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Types of
Transducers
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Chapter 2
Types of Transducers
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Deviation from linearity of the resistance versus-distance
specification can be as low as 0.1% to 1.0% consider Fig. (2-1) (b). If the
circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certain fraction of VT,
depending on the position of the wiper as seen in eqn (1).
V0 R2
(1)
VT R1 R 2
In its application to resistive position sensors, this equation shows
that the output voltage is directly proportional to the position of the
wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the
length of travel of the wiper, that is, if the element is perfectly linear.
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This answer is a measure of the distance and direction that the object
has traveled.
Fig (2-3) The Deflection of the Bellows under Application of Pressure P is given
by the Expression
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PR 2
y 2nA (2)
Et 3
In equation (2) where in is the number of convolutions in the
belows, A is the effective area of the bellows, E is Young's modulus of
elasticity, and t is the thickness of wall of the bellows.
Generally, only a portion of the total available motion of the
bellows (10% of the maximum stroke length) is used, in order to prevent
their taking a "set" from being expanded to their limit too frequently. A
spring is often used to limit their motion. The larger the diameter of the
bellows the lower the pressure that can be measured with it.
One side of the bellows is fixed and the pressure is applied inside
the bellows from other side, which in turn expands or compresses the
bellows depending upon the nature of pressure. A rod fitted on the other
side of the bellows moves and transmits the motion to the secondary
transducer, as illustrated in fig. (2-4).
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Fig (2-5) (a) The Pressure is applied to the Inside of the Bellows
Fig (2-5) (b) The Pressure under Measurement is Applied to the Outside of
the Bellows
Main advantages of the bellows are simple and rugged
construction, moderate cost, capability of providing large force and wide
pressure range.
The main draw-backs of the bellows are:
i. Ambient temperature compensation is required.
ii. Unsuitable for measurement of very high pressures.
iii. Unsuitable for dynamic measurements because of their greater
mass and longer relative movement.
These are widely used for measurement of vacuum and low pressures.
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2. Bourdon Tubes. Bourdon tube, consists of a tube flattened to have
an approximately elliptical cross-section and bent into either a C or
twisted tube, or spiral or helical shape, as shown in fig. (2-6) (a.b).
These are all formed from seamless metal tubing with wall
thickness varying from 0.25 mm to 1.25 mm. The tube is sealed at
one end and the other end of the tube is kept open for the
application of pressure under measurement. The tube is soldered,
or welded to a socket at the base through which pressure
connection is made.
Material used for bourdon tubes are phosphor-bronze, alloy steel,
cold worked brass, beryllium copper, stainless steel and Mohel metal.
Selecting of material for bourdon tube depends mainly on the fluid and
the pressure for which these are designed. The material used for bourdon
tube must have good elastic or spring characteristics for adequate
reliability. The wall thickness and material determine the maximum
pressure to which such an element may be subjected. A thick walled steel
bourdon tube is available for measuring pressure as high as 100 MPa.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured is admitted to the
inside of the tube at the open end, which is mechanically anchored. The
tube then deflects by an amount proportional to the magnitude of the
pressure. The deflection is mechanically transmitted to the wiper of a
potentiometer or to the core of an LVDT to furnish an electrical signal, as
illustrated in figs.(2- 6) (a) and-(b).
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(b) Bourdon Tube Linked To LVDT
Fig (2-6) (a.b) Bourdon Tubes are Useful for Measurement of Pressures Higher
than that can be measured with a Bellows
Figs.(2-6) (a) and (b) illustrates how a C-shaped bourdon tube could
be linked to a potentiometer or to an LVDT. C-type bourdon tubes cover
pressure ranges 35 kPa to 100 MPa, and with a 50 mm bending diameter
have a useful travel of approximately 3 mm. Such a tube has a hysteresis
error of approximately 1-2% of full-scale deflection.
The commercial bourdon pressure gauges have near elliptical x-
section and the tube is usually. bent into a C-shape of arc length between
180 to 270, as shown in fig.(2-7) As the fluid under pressure enters the
bourdon tube, it tries to be 'reformed' and owing to availability of a free tip,
this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The
simultaneous action of bending and tension due to internal pressure makes a
non-linear movement of the free tip.
