JOB#03

To determine Euler critical buckling load for different end conditions using ST370
Column Buckling Apparatus:

1. General Description:

The equipment is used for studying strut buckling under load. It is to be used with ST300
Universal Structural Frame or ST305 Universal Base Frame.
The top frame has loading screw which pushes a cylindrical strut support sliding in a bushing.
The bottom frame has a load cell and a cylindrical strut support in a socket.
Each strut has end condition for knife-edge or build-in. The load reading is by an indicator. A
small lateral load is applied by means of a pulley and a weight hanger. A dial indicator
measures the lateral deflection.

1.1 Technical Data

1.1.1 Top support with a loading screw: 1 ea.
1.1.2 Bottom support with a load cell: 1 ea. 2.5 kN
1.1.3 ST150 Force indicator: 1 ea.
1.1.4 Strut specimens
1.1.4.1 Size: 19 x 3 (approx.) x 400 mm bar with knife edge ends.
1.1.4.2 Material: 1 ea. mild steel, brass, aluminum.
1.1.5 Strut support
1.1.5.1 Built in: 2 ea.
1.1.5.2 Knife - edge: 2 ea.

1.1.6 ST131 Dial indicator: 1 ea.

1.1.7 Horizontal load hanger with pulley: 1 set.
1.1.7.1 Weight: 1 lot, total 4 N
1.1.8 Power supply: 220 V 1Ph 50 Hz

2. THEORY
2.1 Columns
A column differs from a tension bar in that any non-uniform yielding in the cross section
brings about further yielding. This non-uniform yielding is not serious in short blocks, but is
serious in columns. Columns are divided for analysis into long columns and short columns, in
both of which initial inequalities introduce serious bending. Long columns fail by buckling at
a load less than the elastic limit of the material. Buckling is the sudden collapse of a long
column at or above the critical load at witch equilibrium no longer obtains. The ratio of
length to radius of gyration, or slenderness ratio, at which a long column begins to fail by
buckling, is between 100 and 120. Such columns are computed by Eulers formula. Few
structural columns fail as long columns.
Short columns with values of (l/k) less than 100 begin to fail when the combination of direct
stress and bending stress reaches the yield point of the material. The actual failure is
dependent upon the homogeneity of the material, the straightness of the column, and the
eccentricity of loading, all of which control bending stresses. Failure of built-up columns
begins with a local crippling at some part of the column. Such elements are not susceptible of
calculation, and short columns of this kind are to be computed by empirical formulas which
are however, modeled on rationally derived forms.
2.2 Long Columns with Central Loading (Euler Theory)
We can account for these various end conditions by writing the Euler equation in two
following forms:
The quantity Pcr /A in Eq. (1) is the critical unit load. It is the load per unit area necessary to
place the column in a condition of unstable equilibrium. In this state any small crookedness
of the member, or slight movement of the support or load, will cause the column to collapse.
The unit load has the same units as strength, but this is the strength of a specific column, not
of the column material. Doubling the length of a member, for example, will have a drastic
effect on the value of Pcr /A but no effect at all on, say, the yield strength S y of the column
material itself.
Example will have a drastic effect on the value of Pcr /A but no effect at all on, say, the yield
strength Sy of the column material itself. Equation (1) shows that the critical unit load
depends only upon the modulus of elasticity and the slenderness ratio. Thus a column
obeying the Euler formula made of high-strength alloy steel is no stronger than one made of
low-carbon steel, since E is the same for both. The factor C is called the end-condition
constant, and it may have any of the theoretical values 1/4, 1, 2 and 4 depending upon the
manner in which the load is applied. In practice it is difficult, if not impossible, to fix the
column ends so that the factor C = 2 or C = 4 would apply, Even if the ends are welded, some
deflection will occur. Because of this, some designers never use a value of C greater than
unity. However, if liberal factors of safety are employed, and if the column load is accurately
known, then a value of C not exceeding 1.2 for both ends fixed, or for one end rounded and
one end fixed, is not unreasonable, since it supposes only partial fixation. Of course, the
value C =1/4 must always be used for a column having one end fixed and one end free.
These recommendations are summarized in Table 2-1.

