Q(q, p) = arctan(q/p) ; P (q, p) =
(q 2 + p2 )/2 , and,
(a) prove that this is a canonical transformation by finding (i) the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of the
transformation, and (ii) Poisson brackets [Q, Q], [P, P ] and [Q, P ].
(b) Hence, using p = F1 (q, Q)/q and P = F1 (q, Q)/Q, show that the generating function F1 =
(q 2 cot Q)/2. [Hint: First, replace p and P on the L.H.S. by appropriate explicit functions of q and Q.]
(c) Verify that for the F1 found, 2 F1 /qQ 6= 0 and obtain back the given canonical transformations..
(d) Prove that Hamiltonian in the new coordinates is K = P and, thus, showing that P is a constant of motion.
6. Derive the formula for canonical transformations Q = Q(q, p, t) , P = P (q, p, t) in terms a generating
function F (q, p, t); and also, for type 3 and type 4 generating functions, F3 (p, Q, t) and F4 (p, P, t) respectively.
Use the formula to find F , F3 , and F4 explicitly for (a) Q = p , P = q, and, (b) Q = p2 /2 , P = q/p.
7. Suppose F1 (q(), Q(), ), F2 (q(), P (), ), F3 (p(), Q(), ), and F4 (p(), P (), ) are the generating func-
tions of types 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively for the following transformation

Q = f (q(), Q(), ) ;
P = g(q(), Q(), ) .

which depends upon a parameter .

(a) Calculate Fi / Fj /, where i, j {1, 2, 3, 4}.
(b) Use time t as and consider F1 (q, Q, t) = q(Q2 + t2 ). Find F2 , F3 , and F4 ; and verify the results obtained
in part (a) of this problem.
8. A general 2D dynamical system x = f (x, t) can be explicitly represented as

x = f (x, y, t) ,
y = g(x, y, t) .

(a) Generalised Liouville theorem: Suppose A(0) is an arbitrary domain (area) in the phase space at time t = 0
and it flowsRtoR become A(t) at a later time t, and (x, y, t) is a function over this moving domain. Prove
that I(t) A(t)
(x, y, t)dxdy is an integral invariant if /t + (f ) = 0.
(b) Liouville theorem: Hence, prove that the area of a flowing arbitrary domain in the phase space of an
one-degree-of-freedom Hamiltonian system remains unchanged with time. [Hint: What are f and for
this case? ]
 16

(c) With  0, we can write the canonical equations of motion as q(t+) = q(t)+Hp and p(t+) = p(t)Hq
(verify it). Since by virtue of above theorems, an infinitesimal phase space area qp will not change with
time, do you feel that we can think of the Hamiltonian flow being generated by the (infinitesimal) canonical
transformation: Q = q + Hp and P = p Hq ? If yes, then by using Poisson bracket, prove that this
indeed is a canonical transformation. (You may require to ignore terms of order 2 .)
(d) Find the type 2 generating function for the aforementioned canonical transformation.
9. Consider yet again the Hamiltonian H = q 2 /2 + p2 /2.
(a) Argue that the trajectories in the phase space generated by the Hamiltonian correspond to librations.
1
H
(b) Construct action variable I 2 pdq and find it explicitly for the system in hand.
(c) Find the angular frequency () of oscillations of the liberating motions.
(d) Find both the type 1 and type 2 generating functions [F1 (q, ) and F2 (q, I) respectively] corresponding to
the canonical transformation (q, p) (, I). Here is the angle variable.
(e) Find an expression for q in terms of I , , & t.
10. Suppose an one degree-of-freedom particle of unit mass moving in the potential U (q) = A tan2 Bq, where
A , B R+ .
(a) Find the Lagrangian, the generalised momentum (p) and the Hamiltonian.
(b) Write down canonical equations of motions, and; find the fixed points, their stability properties in the
phase space, and draw schematic phase portrait.
(c) If there is any libration, find out the turning points, i.e., the values of q at which the particle is at rest
(q = 0, which in this case would also mean p = 0); and hence find the action variable (I).
(d) What is the corresponding angular frequency ()? Is the system isochronous?
(e) If denotes the angle variable, write down the expression for type 2 generating function F2 (q, I) effecting
the canonical transformation (q, p) (, I).
(f) Find the angle variable () and hence, putting = t + 0 , show that q is a periodic function of time t.
(g) Draw the phase portrait in I phase space.

KQRNBp

Home Assignment # 7 Hamilton-Jacobi Equation

1. Look for type 2 generating function F2 (q, P, t) such that new Hamiltonian corresponding to H = q 2 /2 + p2 /2 is
trivially 0. Recall: p = F2 /q, Q = F2 /P , K = H(q, p) + F2 /t. Of course, such an F2 will be a solution
of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation:
 
S S
H q, ,t + = 0. (30)
q t

(a) Since time is cyclic here i.e. H/t = 0, One can look for solution of the form: S(q, , t) = W (q, ) + S 0 (t)
upto
 an additive constant. is aconstant of integration. Using this in equation 30, show that S =
1
p p
2 arcsin( q 2 /2) + q 2 q 2 t upto an additive constant. is a constant.
2

(b) By Jacobis theorem: S/ is also a constant of motion. Use this to find q(, t) = 2 sin(t + ) .
Also, find p = S/q as a function of t.
(c) Find Hamiltonian is terms of and recognise that is nothing but the total energy of the system; and
also find the new Hamiltonian (K) as a function of ( , , t).
2. For the following cases, find out the Hamiltons principle function S(q, P, t) and the Hamiltons characteristic
function W (q, P ); and hence, find the generalised coordinate and the generalised momentum as a function of
time:
 17

(a) An free particle of unit mass moving along a line.

(b) A point particle of mass m dropped from a height h. The acceleration due to gravity is g = g
z.
(c) A one-degree-of-freedom point particle of unit mass moving in a potential which depends linearly on time
t and generalised coordinate q.
x + k x + 2 x = 0.
3. Consider a damped simple harmonic oscillator (DSHO): m
(a) Can you find a potential corresponding to the problem? Why/Whynt?
(b) Solve the equation by using a trial solution of the form A exp(mt); and find x(t) for a k/ greater than,
equal to and less than 2.
(c) Show a Lagrangian L(x, x, t) = exp(kt)(q2 /2 2 q 2 /2), when plugged in Euler-Lagranges equation, gives
correct equation of motion for the DSHO.
(d) Find the Hamiltonian H and the canonical equations of motion. Is H a constant of motion?
(e) Find the type 2 generating function for the transformation: Q = q exp(kt/2) ; P = p exp(kt/2), and find
the transformed Hamiltonian K(Q, P, t). Is K a constant of motion?
(f) Write down the Hamilton-Jacobi equation using K and solve it for the Hamiltons principle function in
order to ultimately find (Q , P ), and hence (q , p).
4. Find the integral expression of Hamiltons characteristic function for a particle of mass m moving on x-axis
under the influence of a potential U (x) = a|x| (a R). Using this
(a) find action variable I and show I E 3/2 , where E is the total energy of the system.
(b) Find out the frequency of oscillations.
(c) Write down the new Hamiltonian after the transformation (q, p) (, I) has been effected by the generating
function W (q, I).
 
5. Write down the time independent Hamiltonian-Jacobi (H-J) equation H q1 , q2 , W , W
q1 q2 = E explicitly
for H = (12 q12 /2 + p21 /2) + (22 q22 /2 + p22 /2).
(a) Use an assumed separated form for W to reduce H-J equation into two ordinary differential equations of
first order.
1
H
(b) Construct two action variables Ii 2 pi dqi (no summation over i) and use them to find that the angular
frequencies of oscillations.
(c) Show that in action-angle variables: H = 1 I1 + 2 I2 and hence, verify that the system is degenerate i.e.
det( 2 H/Ii Ij ) = 0.
6. Simple Atwoods machine: Two masses heavier M and lighter m connected via a pair of horizontally
placed frictionless and weightless tiny pulleys are tied at the ends of an inextensible string. M can move only
vertically whereas m can swing in a vertical plane (r, ). Here, r is the length of the string from pulley nearer
to m to m and is the angle which this part of string makes with a vertical line.
(a) Find the number of degrees of freedom, the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian.
(b) Write down the time independent Hamilton-Jacobi equation in radial polar cordite and in parabolic coor-
dinates (, ) defined through: r = ( 2 + 2 )/2 ; = 2 arctan[( 2 2 )/2].
(c) Assume: M = 3m. Nothing that in the parabolic coordinates the H-J equation can be separated into two
ordinary differential equations by putting W (, , 1 , 2 ) = W1 (, 1 ) + W2 (, 2 ), argue that one constant
can be taken as the total energy of the system and the other one is another first integral of motion. From
the equations for W , W1 and W2 , find the constants of motion explicitly in parabolic coordinates and thus,
in radial-polar coordinates.
(d) Can you repeat the problem for M = (4n2 1)m where n is any integer?

KQRNBp