This travel is suitably guided and amplified for useful measurement
of the internal pressure. Though the actual tip travel, due to development of
compound stress in the bourdon tube, is non-linear but for practical of
compound stress in the bourdon tube. Is non-linear but for practical
purposes for a small travel of the tip this can be considered to be linear, and
parallel to the axis the link. The main requirement in the design of this gauge
is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip
should be same and on withdrawl of the pressure the tip should return to the
initial point. The schematic arrangement of a complete gauge is illustrated in
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fig.(2-7) The applied pressure P1 acts inside the tube, and P2 acts at the
outside. The deflection y of the tube tip or end is a function of (P1 - P2), and
is amplified by the lever, quadrant, pinion, and pointer arrangement. A flat
spiral spring is commonly employed for taking up backlash between the
quadrant gear and the pinion.
Fig (2-8) (a) A Spiral Type Bourdon tube (b) Helical-Shaped Bourdon Tube
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A spiral type bourdon tube is made by winding several turns of the
tube with its flattened x-section in the form of a spiral. On applying
pressure under measurement to the spiral, it tends to unwind causing a
relatively long movement of the tip. The displacement of the tip can be
used for indication or transmission. The accuracy of spiral tube is higher
than that of Gtype tube owing to absence of magnifying elements and is
typically approximately 0.5%.Helical-shaped bourdon tube is made of
coiled tube into multi-turn helix with 6 to 10 turns. The displacement of
the tip of helical tube is larger than that of spiral tube. The accuracies
obtainable with helical bourdon tubes are of the order 0.5 to 1 % of
span. Its advantages are high range capabilities (in the ratio as high as
10: 1); its adaptability for high pressure service and its stability in
fluctuating pressure applications.
Advantages and disadvantages of bourdon tubes are given below
advantages.
1. Cheap in cost and simple is construction.
2. Availability over wide range of pressure.
3. High sensitivity and good repeatability.
4. Good accuracy except at low pressures.
5. Easily adaptable for design for obtaining electrical outputs.
Disadvantages.
1. Prone to shock vibration and shock resistance.
2. Low spring gradient limiting their use for precision measurements
upto a pressure of 3 M Pa.
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the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance as seen from
eqn (3).
L
R (3)
A
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R / R
K (5)
G
Robert Hooke pointed out in the seventeenth century that for
many common materials there is a constant, ratio between stress and
strain. Stress is defined as the internal force per unit area. The stress
equation is can be written as Eq (6).
F
S (6)
A
Where:-
S = the stress in kilograms per Square meter
F = the force in kilograms
A = the area in square meters
The constant of proportionality between stress and strain for a
linear stress-strain curve is known as the modulus of elasticity of the
material. E or Young's modulus Hooke's law is written as can be written
as Eq (7).
S
E
G
(7)
Where:-
E =Young's modulus in kilograms per square meter
S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
G = the strain (no units)
For strain gauge applications, a high degree of sensitivity is very
desirable. A high gauge factor means a relatively large resistance change
for a given strain. Such a change is more easily measured than a small
resistance change. Relatively small changes in strain can be sensed, as
shown in Examples.
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Example (4) A round steel bar, 0.02 m in diameter and 0.40 m in
length, is subjected to a tensile force of 33.000 kg,
where E = 2 x 1010 kg/m2. Calculate the elongation,
L, in meters.
Solution A(
D
2
0.02 m
2
3.14 x 10 4 m 2
2 2
S F/A
E
G L / L
FL 33.000kg x 0.40m
L
AE (3.14 x 10 4 m 2 ) ( 2 x 1010 kg / m 2 )
2.1 x 10 3 m
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restricted by the maximum current carrying capacity of wires
which is typically 30 mA.
iv. Wire strain gauges should be of linear characteristics for its
entire range inorder to have easy calibration.
v. Wire strain gauges should not have any hysteresis or creep
effect, in its performance.
vi. Wire strain gauges should have very good frequency response
as these are frequently employed for dynamic measurements.
Wire strain gauges are of two types namely (a) unbonded wire
strain gauges and (b) bonded wire strain gauges.
2. Foil Strain Gauges. It is basically an extension of the bonded
wire strain gauge differs in construction and has certain
advantages. The bonded wire strain gauges have been completely
superseded by foil strain gauges. In such gauges, metal foils are
used instead of wire, as shown in fig.(2-10) The required grid
pattern is formed from a very thin foil of the same material as that
used in wire strain gauges by photo-etching processes
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thermal coefficient of resistahce. The photo-etching process employed
for making foil strain gauges allows the manufacture of sensing grids in
virtually any two-dimensional pattern. Normally, a geometric pattern is,
developed that will provide maximum electrical and mechanical
efficiency from the sensing element.
Foil strain gauges with gauge resistance values of 120, 350 and
1000 are common. The maximum gauge current is about 30 mA,
maximum strain for 1 per cent linearity is about 0.3 per cent, and
strain variation upto at least 50 kHz can be measured.
The advantages, that foil strain gauges posses over wire strain
Gauges, are Enumerated Below:
1. Width of foil gauge is many times of its x-section, so a larger ratio
of the bonding area to the x-sectional area is achieved. This in
turn enables higher heat dissipation-and better bonding. Thus
these gauges have low hysteresis and creep effects.
2. The larger ratio of surface area to x-sectional area provides
superior mechanical stability under prolonged strain and higher
temperature conditions.
So they can be used fog higher currents.
3. In foil strain gauges, terminals have no stress concentration
because of absence of joints resulting in longer life.
4. Response of the foil gauges to traverse strain can be reduced by
making the perpendicular sections of the foil wide.
5. The strain reproducibility is excellent
The foil strain gauges are employed for both stress analysis as
well as for construction of transducers.
3. Thin Film Strain Gauges. A thin-film strain gauge is produced by
depositing a thin layer of metal alloy on an elastic metal specimen by
means of vacuum deposition or sputtering process. This technique,
relatively new and extensively used, produces a strain gauge that is
molecularly bonded to the specimen under test, so the draw-backs of
the epoxy adhesive bond are eliminated. This technique is most widely
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used for transducer applications such as in diaphragm-type pressure
gauges.
For producing thin film strain gauge transducers, first an electrical
insulation such as a ceramic is deposited on the stressed elastic metal
member such as a diaphragm or beam and then strain gauge alloy is
deposited on the top of the insulation layer. Both layers may be deposited
either by vacuum deposition or by sputtering process.
In the vacuum deposition or evaporation process the diaphragm is
placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating material. Heat is
applied until the insulating material vaporizes p and then condenses,
forming a thin dielectric film on the diaphragm. Then suitably shaped
templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the evaporation-
condensation process is repeated with the metallic gauge material,
forming the. Desired gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is again deposited
in vacuum over the entire diaphragm surface; however, this detailed
mechanism of deposition is quite different from the evaporation process,.
In the process the gauge or insulating material is held at -ve potential and
the target (transducer diaphragm or beam) is held at a +ve potential.
Molecules of gauge or insulating material are ejected from the -ve
electrode owing to the impact of positive gas ions (argon) bombarding the
surface. The ejected molecules are accelerated toward the transducer
diaphragm or beam and strike the target area with kinetic energy of
magnitude several times greater than that possible with any I other
deposition process. This produces, superior adherence to the specimen
under test.
For achieving maximum bridge sensitivity (millivolt output),
minimum heating effect and stability, the four strain gauges, the wiring
between these gauges, and the balance and temperature compensation
components are all integrally formed during the deposition process. This
ensure the same composition and thickness throughout.
The thin-film strain gauge transducers have several advantages
over others. They are rugged and have very low hysteresis -and creep. The
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sensitivity is also high-because of a higher gauge factor and high
resistance. A resistance as high as 5 k can be produced in order to
permit increased input and output voltages with low power consumption.
They can operate over a wide temperature range from - 200 C to 400 C
with good stability.
4. Semiconductor Strain Gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges are based
on the piezoresistive property of doped silicon and germanium and
that is why the transducers based on semiconductor gauges are often
called piezo-resisrive transducers, they are made of films of
germanium or silicon base materials as shown in fig (2-11).
Under strained condition, resistivity of any material changes and
this is called the piezo-resistive property of material. In metal alloy strain
gauges, variation in resistance is caused, under strained condition, mainly
because of change in geometrical shape and very less due to change in
resistivity of the material. The gauge factor of metal alloy strain gauges is
found to be about 2.0. But in semiconductor strain gauges, variation in
resistance, under strained condition, is mainly due to change in resistance
i.e. most of the resistance variation comes from peizo-resistance effect.
The p-type gauges increase resistance with applied tensile strain while the
n-type decrease resistance. Their big advantage is a very high gauge
factor. A typical semiconductor strain gauge has a gauge factor of
100 to + 150 with a maximum strain of 0.003 and a temperature range of
-10 to + 70 C. In addition to the high gauge factor, other advantages are
low cross-sensitivity, freedom from hysteresis a creep effects, chemical
inertness and good fatigue life unfortunately, the high gauge factors
accompanied by high temperature sensitivity, non-linearity, and mounting
difficulties.
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Fig (2-11) Semi-conductor Strain Gauges
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However, since gauge resistance is affected by temperature, any
change of temperature will cause a change in the bridge balance
conditions. This effect can cause an error in the strain measurement.
Thus, when temperature variation is significant, or when unusual
accuracy is required an arrangement such as that illustrated in Fig. (2-12)
may be used. Here two gauges of the same type are mounted on the item
being tested close enough together that both are subjected to the same
temperature. Consequently, the temperature will cause the same change of
resistance in the two, and the bridge balance will not be affected by the
temperature. However one of the two gauges is mounted so that its
sensitive direction is at right Angles to the direction of the strain. The
resistance of this dummy gauge is not affected by the deformation of the
material. Therefore, it acts like a passive resistance (such as R3 of Fig.
(2-12) (b) regards to the strain measurement). Since only one gauge
responds to the strain, the strain causes bridge unbalance just as in the
case of the single gauge.
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potential difference to occur. This property is used in piezoelectric
transducers: in these transducers a crystal is placed between a solid base
and force-summing member, as shown in Fig. (2-13).
Externally applied forces exert pressure to the top of the crystal.
This produces an electromotive force across the crystal proportional to
the magnitude of the applied pressure.
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accelerometers. The output voltage is typically on the order of 1 to 30
mV per gram of acceleration. The device needs no external power
source and is therefore self-generating. The principal disadvantage of
this transducer is that voltage will be generated only as long as the
pressure applied to the piezo electric element is changing.
= 7.06 x 10-3 J
Demerits:
1. On application of a constant deflection to the transducer, it
develops voltage across its terminals and the charge leaks off
slowly through the leakage resistance of the transducer but this
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decay of charge is very slow on account of very high leakage
resistance (of the order of 1014 ohms) of the transducer. However,
when a voltmeter or any other voltage measuring device is
connected across the terminals of the transducer the charge leaks
off very rapidly. This prevents the measurement of static
displacement. Some commercially available systems employing
quartz elements of very high leakage resistance and input
amplifiers of very high input impedance achieve an effective total
resistance of 1014 ohms which gives reasonably slow leakage to
allow static measurements.
2. The output voltage is affected by temperature variations of the
crystal.
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5. Because of their unusual rugged construction they are widely
employed in difficult applications, such as ballistics, blasts,
explosions, internal combustion, fuel injection, flow
instabilities, high-intensity sound, and hydraulic or pneumatic
pulsations-in connection with problems which may be,
encountered in connection with guns, shock tubes, closed
bombs, rocket motors, internal combustion engines, pumps,
compressors, pipe lines, and oil exploration.
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Figure (2-14) (c) shows a transducer that varies the spacing between
surfaces, that is, the thin diaphragm. The dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Such devices are often used as capacitance microphones.
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2.5.1 Merits, Demerits and Applications of Capacitive Transducers
Merits:
1. These transducers have very high impedance so loading effects are
minimum n the measuring circuits.
2. These transducers have excellent frequency response (as high as 50
kHz) and so can be used for measurement of both static and
dynamic phenomena.
3. These transducers are not affected by stray magnetic fields. That is
why the capacitive transducers are used for applications where
stray magnetic fields make the inductive transducers useless.
4. These transducers are extremely sensitive.
5. A resolution of the order of 2.5 microns can be achieved with such
transducers.
6. These can be operated with very small forces so they are very
useful for small systems and they need small power to operate
them.
Demerits:
1. Output impedance of capacitive transducer is very high so its
measuring circuit becomes very complicated.
2. Insulation resistance of the system cannot be neglected because of
high output impedance of the transducer so it reduces its
sensitivity. Moreover with change in physical conditions e.g.
humidity, temperature etc this resistance changes its value and so
introduces error in measurement.
3. Stray capacitance including due to cables etc. in parallel with the
output impedance of the transducer also causes error and
introduces non-linearity. In order to reduce the effects of stray
capacitances, frames should be earthed.
4. Electrostatic screening should be provided for capacitive
transducers in order to avoid any pickup.
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5. The screened cable connector to the transducer can be a source of
error because its capacitance varies with the movement between
the cable conductors and cable dielectric.
6. Capacitance of capacitive transducers changes with change in
temperature or on account of presence of small external matter e.g.
dusts particles and moisture etc. Hence error is introduced in
measurement.
7. Since the displacement, in general, is small and a large sensitivity
is usually needed, so adequate design is required for accurate
measurements.
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I. Capacitor microphones.
II. Carbon microphones and.
III.Dynamic microphones.
I. Capacitor Microphones. The operation of a capacitor microphone
is based on the fact that the capacitance between two plates varies
as the distance between the plates is varied. The capacitor
microphone uses a metal diaphragm as one plate (moving plate)
and a rigid metal plate as the other capacitor plate (fixed plate) as
illustrated in fig.(2-15) A constant voltage of 200 to 500 V is
maintained across the capacitor plates. The variations in the air
pressure in a sound wave striking the diaphragm makes the
diaphragm in or out and this, in turn causes the variation in the
capacitance. The varying voltage produced due to the incident
sound exists as an ac component superimposed on the do level. The
ac component is then amplified and delivered to the measuring or
recording instrument. The instrument used for measuring output of
the capacitor microphone should be of very high input impedance
in order to reduce loading errors because a capacitor appears as a
high output impedance source. An emitter follower is usually
located close to the microphone in order to reduce the inherently
high output impedance and reduce the distortion caused' by
the noise.
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The frequency range is up to 50 kHz. They are reasonably
sensitive-a typical sensitivity is -50 db.
The disadvantages of capacitor microphones are that (i) they are
expensive and (ii) the high voltage supply is often inconvenient to
provide.
II. Carbon Microphones. These microphones detect sounds by
variations in the resistance of carbon granules and operate on the
fact that with the variation in the density of the carbon granules,
which is caused by the variations in the air pressure of the incident
sound waves, the resistance varies. The carbon microphone is
provided with a moving diaphragm which is mounted so as to
compress together carbon granules with in the housing when sound
waves strike it. The device is connected externally to a constant
voltage source, and the variation in current due to variation in the
resistance of carbon granules is, therefore, a function of variation in
sound. As in the capacitor microphones, the ac signal' is separated
from the do level, amplified and then delivered to the measuring or
recording device as shown in fig (2-16).
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the device is quite suitable for transmission of voice and so they are
used in almost all telephones. The fact that they are cheaper, highly
reliable, and very rugged also makes them more suitable for such
applications.
III.Dynamic Microphones. The dynamic microphone operates on the
principle of electromagnetic transconduction. Such a microphone
makes use of a metal diaphragm mechanically linked to a moving
coil surrounded by a permanent magnet. The diaphragm and the
coil are suspended so that they can move back and forth. The
motion of the coil, which is produced due to variations in the air
pressure of the incident sound waves, in the magnetic field
produces a varying voltage, whose magnitude obviously depends
upon the pressure intensity of the sound waves, across the coil. The
signal (voltage developed across the coil) is amplified and
delivered to the measuring or recording device.
The dynamic microphones are self- generating transducers and they
have low output impedance, low sensitivity of the order of - 80 db and a
frequency response of maximum 20 kHz. They are seldom used in
precision measurements as shown fig (2-17).
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The piezoelectric type vibration pickup operates on the fact that
crystalline materials develop a voltage across themselves when deformed
from their natural shapes. The deformation need only to be of the order of
pm for producing this effect. If the applied force that deforms the
piezoelectric crystal has a time-varying magnitude (i.e., as a force on
account of the vibration of a piece of material t0 which the crystal is
attached), the output voltage from the crystal will also have time varying
form which is patterned after the time-varying form of the force.
The piezoelectric type vibration -pickup is shown in fig (2-18). The
crystals used in the construction of ac pickups are generally made quartz
or Rochelle salt. The quartz crystals are accurate but expensive also. Ever
Rochelle salt crystals are hampered to the fact that they melt at 65C and
limited because of high humidity conditions.
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