When Eq. (1) is solved for various values of the unit load (Pcr /A) in terms of the slenderness
ratio (l/k), we obtain the curve PQR shown in Fig. 2-2. Since the yield strength of the
material has the same units as the unit load, the horizontal line through S y and Q has been
added to the figure. This would appear to make the figure cover the entire range of
compression problems from the shortest to the longest compression member. Thus it
manufacture, is likely to contain defects such as initial crookedness of load eccentricities. The
Existence of such defects and the methods of accounting for them will usually involve a -of-
safety approach or a stochastic analysis. These methods work well for long columns and for
simple compression members. However, tests show numerous failures for columns with
slenderness ratios below and in the vicinity of point Q, as shown in the shaded area in Fig. 2-
2. These have been reported as occurring even when near perfect geometric specimens were
used in the testing procedure. A column failure is always sudden, total, and unexpected, and
hence dangerous. There is no advance warning. A beam will bend and give visual warning
that it is overloaded; but not so for a column. For this reason neither simple compression
methods nor the Euler column equation should be used when the slenderness ratio is near
(l/k)Q. Then what should we do? The usual approach is to choose some point T on the Euler
curve of Fig. 2-2. If the slenderness ratio is specified as (l/k)1 corresponding to point T, then
use the Euler equation only when the actual slenderness ratio is greater than (l/k)1.
Most designers select point T such that (Pcr /A) = (Sy /2) Using Eq. (1) with C = 1, we find
the corresponding value of (l/k)1 to be

2.3 Intermediate-Length Columns with Central Loading

(J.B. Johnson formula or parabolic)
Over the years there have been a number of column formulas proposed and used for the range
of (l/k) values for which the Euler formula is not suitable. Many of these are based on the use
of a single material; others, on a so-called safe unit load rather than the critical value. Most of
these formulas are based on the use of a linear relationship between the slenderness ratio and
the unit load. The parabolic or J.B Johnson, formula now seems to be the preferred one
among designers in the machine, automotive, aircraft, and structural-steel construction fields.
The general form of the parabolic formula is

Where a and b are constants that are evaluated by fitting a parabola to the Euler curve of Fig.
2-2 as shown by the dashed line ending at T. If the parabola is begun at Sy, then a = Sy. If
point T is selected as previously noted, then Eq. (2) gives the value of (l/k)1 and the constant
b is found to be

Upon substituting the known values of a and b into Eq. (3), we obtain, for the parabolic
equation,

3. TEST PROCEDURES
Strut specimens of various materials are supplied. Only two types of support are provided i.e.
knife edge and built in. The built in support is attached to the end of the specimen.
Procedures for testing specimen on knife edge support are as follows.
3.1 Set up the test device as per Fig. 3-1.
3.2 Insert the V-notch support in the bottom socket.
3.3 Insert the V-notch support and hold in top socket by hand.
3.4 Insert the specimen onto the support and adjust the loading screw such that no
compression is exerted on the specimen. The load indicator should now read zero. If not the
tare load is recorded.
3.5 Install the dial gauge set to measure the deflection at the mid span and set dial gauge to
zero for the specimen.
3.6 Install hanger and small weight (side loading) to hold at the mid span of the specimen to
direct the deflection of specimen to agree with dial gauge.
3.7 Slowly apply the compression load by turning the loading screw and record both load and
deflection on the data sheet.
3.8 Plotted the graph of load and deflection in y-x axis.
3.9 Determine the critical actual load).
'
Pcr '
(Pcr for each specimen and calculate critical actual unit load A ).

3.10 Verity the unit loads (Pcr /A) by Euler Theory.

4. Observations and Calculations:

5. Graphs:

Test#01
Test#02

Test#03
Test#04

Test#05
Test#06

6. Comments: