Ocean Engineering - Pressure Housing Design Notes Compiled by Ian S. Coote

Ocean
Engineering Notes.
Compiled
by
Ian S. Coote
Part 2
General Notes.
Volume 3
Pressure,
Pressure Housing Design and Stressing,
Seals,
Materials,
Corrosion,
and
Fouling and Interaction with Marine Animals.
1st. Edition
This compilation
Copyright 2012 by Ian S. Coote.
Neither Ian S. Coote, or any of his associates

makes any warranty, express or implied,
or assumes any legal liability or responsibility
for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of
any information, apparatus, product or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately-owned rights.
Page i
Contents.
Page No.
1. Introduction. 1
2. Pressure and Depth. 2
3. Pressure Housing Design. 4
3.1 General. 4
3.2 Materials for Pressure Housings. 4
3.4 Metal Pressure Housing Forms. 5
3.4.1 General. 5
3.4.2 Basic Pressure Housing Forms. 5
3.5 Other Pressure Housing Forms. 12
3.5.1 General. 12
3.5.2 Pressure Housing Forms. 12
3.6 Viewports. 14
3.6.1 General. 14
3.6.2 Viewport Forms. 14
4. Pressure Housing Stress Analysis. 19
4.1 Introduction. 19
4.2 Allowable Stresses and Displacements. 19
4.3 Stress Calculations for Basic Forms. 20
4.3.1 General. 20
4.3.2 Cylinder. 20
4.3.3 Flat End. 21
4.3.4 Sphere. 22
4.4 Stress Calculations with Discontinuity Stresses. 23
4.4.1 General. 23
4.4.2 Cylindrical Shell. 24
4,4.2.1 Symbols and Functions. 24
4.4.2.2 Principal Stresses due to External Pressure at any 25
Point in Shell.
4.4.2.3 Displacements, Bending Moments and Shearing 26
Forces.
4.4.2.4 Edge Displacements and Rotations in Terms of Edge 26
Loads.
4.4.2.5 Displacements Due to Pressure and Temperature. 27
4.4.2.6 Principal Stresses due to Discontinuity Forces. 27
4.4.3 Flat End Closure. 27
4.4.3.1 Symbols and Functions. 27
Point in Flat End Closure.
4.4.3.3 Displacements, Bending Moments and Shearing 29
Forces.
4.4.3.4 Edge Displacement and Rotations in terms of Edge 29
Loads.
Page ii
Contents ( Continued ).
Page No.
4.4.3,5 Displacement due to Pressure and Temperature. 30

4.4.4 Spherical Segment ( Domed ) End Closure. 30
Point in Shell.
4.4.4.3 Displacements, Bending Moments and Shearing Forces. 32
4.4.4.4 Edge Displacements and Rotations in Terms of Edge 33
Loads.
4.4.4.5 Displacements due to Pressure and Temperature. 33
4.4.5 Solution for Stresses. 34
4.5 Stress Concentrations at End Closure Penetrations. 36
4.5.1 General. 36
4.5.2 Estimation of the Stress at Unreinforced Openings. 37
4.5.3 Reinforcement of a Circular Opening. 37
4.6 Finite Element Stressing. 38
4.7 Collapse Modes. 39
4.7.1 General. 39
4.7.2 Cylindrical Shell Collapse. 39
4.7.3 Flat End Closures. 44
4.7.4 Domed End Closures. 44
4.7.5 Finite Element Analysis. 45
4.8 Eccentricity. 46
4.9 Viewports 49
4.9.1 Introduction. 49
4.9.2 Flat Disk Glass Viewport window. 49
4.9.2.1 General. 49
Point in Viewport.
4.9.3 Acrylic Viewport Windows. 50
4.10 Fatigue. 54
5. Seal Design. 55
5.1 Seal Types. 55

5.2 Elastomer O-Rings. 57
5.2.1 General. 57
5.2.2 Materials. 59
5.2.3 O-Ring Cross Section, Size and Squeeze. 64
5.2.4 Groove Design and Manufacture. 64
5.2.5 Assembly. 72
5.2.6 Lubrication. 72
5.3 Metal O-Rings. 75
5.4 Spring Type Metal Flange Seals. 76
5.5 Formed in Place Metal Seals. 77
5.6 Welded Seal. 78
Page iii
Page No.
6. Materials. 80
6.2 Metals. 80
6.2.1 Steels. 80
6.2.1.1 General. 80
6.2.1.2 Mild ( Low Carbon ) Steel. 80
6.2.1.3 Medium and High Carbon Steels. 81
6.2.1.4 Stainless Steels. 82
6.2.1.5 Nickel Steels. 83
6.2.1.6 Low Alloy Steels. 83
6.2.1.7 Medium and High Alloy Steels. 84
6.2.2 Irons. 85
6.2.3 Aluminum and Its Alloys. 85
6.2.4 Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys. 86
6.2.5 Titanium and Its Alloys. 87
6.2.6 Copper and Its Alloys. 88
6.2.7 Monel. 89
6.3 Non-Metals. 92
6.3.1 Glass. 92
6.3.2 Plastic and Synthetics. 93
6.3.3 Ceramics. 95
6.3.4 Rubbers. 96
6.3.5 Concrete. 97
7. Corrosion. 98
7.1 Environment. 98
7.1.1 Composition of Sea Water. 98
7.1.2 Composition of the Sea Floor. 98
7.2 Types of Corrosion. 99
7.2.1 General. 99
7.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion. 99
7.2.3 Uniform Corrosion. 101
7.2.4 Concentration Cell Corrosion. 101
7.2.5 Pitting Corrosion. 101
7.2.6 Intergranular and Phase Corrosion. 101
7.2.7 Stress Corrosion. 101
7.2.8 Dezincification. 101
7.2.9 Exfoliation. 102
7.2.10 Erosion Corrosion. 102
7.2.11 Biological. 102
7.3 Corrosion of Materials in Sea Water. 102
7.3.1 General. 102
7.3.2 Corrosion at the Surface and in Shallow Water. 102
7.3.2.1 Overview. 102
7.3.2.2 Irons and Steels. 103
7.3.2.4 Aluminum Alloys. 104
Page iv
Page No.
7.3.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys. 105

7.3.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys. 105
7.3.2.7 Nickel nd Nickel Alloys. 105
7.3.2.8 Copper-Nickel Alloys. 106
7.3.2.9 Plastics and Rubbers. 106
7.3.2.10 Concrete. 107
7.3.3 Corrosion in the Deep Ocean. 107
7.3.3.1 Overview. 107
7.3.3.2 Irons and Steels. 107
7.3.3.4 Aluminum Alloys. 109
7.3.3.5 Copper and Copper Alloys. 110
7.3.3.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys. 110
7.3.3.7 Nickel and Nickel Alloys. 111
7.3.3.8 Copper-Nickel Alloys. 111
7.3.3.9 Plastics and Rubbers. 111
7.3.3.10 Concrete. 112
7.4 Corrosion Effects on Ocean Cable Systems. 112
7.4.1 Ocean Cables. 112
7.4.2 Housings and Fittings. 112
7.5 Corrosion Effects on Electromechanical Cable Systems. 113
7.5.1 Electromechanical Cables. 113
7.5.2 Housings and Fittings. 113
7.6 Corrosion Effects on Bottom Mounted Components. 113
7.7 Fasteners for Joining Materials. 113
7.8 Protection against Corrosion. 116
7.8.1 Paints and Coatings. 116
7.8.2 Hard Anodizing. 117
7.8.3 Powder Coating. 117
7.8.4 Claddings. 117
7.8.5 Galvanic Protection. 117
7.8.5.1 Passive. 117
7.8.5.2 Active. 118
8. Fouling and Interaction with Marine Animals. 119

8.2 Larger Marine Animals. 119
8.3 Fouling in Shallow Water and the Water Column. 122
8.3.1 General. 122
8.3.2 Surface Covering. 122
8.3.3 Boring. 124
8.3.4 Fishbite. 126
8.4 Fouling on the Deep Ocean Floor. 127
8.5 Prevention. 127
Page v
Page No.
Annexes.
A. Failure of Static O-ring Seals. A1
A.1 Introduction. A1
A.2 Failure Mechanisms. A1
A.2.1 General A1
A.2.2 Installation. A1
A.2.2.1 O-ring Left Out. A1
A.2.2.2 Cleanliness of O-ring and Parts. A1
A.2.2.3 Incorrect Lubricant. A2
A.2.2.4 Over Use of Lubricant. A2
A.2.2.5 Not Enough O-ring Lubrication. A2
A.2.2.6 Wrong Size O-ring. A2
A.2.2.7 Damage to O-ring. A3
A.2.2.8 Damage to Groove or Mating Surface. A3
A.2.3 Operation. A4
A.2.3.1 O-ring Extrusion And Nibbling. A4
A.2.3.2 Dirt or Fibers in Seal. A4
A.2.3.3 Compression Set. A4
A.2.3.4 O-ring Leakage. A5
A.2.3.5 Weathering or Ozone Cracking. A5
A.2.4 Other. A6
A.2.4.1 No Obvious Reason. A6
A.2.4.2 Modification of Equipment. A6
Page vi
Figures.
Page No.
3.4.2(a) Flange type end closure. 5
3.4.2(b) External screw down ring type end closure. 6
3.4.2(c) Quick access type end closure. 7

.
3.4.2(d) Simple clamp type end closure. 8
3.4.2(e) Marman clamp type end closure. 9
3.4.2(f) Internal screw down ring type end closure. 10
3.4.2(g) Welded seal type end closure. 11
3.5.2(a) Spherical housing made from glass hemispheres. 12
3.5.2(b) Housing made out of ceramic hemispherical end 13

and ceramic cylinder. (Elastomeric jacket over
ceramic parts not shown).
3.6.2(a) Glass cylinder viewport. 14
3.6.2(b) Glass hemispherical viewport with cylindrical 15

extension. ( Typically for flash tube).
3.6.2(c) Flat plate viewport. 16
3.6.2(d) Conical frustum viewport. 16
3.6.2(e) Spherical segment viewport. 17
3.6.2(f) Spherical segment viewport with conical seat. 17
4.3.2(a) Thick walled cylinder. 20
4.3.3(a) Flat end. 22
4.3.4(a) Thick walled sphere. 23
4.4.2.1(a) Cylindrical shell. 25
4.4.3.1(a) Flat end closure. 28
4.4.4.1(a) Spherical segment ( domed ) end 32

closure for values of ! 0 of
0.9 & 0.9 )
# $ !0 $ ( 1% + # , for ! 0
" ' " *
in radians.
Page vii
Figures ( Continued ).
Page No.
4.4.5(a) Assembly of pressure housing for 34

solution of discontinuity stresses.
4.5.3(a) Arrangement of reinforcing area of circular opening in 38

end closure.
4.7.2(a) Parameters for shell yield. 42
4.7.4(a) Tangent and secant moduli from stress/strain curve. 45
4.7.5 Comparison of (linear) buckling analysis with non- 46

linear material with large displacement analysis.
4.8(a) Maximum permissible deviation from a circular 47

form e for vessel under external pressure
4.8(b) Maximum arc length for determining plus or minus 48

deviation.
4.9.2.2(a) Flat disk viewport. 49
4.9.3(a) Short term critical pressure of flat disk acrylic 51

window.
4.9.3(b) Short term critical pressure of conical frustum 52

acrylic window, for three included frustum angles.
5.1(a) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - face seal 55

outermost.
5.1(b) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - piston seal 56

outermost.
5.1(c) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - dual piston 56

seals.
5.1(d) Gasket seal arrangement for single seal - static crush 57

seal.
5.2.4(a) Piston O-ring groove dimensions. 65
5.2.4(b) Limits for O-ring extrusion. 68
5.2.4(c) Face O-ring groove dimensions. 69
5.2.4(d) Method of prevention of O-ring seal extrusion for face 71

seal.
5.3(a) Arrangement of metal O-ring seal, mechanism for 75

applying preload not shown.
Page viii
Figures ( Continued ).
Page No.
5.4(a) Arrangement of metal K type seal, mechanism for 76

applying preload not shown.
5.5(a) Use of a lead gasket for water vapor seal in end closure 77
of pressure housing.
5.5(b) Use of metal seal for water vapor seal and component 78
retention.
5.6(a) Arrangement of mating surfaces for electron beam 79

welded seal between end closure and cylinder of a
pressure housing.
8.2(a) Megamouth shark (megachasma pelagios) 120
8.2(b) Small tooth cookie cutter shark (isistius rasiliensis) 120
8.2(c) Small tooth cookie cutter shark mouth structure. 121
8.2(d) Long tooth cookie cutter shark (isustius plutodus) 121

Page ix
Tables.
Page No.
4.9.3(a). Conversion Factors for Acrylic Flat Disk Windows. 53
4.9.3(b). Conversion Factors for Acrylic Conical Frustum 53

Windows.
5.2.2(a) O-ring Compounds. 60
5.5.2(b) Compatibility of O-ring Compounds with Fresh and 63

Sea (Salt) Water.
5.2.4(a). Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals. 66

( per MIL-G-5514F )
5.2.4(b). Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring 66
5.2.4(c). Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals. Metric. 67
5.2.4(c) Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring Seals. (Mil. Spec.) 70
5.2.4(d) Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring 70
5.2.4(e) Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring Seals. Metric. 70
5.2.5(a). O-ring Lubricants and Compatibility with Materials. 73
6.2.1.2(a) Physical Properties of Some Low Carbon Steels. 81

English Units.
6.2.1.2(b) Physical Properties of Some Low Carbon Steels. 81

Metric Units.
6.2.1.4(a) Physical Properties of Some Stainless Steels. 82

English Units.
6.2.1.4(b) Physical Properties of Some Stainless Steels. 83

Metric Units.
6.2.1.6(a) Physical Properties of Some Low Alloy Steels. 84

English Units.
6.2.1.6(b) Physical Properties of Some Low Alloy Steels. 84

Metric Units.
6.2.3(a) Physical Properties of Aluminum Alloys. 85

English Units.
Page x
Tables ( Continued ).
Page No.
6.2.3(b) Physical Properties of Aluminum Alloys. 86

Metric Units.
6.2.4(a) Physical Properties of Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys. 87

English Units.
6.2.4(b) Physical Properties of Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys. 87

Metric Units.
6.2.5(a) Physical Properties of Titanium and Some of its Alloys. 88

English Units
6.2.5(b) Physical Properties of Titanium and Some of its Alloys. 88

Metric Units
6.2.6(a) Physical Properties of Copper and Its Alloys. 90

English Units
6.2.6(b) Physical Properties of Copper and Its Alloys. 91

Metric Units.
6.3.1(a) Physical Properties of Some Glasses. English Units. 92
6.3.1(b) Physical Properties of Some Glasses. Metric Units. 93
6.3.2(a) Physical Properties of Plastics and Synthetics. 94

English Units.
6.3.2(b) Physical Properties of Plastics and Synthetics. 95

Metric Units.
6.3.3(a) Physical Properties of Ceramics. English Units. 96
6.3.3(b) Physical Properties of Ceramics. Metric Units. 96
6.3.5(a) Physical Properties of Concrete. English Units. 97
6.3.5(b) Physical Properties of Concrete. Metric Units. 97
7.2.2(a). Galvanic Series of Metals in Flowing Sea Water. 100
7.3.2.9(a) Approximate Changes in Tensile Properties of Rubber 107

Materials After Exposure.
7.7(a) Guide for Selection Of Fastener Alloy for Marine Service 114
for Joining Materials. Above Waterline.
Page xi
Tables ( Continued ).
Page No.
7.7(b). Guide for Selection Of Fastener Alloy for Marine Service 115
for Joining Materials. Below Waterline.
7.8.1(a) Coatings for Low Carbon Steel. 116

Page xii
Sources of Material Used.
The following are the identifiable sources from which the material used in this volume has
been derived.
Chapters, Sections.
FISHERIES RESEARCH BOARD OF CANADA 3.4.2, 3.6.2

MANUSCRIPT REPORT SERIES No. 1304
TITLE Instruction Manual Modified EG&G, 200A/210A,
automatic, underwater, photographic system, July 1974
AUTHORSHIP: T.J. Foulkes, S.M. Polar, J.M. Habineau,
P.J.G. Carrothers.
Establishment: Department of the Environment, Fisheries and
Marine Service Biological Station, St. Andrews, N. B., Canada
Marman Clamp System Design Guidelines, NASA. 3.4.2
Benthos, Glass Spheres Data Sheet, July 2005 3.5.2, 6.3.1
Technical Report 1586, May 1993 3.5.2

Exploratory Study of Joint Rings for Ceramic Underwater
Pressure Housings, R.P. Johnson, R. R. Kurkchubasche,
J. D. Stachiw.
NAVAL COMMAND, CONTROL AND OCEAN SURVEILLANCE
CENTER RDT&E DIVISION. San Diego, California 92152-5001
NAVFAC DM-39, July 1982. Hyperbaric Facilities, 3.6.2, 4.9.3

Design Manual 39, Dept. Of Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command.
Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, Meyers, Holm 4.3, 7.6.4

and McAllister, 1969
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 2. 4.4, 4.5.3, 4.8, 4.9.2
Principals of Naval Architecture, SNAME, 4.7.2
Theory of Elasticity, Timoshenko and Goodier. 4.3
ORD 5700 Parker O-ring Handbook. 5.2
APG O-ring Handbook. 5.2
EPM O-ring Handbook. 5.2, A
O-ring handbook: Title, source (USA) unknown. 5.2, A
Apiezon L, M & N Ultra High & High Vacuum Greases Technical 5.2.5
Data sheet.
Page xiii
Sources of Material Used ( Continued ).
Chapters, Sections.
DuPont Krytox Product guide. 5.2.5
Wills Rings Handbook, Trelleborg. 5.3
The Bell System Technical Journal, May-June, 1970. 5.5
The Bell System Technical Journal, Sept, 1978. 5.6
IEE - Submarine Telecommunication Systems, 5.5

International Conference, 1980, Publication.
MIL-HDBK-5J, 31 January 2003 6.2

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE HANDBOOK
METALLIC MATERIALS AND ELEMENTS FOR AEROSPACE
VEHICLE STRUCTURES
www.matweb.com. 6.2, 6.3
NGK Berylco. (www.ngkmetals.com) 6.2.6
Coors Ceramic Company Data Sheet. 6.3.3
Technical Report 1607, 5 October 1993

Effect of Different Axial Bearing Supports on the Fatigue Life of 6.3.3
Ceramic Pressure Housings, R. R Johnson, R. R. Kurkchubasche.
J. D. Stachiw.
NAVAL COMMAND, CONTROL AND OCEAN SURVEILLANCE
CENTER RDT&E DIVISION. San Diego, California 92152-5001
MIL-STD-889B, Military Standard, Dissimilar Metals. 7.2.2
Stress Corrosion and Static Fatigue of Glass, 7.2.7

S. M. Wiederhorn and L. H. Bolz. October 1970.
Behavior of Materials in a Subsurface Ocean Environment 7.3, 8.3, 8.5

I L. A. BEAUBIEN, 1. WOLOCK, AND C. L. BUCHANAN
Ocean Technology Division, Naval Research Laboratory
and
C. L. WHITMAN, Naval Ordnance Station, Indian Head. Maryland
July 14. 1972
( Note: This contains summaries of a large number of reports.)
Deep Ocean Corrosion, Fred M. Reinhart, U.S. Naval Civil 7.3.3, 8.4
Engineering Laboratory, Port Huename, CA, September 1965.
Page xiv
Sources of Material Used ( Continued ).
Chapters, Sections.
CORROSION AT 4500 FOOT DEPTH IN TONGUE-OF -TI fE-OCEAN 7.3.3

SR 004-03-01, Task 0589 Lab, Project 9400-72, Technical
Memorandum 3, 25 March 1966, E. Fischer, S, Finger
Technical Note N-1213 CORROSION OF MATERIALS IN 7.3.2

SURFACE SEAWATER AFTER 12 AND 18 MONTHS OF
EXPOSURE, By Fred M. Reinhart and James F. Jenkins
January 1972
Choosing Corrosion Resistant Fasteners for Marine Applications, 7.7

William Ballantine, ITT Harper, Sea Technology, February 1976.
Finished Products Data Sheets. ( www.finishedproducts.com ) 7.8.2
Wikipedia ( en.wikipedia.org ). 7.8.3
Sea Technology article, date unknown. 8.2
Save_Our_Sharks_-_Cookie_Cutter_Shark.html 8.2
large-adult-male-megamouth-shark-396.html 8.2
NIOZ Document Fouling Organisms 16B140F 8.3.2, 8.5
117-DMR_O-Ring-Failure_01 A
The Seal Mans O-ring Handbook, EPM, Inc. A

Page 1
1. Introduction.
This part of the General Notes contains information on pressure with depth, design and
stressing of pressure housings, seals, materials, corrosion and organic attack.
The section on rigid pressure housings gives an overview of suitable materials, housing forms,
viewports and pressure testing. Several methods for stressing pressure housings are given,
from simple to comprehensive, and for prediction of collapse due to instability. Methods for
sealing pressure housings are presented with arrangements of seals and types of seals and
their compatibility with the marine environment.
Information on materials that can be used for surface and underwater systems is given along
with some physical properties for selected materials. Corrosion of materials, including types
of corrosion and corrosion of types of materials is presented. Also protective methods to
reduce corrosion and effects on ocean cable and electromechanical cable systems is given.
Information on selecting suitable fasteners for joining materials in the marine environment is
provided.
The effect of marine animals and plants on surface and underwater components is broadly
covered, given that these effects can differ significantly from site to site.
The annex contains information on the failure of elastomeric O-ring seals, the most commonly
used method for sealing underwater housings.
Page 2
2. Pressure and Depth.
The pressure at a depth below the surface is given by:
p= pa + " ! g dh (2-1)
0
where
pa = Atmospheric pressure at sea surface.

! = Mass density.
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
h = Depth below surface.
For depths up to about 6000 ft - 1830 m, seawater may be considered incompressible and the
expression for pressure becomes:
p= pa + ! gh
(2-2)
= 14.7 + 0.444h
for p in psi, h in feet, ! = 1.98 slugs/cubic foot ( 64 lbs/cubic foot ) which allows for normal
variations in density, and g = 32.2 ft/sec2.
and
p= pa + ! gh
(2-3)
= 101.3+ 10.0258h
for p in Kpa, h in meters, ! = 1022 Kg/cubic meter, and g = 9.81 m/sec2.
At greater depths the compressibility of sea water must be taken into account. To obtain a
more accurate pressure, the weight density of sea water may be taken as varying linearly from
64 lbs/cubic foot - 1022 Kg/cubic meter at the surface to 66.6 lb/cubic foot - 1063.5
Kg/cubic meter at 30000 feet - 9100 m depth. The the pressure at depth is approximately:
# h &2
p=14.7 + 0.444 h+ 0.3 % ( (2-4)
$ 1000 '
for p in psi, and h in feet.
and
2
# h &
p=101.3 +10.0258 h+ 22.367 %
$ 1000 ('
(2-5)
Page 3
for p in Kpa, and h in meters.
Small variations from the above pressure calculation occur due to differences in water density
caused by temperature and salinity variations over the oceans. If very accurate pressures are
required, then measurements must be carried out during the survey to obtain the necessary
data.
For fresh water, equations (2-2) and (2-3) become
p= 14.7 + 0.433 h (2-6)
for p in psi, h in feet, ! = 1.94 slugs/cubic foot ( 62.4 lbs/cubic foot ), and g = 32.2 ft/sec2.
and
p=101.3 + 9.81h (2-7)
for p in Kpa, h in meters, ! = 1000 Kg/cubic meter, and g = 9.81 m/sec2.
As the deepest bodies of fresh water are much shallower than for the oceans, the corrections
for the increase of density with depth are rarely required.
Page 4
3. Pressure Housing Design.
This chapter contains information on the design of pressure housings for use in underwater
systems.
3.1 General.
The pressure housing provides a normal atmosphere environment for electronics and other
components to operate in. To do this, the pressure housing must resist the forces due to the
external pressure while providing for conductors and/or mechanical actuators to pass through
its walls. In addition, many systems also require the pressure housing to transfer the
supporting cable tension as well, though some systems use an external cage for the purpose.
However in most circumstances, the stresses due to pressure are substantially higher than
those due to the tension.
In ocean cable systems, it is normal practice to have only one basic design of housing, capable
of being used with all types of the ocean cables used in the system, and able to be used at the
maximum depth to which the system can be laid.
In other systems, such as suspended systems, or on a vehicle, there may be several different
designs of housings to suit different requirements.
The information given in this chapter covers only rigid pressure housings, the flexible
pressure housings used in some systems are of a very complex design and hence require
specially developed designs and design methods.
3.2 Materials for Pressure Housings.
In theory, any material, including metal alloys, composites and ceramics, that can provide
adequate strength to withstand the maximum operating forces and pressures required, and
exist in the sea environment, can be used. In practice, there are two basic types of systems,
long life systems where the system is installed and ideally does not require maintenance
during its operating life and systems where they are deployed and recovered frequently and
can be readily maintained.
Long life systems include ocean cable systems where the need for a long life and cable working
requirements, reduces substantially the number of suitable materials. Electro-mechanical
systems such as along moorings for surface and subsurface buoys that are deployed for long
periods also limit materials. One requirement for a long life system is that the pressure
housing be essentially impervious to water vapor. Only metals, metal alloys and glass can meet
this requirement. Another requirement is that corrosion will not destroy the integrity of the
pressure housing.
If the system requires that the housing(s) must be worked over sheaves, through machinery,
etc., during deployment and recovery, then, the material must be 'hard' so that the pressure
housing will not be scored or dented if it comes into contact with shipboard equipment, rocks
on the bottom, etc.
Other factors include cost, availability and machining of the material.

Page 5
3.4 Metal Pressure Housing Forms.
3.4.1 General.
The form of a pressure housing for an underwater system can vary considerably, given that the
housing may have to be worked in conjunction with ocean or electromechanical cables and
other equipment that may form the underwater section of the system. Rigid housings are
normally based on a cylinder (tube) with either flat or spherical segment (domed) end
closures. Flat end closures are normally used as they are the simplest to manufacture and the
easiest for installation of conductor seals. In some cases it may be easier to make one end
closure part of the cylinder.
The following section give an outline of some basic forms of housings and interaction between
components for stress analysis, as a guide to design.
3.4.2 Basic Pressure Housing Forms.
Some basic pressure housing forms are:
(i) Figure 3.4.2(a): End closure attached to the flange on the cylinder by bolts or screws. This
is a simple form widely used due to its simplicity and relative ease of manufacture, and where
regular access is not necessary. Both bending and shear discontinuity forces are present in
the junctions of the end closure and cylinder. It is suitable for large diameter housings. Not
well suited to ocean cable systems.
If part of a suspended array or mooring then the strength member termination can be bolted
onto the end cap with a separate conductor seal through the end closure, or a combined
strength termination/conductor seal can be attached to the end closure.
O-ring seal End closure Retaining screw

(face)
O-ring seal
(barrel)
Flange
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(a) Flange type end closure

Page 6
(ii) Figure 3.4.2(b): End closure held in position with an external screw down ring. Better
suited for access but machining of threads for screw down ring requires a good level of
precision. Suited to smaller diameter housings and often has other end closure as part of
cylinder. Both bending and shear discontinuity forces are present in the junction of the end
closure and cylinder.
If part of a suspended array or mooring then the strength member generally must bypass the
housing with conductor seal(s) through the end closure, or a combined strength
termination/conductor seal can be attached to the end closure.
O-ring seal End closure Screw down

(face) ring
O-ring seal
(barrel)
Thread
(typ. ACME)
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(b) External screw down ring type end closure

Page 7
(iii) Figure 3.4.2(c): Quick access design with the end closure held rigidly against the end of
the cylinder by retaining screw. The screw is held in place by a hinged stirrup to allow quick
access. The barrel O-ring is often omitted to simplify the design. Typical use of this design is
underwater cameras, video and lighting. Only shear forces are present in the junction of the
end closure and cylinder. Underwater cameras with this form of end closure have been used to
the deepest depths.
Housings of this design are normally mounted in a frame, and if a cable strength member is
used, it is terminated on the frame.
End closure Retaining screw
Stirrup
O-ring seal
(face)
O-ring seal
(barrel)
Hinge
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(c) Quick access type end closure

Page 8
(iv) Figure 3.4.2(d): Simple clamped end closure is a very simple method of holding the end
closure in place. The straps and clamping screws can generally be sourced from suitable hose
clamps. The barrel O-ring is often omitted to further simplify the design. Typical use of this
design is underwater cameras, video and lighting. Only shear forces are present in the
junction of the end closure and cylinder. Underwater cameras combine this form of end
closure and the quick access design end closure (iii). When combined with the quick access
design end closure the straps along the side of the cylinder are taken up to the hinges and
attached to them. Pins are normally included in the end caps to position the strap.
O-ring seal End closure Strap

(face)
Clamping
screws
Hose
clamp O-ring seal
(barrel)
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(d) Simple clamp type end closure

Page 9
(v) Figure 3.4.2(e): End closure held in position with Marman clamp. The Marman clamp is a
widely used method of securing parts together and machining requirements are of the same
order as for the O-ring seals. This design is used for electronics housings such as in water
column profiling units and underwater vehicles, where occasional access is required. Both
bending and shear discontinuity forces are present in the junction of the end closure and
cylinder. There is a quick release version of the Marman clamp using a lever action, but this
would not be used in underwater applications.
O-ring seal End closure

(face) Locking
screw
Marman O-ring seal

clamp (barrel)
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(e) Marman clamp type end closure
Note: The above figures are shown with a face and barrel O-ring seals, with the face seal
outermost. Other arrangements of the seals can be used, such as a single face or barrel seal,
dual barrel seals, etc. Other elastomer seal types can be used.
Page 10
(vi) Figure 3.4.2(f): End closure held in position with an inner screw down ring. This is a long
life design and normally would be used in ocean cable systems, but is also suitable to other
long life systems. This results in a more complex design and machining to give the required
results. This design allows the primary (face) seal to be inside of the secondary (barrel) seal,
and the primary seal can be a metal O-ring to provide a vapor barrier. Both bending and shear
discontinuity forces are present in the junction of the end closure and cylinder.
Materials used for this design are normally high strength stainless steels and copper
beryllium alloys.
If part of an ocean cable system, a suspended array or mooring, then the strength member
termination is connected to the housing by a coupling ring that screws onto the outside of the
housing with a separate conductor seal through the end closure.
External thread End closure Screw down

for strength ring
member attachment Thread
coupling ring (typ. ACME)
(typ. ACME)
O-ring seal
(barrel)
O-ring seal
(face) Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(f) Internal screw down ring type end closure

Page 11
(vii) Figure 3.4.2(g): End closure held in position by welded seam which acts as water and
water vapor seal. This is a long life design and is used in ocean cable systems. This results in
a more complex design and machining to give the required results. The welded seam was
originally done using submerged arc welding, but the change to electron beam welding which
gives an improved weld and allows for a reweld. O-ring seal is to maintain internal pressure
during electron beam welding which requires a vacuum used in the electron beam welding.
Requires careful design to ensure that the displacements at the the junction of the end closure
and cylinder match and no resulting force in weld.
Materials used for this design are normally copper beryllium alloys.
The strength member termination is connected to the housing by a coupling ring that screws
onto the outside of the housing with a separate conductor seal through the end closure.
External thread Domed Electron beam

for strength end closure welded seam
member attachment
coupling ring
(typ. ACME)
O-ring seal
(static crush
seal)
Cylinder
Fig. 3.4.2(g) Welded seal type end closure

Page 12
3.5 Other Pressure Housing Forms.
3.5.1 General.
The form of a pressure housing made of nom metallic materials is controlled by the properties
of the materials and there is generally less flexibility than for metallic housings, though this
may change with time. The other difference is that the housings are bought from the suppliers
of these housings.
The following section give an outline of some forms of housings.
3.5.2 Pressure Housing Forms.
(i) Figure 3.5.2(a): Glass housings have been widely used, both for flotation and for
instrument housings. The most widely used glass is a low expansion borosilicate. The basic
form of the housing is the hemisphere which are made up into spheres. There are also
cylinders which allow a housing with hemispherical ends and cylindrical body. Junction
between the glass parts is by flat ground edges. The glass can also be polished to provide an
optical window. Penetrators can be put into hemispherical ends. To provide protection, glass
housings are generally housed in a protective shell or hard hat.
Glass exhibits both static and cyclic fatigue effects in the marine environment.
Clamping bands
(shown off surface
for clarity)
Ground surfaces
(main seal) Glass hemisphere
Sealing tape
(initial seal)
Glass hemisphere
Fig. 3.5.2(a) Spherical housing made from glass hemispheres.

Page 13
(ii) Figure 3.5.2(b): Ceramic housings are relatively new. A suitable ceramic for economic
fabrication is Al2O3. The basic forms are hemispherical ends and cylinders. Junction between
the hemispherical end and a cylinder, or between cylinders, is by a metallic ring epoxied to
each. For a joint that can be opened, a ring is epoxied to each component and sealed with an O-
ring or similar. Careful design of the hemispherical end and the metallic ring is required to
lower axial bearing stresses. Penetrators can be put into hemispherical ends but hoop stresses
must be controlled. One solution is to make the hemispherical end the same thickness as the
cylinder(s).
Ceramics exhibit both static and cyclic fatigue effects in the marine environment.
Titanium
Epoxy bond end caps Cylinder
all around
Hemisphere
Elastomer Clamp O-ring

seal band seal
Fig. 3.5.2(b) Housing made out of ceramic hemispherical end and ceramic cylinder.
(Elastomeric jacket over ceramic parts not shown)
Page 14
3.6 Viewports.
3.6.1 General.
Viewports, are required for equipment where still photographs or video is required. For still
photographs or video, the viewport must provide for an undistorted image. Where the viewport
is for lighting, either flash or continuous, the effect of distortion is normally not important
as well as the light over the object remains evenly spread. Viewports are normally made from
glass or clear plastic such as acrylic or polycarbonate.
The following section give an outline of some forms of viewports.
3.6.2 Viewport Forms.
(i) Figure 3.6.2(a): The simplest form is a glass cylinder with the top and bottom ground to
optical flatness, mounted externally. This type of viewport has been used on cameras used to
the deepest depths. The figure shows the viewport mounted on a flat end closure, the most
common way it is used. The end closure outer surface under the viewport should be ground to
provide a high quality flat surface to prevent stress points that may distort or crack the glass.
The seat and gasket seal, typically neoprene rubber, must also be of high quality to ensure an
effective seal.
Gasket Glass cylinder Retaining

frame
Retaining
bolts (4) Seat and
gasket seal
End closure
Fig. 3.6.2(a) Glass cylinder viewport.

Page 15
(ii) Figure 3.6.2(b): Glass hemispherical viewport, bottom ground to optical flatness, mounted
externally. This type of viewport has been used on cameras used to the deepest depths for
flash units. The figure shows the viewport mounted on a flat end closure, the most common way
it is used. The end closure outer surface under the glass port should be ground to provide a
high quality flat surface to prevent stress points that may distort or crack the glass. The seat
and gasket seal, typically neoprene rubber, must also be of high quality to ensure an effective
seal.
Glass hemisphere with

cylindrical extension
Retaining
Gasket
frame
Seat and
Retaining gasket seal
bolts (4)
End closure
Fig. 3.6.2(b) Glass hemispherical viewport with cylindrical

extension. ( Typically for flash tube)
Page 16
(iii) Figure 3.6.2(c): Flat plate viewport is commonly used and is the easiest to fabricate. The
viewport may be glass, acrylic, polycarbonate, etc. If used for photography or video, then the
inner and outer surfaces should be ground optically flat. The viewport has good structural
characteristics but the tensile stresses on the low pressure face around surface stress risers
can cause problems. The seat and gasket seal, typically neoprene rubber, must also be of high
quality to ensure an effective seal with the O-ring providing the primary seal.
O-ring Window
Retaining Bezel
bolts
Seat and
gasket seal
Fig. 3.6.2(c) Flat plate viewport.
(iv) Figure 3.6.2(d): Conical frustum viewport is commonly used, with the conical seat
providing a natural sealing and wedging action. The viewport may be acrylic, polycarbonate,
etc., not glass. The plastic viewport can be lathe turned. The O-ring provides the initial seal.
A cone angle of 90o (included) has been found to be a good compromise between the tendency
to extrude at small cone angles and loss of visibility with increasing thickness of large cone
angles. Inner and outer surfaces should be ground optically flat.
O-ring Window
Retaining Bezel
bolts
Conical
seat
Fig. 3.6.2(d) Conical frustum viewport.

Page 17
(v) Figure 3.6.2(e): Spherical segment viewport provides a larger field of view compared to flat
viewports. The viewport is normally acrylic, polycarbonate, etc. The viewport is more difficult
to manufacture than flat viewports. The O-ring provides the seal. Inner and outer surfaces
must be polished to provide optical clarity.
O-ring Window
Retaining Bezel
bolts
Seat and
gasket seal
Fig. 3.6.2(e) Spherical segment viewport.
(vi) Figure 3.6.2(f): Spherical segment viewport with conical seat combines the better field of
view with the sealing and seating characteristics of the conical frustum viewport. The viewport
is normally acrylic, polycarbonate, etc., not glass. The viewport is the most difficult to
manufacture. The O-ring provides the initial seal. Inner and outer surfaces must be polished
to provide optical clarity.
O-ring Window
Retaining Bezel
bolts
Conical
seat
Fig. 3.6.2(f) Spherical segment viewport with conical seat.

Page 18
3.7 Pressure Testing.
Pressure testing is be used to check the design of the housing, and for quality assurance
during production. Pressure testing may also be used to check the performance of sensors and
their housings.
Appendices AD.2.4 and AD.2.5 in Volume 7 of Part 3 of the handbook describes the pressure
testing of ocean cable housings and conductor seals, which may be relevant to other types of
systems.
Page 19
4. Pressure Housing Stress Analysis.
This chapter contains information on methods suitable for the stressing of pressure housings.
4.1 Introduction.
There are several methods for the stress analysis of pressure housings. The three presented
here are the analysis of the basic forms, analysis with discontinuity forces, and finite element
analysis. In addition analysis of end closure penetrations and collapse modes is given.
4.2 Allowable Stresses and Displacements.
As pressure housings do not have to meet normal safety requirements for pressure vessels, it
is possible in theory to design to a safety factor of of 1.0 at the maximum operating pressure.
This implies that at some point in the housing under the maximum operating pressure, the
material will be at it yield limit. Given a suitable material, it is possible to design into the
plastic region, however due to the substantially increased displacements in this region it is
necessary to carry out a full stress and displacement analysis to ensure that in critical areas,
such as seals, the displacements occurring do not cause secondary effects that would impair
the integrity of the housing.
In practice for elastic design, it is necessary to evaluate the accuracy of the stress ( and
displacement ) analysis technique being used for the final analysis, also giving due
consideration to the effect of the shape of the pressure housing on the technique. Most
techniques will yield an accuracy of between 10% and 20% if well used, and a well set up
finite element analysis will give about 5% accuracy. This would require a factor in the
determination of an allowable yield stress, for example, of between 1.05 and 1.2 to be
included.
Two other factors also effect the allowable yield stress. The first is the accuracy of the
manufacture of the housing, that is, the eccentricity. If this can be predicted and the analysis
technique can handle eccentricity, then no additional change in the allowable yield stress is
required. If not, then an estimate of the effect must be made and the allowable yield stress
modified. The second factor is ductility of the material at the operating temperature in the
water column down, or on the the sea floor. Best practice is to avoid materials that are not
fully ductile at this temperature, but if this is not possible, then a suitable adjustment will
be required in the allowable yield stress to reduce the possibility of a brittle failure as much
as possible. If necessary, the yield stress at the operating temperature must be determined
from tests and the notch toughness determined ( i.e., the Charpy or similar ),
From the allowable yield stress ( ft y a ), the maximum shear stress for use in the stress
calculations is determined in the normal way ( f sm = 12 f t y a ).
In addition to the stress analysis, the displacements in sealing areas must also be analyzed to
ensure that the distortion of the pressure housing under maximum operating pressure does
not reduce the "squeeze" on seals to the point where their integrity becomes suspect, or opens
gaps through which pressure may extrude the seal. Careful design in these areas can use the
pressure on the housing to improve the sealing.
Page 20
4.3 Stress Calculations for Basic Forms.
4.3.1 General.
The following calculations are intended for initial calculations or where the component(s) are
simply supported only.
4.3.2 Cylinder.
For a thick walled cylinder under external, pressure, as shown in figure 4.3.2(a), the stresses
due to the pressure only are given by:
*b 2 p # a2 &
)r = % 1* ( (4.3.2-1)
( b 2 * a2 ) $ r 2 '
*b 2 p # a 2 &
)+ = % 1+ ( (4.3.2-2)
( b 2 * a2 ) $ r2 '
where
)r = Radial stress.
)+ = Circumferential stress.
a = Inside radius.
b = Outside radius.
r = Radius at which stress is being calculated.
p = External pressure.
The maximum stress is a )+ at r =a where:
* 2b2 p
)+ = 2 2 (4.3.2-3)
(b * a )
P b
r a
Fig. 4.3.2(a) Thick walled cylinder.

Page 21
Alternatively for a given external pressure, internal radius and maximum allowable stress,
equation 4.3.2-3 can be rewritten to give the outer diameter.
) m a2
b= (4.3.2-4)
)m +2 p
where
)m = maximum allowable stress.
4.3.3 Flat End.
For a simply supported circular plate under pressure, as shown in figure 4.3.3(a), the
stresses due to the pressure only are given by:
- 2+ , z 3 3 ( 3+ , ) r2 z 3 2+ , z 3 ( 3+ , ) a2 z 0
)r = p . 3 * * + 1 (4.3.3-1)
/ 8 c 32 c3 8 5 c 32 c3 2
- z3 3 z 1 0
)z = p . * 3 + * 1 (4.3.3-2)
/ 4c 4 c 2 2
3pr 2 2
3 rz =
8 c3
(c * z ) (4.3.3-3)
where
)r = Radial stress.
)z = Stress in the vertical direction.
3 rz = Shear stress in the radial-vertical plane.
, = Poisson's ratio.
p = Pressure.
a = Radius of the plate.
2c = Thickness of the plate.
z = Point at which stress calculated in the z vertical direction from the center plane.
r = Point at which stress calculated in the radial direction.
The maximum stress )r being at r =0 on the top and bottom surfaces:
- 2+ , 3 2+, 3 ( 3+, ) a 2 0
)r = p . * + 1 (4.3.3-4)
/ 8 8 5 32 c2 2
Page 22
2c
r
2a
Z
Fig. 4.3.3(a) Flat end.
if the thickness ( 2c ) is small compared to a , then:
3 ( 3+, ) a 2
)r = p (4.3.3-5)
32 c2
Alternatively for a given external pressure, radius and maximum allowable stress, equation
4.3.3-4 can be rewritten to give the thickness.
1 3 ( 3+ ,) a2
c= (4.3.3-6)
32 -) m 2+ , 3 2 + , 0
. * + 1
/ p 8 8 5 2
where
4.3.4 Sphere.
For a thick walled sphere under external pressure, as shown in figure y.5.1.4(a), the stresses
due to pressure only are given by:
b 3 ( r3 * a 3 )
)r = p (4.3.4-1)
r3 ( a 3 *b 3 )
b3 (2 r3 + a3 )
)t = p (4.3.4-2)
2 r3 ( a3 * b3 )
Page 23
where
)r = Radial stress.
)t = Tangential stress.
p = External pressure.
b = Outside radius.
a = Inside radius.
r = Radius at which stresses are calculated.
The maximum stress )t being at r = a:
3 b3
)t = p (4.3.4-3)
2 ( a 3 *b 3 )
P
b
r a
Fig. 4.3.4(a) Thick walled sphere.
Alternatively for a given external pressure, inside radius and maximum allowable stress,
equation 4.3.4-3 can be rewritten to give the outside radius.
2 ) m a3
b= 3 (4.3.4-4)
3 p + 2) m
where
4.4 Stress Calculations with Discontinuity Stresses.
4.4.1 General.
This method is based on that in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
Division 2 and allows substantially more accurate stressing and flexibility. The change from
the ASME method is to allow external pressure. Due to the complexity of the calculations, they
are best done on a computer.
Page 24
Three elements are used for the design of pressure housings, a cylindrical shell, a flat end
and a spherical segment ( domed ) end, from which the structure of the housing is built up.
This results in a set of linear equations, the solution of which gives the stresses at the
discontinuities which can be added to the stresses due to pressure. Because the method uses
the displacements at the shell midplanes, care must be taken if the shell thicknesses become
large in relation to the diameters.
English gravitational units are shown for the calculations, but with care any unit system can
be used.
4.4.2 Cylindrical Shell.
4,4.2.1 Symbols and Functions.
( refer to figure 4.4.2.1(a) ).
( )
D = E t 3 /12 1*, 2 , lb-in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
L = length of cylinder, in., subscript to denote evaluation of a quantity at end of cylinder
removed from reference end
M = longitudinal bending moment per unit length of circumference, in. -lb/ in.
o = subscript to denote evaluation of a quantity at reference end of cylinder., x = 0
p = internal pressure, psi
Q = radial shearing forces per unit length of circumference. lb / in.
R = inside radius, in.
S = stress intensity, psi
t = thickness of cylinder. in.
w = radial displacement of cylinder wall, in.
x = axial distance measured from the reference end of cylinder, in.
Y = ratio of outside radius to inside radius
Z = ratio of outside radius to an intermediate radius
5
( )
2 28
1/4
4 = 67 3 1- , 2
( R+ t / 2 ) t 9: 1/in.
+ = rotation of cylinder wall, rad.
= dw / dx
, = Poisson's ratio
) t = tangential (circumferential) component, psi
) l = longitudinal (meridional) stress component, psi
) r = radial stress component, psi
F11 ( 4x ) = ( cosh 4x sin 4x* sinh 4xcos 4x ) / 2
F12 ( 4x ) = sinh 4xsin 4x
F13 (4x) = (cosh 4x sin 4x + sinh 4xcos 4x ) / 2
F14 (4x) = cosh 4xcos 4x
f 1 (4x ) = e *4x cos 4x
f 2 (4x) = e* 4x (cos 4x* sin 4x)
f 3 (4x) = e* 4x (cos 4x+ sin 4x )
f 4 (4x) = e* 4x sin 4x
Page 25
Q0 M t
0 M xQx Qx M x M L QL
R w +
x x= x x= x
x=0 x=L
Fig. 4.4.2.1(a) Cylindrical shell.
B11 = B11 (4L)

= ( sinh 24L* sin 24L ) / 2 ( sinh 2 4L * sin 2 4L )
B12 = B 12 (4L)
= ( cosh 24L *cos 24L ) / 2 ( sinh 2 4L* sin 2 4L )
B22 = B 22 (4L)
= ( sinh 24L+ sin 24L ) / ( sinh 2 4L * sin 2 4L )
G11 = G11 (4L)
= *( cosh 4L sin 4L* sinh 4Lcos 4L ) / ( sinh 2 4L * sin 2 4L )
G12 = G12 (4L)
= * 2sinh 4L sin 4L / ( sinh 2 4L * sin 2 4L )
G22 = G22 (4L)
= * 2(cosh 4L sin 4L + sinh 4Lcos 4L ) / ( sinh 2 4L * sin 2 4L )
4.4.2.2 Principal Stresses due to External Pressure at any Point in Shell.
) 1 = ) t =* p ( Z 2 + Y 2 ) (Y 2
* 1)
) 2 =) l = pY 2 ( 1*Y ) 2
) 3 =) r = p ( Z 2 *Y 2 ) (Y 2
* 1)
Page 26
4.4.2.3 Displacements, Bending Moments and Shearing Forces.
The radial displacement w ( x) , the angular displacement or rotation + (x ) , the bending

moment M ( x) and the radial shearing force Q (x ) are in terms of w0 ,+ 0 ,M0 and Q0 at the
reference end:
w(x) = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F11 (4x ) + ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F12 (4x )

+ ( + 0 / 4 ) F13 (4x ) + w0 F14 (4x)
+( x ) / 4 = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F12 (4x ) + 2 ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F13 (4x)

+ ( + 0 / 4 ) F14 (4x ) * 2w0 F11 (4x )
M ( x ) / 2 4 3 D = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F13 (4x) + ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F14 (4x)

* ( +0 / 4 ) F11 (4x ) * w0 F12 (4x )
Q( x ) / 2 4 3 D = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F14 (4x ) * 2 ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F11 (4x )

* ( +0 / 4 ) F12 (4x) * 2 w0 F13 (4x )
4.4.2.4 Edge Displacements and Rotations in Terms of Edge Loads.
The radial displacements w0 and wl , and rotations +0 and +l at the ends of the cylindrical
shell are in terms of edge loads Q0 ,M0 ,Ql and M l :
w(x) = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F11 (4x ) + ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F12 (4x )

+ ( + 0 / 4 ) F13 (4x ) + w0 F14 (4x)
+( x ) / 4 = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F12 (4x ) + 2 ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F13 (4x)

+ ( + 0 / 4 ) F14 (4x ) * 2w0 F11 (4x )
M ( x ) / 2 4 3 D = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F13 (4x) + ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F14 (4x)

* ( +0 / 4 ) F11 (4x ) * w0 F12 (4x )
Q( x ) / 2 4 3 D = ( Q0 / 2 4 3 D ) F14 (4x ) * 2 ( M0 / 2 4 2 D ) F11 (4x )

* ( +0 / 4 ) F12 (4x) * 2 w0 F13 (4x )
The coefficients for Q0 ,M0 ,Ql and Ml form the influence coefficients ai j ,i, j =1,4 .
Page 27
4.4.2.5 Displacements Due to Pressure and Temperature.
The outwards displacements due to the external pressure along the cylinder at the shell
midplane, is given by:
* p R2
) (
Rm ( 1* 2 , ) + R o ( 1+ , ))
2 2
wp = 2
(
E Ro * R Rm
2
and for the temperature change:
wt = Rm ; < T
where
Rm = Radius of cylindrical shell at midplane.

= R+ t 2
Ro = Radius of outside of shell.
= R+ t
R = Radius of inside of shell.
; = Thermal coefficient of expansion.
<T = Temperature change.
4.4.2.6 Principal Stresses due to Discontinuity Forces.
)1 =) t (x)= E w(x) ( R+ t / 2 )
6 , M(x) t 2
) 2 =) l (x)= 6 M(x) t 2
) 3 =) r =0
where the + sign refers to the inside surface of the shell, and the - sign the outside surface.
4.4.3 Flat End Closure.
4.4.3.1 Symbols and Functions.
( refer to figure 4.4.3.1(a) )
p = pressure, psi.
M = radial bending moment, in lb/in., of circumference.
Q = radial force, lb/in., of circumference.
) r = radial stress, psi.
) l = longitudinal stress, psi.
) t = tangential (circumferential) stress, psi.
w = radial displacement, in.
+ = rotation, radians.
R = outside radius of plate, in.
r = radial distance from center of plate, in.
Page 28
x = longitudinal distance from mid-plane of plate, in.

t = thickness of plate, in.
tg = thickness of connecting shell at head junction, in.
E = elastic modulus, psi.
, = Poissons ratio.
3 ( 1* , ) ( 2* f 2 ) ( 1* f )
2
F1 = = [ 8 * f ( 4* f ) ( 1*, ) ]
16 ( 2* f )
5 # 2* f & 80>
F2 = 3 / 8 ( 1* f ) { ( 1*, ) ( 2* f 2 ) + 4 ( 1+ , ) 7 1+ 2 % ln
2
( :1
6 $ 2* 2 f ' 9>2
F3 = 3 / 8 ( 1*, ) ( 2* f ) = [ 8 * f ( 4* f ) ( 1*, ) ]
[
F4 = 1/ 8 8 * f ( 4* f ) ( 1*, ) ]
where
f =t g R
R = Outside radius of end in .
Q Support
M M point (a)
Reaction
ts force
Q
R
R* t s x
r
Fig. 4.4.3.1(a) Flat end closure.

Page 29
4.4.3.2 Principal Stresses due to External Pressure at any Point in Flat End
Closure.
*x p 5 3 ( 3+ , ) r 2 8
) 1 =) r = 7 F * :
t (t R) 6
2 2
4 R2 9
*xp 5 3 ( 1+ 3, ) r2 8
)2 = )t = 7 2
F * :
t (t R )
2
6 4R 2 9
# t& p
) 3 =) t = * % x * (
$ 2' t
The rotation of the midplane + , and the radial displacement w , for the end as shown in figure
x.5.2.3.1(a), with bending moment M , and shear force Q at the support are:
* 12 ( 1*, ) r
+= M
E t2
( 1*, ) r
w= Q + x+
Et
4.4.3.4 Edge Displacement and Rotations in terms of Edge Loads.
The radial displacement w and the rotation +, at the support is given for a right hand end
closure in terms of the edge loads M and Q :
- F3 *2 F3
+= Q+ M
E R (t R) E R2 ( t R)
2 3
2F3 F3
w= Q+ 2 M
3 E (t R) E R( t R)
for a left hand end:
- 2F3 * F3
w= Q+ 2 M
3 E (t R ) E R (t R)
+ remains the same.
The coefficients of Q and M are the influence coefficients ai j ,i, j =1,2 .

Page 30
4.4.3,5 Displacement due to Pressure and Temperature.
The outward displacement due to external pressure at the support for a right hand end is
given by:
* F1 p
+p =
E (t R)
2
w p =*+ p ( t 2 )
for a left hand end:
F1 p
+p =
E (t R)
2
The radial displacement for a temperature change
wt = ( R * t s 2 ); < T
where
F4 # 6 x & 12F x
) 1 = ) 2 =) r = ) t = % 1* ( Q * 34 M
t $ t ' t
) 3 =) l = 0
4.4.4 Spherical Segment ( Domed ) End Closure.
( refer to figure 4.4.4.1(a) ).
p = uniform pressure, internal or external, psi.

M = meridional bending moment per unit circumference, in.-lb/in.
H = force per unit length of circumference, perpendicular to center line of sphere, lb / in.
N = membrane force, lb / in.
Q = radial shearing force per unit of circumference, lb/in.
S = stress intensity, psi
Rm = radius of midsurface of spherical shell, in
R = inside radius, in.
t = thickness of spherical shell, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
, = Poisson's ratio
Page 31
D = flexural rigidity, in.-lb

= (
E t 3 12 1* , 2 )
[( ) ]
1/4
4 = 3 1-, 2
2
Rm t 2 1/in.
? = meridional angle measured from center line of sphere, deg.

?0 = meridional angle of reference edge where loading is applied, deg.
? L = meridional angle of second edge, deg.
; = meridional angle measured from the reference edge, rad..
x = length of arc for angle ; , measured from reference edge of hemisphere
= @ Rm ; 180 , in.
A = 4 Rm
Y = ratio of outside radius to inside radius
Z = ratio of outside radius to an intermediate radius
U = ratio of inside radius to an intermediate radius
w = radial displacement of midsurface, in.
< = lateral displacement of midsurface, perpendicular to center line of sphere, in.
+ = rotation of midsurface, radians
o = subscript to denote a quantity at reference edge of sphere
l = subscript to denote meridional direction
t = as a subscript used to denote circumferential direction
1* 2 A
K 1 =1* cot ( ?0 * ; )
2A
1+ 2 A
K 2 =1* cot ( ?0 * ; )
2A
1*2 A
k1 =1* cot ? 0
2A
1+ 2 A
k2 =1* cot ? 0
2A
2
A0 = 1+ k1
[(
B(; ) = 1+ , 2 ) ( K + K ) *2 K ]
1 2 2
sin ?0
C(; ) =
sin ( ?0 *; )
F(; )= sin (?0 ) sin ( ? 0 *; )
B 0 =tan ( * k1 )
*1
) r = radial stress component, psi

) t = tangential (circumferential) stress component, psi
) l = longitudinal (meridional) stress component, psi
Page 32
Rm
M0 R
H0
;
+< ?0
+
Fig. 4.4.4.1(a) Spherical segment ( domed ) end

closure for values of ? 0 of
0.9 # 0.9 &
@ C ?0 C % 1* ( @ , for ? 0
A $ A '
in radians
4.4.4.2 Principal Stresses due to External Pressure at any Point in Shell.
) 1 = ) l =* pY 3 ( U 3 + 2 ) 2 ( Y 3 * 1 )
) 2 =) t = * pY 3 ( U 3 + 2) 2 ( Y 3 *1 )
) 3 =) r = pY 3 ( U 3 *1 ) (Y 3
* 1)
The displacement <, the rotation +, the bending moments M l , Mt , and the membrane forces
Nl ,Nt at any location in the segment are given in terms of the edge loads M0 and H0 by:
- 2 A2
< = M0 . F(; )e *A; [ cos( A; ) * K2 sin( A; )] }
/ E t k1
- R A
+ H0 . m A0 sin ?0 F (; )e* A; = [ cos ( A; + B 0 ) *K 2 sin ( A; + B 0 )]}
/ E t k1
- 4 A3 - 2 A2
+ = M0 . C(; )e* A; cos( A; ) } + H0 . A0 sin ?0 C(; )e *A; cos( A; + B 0 ) }
/ Rm E t k 1 / E t k1
Page 33
- 1
M l = M0 . C(; )e* A; [ K1 cos( A; )+ sin( A; )] }
/ k1
- R
+ H0 . m A0 sin ?0 C(; )e* A; = [ K 1 cos( A; + B 0 ) + sin ( A; + B 0 )] }
/ 2 A k1
- C(; ) *A;
M t = M0 . e [ B(; ) cos( A; ) + 2 , 2 sin ( A; ) ] }
/ 2 , k1
- Rm
+ H0 . A0 sin ?0 C(; )e *A; = [ B(; )cos ( A; + B0 ) + 2 , 2 sin ( A; + B 0 )] }
/ 4, A k1
4.4.4.4 Edge Displacements and Rotations in Terms of Edge Loads.
At the reference edge ( D=0 ), the displacement < , and rotation + , are given for a right hand
end closure in terms of the edge loads H0 and M0 by:
2 A2 sin ?0 R A sin 2 ?0 # 1 &

<0 = M0 + H0 m % + k2 (
E t k1 Et $ k1 '
* 4 A3 * 2 A2 sin ?0
+0 = M0 + H0
Rm E t k 1 E t k1
for a left hand shell:
2 A2 sin ?0 * R m A sin 2 ?0 # 1 &

<0 = M0 + H0 % + k2 (
E t k1 Et $ k1 '
4 A3 * 2 A2 sin ?0
+0 = M0 + H0
Rm E t k 1 E t k1
The coefficients of H0 and M0 form the influence coefficients ai j ,i, j =1,2
4.4.4.5 Displacements due to Pressure and Temperature.
The outwards displacement due to the external pressure on the shell midplane at the reference
edge is given by:
<p = * p
(
R3
2 E R0 * R Rm
3 3 2
) (
= 2 Rm ( 1* 2, ) + R0 ( 1+ , ) sin ?0
3 3
)
+ p =0
Page 34
and for the temperature change
<t = Rm sin ?0 ; < T
where
At an angle D from the reference edge, the principal stresses are given by:
Nl 6 M l
) 1 =) l = 2
t t
N t 6 Mt
) 2 =) t = 2
t t
) 3 =) r =0
The + sign refers to the inside surface of the shell and the - sign the outside surface.
4.4.5 Solution for Stresses.
The first stage of the solution is to calculate the influence coefficients for the discontinuity
loads, the stresses due to pressure only and the displacements/rotations due to pressure and
temperature change for each element.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
M1 M2 M3 M4
Left hand Elements Right hand

discontinuity discontinuity
Fig. 4.4.5(a) Assembly of pressure housing for

solution of discontinuity stresses.
Page 35
The second stage is to assemble the set of linear simultaneous equations for the solution of the
discontinuity loads from the influence coefficients and the displacements/rotations due to
pressure and temperature change. The assembly is begun at the left hand end, each
discontinuity, as shown in figure 4.4.5(a), is taken in turn until the set of equations is
completed at the right hand end discontinuity. The assembly procedure is as follows:
The first junction ( left hand end ):
End closure relationships:
w1 = a111 Q1 + a112 M 1
+1 = a12 1 Q1 + a21 2 M 1
First cylinder relationships:
w1 = a211 Q1 + a212 M 1 + a12 3 Q2 + a12 4 M 2
+1 = a22 1 Q1 + a22 2 M 1 + a22 3 Q2 + a22 4 M 2
and the displacements/rotations due to pressure and temperature effects w11 ,+ 11 ,w12 ,+ 21 with
w =w + w
1 1 1
( i p t , etc. )
The first two rows of the simultaneous equations are:
(a 1
11 * a12 1 ) Q1 + ( a112 * a12 2 ) M1 * a213 Q2 * a214 M 2 = w11 * w 21
(a 1
21 * a22 1 ) Q1 + ( a12 2 * a22 2 ) M1 * a22 3 Q2 * a22 4 M 2 = +11 * +12
For an intermediate ( i th ) junction, between cylinders:
i th cylinder relationships:
wi = a3i 1 Qi* 1 + a3i 2 M i * 1 + ai3 3 Qi + a3i 4 M i
+i = a4i 1 Qi* 1 + a4i 2 M i * 1 + ai4 3 Qi + a4i 4 M i
i+1 cylinder relationships:
wi = a1i +1 1 Qi + a1i +2 1 M i + a1i +3 1 Qi + 1 + a1i +4 1 M i + 1
+i = a2i +1 1 Qi + a2i +2 1 M i + a2i +3 1 Qi + 1 + a2i +4 1 M i = 1

Page 36
giving for the two rows in the equations relating to this junction
ai3 1 Qi *1 + a3i 2 M i * 1 + ( a3i 3 * a1i +1 1 ) Qi + ( a3i 4 * a1i +2 1 ) M i * ai13+ 1 Qi + 1 * ai14+ 1 Mi + 1 = w ii * w ii + 1
ai4 1 Qi *1 + a4i 2 M i * 1 + ( a4i 3 * a2i +1 1 ) Qi + ( a4i 4 * a2i +2 1 ) M i * ai2+31 Qi + 1 * ai2+41 Mi + 1 =+ ii * +ii + 1
And for the last junction at the right hand end ( n th ):
n th cylinder relationships:
wn = a3n 1 Qn* 1 + a3n 2 M n * 1 + an3 3 Qn + a3n 4 M n
+n = a4n 1 Qn* 1 + a4n 2 M n * 1 + an4 3 Qn + a4n 4 M n
Right hand end closure ( n+ 1 element ) relationships:
wn = a1n 1+ 1 Qn + an12+ 1 M n
+n = a2n 1+ 1 Qn + an2 +2 1 M n
giving for the last two rows in the equations relating to the n th junction:
an3 1 Qn *1 + a3n 2 M n * 1 + ( a3n 3 * a1n 1+ 1 ) Qn + ( a3n 4 * a1n 2+ 1 ) M n = wnn * wnn + 1
an4 1 Qn *1 + a4n 2 M n * 1 + ( a4n 3 * a2n 1+ 1 ) Qn + ( a4n 4 * a2n 2+ 1 ) M n = +nn *+ nn + 1
The third stage is to solve the set of 2n linear simultaneous equations to give the
Qi , Mi ,n = 1,n . These are then substituted back into the stress equations for edge loads and
added to the pressure stresses to give the full stressing of the housing.
If pin jointing, that is the removal of a loading at a discontinuity is required, then the row and
column in the matrix forming the linear equations associated with this load are removed and
the value of the load made equal to zero.
4.5 Stress Concentrations at End Closure Penetrations.
4.5.1 General.
The primary area of major stress concentrations in pressure housing design is at the high
pressure conductor seals penetration of the end closures. When the seal seating is integral
with the end closure, the effect is minimized, but most systems use a separate seal unit which
requires a substantial opening in the end closure.
Two approaches can be used to counter the increased stress around the opening(s). The first is
to increase the overall thickness of the end closure to bring the stresses at the opening(s)
within the allowable limits, and the second is to design the end closure to withstand pressure
loads, without openings, and to reinforce the opening(s) to keep the maximum stresses at the
opening(s) at the same level as for those due to pressure alone.
Page 37
4.5.2 Estimation of the Stress at Unreinforced Openings.
No simple analysis exists that can give the stresses at a circular opening, or openings, in an
end closures except for the case of a central hole in a simply supported flat end closure.
An approximation for a plate in bending is that the stress concentration factor at the edge of a
circular hole can be taken as 3.0. Strictly this is for a very small circular opening with
bending in one plane only, and the factor tends to decrease with increasing opening size and
bending in two directions, thus making this factor conservative.
Hence in designing a end closure for unreinforced openings, the allowable stress would be
reduced by a factor of 3.0 from the value for an end closure with no openings.
A good estimate of the effect of the opening is that the stresses are increased over an area
extending around the opening, one diameter wide. This means that the opening(s) in an end
closure should not be closer to an edge than 1-1/2 diameters ( center line to edge ) and for
multiple openings, they should not be closer than the sum of their diameters ( edge to edge ).
4.5.3 Reinforcement of a Circular Opening.
The standard method for reinforcing a circular opening in a pressure vessel is area for area
compensation. For external pressure on end closures:
A =0.5 d t
where
A = Cross sectional area of reinforcement.

d = Diameter of circular opening.
t = Thickness of end closure at center line of opening computed for no openings.
Ideally the area of reinforcement should be equally distributed on the inside and outside of
the shell around the opening. Figure 4.5.3(a) shows the arrangement of the reinforcement.
Limits on the reinforcement should meet the following requirement that 100% of the required
reinforcement is within a distance on each side of the opening axis equal to the greater of the
following:
i) The diameter of the finished opening.
ii) The radius of the opening plus the thickness of the vessel wall.
The limits on the placing of openings in an end closure as described for unreinforced openings
should also be observed.
The area of the reinforcement should also be faired smoothly into the wall with radiused
corners and/or chamfers to prevent additional stress concentrations.
Page 38
End
closure
Available
reinforcement
area shall be
Circular
at least equal
opening
to half of
required area,
Diametrical
A, on each side
of opening
limit
center line and
in every plane
containing the
opening axis
Fig. 4.5.3(a) Arrangement of reinforcing area of

circular opening in end closure.
4.6 Finite Element Stressing.
The methods for stressing pressure housings described in sections 4.3. 4.4 and 4.5 have
limitations on their degree of accuracy and the ability to handle other than simple housing
forms. In shallow water systems where the effect of these limitations is relatively small, they
are normally adequate. However, for pressure housings that can be used in deep water, the
additional weight and size due to these limitations can become substantial and result in
cumbersome equipment.
To calculate the stresses to a higher degree of accuracy, it is necessary to use the finite
element method, with the simpler methods now being used for initial calculations only.
There are many finite element structural programs available ( e.g. NASTRAN, ANSYS, ABAQUS
) which are suitable for analyzing pressure housings. It is not possible to describe the setting
up of elements to form the representation of the pressure housing in this handbook as this is
really part of the skill of the structural engineer using this method and will differ
substantially from housing to housing. For pressure housings there are two main types of
analysis that can be done.
The first is using axisymmetric elements, such as triangular or quadrilateral cross section
toroidal elements, to model the pressure housing without openings in the end closures. The
simpler arrangement of elements in two dimensions allows a quicker refinement of the
structure. Also, if there is only a single central opening in each end closure, these elements
can model the complete housing.
Page 39
The second method is to use the standard solid elements, such as pentahedrons and
hexahedrons. These can be built up into a representation of the full housing or just the end
closures. While these elements can be used to represent complex structural shapes, the
numbers required tends to be large and the three dimensional form makes their use for
refinement much more tedious.
The effect of the strength member terminations can also be readily included to allow the
effects of tensile loads on the housing to be analyzed.
Because the design of pressure housings utilizes the full strength of the material without the
normal safety factors, it is necessary to evaluate the accuracy of finite elements to be used in
the analysis. In some cases the User Manual and Application Manual ( or equivalent ) will
provide sufficient information on the use of the elements so that they can be directly applied.
If this is not so, or the designer wishes to further evaluate the accuracy of the elements for
pressure housing design, then a simple model, or models, for which analytical solutions exist,
typical of parts of a pressure housing, can be set up. The results from the finite element
analysis and the analytical analysis can be compared and adjustments made to ensure that the
finite element analysis of the pressure housing will be carried out in the most effective
manner to utilize the full strength of the material at the maximum operating pressure and/or
maximum tensile loading.
4.7 Collapse Modes.
4.7.1 General.
The strength of a pressure housing is not only a function of the stresses in it due to the
pressure, etc., but is also dependent on the stability of the housing under the pressure load.
Generally housings for ocean cable systems ( and electromechanical cable systems ) are
designed to fail by yielding, however it is necessary to ensure that other collapse modes do
not occur and hence critical pressures from all possible collapse modes must be checked.
Final checking of the design should be done by pressure testing.
4.7.2 Cylindrical Shell Collapse.
The following methods presented for cylindrical shells are based on those for submarine
pressure hulls, modified to suit cylinders without frames. Strictly, the theory is for multi-
compartment hulls with little or no bending of bulkheads. For a single compartment housing,
this is not necessarily so, and hence the results should be considered as a check on the
collapse mode of the cylindrical section of the housing, rather than calculations for the design
of the housing.
For a 'thin walled' cylinders such as could be used in shallow water, if the collapse mode is
other than by yielding, then a reasonable safety factor between the critical pressure and the
maximum operating pressure should be used.
For long cylindrical shells or cylindrical shells with unsupported ends, the critical
pressures for the various modes are given by:
2 lobe collapse:
If a cylindrical shell is long in comparison to its diameter ( over 5:1 ). the center portion may
exhibit the two lobe collapse mode of an unsupported cylinder, or infinite cylinder.
Page 40
The critical pressure for two lobe collapse is:
E t3
pcr =
4 ( 1* , 2 ) R 3
where
E = Modulus of elasticity.
t = Thickness of shell.
R = Mean radius of cylindrical shell.
Yielding :
The yielding pressure of a long cylindrical shell is given by:
f cy t
py =
Ro
where
f cy = Compressive yield stress.

Ro = Outside radius of cylindrical shell.
If py is less than pcr , the shell will fail by yielding, rather than by instability unless
significant eccentricity exists.
For shorter cylindrical shells with supported ends, the possible collapse modes are buckling,
general instability and yielding at the ends, with the smaller critical pressure giving the
mode. The critical pressures for the various modes are given by:
General instability:
The slenderness ratio for the cylinder, A , is given by:

1
-> L D # f ty & 0> 2
A =. % (1
>/ ( t D ) 2 $ E ' >2
3
where
L = Length of the shell.

D = Diameter of the shell.
t = Shell thickness.
f ty = Yield stress.
The ratio of collapse pressure to yield pressure is:
D = pc py
Page 41
where
pc = Collapse ( critical ) pressure.

py = Hoop yield pressure.
= 2t f ty D
now:
D = 1.30 A2
giving for the critical pressure:
pc =D py
= 1.30 py A2
= 2.60 t f ty ( A D)
2
Shell Buckle:
The critical pressure for shell buckle is given by:
2.42 E ( t D )
5
2
pc =
( 1*, ) ( L D* 0.45 ( t D ) )
3 1
2 4 2
where
D = Diameter of shell midplane.
t = Shell thickness.
L = Length of shell.
LD up to unity gives an accuracy of 1% or better.
Shell yield ( see figure 4.7.2(a) ):
If the methods described in sections 4.4 or 4.6 have been used for the stressing, then the
pressure at which the cylindrical shell section will reach yield stress will provide a more
accurate answer than the method below, and should be used instead of carrying out this shell
yield method.
The stresses in the shell are:
Circumferential at mid bay:
* pR
)? =
t
( 1+ E ( H M , HE ))
Page 42
Axial at mid bay:
*pR 1
)l =
t
( 2 E HE )
b
R
Fig. 4.7.2(a) Parameters for shell yield.
Circumferential at ends:
# # # &
1
2 &&
*pR 3
)? = % 1* E % 1 , % 2 ( K ((
t %
$
%
$ $ ( 1* , ) ' ((
''
Axial at ends:
# &
1
# & 2
*pR 1 3
)l = % E% 2 ( K(
t %$ 2 $ (1* , )' (
'
with the sign for the inside and outside of the shell respectively.
where
* p R t = Hoop stress psi.

R = Radius of shell midplane, inch.
p = External pressure, psi.
t = Shell thickness, inch.
E = End deflection parameter.
( 1*, 2 ) * B
=
1+ 4
Page 43
B = Ratio of shell area under flange.

bt
=
A + bt
b = Width of end flange at shell.
A = Area of end contributing to end strength.
( )
= b R * t 2 for flat end.
4 = Degree of flexibility of end ( for very large area approaches zero )
3
2N # & 4
1
( Rt )
1
3 2
= % 2 (
A + b t $ 3 ( 1* , ) '
N = Effect of deflection on end.
cosh + * cos +
=
sinh + + sin +
+ = Slenderness parameter.
# 3 ( 1* , 2 ) &
1
4
= L% 2 2 (
$ R t '
H = Effect of bending in shell reflected at midbay.
HM = *2
( sinh (+ 2) cos (+ 2) + cosh (+ 2) sin (+ 2))
sinh + + sin +
( sinh (+ 2) cos(+ 2) * cosh (+ 2) sin (+ 2))
1
# 3 & 2
HE = * 2% (
$ 1* , 2 ' sinh + + sin +
K = Bending effect in shell reflected near end.

sinh + * sin +
=
sinh+ + sin +
giving:
pressure for yielding at midbay:
2 f ty t D
pcm =
0.5+ 1.815 K ( 0.85* B ) ( 1+ 4 )
pressure for yielding at ends:
2 f ty t D
pce =
1+ H ( 0.85* B ) ( 1+ 4 )
where
f ty = Yield stress of shell material in tension, psi.

H = HM + , HE
Yielding will occur at the ends under normal conditions.

Page 44
4.7.3 Flat End Closures.
The failure mode for flat end closures is by yielding only, no instability modes exist unless
the support of the edges partially fails, which is unlikely in pressure housing design.
4.7.4 Domed End Closures.
The collapse strength of spheres ( and hemispheres ) can be predicted from classical small
deflection theory for essentially perfect spheres by:
2E (h R )
2
pcr =
3 ( 1* , 2 )
where
h = Shell thickness.
R = Radius of shell midplane.
This method has been found to overestimate the critical pressure, with most collapses
occurring at about 24% of the predicted pressure.
For a Poisson's ratio of 0.3, the critical pressure for an essentially perfect sphere is given by:
pcr =0.84 ( h R )
2
For a slightly less than perfect sphere, that is with a slight eccentricity, with a Poisson's
ratio of 0.3 in both the elastic and plastic regions, a theoretical critical pressure is given by:
pcr =1.21 E s E t ( h R )
2
where
Es = Secant modulus of elasticity.

Et = Tangent modulus of elasticity.
This also has been found to overestimate the critical pressure and a more accurate result is
given by:
Es Et ( h R )
2
pcr =1.84
This solution requires that a set of calculations for a range of Es and Et for the material be
done to find the minimum critical pressure.
The application of this method for domed end closures can only be considered to provide a
warning of a possible instability collapse as the support of most domed end closures
introduces boundary conditions that must modify the result.
Page 45
Note: The tangent modulus of elasticity, Et , is the slope of the stress/strain curve at a point
corresponding to a given stress ( or strain ) and the corresponding secant modulus, E s , is the
slope of the line drawn through the origin and this point on the stress/strain curve. Figure
4.7.4(a) shows the relationships.
Stress
s
d ulu
Given stress mo
ial
e nt
ta ng
or
s
ef
lu
Lin
du
mo
nt
ca
se
or
ef
Lin
Strain
Fig. 4.7.4(a) Tangent and secant moduli

from stress/strain curve.
4.7.5 Finite Element Analysis.
Finite element analysis has the advantage of being able to determine the collapse mode and
pressure of the full pressure housing.
The first method is the buckling mode using differential stiffness, in which a factor on the
trial pressure loading and the mode is calculated. This is sometimes known as the bifurcation
method. Its disadvantage is that the buckling pressure ( trial pressure x factor ) tends to
overestimate the buckling pressure. Its advantage is that most finite element programs have it
as a standard solution and it needs no more information than a static analysis.
The second method is non-linear analysis in which non-linear material properties are used
and the pressure load is increased until buckling begins. This will normally give an accurate
value for the buckling pressure and buckling mode. The disadvantage of this method is the
need for non-linear properties of the material(s), which may require testing, and not all finite
element programs have non-linear material with large displacement analysis.
Page 46
Figure 4.7.5 shows the typical difference between the two methods for a point in the area of
buckling with increasing pressure.
(Linear) Bifurcation
Buckling point
Pressure
analysis
Post
buckling
Non-linear
analysis
Displacement
Fig. 4.7.5 Comparison of (linear) buckling

analysis with non-linear material
with large displacement analysis.
4.8 Eccentricity.
For the majority of pressure housings used in ocean cable systems ( and electromechanical
cable systems ), they are machined to form and eccentricity is not a factor. Some housings are
fabricated from components such as tubes, and both the supplied tube and fabrication methods
may give rise to eccentricity, or out of roundness. Similarly for domed end closures.
The maximum plus or minus deviation from true circular form for cylinders, or theoretical
form of domed end closures, measured radially on the outside or inside of the component,
should not exceed the maximum permissible deviation given in figure 4.8(a), For components
with diameter to wall thickness ratios below the eccentricity curves, the maximum
permissible deviation must be obtained from interpolation.
Measurements are made using a segmental template having the design inside or outside radius,
and a chord length equal to twice the arc length obtained from figure 4.8(b). The value for L
in figure 4.8(b) for cylinders is the length of the cylindrical section of the housing plus one
third the depth of each end closure. If an end closure has a simple support, the depth added
for that end is zero. For a domed end closure ( spherical segment ), L is one half the outside
diameter.
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
e=
D0 t
1.
300 0
t
e=
0.8
t
200
e=
0.6
t
e=
0.5
t
100
90 e=
0.4
80 t
70
Outside diameter / Thickness

60 e=
0.3
50 t
40
30
25
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Design length / Outside diameter
Fig. 4.8(a) Maximum permissible deviation from a circular form e for vessel under external pressure
Page 47
Outside diameter / Thickness D0 t
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
200
300
400
500
600
800
1000
2000
0.01
0.02 0.04
Ar
c
=
Ar 0.
c 03
Ar = D
c 0 .
0.06 0.10
= 03 0
A
0.
0 5
Ar
c rc 4 0 D
= = D 0
Ar 0. 0.
05 04 0
c = 5 5
Ar 0 D D
. 0
c= 06
5 0
Ar 0 .
0.2 0.4 c = 07 D
0. 5
Ar
c 08 D 0
= 5
A 0.1 D 0
r c= 00 0
D
0.6
0.1
2 0
Ar 5
c D
Design length / Outside diameter

=0 0
Ar .15
c 0
1.0
= 0.1 D
Ar 7 0
c = 5
A r 0 . D
c= 20
0 0
A 0.2 D
2
rc 50
= 0.3 D 0
00 0
3
D
0
4 5 6
Fig. 4.8(b) Maximum arc length for determining plus or minus deviation.
8 10
20
Page 48
Page 49
4.9 Viewports.
4.9.1 Introduction.
The methods for simple stressing of viewport windows are limited. Acrylic flat disk and
conical frustum viewport windows have a method from experiments. A method is given for flat
disk glass viewport windows based on pressure vessel stressing.
4.9.2 Flat Disk Glass Viewport Window.
4.9.2.1 General.
The stressing of a flat disk viewport can be done using a modification of the method for the
flat end closure with the radial force and bending moment removed. This assumes that the
viewport sits on a point support. The difficulty with this method is that the position of the
point support is not easy to define as it depends on the nature of the seating. If the seating is
very hard then the point support would be at, or near, the inner edge. If it is soft then a
solution is to do the stressing with the point support at the inner edge and the outer edge and
take the worst case for viewport design.
Note: No method was found for stressing glass viewports in a literature search.
( refer to figure 4.9.2.2(a) )
Seating
Point support
r
tg R
x
Fig. 4.9.2.2(a) Flat disk viewport.

Page 50
p = pressure, psi.
) r = radial stress, psi.
) l = longitudinal stress, psi.
) t = tangential (circumferential) stress, psi.
w = radial displacement, in.
+ = rotation, radians.
R = outside radius of disk, in.
r = radial distance from center of disk, in.
x = longitudinal distance from mid-plane of disk, in.
t = thickness of disk, in.
tg = distance of point support from outer edge of disk, in.
E = elastic modulus, psi.
, = Poissons ratio.
5 # 2* f & 80>
F2 = 3 / 8 ( 1* f ) { ( 1*, ) ( 2* f 2 ) + 4 ( 1+ , ) 7 1+ 2 % ln
2
( :1
6 $ 2* 2 f ' 9>2
where
f = 2t g R
R = Outside radius of end in .
4.9.2.3 Principal Stresses due to External Pressure at any Point in Viewport.
*x p 5 3 ( 3+ , ) r 2 8
) 1 =) r = 2 7 F2 * :
t (t R) 6 4 R2 9
*xp 5 3 ( 1+ 3, ) r2 8
)2 = )t = 7 F * :
t (t R ) 6
2 2
4R 2 9
# t& p
) 3 =) t = * % x * (
$ 2' t
4.9.3 Acrylic Viewport Windows.
The method covers the flat disk window and the conical frustum window. Figure 4.9.3(a) gives
the critical pressure for flat disk windows for thickness/diameter ratios and figure 4.9.3(b)
for conical frustum windows for normal range of frustum angles. Tables 4.9.3(a) and 4.9.3(b)
give conversion factors for relating operating pressure to critical pressure for flat disk and
conical frustum windows respectively. This provides an iterative method for determining
thickness of the window for the given aperture diameter, and for conical frustum windows the
effect of frustum angle.
Page 51
300 43500
280
40000
240 35000
30000
200
Critical pressure, Mpa
Critical pressure, psi

25000
160
1.25 C Do Di C1.5
20000
120
15000
80
10000
Do
40 t
5000
Di
0 145
0. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t Di
Fig. 4.9.3(a) Short term critical pressure of flat disk acrylic window.
Page 52
300 43500
C 1200
280
40000
90 0
240 35000
30000
200
Critical pressure, Mpa
Critical pressure, psi

25000
60 0
160
20000
120
15000
80
10000
Do
40
t
Di 5000
0 145
0. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t Di
Fig 4.9.3(b) Short term critical pressure of conical frustum acrylic window,
for three included frustum angles.
Page 53
Table 4.9.3(a).
Conversion Factors for Acrylic Flat Disk Windows.
Operating Temperature range

pressure
range C 50o F (10o C) C 75o F (24o C) C 100o F (38o C)
N=1 Cf =5 Cf =6 Cf =8
2500 psi (17.2 Mpa)
N=2 Cf =5 Cf =6 Cf =8
5000 psi (34.5 Mpa)
N=3 Cf =5 Cf =6
7500 psi (51.7 Mpa)
Limit 7000 psi
(48.3 Mpa)
Table 4.9.3(b).
Conversion Factors for Acrylic Conical Frustum Windows.
Operating Temperature range

pressure
range C 50o F (10o C) C 75o F (24o C) C 100o F (38o C)
N=1 Cf =5 Cf =6 Cf =8
2500 psi (17.2 Mpa)
N=2 Cf = 4* Cf = 5* Cf = 7*
5000 psi (34.5 Mpa)
N=3 Cf =4 Cf =5
7500 psi (51.7 Mpa)
N=4 Cf =4 Cf =5
10000 psi (69 Mpa)
Limit 8000 psi
(55.2 Mpa)
Note: * Conversion factors for these pressures must be interpolated between

upper and lower values shown.
Page 54
The relationship between pressures and conversion factors can be written as:
Pc
Po =
Cf
where:
Po = operating or design pressure.

Pc = critical pressure from figure 9.3.2(a) or 9.3.2(b).
Cf = conversion factor from table 9.3.2(a) or 9.3.2(b), for the operating temperature range.
or
Pc = P0 C f
4.10 Fatigue.
For ocean cable systems, the number of cycles that a pressure housing is subjected to is very
small, only several cycles, and fatigue design is not a significant factor.
For electromechanical cable systems, where many cycles can occur in the life of a housing, the
fatigue characteristics of the material(s) may have to be examined if the stresses are very high
in some sections of the housing, but normally the number of cycles in normal operation is well
below those where consideration of fatigue is necessary.
In structures where glass or ceramics are used, static fatigue may be a problem if the glass or
ceramic parts are under significant stress for long periods.
Page 55
5. Seal Design.
This chapter contains methods for seal design used to seal components that make up
underwater pressure housings.
5.1 Seal Types.
Seals for underwater use fall into several categories. The most common is the gasket seal, in
which a separate gasket is used to form a seal between the components. The other types of
seals are the welded seal in which the components are joined by welding along their joining
plane to form the seal, and the metal to metal seal in which the pressure between the two
mating surfaces of the components is such as to form a seal.
The gasket seal may use an elastomer or metal gasket to effect the seal. Where practical, in
underwater systems it is normal practice to use two seals to provide a back-up if the first seal
fails, in order to obtain the necessary reliability. If a metal seal is used then it is always the
inner seal.
Gasket seals are of three forms, the face seal, the piston seal, and crush seal. As shown in
figure 5.1(a) and 5.1(b), a combination of a face and piston seal can be arranged in two ways,
with either the face seal or the piston seal outermost. As the face seal is the more effective, it
is better practice to use it as the primary seal with the secondary piston seal outermost,
protecting the primary face seal. When a metal gasket is used, this is the only combination as
they are face seals.
Face seal
Piston seal
Fig. 5.1(a) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals

- face seal outermost.
Page 56
Piston seal
Face
seal
Fig. 5.1(b) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals

- piston seal outermost.
An alternative is to use a double piston seal, as shown in figure 5.1(c). This can be used with a
simply supported end closure, or where the housing diameter must be kept to a minimum.
Piston seals
Fig. 5.1(c) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals

- dual piston seals.
Page 57
The crush seal for O-rings is shown in figure 5.1(d). This is often used by itself where space
for a seal is limited. It is not normally used for the pressure seal in underwater housings. The
O-ring seal is permanently deformed by the crushing.
Static crush seal
Fig 5.1(d) Gasket seal arrangement for single seal

- static crush seal.
It is not normal practice to use a flat gasket seal in ocean cable system components, though
they may be used in electromechanical systems.
Of the seals, only metal seals can provide a barrier against water vapor as well as the water
pressure. Elastomers and similar organic materials cannot provide a long term barrier against
water vapor, though for systems of shorter life ( maximum of 10 years ) or where repair and
refurbishment is relatively easy, they are adequate.
5.2 Elastomer O-Rings.
5.2.1 General.
The elastomer O-ring gasket seal is the most commonly used seal in underwater equipment and
with careful design can provide a long life, though to provide a water vapor barrier requires
an additional metal seal.
In O-ring design, seven steps can be defined, as follows:
(a) Select seal type (face and/or piston)
(b) Select the largest O-ring cross section that can fit application.
(c) Specify a standard O-ring size and gland dimensions. Check if anti-extrusion rings are
required.
(d) Check for ease of machining and installation.

Page 58
(e) Select specific compound and hardness.
(f) Specify O-ring part number.
(g) Specify the lubricant.
Also to ensure that the O-ring will work under the operating conditions, the following are
generally recommended:
(a) The physical properties of the O-ring material should be such as to maintain pressure
proof integrity in seawater and/or freshwater environments for a period of at least five years (
or in long life systems, as much as twenty years ).
(b) The O-ring should be capable of withstanding service temperatures from -65o F to +165o F
( -54o C to +74o C ). These temperatures may occur on the deck of the vessel the equipment is
to be deployed from. If this temperature range is incompatible with the equipment then
protective measures such as heating or cooling will be required.
(c) The O-ring should be capable of passing thermal shock tests of -65o F to +28o F ( -54o C to
- 2o C ) and +165o F to 28o F ( +74o C to -2o C ). These are the conditions that are encountered
in arctic and tropical climates as the equipment passes from the deck into the water and vice
versa.
(d) The O-ring design should be capable of withstanding a static hydrostatic pressure test to
1.5 times the maximum operating design depth for the systems for a period of 1.6 hours
minimum.
(e) Each O-ring should be individually packaged and properly identified as to material, size,
shape and shelf life.
(f ) If the effectiveness of the seal design selected depends on the application of minimum
torque values on fasteners, the minimum and maximum allowable torque values should be
specified.
(g) The seal design and the O-ring should be such as to require a minimum of installation and
removal instruction.
(h) The seal design should be capable of withstanding the same shock and vibration as the unit
of which it is part of.
(i) The seal design should provide corrosion resistance in seawater and freshwater
environments and should not promote corrosion in the areas adjacent to the seal.
(j) The O-ring material should be fungus resistant, as should be the lubricant.
For designs where removable plugs, etc., are used (mainly electromechanical cable systems)
the following are also recommended:
(k) The seal design must be such that the plug and receptacle can be mated and unmated many
times without damaging or otherwise affecting the O-ring or seal surfaces. A recommended
durability test is 100 cycles ( one cycle is a mating and unmating ).
Page 59
(1) The design of the plug and receptacle should be such that it does not require an O-ring
that is not readily available. Standard O-ring sizes, shapes and materials are preferable.
(m) The O-rings chosen for the application should be inexpensive.
(n) The seal design must be capable of withstanding at least 2000 hydrostatic pressure cycles
to a pressure equivalent to the depth for which the seal is designed. If the characteristics of
the O-ring material are not fully known, it may be desirable to superimpose a temperature
cycle during the hydrostatic pressure tests.
(o) The seal design should be such that the gasket is not dislodged during mating and
unmating cycles, as this could result in O-ring damage or loss.
(p) The connector seal should be designed so that the O-ring is readily accessible for
installation or removal. O-ring installation and removal tools should be designed to preclude
damage to the O-ring or the O-ring seal surfaces.
The connector seal design should afford the maximum possible damage protection to the
surfaces being sealed.
(r) Where practical in the connector design, the use of double O-rings in separate glands
(primary and secondary) is recommended. Each O-ring should be capable of maintaining a
fully effective seal independently in the event of inadvertent omission of, or damage to, one of
the O-rings.
(s) The O-ring material should not deteriorate in the presence of hydraulic lubricating or
compensating oils.
One other consideration in selecting the O-ring material is its shelf life. Some compounds
have relatively short shelf lifes. MIL-HDBK-695 provides information of the shelf life of
rubber products. Silicone and flourosilicone compounds may be stored for up to 20 years from
cure date, isobutylene/isoprene, butyl, neoprene and chloroprene for 5 to 10 years and Nitrile
Buna N and Buna S for 2 to 5 years. Control of storage conditions will also have an effect of
storage life. Connector O-rings should not be stored for more than 5 years. The limitation on
shelf life needs to be included in the design and assembly documentation, as well as the
inspection requirements for the O-rings prior to assembly.
5.2.2 Materials.
For the sea water environments nitrile, butyl and neoprene rubbers are the most compatible,
with neoprene being the most commonly used. Table 5.2.2(a) gives data on a wide range of O -
ring materials and compatibility with common fluids. Table 5.2.2(b) gives the compatibility of
the various O-ring materials with fresh and sea (salt) water. Compatibility with other fluids
is normally readily available from O-ring handbooks and manufacturers of the fluid or O -
ring. For example, if the seal is between the sea water and an oil filled chamber, then the
compatibility of the O-ring material and the oil must be assessed.
Page 60
Table 5.2.2(a)
O-ring Compounds.
ASTM Temperature
Compound D1418 range Description
oF ( oC )
Nitrile/Buna N NBR -30 to 212 Acrylonitrile butadiene copolymer.

(-34 to 100) The acronitrile content varies from
18% to 50% and influences the
physical properties of the material.
A medium acronitrile content is
generally used to get a balance
between resistance to oil and fuel
and elasticity and resistance to
compression.
NBR is not resistant to weathering or
ozone.
Hydrogenated Nitrile HNBR -55 to 300 Hydrogenated NBR to improve wear
(-48 to 150) and extrusion resistance of standard
NBR.
HBNR can be used wit oils with
aggressive additives and to higher
temperatures. Better resistance to
weathering and ozone.
Ethylene Propylene EPR, -70 to 302 Ethylene propylene copolymer and

EPDM (-57 to 150) ethylene-propylene-diene rubber
terpolymer.
Resistant to hot water, steam,
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids,
some acids and alkalis, and ozone.
Fluorocarbon FKM -15 to 400 Fluorocarbon has excellent resist-

(-26 to 204) ance to high temperatures, ozone,
oxygen,mineral oil, synthetic
hydraulic fluids, fuels, aromatics,
and many organic solvents and
chemicals.
Lower temperatures ( -15oF/-26oC )
limitations for static sealing. Gas
permeability is very low, similar to
butyl rubber.
Hifluor FKM -15 to 400 Highly fluorinated fluorocarbon

(-26 to 204) giving chemical resistance similar
to perfluorated elastomers FFKM.
Page 61
Table 5.2.2(a) (Continued)
O-ring Compounds.
ASTM Temperature
oF ( oC )
Perfluoroelastomer FFKM 0 to 608 Perfluoroelastomer is a rubber version

(-18 to 320) PTFE and it is the most chemical
resistant elastomer available. Elastic
properties are similar to fluorocarbon.
Aflas FEPM 15 to 450 Copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene

(TFE/propylene) (-9 to 232) (TFE) and propylene. Chemical
resistance is excellent against a wide
range of aggressive materials.
Neoprene/Chloroprene CR -40 to 250 Chloroprene was first synthetic

(-40 to 121) rubber. It has generally good ozone,
aging and chemical resistance. Good
mechanical properties over wide
temperature range.
Styrene-Butadiene SBR -50 to 212 Copolymer of styrene and butadiene.
(-45 to 100) Styrene content of approximately
23.5%. Developed as replacement for
natural rubber. Excellent resistance
to hydraulic fluids, brake fluids and
water.
Polyacrylate ACM -5 to 350 Acrylic rubber good resistance to

(-21 to 177) mineral oil, oxygen and ozone. Water
compatibility and cold flexibility
worse than nitrile.
Polyurethane AU, EU -40 to 180 High performance material with

(-40 to 82) excellent wear and abrasion
resistance, high tensile strength and
high elasticity compared with other
elastomers. Resistant to most oils,
fuels and gases. Difficult to stretch.
Butyl IIR -75 to 250 Isobutylene, isoprene rubber very low

(-59 to 121) permeability and good electrical
properties
Butadiene BR -76 to 212 Polybutadiene is normally used in

(-60 to 100) combination with other rubbers to
improve cold flexibility. Similar in
properties to natural rubber but
physical properties not as good. Not
well suited for O-ring type seals.
Page 62
Table 5.5.2(a) (Continued)
O-ring Compounds.
ASTM Temperature
oF ( oC )
Isoprene IR -60 to 220 Isoprene is similar to natural

(-51 to 104) rubber but more uniform, cleaner
and transparent.
Natural Rubber NR -60 to 220 Natural rubber is coagulated from

(-51 to 104) the latex of the rubber tree. Not
normally used.
Hypalon CSM -20 to 220 Chlorosulfonated polyethylene syn-

(-29 to 104) thetic rubber. Good resistance to
chemicals, temperature and ultra-
violet light with abrasion
Fluorosilicone FVMQ -100 to 350 Contains trifluoropropyl groups
(-73 to 177) next to methyl groups. Mechanical
and physical properties similar to
silicone rubber. Better resistance to
fuel and mineral oils.
Silicone MQ, VMQ, -65 to 400 Silicone elastomers have good ozone
PVMQ (-54 to 204) and weather resistance,, and good
insulating properties while being
physically neutral. However
generally have low tensile strength,
poor tear strength and little wear
resistance.
Teflon PTFE -65 to 500 Polytetrafluoroethlene has out-

(-53 to 260) standing chemical resistance. Can be
used in applications with extreme
temperatures, pressures and
chemicals. Very low friction
material, tendency to cold flow, and
no memory.
Page 63
Table 5.5.2(b)
Compatibility of O-ring Compounds

with Fresh and Sea (Salt) Water.
Compound ASTM D1418 Water Sea water
Nitrile/Buna N NBR 1 1
Hydrogenated Nitrile HNBR 2 1
Ethylene Propylene EPDM 1 1
Fluorocarbon FKM 2 1
Hifluor FKM 1 1
Perfluoroelastomer FFKM 1 1
Aflas (TFE/propylene) FEPM 1 1
Neoprene/Chloroprene CR 2 2
Styrene-Butadiene SBR 1 1
Polyacrylate ACM 4 4
Polyurethane AU, EU 4 4
Butyl IIR 1 1
Butadiene BR 1 1
Isoprene IR 1 1
Natural Rubber NR 1 1
Hypalon CSM 1 1
Fluorosilicone FVMQ 1 1
Silicone MQ, MQ, PVMQ 2 1
Teflon PTFE 1 1
Compatibility ratings:
1 - Satisfactory.
2 - Fair (Usually satisfactory for static seal).
3 - Doubtful (May be satisfactory for static seal).
4 - Unsatisfactory.
Where variation exists between sources, the more

conservative rating was used
Page 64
5.2.3 O-Ring Cross Section, Size and Squeeze.
O-ring cross sections come in a range of sizes to suit applications. Standard cross section
sizes typically used in underwater equipments are 1/16 (0.070), 3/32 (0.103), 1/8 (0.139),
3/16 (0.210), and 1/4 (0.275) inches with the value in brackets being the actual cross section.
The cross sections in millimeters are 1.78, 2.62, 3.53, 5.33, and 6.99 respectively. Metric O -
rings include these sizes as standard.
Normal practice is to select the largest cross section diameter that will fit the space for the
seal, as the increasing size also increases resistance to damage by abrasions rolling or
twisting during installation, and to stretch or squeeze.
The diameters inside or outside, of the O-ring must also be specified and unless a special
requirement exists, a standard size should be used. Standard sizes range from an ID of 1/16 to
5-1/4 inches (1.59 to 133.3 mm) for 1/16 inch cross section, 1/16 to 9-3/4 inches 1.59 to
247.6 mm) for 3/32 inch cross section, 3/16 to 18 inches (4.8 to 457.2 mm) for 1/8 inch cross
section, 7/16 to 26 inches (11.1 to 660.4 mm) for 3/16 inch cross section and 4-1/2 to 26
inches (114.3 to 660.4 mm) for 1/4 inch cross section.
Hence, combined with the material number, the diameter/cross section number provides a full
description of the O-ring. Because of the critical nature of seals in underwater, and especially
ocean cable systems, all O-rings must be of aircraft or military standard.
5.2.4 Groove Design and Manufacture.
For ocean cable systems and most electromechanical cable systems, the O-rings are used for
static sealing only. The groove design for face and piston seals have different requirements
and are treated separately.
Piston O-ring seal groove dimensions, per MIL-G-5514F. are shown in figure 5.2.4(a) and
tables 5.2.4(a) and for vacuum static seal grooves in figure 5.2.4(b). For metric piston seals,
groove dimensions are shown in figure 5.2.4(c). The material MS28775 in the table is of
Nitrile ( Buna N ) rubber of 75 Durometer hardness. Adjustments for other materials such as
neoprene, are not normally required unless a different squeeze is to be used. For high
pressures the susceptibility of the O-ring to extrude through the diametrical clearance must
be examined, using figure 5.2.4(b). If possible, the design of the seal area should be such that
the clearance is reduced by the external pressure. If this is not possible, or is not enough to
prevent extrusion, then a back-up ring must be used on the low pressure side.
Page 65
E
E
B - piston O.D. F - gland groove I.D.

H - bore dia. C - piston O.D.
E - gland groove I.D. A - bore dia.
Break edge
0.005 + 0.005
- 0.000
0o to 5o E
(typ) Pressure Pressure
32
x x L
R
32
G G
no back-up back-up
G
ring ring
Surface finish x
32 no back-up ring
64 back-up ring
16 vacuum
Gland detail
A W
Section A-A
0.005
A max
W
I.D.
0.003
max
O-ring
Fig. 5.2.4(a) Piston O-ring groove dimensions.

Page 66
Table 5.2.4(a).
Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals.

( per MIL-G-5514F )
W L Squeeze E G R Eccen.
O-ring cross Gland Diam. Groove width Groove max.
section depth clearance inch radius inch
inch inch inch
No One
Nominal Actual Actual % Back- Back-
inch inch inch up up
ring ring
1/16 0.070 0.056/ 0.010/ 13.4/ 0.004 0.094/ 0.149/ 0.005/ 0.002
0.003 0.057 0.017 23.3 0.104 0.159 0.015
3/32 0.103 0.089/ 0.009/ 9/ 0.005 0.141/ 0.183/ 0.005/ 0.002

0.003 0.091 0.017 16 0.151 0.193 0.015
1/8 0.139 0.121/ 0.012/ 8.5/ 0.006 0.188/ 0.235/ 0.010/ 0.003
0.004 0.123 0.010 15 0.198 0.245 0.025
3/16 0.210 0.186/ 0.017/ 8.3/ 0.007 0.281/ 0.334/ 0.020/ 0.004
0.005 0.188 0.029 13.5 0.291 0.344 0.035
1/4 0.275 0.238/ 0.027/ 10.2/ 0.010 0.375/ 0.475/ 0.020/ 0.005
0.006 0.241 0.024 15.1 0.385 0.485 0.035
Table 5.2.4(b).
Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals

Vacuum Static Seal Grooves.
W L Squeeze E G R Eccen.
O-ring cross Gland Diam. Groove Groove max.
section depth clearance width radius inch
Nominal Actual inch Actual % inch inch inch
inch inch inch
1/16 0.070 0.050/ 0.015/ 22/ 0.002/ 0.093/ 0.005/ 0.002

0.003 0.052 0.023 32 0.005 0.098 0.015
3/32 0.103 0.081/ 0.017/ 17/ 0.002/ 0.140/ 0.005/ 0.002
0.003 0.083 0.025 24 0.005 0.145 0.015
1/8 0.139 0.111/ 0.022/ 16/ 0.003/ 0.187/ 0.010/ 0.003
0.004 0.113 0.032 23 0.006 0.192 0.025
3/16 0.210 0.170/ 0.032/ 15/ 0.003/ 0.281/ 0.020/ 0.004
0.005 0.173 0.045 21 0.006 0.286 0.035
1/4 0.275 0.226/ 0.040/ 15/ 0.004/ 0.375/ 0.020/ 0.005
0.006 0.229 0.055 20 0.007 0.380 0.035
Page 67
Table 5.2.4(c).
Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals.

Metric.
W L E G R Eccen.
O-ring cross Gland Diam. Groove Groove max.
section depth clearance width radius mm
Nominal Tol mm mm mm mm
mm mm
1.78/ 0.08 1.42/ 0.10 2.40/ 0.2 0.05

1.80 1.45 2.53
2.62 0.08 2.25/ 0.10 3.55/ 0.2 0.05
2.29 3.68
3.50/ 0.09 3.07/ 0.15 4.75/ 0.5 0.07
3.53 3.12 4.88
5.33/ 0.13 4.73/ 0.15 7.15/ 0.7 0.10
5.34 4.78 7.28
6.99 0.15 6.05/ 0.18 9.50/ 0.7 0.13
6.10 9.63
Page 68
10000
8000
6000
4000
3000
Extrusion
2000
Fluid pressure, psi
1000
800
600
400
No extrusion
300
200 Hardness
Shore A 70 80 90
Durometer
100
0. 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.040
Total diametral clearance, inch.
Notes:
1. No backup (anti-extrusion) rings.
2. Total diametral clearance must include
cylinder expansion due to pressure.
3. 100,000 cycles at rate of 150 per
minute from zero to indicated pressure.
Fig. 5.2.4(b) Limits for O-ring extrusion.
Face O-ring seal groove dimensions are shown in figure 5.2.4(c) and in table 5.2.4(d) and for
metric dimensions in figure 5.2.4(e). It has been found that vacuum static seal grooves are
very suitable for face seals for use underwater, and their dimensions are given in table
5.2.4(c). For high pressures, the susceptibility of the O-ring to extrude must be examined as
for piston seals, however it is possible normally to design the faces on the low pressure side
of the seal of the mating components so that there is effectively no clearance, as shown in
figure 5.2.4(b). Back-up rings are not available for face seals.
As shown in the figures 5.2.4(a) and 5.2.4(b), the surface finish on the sealing surfaces for O-
rings is 32 micro-inches. Care must be taken that grinding or polishing is along the
circumference of the groove and mating surface, with no radial or longitudinal scratches
across the O-ring sealing areas and that depth tolerances are maintained especially in hand
polishing. The surface finish should not be finer than 16 micro-inches for static seals.
Quality control of the groove and mating surfaces is essential if the O-ring seal is to be
reliable.
Page 69
Hi - Dia. when direction of pressure is inward ,

Hi max = O-ring mean I.D. plus 1% up to
0.060 inch max,
Hi min = O-ring mean I.D.
Ho - Dia. when direction of pressure is outward , E

Ho max = O-ring mean I.D.,
Ho min = O-ring mean I.D. minus 1% up to
0.060 inch max,
Break edge
0.005 + 0.005
- 0.000
0o to 5o
(typ)
32
R
Surface finish x x R x L
32 liquids 32
16 vacuum
Gland detail
A W
Section A-A
0.005
A max
W
I.D.
0.003
max
O-ring
Fig. 5.2.4(c) Face O-ring groove dimensions.

Page 70
Table 5.2.4(c)
Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring Seals.

(Mil. Spec.)
W L Squeeze E G R
O-ring cross section Gland Face Groove Groove
depth clearance width radius
Nominal Actual Actual %
inch inch (1) inch inch
inch inch inch
1/16 0.070 0.050/ 0.013/ 19/ 0.002/ 0.101/ 0.005/
0.003 0.054 0.023 32 0.005 0.107 0.015
3/32 0.103 0.074/ 0.020/ 20/ 0.002/ 0.136/ 0.005/

0.003 0.080 0.032 30 0.005 0.142 0.015
1/8 0.139 0.101/ 0.028/ 20/ 0.003/ 0.177/ 0.010/

0.004 0.107 0.042 30 0.006 0.187 0.025
3/16 0.210 0.152/ 0.043/ 21/ 0.003/ 0.270/ 0.020/

0.005 0.162 0.063 30 0.006 0.290 0.035
1/4 0.275 0.201/ 0.058/ 21/ 0.004/ 0.342/ 0.020/

0.006 0.211 0.080 29 0.007 0.362 0.035
Note: (1) Maximum 1500 psi.
Table 5.2.4(d)
Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring Seals

Vacuum Static Seal Grooves.
W L G
O-ring Cross section Gland Groove
depth width
Nominal Actual
inch inch
inch inch
1/16 0.070 0.050/0.052 0.083/0.088
3/32 0.103 0.074/0.076 0.118/0.123
1/8 0.139 0.101/0.103 0.157/0.163
3/16 0.210 0.152/0.155 0.236/0.241
1/4 0.275 0.201/0.204 0.305/0.310

Page 71
Table 5.2.4(e)
Groove Dimensions for Face O-ring Seals.

Metric.
W L G R
O-ring cross section Gland Groove Groove
depth width radius
Nominal Tol.
mm mm inch
mm mm
1.78/ 0.08 1.34/ 2.60/ 0.02
1.80 1.37 2.73
2.62 0.08 1.99/ 3.50/ 0.02

2.03 3.63
3.50/ 0.09 2.67/ 4.60/ 0.05

3.53 2.72 4.73
5.33/ 0.13 4.26/ 7.25/ 0.07

5.34 4.34 7.38
6.99 0.15 5.80/ 9.05/ 0.07

5.90 9.18
Pressure
Inner face
Outer face
bears on
relieved
seating
( typ 0.002
to 0.004 in.)
Fig. 5.2.4(d) Method of prevention of O-ring

seal extrusion for face seal.
Page 72
5.2.5 Assembly.
Assembly of O-rings is critical, though not actually forming part of the design of the seal, it
must still be considered to minimize the possibility of seal failure. Assembly of face seals
normally presents no problems, however a piston seal should be such that the O-ring is slid
for as shorter distance as is possible along the cylindrical portion before being seated and
that no rough surfaces exist in this area, if necessary a surface finish being call for to ensure
this is avoided.
Prior to installation, all O-ring grooves and mating surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned with
solvent and lint free cloth. The solvent must be compatible with the O-ring material and leave
no residue on drying. Also no solvent should be on the surfaces when the O-ring is installed.
Assembly should be done in a clean environment on a lint free surface, and for long life
systems under clean room conditions. All O-rings must be individually inspected prior to
installation and if not to the required standard, replaced with another.
For high reliability systems, or long life systems, consideration must be given to assembling
the components in a clean room or, at least, on a laminar flow bench, to reduce the chance of
contamination to a minimum. A quality assurance system is also essential to ensure that the
reliability and/or long life will be met, including checking and documentation.
5.2.6 Lubrication.
Lubrication is difficult to simply define. For ocean cable systems, any lubricant used on the
O-rings must cause no long term deterioration of the O-ring material, or effect the material of
the mating parts forming the surfaces on which the O-ring bears. If sufficient information on
the desired lubricant is not available, then it will be necessary to carry out laboratory testing
to check for any effects.
As the seals are static, the function of the lubricant is to aid in installing the O-ring and in
aiding the O-ring to move as it seals. Experience has shown that just enough lubricant to cover
the O-ring surface fully is adequate for face seals, too much tends to force the O-ring out of
the groove and if hidden from view during assembly may prevent the seal from forming or
cause loss of the O-ring from the seal area. Piston O-ring seals are less critical to the amount
of lubrication, and the lubricant aids in sliding the seal along to its groove. Over lubrication
can still cause problems, particularly if it stops the O-ring from fully contacting the sealing
surfaces of the components.
Table 5.2.5(a) gives a range of lubricants and their effects, as a guide. As mentioned
previously, thorough investigation of their effects must be made for long life ocean cable
systems if the sealing reliability is to be ensured.
Page 73
Table 5.2.5(a).
O-ring Lubricants and Compatibility with Materials.
Name Manufacturer Type Temperature Seal Use Comments on static Best service with
marine connector (rubber )
Range oF (o C)
applications
Petrolatum Many Petroleum base -20 to +180 Petroleum systems, OK, but may vary Nitrile, neoprene,
(-29 to +82) i.e. fuel and silicon, and
(may vary between hydraulic fluorocarbon
sources)
Barium grease Many Barium base -20 to +300 General purpose, No data Nitrile, Neoprene,
petroleum grease (-29 to +149) low pressure Viton and most
pneumatic petroleum oil
resistant rubbers
Parker Parker Seal Co., Petroleum oil -20 to +300 Pneumatic ( low Excellent but may Nitrile, neoprene,
O-Lube Culver City, CA & barium soap (-29 to +149) pressure 200 psi deteriorate with fluorocarbon, and
Lexington, KY, max ) time most other
USA petroleum oil
resistant rubbers
Parker Parker Seal Co., High viscosity -65 to +400 General purpose, Excellent ( check Fluorocarbon,
Super-O-Lube Culver City, CA & silicone fluid (-54 to +204) high pressure shrinkage ) fluorosilicone,
Lexington, KY, pneumatic neoprene, nitrile,
USA butyl, and most
other rubbers
Dow Corning DC 4 Dow Corning Silicon fluid -70 to +400 General purpose, Excellent ( check Most rubber and
Corp., Midland, thickened with (-57 to +204) electrical insulating shrinkage ) plastic O-rings
MI, silica filler sealant (shrinkage and
USA swelling must be
checked)
DC 55 Dow Corning Silicon grease -65 to +400 General purpose, Excellent but may Nitrile, butyl,
(MIL-G-4343) Corp., Midland, (-54 to +204) high pressure deteriorate after a ethylene-propylene,
MI, pneumatic long time fluorocarbon and
USA neoprene (not for
silicone base )
DC 111 Dow Corning Silicon fluid (heavy -40 to +400 General thick Excellent but may Nitrile, butyl,
Corp., Midland, consistency) (-40 to +204) sealant, potting be to thick ( check ethylene-propylene,
MI, compound shrinkage ) fluorocarbon, and
silicone base)
DC 7 Dow Corning Silicon fluid (light -40 to +400 Mold release agent, Excellent but may Nitrile, butyl,
Corp., Midland, consistency) (-40 to +204) general be to thin ( check ethylene-propylene,
MI, lubricant,and shrinkage ) fluorocarbon, and
USA preservations neoprene (not for
silicone base)
DC200 Dow Corning Silicon oil -60 to +440 Pneumatic, high No data Some Nitrile,
Corp., Midland, (200,000 centi- (-64 to +227) pressure and neoprene, and
MI, stokes only) speeds Viton (will cause
USA shrinkage of some
compounds)
DC 111 Dow Corning Silicon fluid (heavy -40 to +400 General thick Excellent but may Nitrile, butyl,
Corp., Midland, consistency) (-40 to +204) sealant, potting be to thick ( check ethylene-propylene,
MI, compound shrinkage ) fluorocarbon, and
silicone base)
FS1292 Dow Corning -70 to +400 No data Silicone

Corp., Midland, (-57 to +204)
MI,
USA
Apezion N M&I Materials Low vapor -60 to +85 No data Nitrile, butyl,
Vacuum, 1 x 10-8
Trafford Park pressure oil (+51 to +30) ethylene-propylene,
torr.
Manchester, distillate fluorocarbon, and
UK neoprene
Page 74
Table 5.2.5(a) (Continued).
O-ring Lubricants and Compatibility with Materials.
Name Manufacturer Type Temperature Seal Use Comments on static Best service with
marine connector (rubber )
Range oF (o C)
applications
Fluorolube Hooker Chemical Fluorocarbon fluid -65 to +400 Oxygen service No data Silicone, nitrile,
Corp., Niagara (-54 to +204) neoprene, ethylene-
Falls, NY, propylene, and
USA butyl
Celvacene Consolidated Cellulose ester and -40 to +266 Vacuum, static, to Good but may Silicone, nitrile,
Vacuum Co., castor oil (-40 to +130) deteriorate by neoprene,
10-7 torr.
Rochester, NY, digestion fluorocarbon,
USA butyl, and ethylene-
propylene
Vesilube General Electric, Silicone grease -100 to +400 Pneumatic, 3000 Good but Nitrile, neoprene,
Waterford, NY, (-73 to +204) psi and high speed shrinkage and and fluorocarbon
USA compatibility must (will shrink some
be checked compounds and
will dissolve some
silicone rubber)
MCS 352 Aviation Fluid Skydrol base -65 to +200 Assembly No data Butyl, ethylene-
Service Co., St. grease (-64 to +93) phosphate ester propylene.
Louis, Mo., systems
USA
MIL P 37649 Many Petrolatum -20 to +180 No data Ethylene propylene

(-29 to +82) diene
Krytox GPL106 Oil DuPont, Perfluorinated -33 to +500 Oxygen service No data All types
Wilmington, polyether (-36 to +260 )
Delaware,
USA
Krytox GPL206 DuPont, Perfluorinated -33 to +500 Oxygen service No data All types
Grease Wilmington, polyether with (-36 to +260 )
Delaware, special
USA perfluorinated
polyether
thickeners
Page 75
5.3 Metal O-Rings.
Metal O-rings consist of a metal tubular section, normally of circular form, forming the
annulus of the 0-ring. The tube can be pressure filled or have radial holes to the interior of
the ring allowing system pressure to aid in the sealing. The metal O-ring is restricted to face
seals only. Figure 5.3(a) shows a typical metal O-ring arranged for external pressure.
The size range for metal O-rings ranges from 5/8 inch OD to 132 inch OD with the tube
diameters from 1/16 inch to 3/8 inch. The tubes are normally made of mild steel, cupro-
nickel, copper, monel, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel and Inconel. The outside of the tube
can be plated to improve sealing and resistance to liquids and gases. Platings or coatings
normally consist of cadmium, indium, copper, silver, gold and PTFE. For critical use, the O -
rings can also be X-rayed. For a water vapor seal, either a plain or metal plated seal must be
used.
Operating pressures range up to 50000 psi for pressure actuated seals, and for pressure filled
seals up to 600 psi at room temperatures.
Outer elastomer O-ring

secondary seal
Radial hole
on high pressure
side Metal O-ring
face seal
Fig. 5.3(a) Arrangement of metal O-ring seal,

mechanism for applying preload
not shown.
Surface finishes on mating surfaces in contact with the metal O-ring require a minimum of 16
micro-inches for liquids and a minimum of 8 micro-inches for gases. Plated or coated O-rings
require a minimum of 32 micro-inches. This finish is measured across the line of the seal. The
depth of the groove and the variation in the depth along its length must also be tightly
controlled.
The assembly of metal O-rings requires a preload to compress the tubular section. Typically
for a 3/32 inch x 0.018 inch wall thickness copper O-ring, the preload will vary from 450
lbf/inch circumference at 9 inch OD to 600 lbf/inch at 4 inch OD. Other materials range up to
2000 lbf/inch circumference. As with elastomer 0-rings, cleanliness during assembly is
essential.
( The supplier of metal O-rings is Wills ( Bridgwater ) Ltd., U. K. )

Page 76
5.4 Spring Type Metal Flange Seals.
Spring type metal flange seals consist of a metal V or C shaped spring section, with sealing
surfaces on each end of the V or C. The addition of an integral spacer improves the making up
of the seal and its operation, and these are known as K seals. The sealing action of the spring
of the metal in the seal is further aided by the water pressure. Figure 5.4(a) shows a typical K
type seal used for external pressure.
The size range for the K type seals ranges from 1/2 inch OD to 6 inches OD for standard sizes,
with larger seals made to order for special requirements. The main section of the seal can be
made from 17-4PH stainless steel, Inconel X-750 and X-718, A-286, Rene 41, Haynes 25 and
Hastelloy X. The sealing surfaces are plated with silver ( with gold flash ), soft nickel, copper,
PTFE, gold, indium and platinum. For a water vapor barrier seal a metal plating must be used.
A recommended combination for use with sea water is Inconel X-750 with a silver plating.
Outer elastomer O-ring

secondary seal
Clearance
reduced
for high
Metal K type
pressures
face seal
Fig. 5.4(a) Arrangement of metal K type seal,

mechanism for applying preload
not shown.
Operating pressures range up to about 20000 psi for OD's up to 2 inches with normal
clearances, but with close fitting grooves, larger sizes can be used without a reduction in
operating pressure.
Surface finishes on the mating surfaces of the components depend on the medium to be sealed,
but are between 8 and 32 micro-inches, with the two sealing surfaces on the components being
parallel within 0.0015 inches per 12 inches of circumference.
The assembly of the spring type flange seals requires a preload to compress the legs.
Typically for a 10000 psi operating pressure seal, the preload is 140 lbf/inch circumference.
As for elastomer O-rings, cleanliness during assembly is essential.
( A supplier of these seals is Haskel Engineering and Supply Co., Burbank, CA )

Page 77
5.5 Formed in Place Metal Seals.
Formed in place metal seals can be used purely as a water vapor barrier seal, or can also act as
the retaining mechanism for a component as well.
For a water vapor seal only, a ring made of lead, or other soft metal can be used. It is normally
arranged so that it takes the load from the external pressure to ensure that the necessary
metal to metal contact occurs on the sealing surfaces. Figure 5.5(a) shows a typical
arrangement of this type of seal. It should be noted that an initial compression is required to
be applied by mechanical means to provide seating forces to ensure initial sealing and for low
pressure sealing if laid in shallow water.
The combination water vapor seal and retainer uses a metal such as tin-antimony. The
component containing the seal is pushed home into its seat using a press and the metal seal is
extruded into a groove in the seating. This seal is best suited for small components such as
End closure
pre-load
Conductor
thrust
seal (typ)
screws
body
O-ring
piston Housing
seal
O-ring
piston
seals Lead
gasket
End Lead Pre-load and
closure gasket retaining
ring
Fig. 5.5(a) Use of a lead gasket for water vapor

seal in end closure of pressure
housing.
conductor seals rather than end closures. Figure 5.5(b) shows this type of seal and the design
of the components in the groove area.
Both of these seals are normally protected by an O-ring, or O-rings, as they are not intended
to be in continuous contact with sea water over the system life.
Page 78
O-ring
piston
seal
Metal seal and

End retention
closure (tin antimony)
Fig. 5.5(b) Use of metal seal for water vapor

seal and component retention.
5.6 Welded Seal.
The welded seal is the simplest form of seal, providing a complete barrier against water entry,
including water vapor. However the design of the mating surfaces and the forming of the seal
are the most complex, and once made, the seal is not intended to be broken. This seal is
normally used for end closures only, not for small components such as conductor seals.
The mating surfaces, on which the seal is formed, as shown in figure 5.6(a), must be designed
to move together under all load conditions applied to the housings so as not to stress the weld.
This requires careful stressing and displacement analysis of the housing.
Initially inert arc gas shielded welding was used. The disadvantage of this method is that if a
faulty weld is done, the cylindrical housing or the end closure is made unusable in the
resultant machining operation to open the weld.
The method now in use is to use electron beam welding. The pressure housing and end closure
is placed in a vacuum chamber and an electron beam of typically 1.4 MW/cm2 is focussed on
the seal area as the housing is rotated under the head. The beam kinetic energy is converted
into heat causing the parent metal to melt, then vaporize and condense back on the cool metal
surrounding the weld trough to form the seal. Careful control of the weld depth, melt zone
geometry must be carried out to give a high quality weld. This requires rigid control of the
electron beam current, diameter, accelerating voltage, focal distance, work distance and
welding speed. Weld depths are typically 0.15 inches - 3.8 mm. Checking of the weld is the
same as for the first method.
The advantage of this method is that it is possible to do up to two repair welds if faults are
found, normally thin areas of insufficient penetration.
Page 79
Weld area
Mating
surfaces
End thrust
bearing
surface
O-ring seal Cylinder

required for
electron beam
weld
Fig. 5.6(a) Arrangement of mating surfaces for

electron beam welded seal between
end closure and cylinder of a pressure
housing.
Page 80
6. Materials.
This chapter contains information on materials and their suitability and usage in underwater
systems.
6.1 Introduction.
Materials have been split into metals and non-metals. For some material types, tables of their
structural properties are given. These are intended to provide a guide to material selection.
For structural analysis, full properties will need to obtained either from standard references
or manufacturers of the required materials.
6.2 Metals.
6.2.1 Steels.
6.2.1.1 General.
Steels are the most widely used of marine materials. mainly because of cost, availability and
ease of fabrication.
Steels can be divided into several categories. Carbon steels consist of mild steel with less than
0.25% carbon, medium steels with 0.25% to O.7% carbon and high carbon steels with 0.7%
carbon and above. The second category is the alloy steels which consist of low, medium and
high alloy steels.
6.2.1.2 Mild ( Low Carbon ) Steel.
Mild steel is probably the most inexpensive metal for use in the marine environment, It has an
Ft u of about 60 Ksi - 413 mPa and an Ft y of about 30 Ksi - 206 mPa , and is available in
several qualities. Care is needed to guard against uniform and gasket corrosion, but the
application of zinc coatings, and/or sacrificial anodes can be used successfully.
The main use of mild steel in ocean cable systems is for the heavy armor wires in shore end
cable, and for pressure housings for use in shallow water. For pressure housings, the higher
quality mild steel is necessary to ensure that the high standards required can be met.
Mild steel is widely used in underwater structures, such as cages for instrumentation,, bottom
mounted structures, etc.
Tables 6.2.1.2(a) and 6.2.1.2(b) give the properties of some mild (low carbon) steels from the
AISI series.
Page 81
Table 6.2.1.2(a)
Physical Properties of Some Low Carbon Steels.
English Units.
Ftu Fty Elong E G , Density ;

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
AISI 1010 HR 47.1 26.1 28 29.0 11.6 0.290 0.284 6.78
AISI 1012 HR 47.9 26.8 28 29.0 11.6 0.290 0.284 6.39
AISI 1015 HR 50.0 27.6 28 29.0 11.6 0.290 0.284 6.61
AISI 1015 N 59.3 41.8 36.5 29.0 11.6 0.290 0.284 6.61
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.2.1.2(b)
Physical Properties of Some Low Carbon Steels.
Metric Units.

Type Mpa Mpa % Gpa Gpa gm/cc 10- 6
/oC
________________________________________________________________________
AISI 1010 HR 325 180 28 200 80 0.290 7.87 12.2
AISI 1012 HR 330 185 28 200 80 0.290 7.87 11.5
AISI 1015 HR 345 190 28 200 80 0.290 7.87 11.9
AISI 1015 N 409 288 36.5 200 80 0.29 7.87 11.9
________________________________________________________________________
HR - Hot rolled.
N - Normalized 1700 oF (925 oC)
6.2.1.3 Medium and High Carbon Steels.
These steels have strengths ranging from an Ft u of 100 Ksi - 689 mPa for medium carbon
steels to 260+ Ksi - 1791+ mPa for high carbon steels in drawn wire form. The effects of
corrosion are the same as for mild steel and the same protective measures are required.
The only use for these steels in ocean and electromechanical cable systems is in armor wires.
Medium carbon steel is used for intermediate ocean cable armor and high carbon steel, such as
super improved plow steel, for deep ocean cable armor wires and electromechanical cable
armor wires. The strength of wires is a function of the steel type and the drawn diameter of
the wire.
In the past these steels have been used for pressure housings but have been replaced by alloy
steels and non-ferous alloys.
Page 82
6.2.1.4 Stainless Steels.
Stainless steels are alloy steels with about 10 to 18% chromium and 0 to 13% nickel. The main
types are austenitic and martensitic. Alloys with 18% chromium become austenitic if the
nickel exceeds 7% and for 25% chromium, 12% nickel.
The austenitic stainless steels are slightly stronger than mild steel in the annealed form, are
non-magnetic and have good cold working properties with a large capacity for strain
hardening. Some semi-austenitic stainless steels are heat- treatable.
The most common types of austenitic stainless steels are 316 and 304, and their modified
forms, such as 316L and 318. They are susceptible to intergranular and crevice corrosion and
require periodic attention to combat the effects. They are widely used for instrumentation
housings in electromechanical cable systems, but are not considered suitable for use on ocean
cable systems unless their nonmagnetic properties are required, though other metals may be
more suitable for given conditions.
The martensitic stainless steels are generally heat treatable and are more suitable for use in
the deep ocean than austenitic stainless steels. They also display the same corrosion
characteristics and can suffer stress corrosion, though they may have a maximum yield
strength below which they are not susceptible. Martensitic stainless steels are also widely
used for pressure housings in electromechanical cable systems for deep ocean applications
but are not considered suitable for use in ocean cable systems.
Tables 6.2.1.4(a) and 6.2.1.4(b) give the properties of some of the more commonly, used
stainless steels.
Table 6.2.1.4(a)
Physical Properties of Some Stainless Steels.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
301 annealed 105 45 40 30.0 12.5 0.27 0.296 7.2
304 annealed 73 31 70 29.0 0.29 0.29 9.6
316 annealed T6 80 35 60 28.0 0.27 0.29 8.9
316L annealed T5 75 30 60 28.0 0.27 0.29 8.9
318 annealed T6 38 29.0 0.27 0.28 8.5
410 annealed 221 177 15 29.0 0.28 5.5
17-7PH TH1050 170 140 6 29.0 11.0 0.28 0.276 6.0
RH950 185 150 6 29.0 11.0 0.28 0.276 6.0
PH15-7 TH1050 180 160 8 29.0 11.0 0.28 0.277 6.2
RH950 200 175 7 29.0 11.0 0.28 0.277 6.2
17-4PH H900 190 170 10 29.0 11.0 0.27 0.282 6.0
AMS5343 150 130 29.0 11.0 0.27 0.282 6.0
________________________________________________________________________
Page 83
Table 6.2.1.4(b)
Physical Properties of Some Stainless Steels.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
301 annealed 724 310 40 207 86 0.27 8.20 13.0
304 annealed 503 214 70 200 0.29 8.03 17.3
316 annealed T6 552 241 60 193 0.27 8.03 16.0
316L annealed T5 517 207 60 193 0.27 8.03 16.0
318 annealed T6 262 200 0.27 7.76 15.3
410 annealed 1524 1220 15 200 7.76 9.9
17-7PH TH1050 1172 965 6 200 76 0.28 7.65 10.8
RH950 1275 1034 6 200 76 0.28 7.65 10.8
PH15-7 TH1050 1241 1103 8 200 76 0.28 7.68 11.2
RH950 1379 1206 7 200 76 0.28 7.68 11.2
17-4PH H900 1310 1172 10 200 76 0.27 7.81 10.8
AMS5343 1034 896 200 76 0.27 7.81 10.8
________________________________________________________________________
6.2.1.5 Nickel Steels.
Nickel steels contain up to 5% nickel with a minimum of other alloys, or up to 18% nickel with
small amounts of chromium and molybdenum to form the maraging steels. These steels are
susceptible to uniform and pitting corrosion and generally to stress corrosion though 18Ni is
not susceptible for Ft y is below 200 Ksi - 1378 mPa. They are not generally used for pressure
housings in ocean or electromechanical cable systems.
6.2.1.6 Low Alloy Steels.
These steels contain nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, silicon and vanadium in
varying amounts with a total alloy content of about 5% and from 0.1 to 0.5% carbon, They
suffer from corrosion though less than for mild steels, and in some instances, stress
corrosion. one type, EN25, is used for housings on communications ocean cable systems.
Tables 6.2.1.6(a) and 6.2.1.6(b) give the properties of low alloy steels used in the ocean.
Page 84
Table 6.2.1.6(a)
Physical Properties of Some Low Alloy Steels.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
AISI 4340 165 145 16 29.7 11.4 0.29 0.284 6.8
HY 80 100 80 14 29.7 11.6 0.28 0.284 7.0
HY 100 120 100 14 29.7 11.6 0.28 0.284 7.7
HY 130 150 130 29.7 0.28 0.284 7.3
EN 25 123 89 29.3 0.28
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.2.1.6(b)
Physical Properties of Some Low Alloy Steels.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
AISI 4340 1138 1000 16 205 79 0.29 7.87 12.2
HY 80 690 552 14 205 80 0.28 7.87 12.6
HY 100 827 690 14 205 80 0.28 7.87 13.9
HY 130 1034 896 205 0.28 7.87 13.1
EN 25 848 614 202 7.76
________________________________________________________________________
6.2.1.7 Medium and High Alloy Steels.
The higher alloy steels contain additional cobalt and the total amount of alloys may be as high
as 14% with a carbon content in the same range as for low alloy steels. They are susceptible to
corrosion in the same way as low alloy steels. They have not found use in ocean or
electromechanical cable systems.
Page 85
6.2.2 Irons.
The main irons for use in the ocean are high nickel content ( 20% ) irons which are resistant
to corrosion and are used for split iron pipes on shore ends of ocean cables. The other suitable
iron is spheroidal graphite iron in which the graphite is in small spheroid forms which stop
corrosion by exfoliation.
Soft iron in tape form is used in shore end cables as electromagnetic shielding.
6.2.3 Aluminum and Its Alloys.
Pure aluminum is highly corrosion resistant but lacks strength. It forms a patina of aluminum
oxide very readily, which provides the protection barrier. The only use in ocean cable systems
has been for the return tapes on coaxial transmission lines.
Aluminum alloys normally contain up to 5% copper, magnesium and/or zinc, these alloys
giving increased strength. Newer alloys have lithium or beryllium. The best alloys for use in
sea water are those containing low weight elements, e.g. magnesium, and the best are 5052,
5086, and 5456. Some alloys are heat treatable with a two stage process to give precipitation
hardening.
To protect against corrosion, the aluminum alloys are often anodized with sacrificial anodes
also being used. All aluminum alloys may suffer from stress corrosion, especially the higher
strength alloys, with a threshold stress being about 20% of the ultimate stress.
Aluminum is widely used for instrumentation housings but unless its non-magnetic
properties or its low weight are required, it is not used in ocean cable systems.
Tables 6.2.3(a) and 6.2.3(b) give the properties of aluminum alloys used in the marine
environment.
Table 6.2.3(a)
Physical Properties of Aluminum Alloys.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
2014-T6 65 53 2-8 10.5 4.0 0.33 0.101 12.5
2024-T4 60 44 6-17 10.5 4.0 0.33 0.101 12.5
5052-H112 28 16 10.1 0.33 0.097 11.3
H38 39 33 4 10.3 0.33 0.097 11.3
5083-H112 40 24 12 10.2 3.85 0.33 0.097 13.0
5454-H112 32 18 10.2 3.85 0.33 0.097 13.1
6061-T6 42 35 10 9.9 3.8 0.33 0.098 12,6
7075-T6 75 60 9 10.3 3.9 0.33 0.101 12.3
7079-T6 71 64 8 10.3 3.9 0.33 0.100 12.3
________________________________________________________________________
Page 86
Table 6.2.3(b)
Physical Properties of Aluminum Alloys.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
2014-T6 448 365 2-8 72.4 27.6 0.33 2.80 22.5
2024-T4 414 303 6-17 72.4 27.6 0.33 2.80 22.5
5052-H112 193 110 69.6 0.33 2.69 20.3
H38 269 228 4 71 0.33 2.69 20.3
5083-H112 276 165 12 70.3 26.5 0.33 2.69 23.4
5454-H112 221 124 70.3 26.5 0.33 2.69 23.6
6061-T6 290 241 10 68.3 26.2 0.33 2.72 22.7
7075-T6 517 414 9 71 26.9 0.33 2.80 22.1
7079-T6 490 441 8 71 26.9 0.33 2.77 22.1
________________________________________________________________________
6.2.4 Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys.
These alloys are typified by the Inconel and Incoloy commercial varieties. They have about 50
to 60% nickel, 10 to 20% chromium, 15 to 30% iron, and 3 to 6% molybdenum. The lower
strength alloys are virtually totally corrosion resistant while the higher strength alloys are
susceptible in deep still water. Stress corrosion has not been found in these alloys. These
alloys have not found use in ocean cable systems probably due to their weight and cost, but
are in general suitable for some applications.
Tables 6.2.4(a) and 6.2.4(b) give the properties of the main types of these alloys.
Page 87
Table 6.2.4(a)
Physical Properties of Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Inconel 625 CRA 128 68 30 30.2 0.28 0.305 7.0
Inconel 718
AMS5662B 185 150 12 29.4 11.4 0.29 0.297 7.0
AMS5663B 185 150 12 29.4 11.4 0.29 0.297 7.0
AMS5664A 180 150 12 29.4 11.4 0.29 0.297 7.0
Aged 198 173 29.0 0.29 0.297 7.0
Inconel X 165 105 20 30.6 11.8 0.30 0.304 7.0
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.2.4(b)
Physical Properties of Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Inconel 625 CRA 883 469 30 208 0.28 8.45 12.6
Inconel 718
AMS5662B 1275 1034 12 203 79 0.29 8.23 12.6
AMS5663B 1275 1034 12 203 79 0.29 8.23 12.6
AMS5664A 1241 1034 12 203 79 0.29 8.23 12.6
Aged 1365 1193 200 0.29 8.23 12.6
Inconel X 1137 724 20 211 81 0.30 8.42 12.6
________________________________________________________________________
6.2.5 Titanium and Its Alloys.
Titanium in its pure form is corrosion resistant but care must be taken with its alloys as some
are corrosion prone. Titanium has the advantage of lightness and strength but is susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking similar to aluminum alloys. It has not been used in ocean cable
systems due to its cost and fabrication difficulties.
Tables 6.2.5(a) and 6.2.5(b) give the properties of the main alloys.
Page 88
Table 6.2.5(a)
Physical Properties of Titanium and Some of its Alloys.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Pure annealed 80 70 - 15.5 - 0.32 0.164 4.8
6Al-4V annealed 130 120 10 16.4 6.2 0.31 0.16 4.9
h/t 170 150 6 16.4 - 0.31 0.16 4.9
7Al-2Nb-lTa-1Mo 120 106 13 16.5 - 0.31 0.162 5.0
4Al-4Mn annealed 140 130 12 15.5 - 0.31 0.163
5A1-2.5Sn annealed 125 120 15 18.1 - 0.31 0.162 5.2
Ti-155A annealed 145 135 10 16.0 6.2 0.31 0.163
8Mn 120 110 10 15.5 - 0.31 0.171 4.8
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.2.5(b)
Physical Properties of Titanium and Some of its Alloys.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Pure annealed 552 483 - 106 - 0.32 4.54 8.6
6Al-4V annealed 896 827 10 113 42.7 0.31 4.43 8.8
h/t 1172 1034 6 113 - 0.31 4.43 8.8
7Al-2Nb-lTa-1Mo 827 731 13 114 - 0.31 4.49 9.0
4Al-4Mn annealed 965 896 12 107 - 0.31 4.52
5A1-2.5Sn annealed 862 827 15 125 - 0.31 4.49 9.4
Ti-155A annealed 1000 931 10 110 42,7 0.31 4.52
8Mn 827 758 10 106 - 0.31 4.74 8.6
________________________________________________________________________
6.2.6 Copper and Its Alloys.
Pure copper is highly corrosion resistant but lacks strength. Its only use in ocean cable
systems is as an electrical conductor and due to its excellent electrical characteristics. it in
used for the majority of conductors.
Page 89
The alloys of copper include brasses ( copper-zinc ), bronzes ( copper-tin and copper-
aluminum ), cupro-nickels and copper-beryllium.
Alloys with more than 80% copper are the more corrosion resistant with aluminum bronze and
cupro-nickel being the best for severe sea water service. The strongest alloys are the copper
beryllium, and aluminum, silicon and manganese bronzes.
Copper beryllium alloy has been used for pressure housings and fittings in ocean cable
systems with its high strength, corrosion resistance and compatibility with copper return
tapes making it well suited. The alloy used is C-l7000 with a Rockwell hardness of C35.
Limitations are that the Rockwell hardness be between C30 and C40 and that dendritic grain
structure be avoided as it is permeable to water vapor.
Tables 6.2.6(a) and 6.2.6(b) give the properties of copper and its alloys.
6.2.7 Monel.
Monels are alloys of approximately two-thirds nickel and one-third copper. K Monel contains
aluminum and titanium and is heat treatable, R Monel contains 0.035% sulfur as against the
normal 0.01%. and is easier to machine, while H and S Monel have 3% and 4% silicon
respectively. S Monel is very suitable for resistance to galling and seizing. In the annealed
condition, Monel has an Ft u of about 75 Ksi - 517 mPa, an Ft y of about 30 Ksi and 39%
elongation. By cold working, the Ft u can be raised to 130 Ksi - 896 mPa but the elongation
decreases to about 5%, E is 26 x l06 psi - 197 Gpa.
Monel has a combination of strength and corrosion resistance but has not found use in ocean
cable systems.
Page 90
Table 6.2.6(a)
Physical Properties of Copper and Its Alloys.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Copper annealed 30 - - - 14.5/ 6.4 0.343 0.32 9.2
40 17
Admiralty brass 90h 70h - 16.0 - 0.308 11.2
48s 18S
Naval brass 70h 58h - 15.0 5.6 0.28 O.274 11.8
62s 30s
Leaded naval 90h 70h - 15.0 5.6 0.305 11.8
brass 88s 20s
Aluminum brass 85h 60h - 16.0 - 0.34 0.301 10.3
60s 27s
Phosphor bronze
5% 81h 75h - 16.0 6.0 0.359 0.32 9.9
47s 19s
8% 93h 72h - 16.0 6.0 0.359 0.32 10.1
55s 24s
10% 100h - - 16.0 6.0 0.359 0.32 10.3
66s 28s
1.25% 65h 50h 18 17.0 6.4 0.359 0.32 9.9
40s 14s
Manganese 65 25 20 15.0 5.6 0.301 11.3
bronze C86500
Aluminum 75 37.5 - 15.0 4.5 0.274 9.0
bronze C62400
Copper beryllium
C17200 165- 140- 3-10 18.5 - 0.27 0.298 9.1
190 170
C17300 165- 140- 3-10 18.5 - 0.27 0.298 9.4
190 170
C17000 150- 130- 3-12 18.4 6.4 0.27 0.297 9.7
180 160
C17500 100- 80- 8-15 19.0 - 0.27 0.316 10.0
120 100
C17600 l00- 80- 10-25 18.9 0.27 0.316 9.3
C82400 HT 155 145 18.5 0.27 0.298 9.4
________________________________________________________________________
Page 91
Table 6.2.6(b)
Physical Properties of Copper and Its Alloys.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Copper annealed 207 - - - 100/ 44 0.343 8.87 16.6
276 117
Admiralty brass 621h 483h - 110 - 8.54 20.2
331s 124S
Naval brass 483h 400h - 103 39 0.28 7.59 21.2
427s 207s
Leaded naval 621h 483h - 103 39 8.45 21.2
brass 607s 140s
Aluminum brass 586h 414h - 110 - 0.34 8.34 18.5
414s 186s
Phosphor bronze
5% 558h 517h - 110 41 0.359 8.87 17.8
324s 131s
8% 641h 496h - 110 41 0.359 8.87 18.2
379s 165s
10% 690h - - 110 41 0.359 8.87 18.5
455s 193s
1.25% 448h 345h 18 117 44 0.359 8.87 17.8
276s 96s
Manganese 448 172 20 103 39 8.34 20.3
bronze C86500
Aluminum 517 259 - 103 31 7.59 16.2
bronze C62400
Copper beryllium
C17200 1138- 965- 3-10 128 - 0.27 8.26 16.4
1310 1172
C17300 1138- 965- 3-10 128 - 0.27 8.26 16.9
1310 1172
C17000 1034- 896- 3-12 127 44 0.27 8.23 17.5
1241 1103
C17500 690- 552- 8-15 131 - 0.27 8.76 18.0
827 690
C17600 690- 552- 10-25 130 0.27 8.76 16.7
C82400 HT 1069 1000 128 0.27 8.26 16.9
________________________________________________________________________
Page 92
6.3 Non-Metals.
6.3.1 Glass.
Massive glass is one of the strongest materials under compression and shows no deterioration
in sea water. The normal form used in the deep ocean is a hollow sphere, and diameters may
vary from less than 1/1000 of an inch in syntactic foams to 16 inches in buoyancy and
instrumentation spheres, to about 60 inches for submersibles. It is not used in permanent
ocean cable systems, except in some cases as a water barrier seal on conductors through metal
housings.
Fiberglass or glass reinforced plastic is, in a nonwicking form with epoxy resin binding
material, used as an insulation in ocean cable systems, in the sea as a barrier between
different metals, inside the pressure housings for electronic cards, and for protective
housings
Tables 6.3.1(a) and 6.3.1(b) give the properties of some glasses.
Table 6.3.1(a)
Physical Properties of Some Glasses.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Low expansion - - - 9.0 - 0.20 0.080 1.81
borosilicate
Borosilicate - - - 8.7- - - 0.087 2.22
9.3
96% silica - - - 9.7 4.1 0.19 0.079 0.42
________________________________________________________________________
Page 93
Table 6.3.1(b)
Physical Properties of Some Glasses.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Low expansion - - - 62 - 0.20 2.22 3.26
borosilicate
Borosilicate - - - 60- - - 2.41 4.00
64
96% silica - - - 67 28 0.19 2.19 0.76
________________________________________________________________________
6.3.2 Plastic and Synthetics.
Synthetic filaments are used in ropes and cables where the non-rotting and resistance to
biological attack are very useful. In ocean cables, the synthetic filament is often combined
with jute in the outer servings.
Other synthetics or plastics are used as insulation in ocean cables, housings, etc., and for
bulkhead connectors, and for abrasion protection. They are also used in the construction of
electronics units inside the pressure housings.
Page 97
Common synthetics/plastics are acrylics, nylon, terylene, polypropylene, polyethylene,

epoxies, polyurethane, PVC. The properties of plastics used in ocean cables are given in tables
6.3.2(a) and 6.3.2(b).
The variation in values for a given plastic or synthetic requires that either the accurate values
for a given plastic or synthetic are obtained from the manufacturer or that they be obtained
from testing be carried out in a materials laboratory.
Page 94
Table 6.3.2(a)
Physical Properties of Plastics and Synthetics.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 103 103 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Nylon 6- 6- 3.6- 70- - 0.42 0.04- 103
12 12 30 410 0.05
Polyethylene LD 1.5- 1.1- 400- 14- - 0.46 0.032- 130-
2.4 1.7 700 38 0.033 200
MD 1.6- 1.5- 200- 35- - 0.033-
2.5 2.6 500 90 0.034
HD 2.5- 2.4- 10- 85- - 0.034- 76-
5.0 5.0 300 160 0.035 111
Polypropylene 2.0- 2.7- 8- 98.6- - 0.42 0.032 0.8-
66.7 6.1 700 377 110
Polystyrene 5.5- - 1.0- 400- - 0.35 0.038 6.7-
9.5 2.5 600 117
PTFE 1.5- 1.6- 120- 33- - 0.076- 7.8-
3.0 2.0 350 65 0.083 139
PVC Rigid 5.0- - - 200- - 0.42 0.049- 75
9.0 600 0.051
Non-rigid 2.0- - 200- - - 0.041-
3.0 400 0.059
Epoxy unfilled > 2.0 - 2-6 > 300 - 0.041 18-
36
Acrylic 2.8- 0.83- 2.0- 138- - 0.37 0.034- 34-
13.1 12.3 6.0 653 0.044 58
Polycarbonate 7.25- 5.37- 5.8- 261- - 0.37 0.034- 8.3-
18 27.7 110 1100 0.056 65
________________________________________________________________________
Page 95
Table 6.3.2(b)
Physical Properties of Plastics and Synthetics.
Metric Units.

Type Mpa Mpa % Mpa Mpa gm/cc 10- 6
/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Nylon 41- 41- 3.6- 482- - 0.42 1.11- 185
83 83 30 2826 1.39
Polyethylene LD 10.3- 7.6- 400- 96- - 0.46 0.89- 234-
16.5 11.7 700 262 0.91 360
MD 11.0- 10.3- 200- 241- - 0.91-
17.2 17.9 500 620 0.94
HD 17.2- 16.5- 10- 586- - 0.94- 137-
34.5 34.5 300 1103 0.97 200
Polypropylene 16.0- 19.0- 8 - 680- - 0.42 0.525 1.5-
460 42.1 700 2600 198
Polystyrene 37.9- - 1.0- 2758- - 0.35 1.05 12.1-
65.5 2.5 4137 210
PTFE 10.3- 11.0- 120- 227- - 2.11- 14.0-
20.7 13.8 350 448 2.30 250
PVC Rigid 34.5- - - 1379- - 0.42 1.36- 135
62.1 4137 1.41
Non-rigid 13.8- - 200- - - 1.14-
20.7 400 1.63
Epoxy unfilled > 13.8 - 2-6 > 2068 - 1.14 32-
65
Acrylic 19.3- 5.7- 2.0- 951- - 0.37 0.94- 61-
90.3 84.8 6.0 4502 1.22
104
Polycarbonate 50.0- 37.0- 5.8- 1799- - 0.37 0.94- 14.9-
124 191 110 7584 1.55 117
________________________________________________________________________
6.3.3 Ceramics.
Ceramics can provide high strength, resistance to wear, insulation among other properties. In
ocean cable systems, they are primarily used for insulation in high and low pressure seals
and in the electronics units inside pressure housings. They are also used in a piezoelectric
form in sensors such as hydrophones, and load cells.
They also can be used for deep submergence housings where their strength, density and
elastic modulus (E) make them suitable for pressure housings. Tables 6.3.3(a) and 6.3.3(b)
give the properties of some ceramic materials that may be suitable.
Page 96
Table 6.3.3(a)
Physical Properties of Ceramics.
English Units.
Ftu Fcu Elong E G , Density ;

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
96% Al2O3 AD-96 28 300 - 44 18 0.21 0.134 1.9
A l2O3/ZrO2 400 - 49 - 0.26 0.149 8.0
Si3N4/ A l2O3 460 - 46 - 0.21 0.118 2.7-
6.8
B4C/Al Composite 490 - 46 - 0.28 0.094
SiC/Al2O3/ A l 283 - 43 - 0.23 0.122
Composite
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.3.3(b)
Physical Properties of Ceramics.
Metric Units.

/oC
________________________________________________________________________
96% Al2O3 AD-96 193 2068 - 303 124 0.21 3.71 3.4
A l2O3/ZrO2 2758 - 338 - 0.26 4.13 14.4
Si3N4/ A l2O3 3171 - 317 - 0.21 3.27 4.9-
12.2
B4C/Al Composite 3378 - 317 - 0.28 2.60
SiC/Al2O3/ A l 1951 - 296 - 0.23 3.38
Composite
________________________________________________________________________
6.3.4 Rubbers.
Rubbers used in the see are normally synthetic, such as neoprene, and are used in ocean cable
systems for seals, insulation on cables, boot seals on cables, coverings on sensors and rubber
protective boots over housings. Softer rubbers are prone to marine animal attack. Due to the
ease of molding and the ability to bond to metal, rubbers are widely used on undersea
equipment of all types.
Page 97
The properties of rubbers are highly variable and accurate values for a given rubber can be
obtained from the manufacturer or from testing be carried out in a materials laboratory.
6.3.5 Concrete.
Concrete is used to provide a cheap weight to anchor structures to the bottom, either as part of
the structure or as clumps. Normal concrete is made with cement and an aggregate of crushed
gravel or stone. For underwater applications the normal cement, such as Portland cement, is
replaced by a hydraulic cement which is more resistant to the marine environment. A rapid
hardening hydraulic cement can be used to further improve properties. If the concrete is to be
used where magnetic fields are generated or measured, then the use of a limestone aggregate is
recommended, as many types of gravel or stone have magnetic properties. Tables 6.3.5(a) and
6.3.5(b) give the properties of standard concrete.
Table 6.3.5(a)
Physical Properties of Concrete.
English Units.

Type Ksi Ksi % 106 106 lb/ in3 10- 6
psi psi /oF
________________________________________________________________________
Concrete, gravel or 2.03 - 3.7 - 0.2 0.0809 -
crushed stone 10.2 5.3 0.0896
aggregate
________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.3.5(b)
Physical Properties of Concrete.
Metric Units.

Type Mpa Mpa % Gpa Gpa gm/ cc 10- 6
/oC
________________________________________________________________________
Concrete, gravel or 14.0 - 25.4 - 0.2 2.24 -
crushed stone 70.0 36.6 2.48
aggregate
________________________________________________________________________
Page 98
7. Corrosion.
This chapter contains information on the types of corrosion that can occur in surface and
underwater systems and on methods that can be used to combat the effects of the corrosion.
7.1 Environment.
7.1.1 Composition of Sea Water.
Sea water consists of salts in a water base. Almost all the salts exist entirely in the ionized
condition. Near the surface, sea water contains a considerable amount of dissolved gases which
decrease with increasing depth. The most important of these gases for corrosion, oxygen,
varies from saturated at the surface to very low in the ocean basins and in some areas, nil,
The composition of sea water at a chlorinity of 190/oo is:
Chloride Cl- 18.890 g/Kg

Sodium Na + l0.560
Magnesium Mg ++ 1.273
Sulfate SO4 - - 2.649
Calcium Ca ++ 0.410
Potassium K+ 0.380
plus smaller amounts of carbon as HCO3- or CO3- - , bromide Br- , Strontium Sr ++, Boron as
H3BO, Silicon as Silicate SiO2, Fluoride F- , Nitrogen as NO3 - , Aluminum Al+++, Rubidium Rb
+ . Lithium Li +, Phosphorous as PO - - - and trace elements.
4
The first eleven components make up 99.9% of all the dissolved materials. In general sea water
contains about 3.5% salt.
Sea water is slightly basic ( alkaline ) having a PH of 8.0 to 8.2 at the surface reducing to 7.7
to 7.8 at depth. ( Normal PH is 7.0 )
The actual composition of sea water varies depending on topography, temperature, currents,
depth and on the surface, the amount of rain or evaporation among many other factors.
7.1.2 Composition of the Sea Floor.
The composition of the sea floor can vary considerably in natural materials and may be
substantially modified by man due to dumping of materials, etc. Marine organisms may also
alter the composition or produce their own covering of the bottom, such as corals.
Page 99
The effect of the composition of the sea floor on corrosion can be twofold. Firstly it can modify
the composition of the sea water above it and secondly, it can directly attack materials in
ocean cable systems or systems with bottom mounted components by chemical means. Because
of this, it is normal practice to take bottom samples along cable routes or at sites for bottom
mounted components, and carry out chemical analysis to determine if there will be any
detrimental effect on the components of the ocean cable system.
Marine organisms in and on the sea floor also can attack the materials in the system and must
be taken into consideration, though their effect on modern materials is generally very little.
The geological materials that compose the sea floor vary from rock, calcareous and siliceous
sands, muds, silts and clays with the deep ocean basins being covered by oozes. Most of these
materials fall into one of three major categories: clastic, biogenous and chemical.
Clastic materials are formed during the mechanical breakdown of pre-existing rocks and
minerals, regardless of the agent-of breakage. Typical agents are rivers, frost, glaciers,
rockfalls, animal or plant breakdown of rocks, volcanic action, and a host of less significant
factors. Most quartz sand and silt are the end result of such mechanical breakdown, as are
shell fragments and coral sands and muds.
Biogenous materials are those formed by plants and animals, either as whole shells, tests, and
skeletons ( Globigerina and other deep sea oozes ), or as fragments of shells, algal plates,
coral, etc. The latter are often called bioclastic combining biological origin with mechanical
breakdown. Most calcium carbonate sediments and deep sea oozes are of biological origin.
Chemical materials include at least two major sub-groups; those sediments of chemical
precipitation and those formed by extensive chemical alteration of sediments already in place.
In the former category fall the calcareous oolitic precipitates, as well as manganese nodules,
phosphorite, and, the major group of evaporites ( minerals such a salt and gypsum ). The latter
category includes many clay minerals which either re-form after being badly degraded during
soil-forming processes on land or which change into completely different clay minerals. It is
reliably reported that masses of volcanic ash also change into clay minerals on the sea floor.
7.2 Types of Corrosion.
7.2.1 General.
Corrosion in sea water can take many forms, some of which may be of nuisance value, others
may be catastrophic rendering some materials or designs totally unsuitable for use in the sea
environment.
7.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion.
This is a reaction between different materials and the effect can be likened to a battery with
the less resistant material forming the anode ( + ), the more resistant the cathode ( - ) and the
sea water forming the electrolyte. All that is required is that the two metals have a conductive
path between them.
Table 7.2.2(a) shows the galvanic series for flowing sea water. Of the two materials being
considered, the upper one will be destroyed while the lower one will be protected. The further
apart they are, the more faster the reaction.
Page 100
Table 7.2.2(a).
Galvanic Series of Metals in Flowing Sea Water.
__________________________________________________
Anodic or least noble
Magnesium and Magnesium alloys
CB75 aluminum. anode alloy
Zinc
B605 aluminum anode alloy
Galvanized steel or galvanized wrought iron
Aluminum 7072 ( cladding alloy )
Aluminum 5456
Aluminum 5086
Aluminum 5052
Aluminum 3003, 1100, 606l, 356
Cadmium
Aluminum 2117 rivet alloy
Mild steel
Wrought iron
Cast iron
13% Chromium steel type 410 ( active )
17% Chromium steel type 430 ( active )
18-8 Stainless steel type 304 ( active )
18-12-3 Stainless steel type 316 ( active )
Ni-resist
Lead
Tin
Muntz metal
Manganese bronze
Naval brass 60% copper, 39% zinc, 1% tin
Yellow brass 65% copper, 35% zinc
Copper
Silicon bronze
Red brass 85% copper, 15% zinc
Aluminum, brass
Composition G bronze
Composition M bronze
Admiralty brass
90% copper, 10% nickel
70% copper, 30% nickel
Nickel
Inconel 78% nickel, 13.5% chromium, 6% iron
Nickel aluminum bronze
Silver
Titanium
18-8 Stainless steel type 304 ( passive )
Hastelloy alloy C
Monel nickel-copper alloy
18-12-3 Stainless steel type 316 ( passive )
Graphite
Platinum
Cathodic or most noble
__________________________________________________
Page 101
7.2.3 Uniform Corrosion.
This is the most common form of corrosion of a material. The mechanism is the same as for
galvanic corrosion, but there is only one material and the areas acting as anodes and cathodes
move about on the surface causing the widespread corrosion. In some materials, i.e. aluminum,
this forms a patina which protects the material from further corrosion.
7.2.4 Concentration Cell Corrosion.
This is due to charged cells forming in the sea water, normally ionic or oxygen, which produce
a different environment at points on a body. It is normally associated with stagnant conditions
and gives rise to crevice corrosion, gasket corrosion and deposit corrosion.
7.2.5 Pitting Corrosion.
In pitting the anode area remains stationary giving localized corrosion. The pits may start due
to concentration cells and when established, the pit may give give rise to favorable conditions
for intensification of the corrosion.
7.2.6 Intergranular and Phase Corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion is a localized attack on the grain boundaries of a material. The grain
boundaries are anodic in nature while the grains are cathodic, this setting up a galvanic cell.
Pure metals are normally not susceptible.
In phase corrosion the cell is set up between grains of different structure. These have
different potentials thus forming galvanic cells, with the lesser cell ( more anodic ) being
destroyed. Many metals, especially after heat treatment have several phases or different types
of grains in their structure.
7.2.7 Stress Corrosion.
Stress corrosion is caused by high tensile stress in a susceptible material in contact with a
fluid which promotes the corrosion. As this form of corrosion leads to cracks in the structure
and hence its failure, care must be taken in selecting materials, sea water forming an
excellent corrosive medium.
Some materials are susceptible as long as there is a tensile stress while others require a
stress above a certain level to be susceptible.
In glasses and ceramics stress corrosion cracking is caused by water. It is known as static
fatigue, or delayed failure. The micro cracks, in the presence of hydroxyl ion and applied load
grow and over time can result in failure.
7.2.8 Dezincification.
The process of dezincification is unique to brasses but similar mechanisms exist for other
alloys such as the aluminum bronzes.
In this process when brass is placed in contact with another metal more cathodic than zinc,
e.g. steel, the zinc is removed from the alloy and the copper is redeposited to form a sponge
like material which is relatively weak.
Brasses with 15% or less zinc are not susceptible.

Page 102
7.2.9 Exfoliation.
This is a special form of intergranular corrosion in which a selective phase attack occurs in a
highly preferred direction due to rolling or other formation technique. Exposure of the ends
of the material to the environment will accelerate the process. In extreme cases the surface
material will blister away.
7.2.10 Erosion Corrosion.
This is caused by the flow of water past the material, in which the surface is removed directly
by the water by cavitation, turbulence, sediment carried by the water, etc., or by the removal
of the protective patina allowing further corrosion to continue. It can be reduce by careful
design or by sacrificial and protective coatings.
7.2.11 Biological.
Biological attack takes several forms, the first is erosion of the material surface by
mechanical or chemical means. The surface layers are removed by movement over the surface
by animals or plants giving the same problem as erosion corrosion, or the surface layers are
removed directly due to chemical attack from organisms resting on it.
The second form of attack is burrowing. If the material is soft enough, organisms can burrow
in even if the material is not able to be consumed by them. In more severe cases, the organism
will destroy the material to form burrows, this mainly occurs in material of natural organic
substances, e.g. Toredo worms.
The third form is not strictly corrosion in that the material surface is not attacked but is
fouled by organisms, often rendering equipment useless or degrading its performance.
7.3 Corrosion of Materials in Sea Water.
7.3.1 General.
The following two sections give information on the corrosion of various metals and plastics in
sea water, both at the surface and shallow water and in the deep ocean. Sources of information
for corrosion in seawater tend to be limited to selected geographical areas with little available
on corrosion in the general oceans and seas. This is probably due to the wide range of
variability.
Corrosion rates are often given in mils per year (MPY) with 1 mil = 0.001 inch = 0.0254 mm.
7.3.2 Corrosion at the Surface and in Shallow Water.
7.3.2.1 Overview.
Corrosion at the sea surface and in shallow water is more complex than for the deep ocean as
the major factors in corrosion can vary over a much wider range. For components above the sea
surface there is also the effect of salt spray. The following information is from a wide range of
sources. Shallow water can be considered to extend out to a depth where the entrainment of
oxygen in to the seawater by wave and swell action becomes insignificant. This is dependent
on the area in which the equipment is installed or used. Corrosion in shallow water can be
complicated by the action of fouling from flora and fauna in some materials.
The following descriptions of corrosion must be considered as a limited guide due to the wide
range of conditions found around the world.
Page 103
7.3.2.2 Irons and Steels.
All the steels except AISI Type 502, in general, corrode uniformly except for some pitting in
surface seawater which is caused by fouling. AISI Type 502, because it contains about 5
percent chromium, will pit. The corrosion rates decrease parabolically with increasing time of
exposure, and becomes relatively constant after 2 to 3 years of uninterrupted exposure.
Higher temperatures and oxygen content increase the rate of corrosion.
There is no significant difference in type or magnitude of corrosion between unalloyed and

copper bearing low-carbon steels. Low alloy steels corrode similarly, and are superior to the
killed carbon steel. Heat treatment is not a major factor in determining the severity of
corrosion of low alloy steel over long periods of exposure to air and sea water. High carbon
steels are less corrodible in an industrial atmosphere than low carbon steels but this position
is reversed in seawater.
For unalloyed low-carbon steel, sea water corrosion proceeds at a linear rate, fresh water
corrosion decreases with time, and sea water mean tide corrosion accelerates with time.
Accelerated pitting attack on unalloyed low carbon steel with a millscale surface is evidenced
only in the sea water immersion. In both the fresh water and mean tide exposures, pitting
attack and weight loss on millscale, pickled, and machined surfaces are essentially equal at
the end of 8 yr. Corrosion between tropical sea water and temperate sea water tends to be of
the same magnitude. For tropical sea water, the maximum difference in the corrosion rates
between continuous immersion in sea water, in fresh water, and at the mean tide exposure is of
order 15% (Based on 8 year exposure at three Panama environments) .
In sea water, the frequency of pitting on chromium steels is much greater. Weight losses of
3% proprietary and 5% AISI Type 501D chromium steel exceeds that of the low carbon steel by
63 and 30%, respectively. In mean tide exposure, weight losses of the mild and chromium
steels are the same but pitting attack on the chromium steel is double that of mild steel and
immeasurably higher in frequency. However, one test showed that under the stagnant
conditions of flow, the addition of 3% chromium to mild steel roughly halves its wastage by
corrosion over a 5 year period.
The inclusion of 2 and 5% nickel in structural steel does not increase corrosion resistance in
fresh water or at mean tide. In sea water, the nickel addition accelerates both weight loss and
pitting-type corrosion attack.
Proprietary low-alloys steels in general are not more resistant to underwater corrosion than
mild unalloyed steel and for certain conditions they are appreciably less resistant.
For 18Ni and 12Ni-5Cr-3Mo maraging steels and HY 80 and 4340 low-alloy steels all corrode
uniformly in sea water, with the exception of 12-5-3 material, which suffers severe pitting.
18Ni material with yield strengths on the low side are more resistant to stress corrosion
cracking than specimens of higher strength. The thermal history on the cracking behavior of
the maraging steels can have an effect. The atmospheric corrosion resistance of the maraging
steels is greater than that of the other grades.
There is little difference in the general corrosion of cast irons and plain carbon steels when
immersed in sea water, although the former may be seriously weakened by local attack and
graphitization. For austenitic cast irons, their corrosion rates decrease asymptotically with
increasing time of exposure. Their corrosion rates becomes practically constant at between 2
and 3 mils per year after about two years of exposure.
Page 104
In general, stainless steels corrode chiefly by pitting, tunneling and crevice corrosion in
seawater. In these types of localized attack, the majority of the surface area is unattacked so
that corrosion rates calculated from weight losses are very misleading because they reflect a
uniform thinning of the material.
Types 309, 316L, 317, 329, 633, 20Cb-3 and Ni-Cr-Mo-Si are not susceptible to pitting,
tunneling and crevice corrosion.
The marine corrosion behavior of Types 201 and 202 chromium-nickel-manganese stainless
steels in most respects is similar to that of the Types 301 and 302 chromium-nickel steels.
The chromium-nickel-manganese steels will develop light rust and dark brown stains during a
13-month exposure in a marine atmosphere but with no pitting. During sea water immersion,
however, the steels sustain severe pitting and wormholing. For both 201 and 202 alloys, the
half-hard condition will suffer greater weight loss than those in the annealed condition. In
addition, unlike the chromium-nickel steels, they will develop stress corrosion cracks along
sheared edges and at drilled holes where residual stresses are present. Sensitization at 1200
oF for 24 hr lowers resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Type AISI 420 stainless steel can be severely damaged in as little as three months. Corrosion
is mostly of the localized (in areas of contact with nonmetallic holding devices and barnacles)
and pitting type. The AISI 431 stainless steel corrodes in the same meaner, but to a much
lesser degree. The weight losses of austenitic Cr-Mn steels can be high and varied. (From tests
in Black Sea waters.)
Chromium-nickel and chromium-manganese stainless steels immersed in flowing sea water (3

to 4 ft deep - 0.9 to 1.2 meters, 1 to 2 fps - 0.3 to 0.6 meters/sec flow velocity) show severe
localized corrosion by the salt water. Stainless steels containing high manganese are less
resistant than 18-8 stainless (types 302 and 304) although neither of the 18-8 alloys is
considered satisfactorily resistant to salt water under complete and continuous immersion for
prolonged periods.
In stainless steel wire ropes, crevice corrosion between the individual wires can be severe
enough to compromise the strength of the rope in a relatively short time.
7.3.2.4 Aluminum Alloys.
In seawater, aluminum alloys are attacked by pitting and crevice corrosion, both of which are
localized types, which means that the greater portion of the surface area of the material is
unattacked. The effect of the concentration of oxygen in seawater on the corrosion of aluminum
alloys is inconsistent.
The corrosion rates of alloys 3003-H14, Alclad 3003-H12 and 2219-T81 do not decrease
constantly with increasing time of exposure in surface seawater, they can decrease with time
initially and thereafter increase. For Alclad 3003-H12, the depths of the maximum pits in
tend to increase through the first 400 days of exposure and thereafter became constant with
time. This constancy is explained by the fact that the sacrificial protective alloy layers on the
Alclad 3003-H12 are corroded laterally, thus preventing pitting of the protected core alloy.
For alloys Alclad 3S, Alclad 24S-T, 52S-I/2H, 52S, 53S-T, and 91S-T, Alclad 3S and Alclad
24S-T have good resistance to corrosion, and neither show significant changes in tensile
strength over time. Alloy 52S-I/2H is nearly as good as the Alclads, followed by 52S. Alloys
53S-T and 91S-T are similar but somewhat inferior to 52S.
Page 105
The 7079-T6, which can only be used in seawater when protected, has severe exfoliation
corrosion. Aluminum-copper alloys, such as 17S-T and 24S-T, are attacked in sea water and
should not be used unless protected.
The corrosion resistance of the wrought alloys 3S-l/2H (1.2%manganese) and 52S-1/2H (2.5%
magnesium, 0.25% chromium) and the cast alloys 214 (3.8%magnesium) and 220 T4 (10%
magnesium) in sea water, are rated very good to excellent.
Corrosion rates tend to be greater for the full seawater immersion than for the tidal
immersion. Fouling has some effect on the pitting depth of the aluminum in tidal immersion.
7.3.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys.
Copper alloys corrode uniformly, hence corrosion rates calculated from weight losses and
reported as mils per year reflect the true condition of the alloys. Therefore, corrosion rates
for the copper alloys can be used reliably for design purposes.
The following alloys are attacked by parting corrosion in seawater: commercial bronze, red
brass, Muntz metal, manganese bronze A and nickel-manganese bronze, containing from 10 to
42 percent zinc, are dezincified. Aluminum bronze, containing 5 to 13 percent aluminum are
dealuminified.
Addition of small amounts of aluminum to some copper alloys increases the resistance to
impingement corrosion, while arsenic or tin have the opposite effect on muntz metal. Of
copper-zinc alloys those with 66% copper or 80-85% copper are most resistant to corrosion.
Beryllium copper offers better resistance to corrosion by marine atmospheres than either
copper or phosphor bronze. It also provides slightly better resistance to sea water or marine
atmosphere than does beryllium-cobalt-copper. Although cold rolling or precipitation
hardening causes a marked improvement in the strength of these alloys, material condition
exerts no observable influence upon corrosion resistance.
For all materials. the corrosion rate decreases with increasing exposure time but increases,
often rapidly, with a rise in water velocity.
7.3.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys.
There is no corrosion of any of titanium or its alloys except the welded 13V-IlCr-3AI alloy. It
is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking during surface exposures. Based on longtime tests
designed to show susceptibility to sea-water erosion, crevice corrosion, galvanic corrosion,
pitting, stress corrosion, and corrosion fatigue there is no noticeable effect on titanium metal.
7.3.2.7 Nickel and Nickel Alloys.
In stagnant seawater and underneath fouling many of the nickel alloys are attacked by pitting
and crevice corrosion in addition to general surface attack. In general, pitting and crevice
corrosion are more rapid in surface exposure than at depth.
Fourteen of the nickel base alloys are uncorroded: Ni-Cr-Fe 718, Ni-Cr-Mo 3, Ni-Cr-Mo 625,
Ni-Fe-Cr 800, Ni-Fe-Cr 804, Ni-Fe-Cr 825, Ni-Fe-Cr 825 (sensitized), Ni-Fe-Cr 825Cb, N i -
Fe-Cr 901, Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "F", Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "G", Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "X", NI-Mo-Fe "B", and Ni-Mo-Cr
"C".
Page 106
7.3.2.8 Copper-Nickel Alloys.
Alloys containing 5-10% nickel and 1-2% iron offer optimum resistance to sea-water
corrosion when quenched from temperatures of the order of 850-950 oC. By annealing at, or
slowly cooling to temperatures of the order of 600 oC, there is a reduction in corrosion
resistance accompanying these heat treatments that is due to the separation of a second solid
solution richer in nickel and iron.
7.3.2.9 Plastics and Rubbers.
Plastics such as vinyl acrylic, cellulose acetate, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyurethane and
polyethylene generally show dulling of surface but no deterioration. The major cause of
deterioration of plastics is ultraviolet radiation for above surface, tidal and near surface use.
This can be reduced by using ultraviolet radiation resistant plastics, which can provide
protection for up to 40 years, or by using a material, such as carbon black, in the plastic to
reduce penetration of the ultraviolet radiation.
Ester-based polyurethanes are generally not stable in water over extended periods, but the
ether-based polyurethanes are.
Unprotected polyethylene rods can oxidize slowly in shallow water where oxygen content is
higher than at great depths, over exposure for 13 to 14 years. Most polymeric materials will
not degrade seriously as a result of extended immersion in the ocean. High-density
polyethylene material can crack at stress points.
Synthetic rope materials such as Nylon, polyester, polypropylene, aramid, and high modulus
polyethylene do not corrode, but do suffer deterioration due to ultraviolet radiation and would
need a protective covering if exposed for long periods.
Rubbers, where exposed, suffer deterioration from ultraviolet radiation similar to plastics.
The use of carbon black, or similar material, reduces the effect.
Most of the rubbers exhibited significant decreases in elongation as a result of extended

exposure in the ocean. Measurement of tensile properties after exposure give the approximate
results listed in Table 7.3.2.9(a).
Little information is available on O-rings in the open literature, but it would appear that the
results for deep ocean ( Section 7.3.3.9 ) is relevant to near surface use.
The organic-material/fiber-reinforced composites subjected to extended ocean exposures

undergo some degradation in strength properties. The extent of deterioration depends on a
number of variables that include the resin, reinforcement, curing agent, reinforcement surface
finish, reinforcement construction, curing conditions, resin content, and void content. Well-
fabricated composites will decrease 20% and less in physical properties as a result of several
years of exposure in the ocean. Static loading or fatigue loading of the composite during this
period will increase the extent of degradation.
The other factor in deterioration of plastics and rubbers is temperature. In selecting these
materials the minimum and maximum operating temperatures must be taken into account.
Page 107
Table 7.3.2.9(a)
Approximate Changes in Tensile Properties

of Rubber Materials After Exposure.
____________________________________________
Loss in Loss in
Rubber strength* elongation*
(%) (%)
___________________________________________________
14 Years of Exposure
___________________________________________________
Neoprene 15 35
Natural Rubber 20 15
Nitrile-butadiene rubber 40 35
Styrne-butadiene rubber 30 35
Silicone rubber 70 70
___________________________________________________
4 Years of exposure
___________________________________________________
Polyurethane (ester) 40 25
Polyurethane (ether) 0 50
Ethylene-propylene rubber 0 to 30 25
___________________________________________________
*Approximate values.
7.3.2.10 Concrete.
Corrosion of concrete can take the form of leaching, and varies with the type of concrete.
7.3.3 Corrosion in the Deep Ocean.
7.3.3.1 Overview.
Corrosion has been shown to vary with depth. The majority of the information that follows is
based on work done by the U. S. Navy Civil Engineering Laboratory using Submersible Test
Units that sat on the ocean floor at nominal depths of 2350 feet - 716 meters and 5500 feet -
1677 meters. Six STUs were deployed for varying periods. Each STU carried a range of
materials with 600 different materials tested. Some of the information below also comes from
work done in the Tongue Of The Ocean in the Bahamas at a depth of 4500 feet - 1372 meters.
The following are a guide to the corrosion effects on various materials but the major factors in
corrosion in the deep ocean, such as pressure, temperature and oxygen content, will vary from
site to site. Because of this, some sites may exhibit significantly different types and levels of
corrosion.
7.3.3.2 Irons and Steels.
Steels generally corrode uniformly and their corrosion rate is comparable - carbon steels, low
alloy-high strength steels, nickel steels, and the very high strength steels. The films of rust
are relatively thin and uniform, ranging in color from tan to very dark red. They are relatively
fine grained, loosely adherent and tend to flake easily, leaving speckled grey areas of
Page 108
uncorroded metal. There are definite lines of demarcation at the water-mud interface. Portions
in the mud show few corrosion products, with these mostly in streaks crossing bare grey-
colored steel.
The corrosion rates of the steels exposed at the nominal depths also decreased with time of
exposure and were consistently lower than for the surface. This is attributed to the combined
effects of temperature, pressure and oxygen. In the tests the deeper STU site showed slightly
higher rate of corrosion compared to the shallower due the variation in these three factors.
Corrosion rate was about a third of that at the surface. However tests in Tongue-of-the-Ocean
had different corrosion rates implying that other variables such as time, currents, sediment
effects, also come into play.
AISI Type 502 steel which contains about 5 percent chromium, will pitt. Crevice corrosion can
occur such as under washers. Some pits will be 20 mils deep, and from 0.25 to 1 inch - 6.4 to
25.4 mm in diameter after about 4 months.
Cast irons corrode uniformly except the silicon and silicon-molybdenum cast irons which do
not corrode at the surface or at depth (after one year of exposure). The corrosion rates of the
other cast irons are lower at depth than at the surface, but are not depth dependent.
The corrosion rates of the alloy cast irons and gray cast iron decrease linearly with the
concentration of oxygen in seawater and those of the austenitic cast irons progressively.
The corrosion rates of two austenitic cast irons, Type 4 and Type D-2C, decrease
asymptotically with time of exposure at the surface in seawater. Their corrosion rates became
practically constant at between 2 and 3 mils per year after about two years of exposure.
In general, stainless steels corrode chiefly by pitting and crevice corrosion in seawater. In
these types of localized attack the majority of the surface area is unattacked.
The corrosion rates of the 200 and 400 Series stainless steels are affected by depth. The
corrosion rates of AISI 430 and 18Cr-14Mn-0.5N stainless steels decreases with increasing
depth. The corrosion rates of AISI 201, 202, 410 and 446 were lower at depth than at the
surface, but they did not decrease progressively with increasing depth. The corrosion rates
are not uniformly affected by the oxygen concentration.
The chromium stainless steels 405, 410 & 430 can exhibit severe types of corrosion attack,
penetration in a lacework configuration and internal honeycomb attack. One specimen of Type
430 SS showed a heavy encrustation of corrosion products along the edges of a corroded streak.
This same area was characterized by a row of pits which, under light pressure, collapsed in a
line about 1/8 inch - 3 mm wide and 2.5 inches - 63.5 mm long, exposing a honeycomb-like
interior. The lacework type of attack also noticed on some specimens was similar to the
honeycomb attack, except that the surface and the interior appeared to have been equally
attacked. Corrosion of a type 410 embedded in the mud can be rapid and give an appearance
very similar to that resulting from acid attack.
The corrosion rates of AISI 301, 302, 316, 316 (sensitized), 330, 347, 304 (sensitized) and
325 stainless steels are lower at depth than at the surface, but they do not decrease
progressively with increasing depth. The corrosion rates of the AISI 304 and 304L stainless
steels decrease with increasing depth. The shape of the corrosion rate curve for AISI 325 is
similar to the oxygen concentration curve. These stainless steels are not immune to the
honeycomb type of attack described above. Types 302, 316, 316L, and 321 and 20CB were not
attacked by seawater. All Cr-Ni stainless steels are about equally attacked in mud and in
Page 109
water.
The following stainless steels are attacked only by incipient crevice corrosion (after one year
of exposure in seawater): AISI Type 309, 316L, 317, 329 and 633, 20Cb3 and Ni-Cr-Mo-Si.
The corrosion rate of 631-THI050 and 635 decrease with increasing depth of seawater. The
corrosion rates of 630-H925 and 632-RHI100 are lower at depth than at the surface but they
do not decrease progressively with increasing depth. The corrosion rate of AISI 632.RH1100
decreases progressively with the oxygen content of seawater. The corrosion rates of AISI 630-
H925, 631-TH1050 and 635, although lower at the lower oxygen concentrations than at the
highest, do not decrease progressively with the oxygen concentration.
All the precipitation hardening stainless steels are subject to both honeycomb and lacework
types of corrosion. They are also subject to severe crevice corrosion of the unwelded steel in
both water and mud.
The miscellaneous cast and wrought stainless steels contain greater percentages of chromium
and nickel than the conventional stainless steels in addition to molybdenum and copper,
except for the 18Cr-14Mn-O.SN which contains no nickel. The corrosion rates of these
stainless steels are mostly less than 0.1 MPY and instances of pitting and crevice corrosion
were few except for the l8Cr-15Mn-0.5N alloy. Significant pitting and crevice corrosion occur
during surface exposures of wrought alloy 20-Cb and cast alloy Ni-Cr-Cu-Mo #2. In general,
these stainless steels, except the 18C-14Mn-O.5N steel, were less severely attacked than the
other stainless steels.
All the other stainless steels were attacked by pitting, tunneling and crevice corrosion in
various degrees of severity.
7.3.3.4 Aluminum Alloys.
In general the corrosion rates of the aluminum alloys are greater at depth than at the surface
in the Pacific Ocean for one year of exposure. The aluminum alloys are attacked by pitting and
crevice types of corrosion. The maximum pit depths of the aluminum alloys are greater at
depth than at the surface. Crevice corrosion, in general, is more severe at depth than at the
surface.
3003-H14 and Clad 3003-H12 alloys develop a few pinpoint pits and some corrosion attack at
the edges. The clad layers on the Clad 3003-H12 specimen in the mud can be completely
corroded through to the core material in many places, with areas op to 0.5 inch - 12.7 mm in
diameter, and 14 mils deep. Crevice corrosion can also occur.
5052, 5083, 5086, 5454, 5456 alloys have few areas of penetration in the form of slightly
etched areas and a few isolated pits. There can be a few scattered pits on the welded alloys of
this group, some as deep as 42 mils. However, neither the welds nor the weld zones are
selectively attacked. Pitting is more severe in the mud, sometimes to considerable depths. All
are subject to crevice corrosion.
The 6061-T6 alloy can develop a protective film with moderate pitting underneath. Over
longer periods the pitting can become very heavy and more frequent in localized areas. There
is less attack in mud. Crevice corrosion is slight.
In the aluminum-copper alloys , 2014, 2024, 2219, Clad 2024, Clad 2219, corrosion of the
bare alloys in this group consist typically of scattered blisters ranging up to 1/8 inch - 3 mm
high, each surrounded by a ring of white corrosion products. The clad specimens are more
evenly corroded, there being a thinner and more even films of white, powdery corrosion
Page 110
products over most of the exposed surfaces. In shallower depths surfaces can be completely
covered with white corrosion products, with moderately deep pits underneath, and all edges
are attacked.
The aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloys, 7075, 7079, 7178, X7039, X7002, Clad 7079, Clad
7178, Clad X7002, have corrosion similar to the 2000 series alloys. However, there can be
pits in addition to the blisters, some as deep as 60 mils. Corrosion of the clad 7000 series
specimens is practically identical to the attack on the Clad 2000 series. Bead type welds can
be completely penetrated and severely honeycombed, indicating that the weld bead is highly
anodic to the sheet material, hence the rapid rate of attack. These alloys corrode severely in
the mud, and are subject to crevice corrosion.
Tests results confirm the desirability of using aluminum-magnesium alloys for marine
applications and show the effectiveness of cladding in protecting aluminum-zinc-magnesium-
copper core alloys. The attack on aluminum alloys in deep-sea exposure generally takes the
form of pitting, as in marine surface and atmospheric exposures. This pitting is of a
magnitude which is of little consequence for those alloys designed for seawater applications
and is comparable to depth of pitting found in surface exposures.
Results indicate that such high-strength alloys as 7079 and X7002 can be used for seawater
applications when properly protected by a higher potential cladding alloy such as 7077.
7.3.3.5 Copper and Copper Alloys.
The copper alloys, in general, corrode uniformly except for some isolated cases of pitting and
cratering. Also, there is dezinclfication of Muntz metal and nickel-manganese bronze and
dealuminification of the aluminum bronzes. The corrosion rate of copper is essentially
unaffected by depth and that of all the copper alloys is lower at depth than at the surface, but
not progressively. Burial in mud results in a slight discoloration.
The corrosion rate of copper is unaffected by changes in the concentration of oxygen in

seawater while the average rate of the copper alloys decrease with decreasing concentration of
oxygen. The corrosion rate of Muntz metal, which also dezincifies, also decreases with the
concentration of oxygen in seawater.
The corrosion rates of all the copper alloys decrease with increasing time of exposure at the
surface except Muntz metal whose corrosion rate increases with time.
The corrosion resistance of beryllium copper compares favorably with that of copper under
many conditions of sea water exposure and can be considered for marine applications
requiring high strength and the corrosion resistance of copper.
7.3.3.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys.
Titanium and its alloys, both welded and unwelded are completely resistant to corrosion both
in water and in the seafloor mud, except the welded 13V-IlCr-3AI alloy. They are not
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
Welded 13V-IlCr-3AI titanium alloy is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when the
welding stresses are not relieved by thermal treatment.
Page 111
7.3.3.7 Nickel and Nickel Alloys.
Nickel and the following nickel base alloys do not corrode: Ni-Cr-Fe 718, Ni-Cr-Mo 3, Ni-Cr-
Mo 625, Ni-Fe-Cr 800, Ni-Fe-Cr 804, Ni-Fe-Cr 825, Ni-Fe-Cr 825 (sensitized), Ni-Fe-Cr
825Cb, Ni-Fe-Cr 901, Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "F", Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "G", Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "X", NI-Mo-Fe "B", and
Ni-Mo-Cr "C".
The corrosion rates of other nickel base alloys are higher at the surface than at depth. The
corrosion rates of Ni-Cr-Fe 600 and Ni-Cr-Fe 88 decrease with increasing depth while those
of the other alloys do not decrease progressively with depth. Most of the alloys which are
corroded are also attacked by crevice corrosion. Monel 400 (70Ni-30Cu), however, will be
covered with a thin, uniform film of green or mottled brown corrosion products.
Hastelloy C is unaffected in both mud and water exposure.
7.3.3.8 Copper-Nickel Alloys.
Corrosion of copper-nickel alloys also is characterized by thin, uniform films of various

colors ranging from light green or blue to blue-brown to nearly black. In the mud the
discolorations are light in shade and are tarnish rather than corrosion product films.
7.3.3.9 Plastics and Rubbers.
Vinyl acrylic, cellulose acetate, polystyrene, and polyethylene show dulling of surface but no
deterioration.
After the recovery in 1958 of a nonarmored deep-sea submarine telegraph cable that had been
laid in 1951 in 7500 feet - 2287 meters of water near Nova Scotia, the polyethylene
insulation, which deliberately has been left exposed, showed no evidence of attack except for
light scorings 1/32 inch - 0.8 mm deep or less. These were observed only in areas where hemp
spun-yarn had been applied. Apart from this damage the cable after 7 years submersion could
not be distinguished from its condition when manufactured. Reports on the recovery of 299
samples of failed submarine telegraph cables in which none of the polyethylene Insulation
examined showed any signs of degradation.
Mechanical and optical tests were conducted on six types of polycarbonate sheet after 1 year
of exposure at 4200 feet - 1280 meters in the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas. They found no
appreciable change in tensile, impact, or optical properties and no evidence of biological
attack.
Ethylene-propylene terpolymer and fluoroelastomer O-rings were exposed for 6 months at

2300 feet 701 meters and exposed ethylene-propylene rubber, fluoroelastomers, vinyl-
modified Buna N rubber, and neoprene 0-rings were exposed for 2 years at 5600 feet - 1707
meters. In both cases some of the O-rings were exposed while under compression and some
while elongated. Properties were determined after the exposures, including hardness,
compression set, permanent set, tensile strength, and elongation. In most cases there was little
difference between the exposed specimens and laboratory-aged specimens. In general the
tensile strength was not appreciably affected, whereas the elongation decreased 20% to 40%
for the materials studied. Neoprene O-ring seals performed satisfactorily after the 1-year
exposure at 4200 feet - 1280 meters.
Mechanical tests, including tensile, tear, and hardness tests, were conducted on various
compositions of chlorobutyl and butyl rubbers which had been submerged for 1 year at 4200
feet - 1280 meters in the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas. In general there was no appreciable
change in properties of these materials and no evidence of biological attack. The mechanical
Page 112
properties of several silicone elastomer products did not change appreciably, but two
silicones did degrade.
7.3.3.10 Concrete.
Low and High strength concrete do not show a change in permeability.
7.4 Corrosion Effects on Ocean Cable Systems.
7.4.1 Ocean Cables.
Corrosion effects on ocean cables are generally limited to conventionally armored cables. The
use of ashphaltic compounds around the armor and its sheathings provides substantial
protection and many cables survive well beyond their design life. Deep sea ocean cables are
not subject to any significant wear and hence rarely show the effects of corrosion. Shore end
ocean cables are subject to wear and hence erosion corrosion, and to a varying extent,
biological attack though the ashphaltic compounds and modern materials in the outer servings
reduce the susceptibility.
Crevice corrosion is not as significant in ocean cables as it is in electromechanical cables

where the armor wires are small in diameter and exposed. Externally armored deep sea cables
with their wrapping around each armor wire are not susceptible and in shore end cables, the
large diameter armor wires provide sufficient material to keep the effects minimal.
The only other corrosion that must be guarded against is where incompatible metals can come
into contact with the armor wires, setting up galvanic corrosion. This can occur with return
tapes and housings or fittings of metals other than steel. Careful design to insulate all such
components is required.
7.4.2 Housings and Fittings.
Corrosion of housings and fittings falls into two main areas. The first being material
incompatibility which can cause galvanic corrosion. This can be prevented by careful design
to ensure that all such components are insulated from one another. Such components that may
cause problems are the cable armor wires, return tapes and the material in the housings and
fittings.
The second area concerns mainly the pressure housings. The material for the housings must be
carefully selected to ensure the desired lifetime of the system can be reached, both on the
outer surfaces of the housings and in the sealing and mechanical attachment areas. For the
outer surfaces uniform corrosion, intergranular and phase corrosion, and stress corrosion are
the most important. For sealing areas and attachment areas, concentration cell corrosion and
pitting are more important. Coatings and other protective methods can be used to reduce the
effect of the corrosion in some cases.
In some cases, wear on the housing or fitting causing erosion corrosion must be considered.
Probably the beat method to counteract this form of corrosion in to provide a wear piece to
protect the vital components, if the cable route cannot be moved to a more suitable bottom
area.
Page 113
7.5 Corrosion Effects on Electromechanical Cable Systems.
7.5.1 Electromechanical Cables.
Crevice corrosion can be particularly important in electromechanical cables with metallic

armor, with stainless steel being one of the worst materials. Galvanized steel armor wires
generally have been found to give a longer life. One of the mechanisms involved in the crevice
corrosion is the working of the armor wires against one another as the cable is flexed,
removing any protective patina that may have built up.
Electromechanical cables used in moorings need to have allowance made for corrosion,
particularly on those sections near the surface. For those cables that are worked regularly
over drums and sheaves, such as used in deploying and recovering equipment, will require
regular inspection for corrosion so that they can be removed from service before failure
occurs.
The other corrosion that must be guarded against is where incompatible metals can come into
contact with the armor wires, setting up galvanic corrosion. This can occur with housings or
fittings of metals other than steel. Careful design to insulate all such components is required.
7.5.2 Housings and Fittings.
The effect of corrosion is the same as for ocean cable systems, however many of the fittings
used, such as cable terminations/bulkhead connectors, will be standard components bought in.
In this case careful design must be used to reduce corrosion effects to a minimum.
7.6 Corrosion Effects on Bottom Mounted Components.
Systems with bottom mounted components such as towers and mooring anchors are susceptible
to corrosion and biological attack particularly in shallower waters. Careful selection of
materials, where possible, will reduce corrosion effects, as will treatments such as
galvanizing and protective coatings. Where possible sacrificial anodes should be used.
Consideration could also be given to oversizing to allow for corrosion during the life of the
system.
Biofouling, particularly in shallow water, can disrupt the operation of the system. The use of
anti-fouling paints or claddings with anti-fouling properties may be essential.
7.7 Fasteners for Joining Materials.
In the construction of equipment for use in the ocean, or on the ocean floor, it is often
necessary to joint materials together. The selection of the material for the fasteners needs
careful attention if the fasteners are to survive without corroding.
Tables 7.6(a) and 7.6(b) give guidance for the selection of fastener materials for joining
various materials for both above and below water use.
Effects of corrosive action on fastener alloys.
Monel: Develops grey-green corrosion film.
18-8 Stainless Steel: Develops light brown corrosion film and heavier scaling in crevices, i.e.
Threads and under bolthead. Some bleeding.
Page 114
Silicon Bronze: Develops heavy green-brown corrosion film. Bleeds.
Aluminum: Develops white powdery corrosion film interspersed with pits unless
specially protected. Limited usefulness.
Table 7.7(a)
Guide for Selection Of Fastener Alloy for Marine Service for Joining
Materials.
Above Waterline.
Trim Wood Fiberglass Rubber Plastic Aluminum Steel Steel Copper Brass Brass Nickel Monel
(Nylon) (Galv.) (Plated) Stainless Nickel-
Steel Copper
Base Alloys
Wood Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Aluminum 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Bronze Bronze Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel
Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Monel Monel
Fiberglass Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
Rubber Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
Plastic Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel AVOID
(Nylon) 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Aluminum 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Bronze Bronze Monel Monel
Aluminum 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel AVOID AVOID AVOID 18-8 S.Steel AVOID
Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum
Steel Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Bronze Bronze Monel Monel
Steel Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon AVOID Monel Monel Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
(Galv.) Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Bronze Bronze Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel
Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Bronze Bronze Monel Monel
Copper Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon AVOID Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Monel Monel
18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Monel Monel Monel Monel
Brass Monel Monel Monel Monel AVOID Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Monel Monel Monel
18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Monel Monel Monel Monel
Brass 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel AVOID 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel AVOID
(Plated) Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel
Nickel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel Monel
Stainless Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel 18-8 S.Steel
Steel
Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel AVOID Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel
Nickel- 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Copper
Alloys
Page 115
Table 7.7(b).
Guide for Selection Of Fastener Alloy for Marine Service for Joining
Materials.
Below Waterline.
Trim Wood Fiberglass Rubber Plastic Aluminum Steel Steel Copper Brass Brass Nickel Monel
(Nylon) (Galv.) (Plated) Stainless Nickel-
Steel Copper
Base Alloys
Wood Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon S.Steel*
Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze
18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Fiberglass Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon S.Steel
Rubber Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
Plastic Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
(Nylon) Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon S.Steel
Aluminum 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R T316 N/R
Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum S.Steel
Steel Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel 18-8 S.Steel
Steel Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
(Galv.) Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon S.Steel
Copper Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
Brass Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
Brass Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel T316 Monel
(Plated) Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon S.Steel
Nickel T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 T316 Monel** Monel**
Stainless S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel S.Steel
Steel
Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel N/R Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel Monel** Monel
Nickel-
Copper
Alloys
N/R Not recommended. These metal combinations are subject to severe galvanic effects when
immersed in sea water and can be expected to give poor performance.
* Crevice corrosion can lead to early failure and high replacement rate of stainless steel
fasteners in these combinations. Other fasteners subject to adverse galvanic
corrosion.
** For stainless to stainless, a Monel fastener carefully insulated from the stainless steel
should give satisfactory results.
Page 116
It is common practice to use fasteners made of materials that are more corrosion resistant than
the materials they are joining. In many cases the fasteners are used where the joint must be
taken apart and reassembled from time to time. A corrosion resistant fastener is essential for
this to be carried out efficiently, and in many cases can be reused. Otherwise is will be
necessary to cut the fasteners off to disassemble the joint which is time consuming and is
likely to damage the joint.
It is generally preferable to use a larger number of fasteners of smaller diameter than a few
fasteners of larger diameter. Where the fasteners must be undone, care needs to be taken to
ensure that they are clean and for threaded fasteners lubricated.
7.8 Protection against Corrosion.
7.8.1 Paints and Coatings.
Paints are a liquid or semi-liquid film which dries after application or is dried by heating
and then provides a protective film.
Paint types consist of the following bases: oil, water, tar, rubber, plastic, metal particle,
epoxy, etc. The paint normally forms a protective barrier on the surface of the material to
prevent the entry of corrosive mediums, but most are susceptible to scratches which allows
corrosion to permeate under the paint film.
Antifouling paints contain chemicals which leach out and poison marine organisms to provide
protection against biological attack, but do not normally provide a high corrosion protection
and an inner protective paint must be used.
Metal particle paints can provide galvanic protection if loaded with enough metal ( e.g. zinc )
and are effective even if the surface is broken, but they must be in intimate contact with the
surface of the material.
Paints are normally used where the wear on the surface is low or it is possible to renew the
paint as required. They can be used with success on components, though generally in
conjunction with other protective means.
The coatings given in table 7.8.1(a) have proves effective for low carbon steels.
Table 7.8.1(a)
Coatings for Low Carbon Steel.
________________________________
Epoxy-tar-carbomastic #3
Coal tar enamel
Vinyl-alkyd
Sran white over orange
Vinyl mastic with zinc inorganic silicate
Phenolic-phenoline 300 mica filled
Epoxy-phenolic plastic 7122
Asphalt-mica filled emulsion
Epoxy devran 202/203
________________________________
Page 117
7.8.2 Hard Anodizing.
Hard anodizing can be used on aluminum alloys to provide a hard surface coating that provides
wear and corrosion resistance, and has been successful on underwater components. The
process is an electrochemical method similar to normal anodizing but with the solution bath at
freezing point and higher currents. It is more effective on low silicon alloys such as the 5000,
6000 and 7000 series. Alloys high in copper can also cause problems in the anodizing. The
coating can be between 25 microns and 75 microns thick. Optimum hardness occurs around 40
microns thickness. The anodizing can be used in O-ring sealing grooves but allowance must be
made in the dimensioning for the added thickness of the coating. Edges to be anodized must
also be radiused. Hard anodizing will also impair the surface finish, so the machined surface
finish should be superior to that required on the finished item.
For alloys with more than 4% copper or 7% silicon can be semi-hard anodized.
A relevant standard that can be used for hard anodizing is MIL-A-8625 Type 3.
7.8.3 Powder Coating.
Powder coating can be used on a large range of components to provide a wear resistant coating
on most metals. The major requirement is that the component must be able to be heated to 200o
C to cure the coating. Metals with an anodic coating may not powder coat well due to its
insulating characteristics. The process requires that the metal surface be initially cleaned
and chemically treated to provide a finish that bonds to the coating. The power coat is then
sprayed on using a special spray gun which atomizes the powder and charges it with a high
voltage ( 100,000 Volts ). The component is earthed and attracts the powder. The component is
then baked to fuse the particles and cure the coating.
Powder coatings can range in thickness from 20 microns to 100 microns, though on complex
shapes the thickness may exceed 150 microns (1.5 mm ). There are processes to obtain smooth
thin coatings of 30 microns or less. In underwater components it appears that the most
efficient use is on areas subject to possible wear or erosion, and the thermosetting type of
coating would provide the best protection.
7.8.4 Claddings.
Cladding is the application of a thick sheath of a protective material completely covering the
body. The claddings are normally rubber, plastic or metals. The rubbers and plastics are
normally sprayed on or bonded on in sheet form and generally if used near the surface contain
an antifouling compound. Metals are normally mechanically attached.
One form of cladding suitable for small housings is to use a rubber boot over the housing and
to fill the void with an oil to provide additional protection. This is often used on instrument
housings in shallow water where the ability to recover or inspect in situ, allows regular
checks on the integrity of the boot.
7.8.5 Galvanic Protection.
7.8.5.1 Passive.
In passive protection a sacrificial anode(s) normally of zinc or magnesium alloy is used and is
destroyed by the galvanic action of the parent body. In being destroyed it protects the parent
body, but care must be taken, especially on large structures, in the placement of the anodes to
give overall protection and that the life of the anode is adequate.
Page 118
As mentioned before, another technique is to use zinc rich paints which are applied over the
body and act as a distributed anode, or to metal spray the body with zinc.
All of the above techniques for passive protection have been used with success on components,
including sealing areas.
7.8.5.2 Active.
This system differs from the passive in that the anode(s) are non-consumable and a voltage is
applied to make the main body cathodic in relation to them. The system is called impressed
cathodic protection and is suitable for structures where the current needed can be carefully
controlled. It is not normally used on ships in service but has been used on mothballed ships
with very good results.
The system is not used on ocean system components.

Page 119
8. Fouling and Interaction with Marine Animals.
This chapter contains information on the fouling and interaction with marine animals on
systems deployed in the oceans.
8.1 Introduction.
In designing and operating systems deployed in the ocean, allowance must be made for
possible interaction with marine animals and the fouling of underwater components by marine
flora and fauna. The following sections give an outline of possible attacks and fouling, and
some preventative measures.
8.2 Larger Marine Animals.
Interaction of larger marine animals with underwater and surface equipment is normally
accidental, that is they are random events. However once a possible threat is known, it may be
possible to modify the design to prevent, or reduce, the effect.
Ocean cable systems generally suffer little attack or damage from marine animals, mainly
because they lie on the bottom or are buried in it. However there have been about 16 instances
of whales entangled in submarine cables reported. The maximum depth was about 3270 feet -
1134 meters and all whales that were identified, were sperm whales. These whales apparently
swim along plowing the sediment with their jaw looking for food. After 1959, no further
entanglements seem to have occurred probably due to the change in ocean cables design from
telegraph to coaxial, cable burial and better route planning.
During the development of optical fiber ocean cables it was found that in deep water, sharks
were biting the cable causing damage to the insulation around the core. When looking at the
similar armorless coaxial cable is was noted that there were no records of shark bite. It was
concluded that the metallic return tape in the coaxial cable which had a thin extruded sheath
covering it, was detectable by the shark as non-edible whereas the original optical cable with
its thick insulation was seen as edible. The solution adopted was to wrap a metallic tape
around the optical fiber cable with an extruded sheath covering it. The coaxial cables sheaths
were both natural polyethylene and black polyethylene.
Other incidents are entanglement in moorings and drogues. In one incident in 1976, a
Megamouth shark (megachasma pelagios) became entangled in a parachute drogue. This type of
shark is a filter feeder and this particular example was 14.5 feet - 4.4 meters long and
weighed 1650 pounds - 750 Kg. It appeared to have either blundered into the parachute or was
trying to eat it. It was also the first example of this species of shark. Figure 8.2(a) shows a
Megamouth shark. This incident shows that there are large unknown species of marine animals
in the deep ocean.
Page 120
Fig 8.2(a) Megamouth shark (megachasma pelagios)
Another shark which has cause damage to equipment is the cookie cutter shark. This shark
feeds by opening its jaws and charging into the side of its prey and taking out a circular
shaped chunk. An example of its damage is a towed underwater sound source with a rubber
nose cone/window/pressure compensator. The source stopped working and on recovery had an
almost perfectly circular hole in the rubber nose cone, which was in line with other reported
damage from this type of shark. Two types of cookie cutter shark that are the most likely to
cause damage are the small tooth cookie cutter shark (isistius brasiliensis) and the long tooth
cookie cutter shark (isustius plutodus). The first type is known to produce the circular
damage. Figures 8.2(b) and 8.2(c) show the small tooth cookie cutter shark and figure 8.2(d)
the long tooth cookie cutter shark.
Fig 8.2(b) Small tooth cookie cutter shark (isistius brasiliensis)

Page 121
Fig 8.2(c) Small tooth cookie cutter shark mouth structure.
Fig 8.2(d) Long tooth cookie cutter shark (isustius plutodus)
Other damage has been to sonar domes covered with a rubber like anti-fouling coating
(NOFOUL), where evidence of suction caps and curved claws from large, but unidentified,
squid has been found.
Seals and sealions often see larger buoys as suitable resting places, requiring that masts and
equipment be sited or be robustly constructed to withstand possible interaction with seals
and sealions.
Another problem with buoys is sea birds using them as resting points or roosts, causing
possible damage to sensors and fouling of the buoy. Solutions include careful design to reduce
landing/roosting surfaces to a minimum and the use of spikes on any possible landing surface
to further deter the birds.
Page 122
8.3 Fouling in Shallow Water and the Water Column.
8.3.1 General.
Many thousands of species of flora and fauna have been described and named, however only a
few kinds of these animals and plants should be considered as fouling organisms. These
organisms can be found along shallow water areas, far from shore and in the water column.
None of the vertebrates, such as the fish or mammals, are capable of maintaining a permanent
foothold on any material, and should not be considered as being true fouling organisms,
however fishbite is often destructive.
Fouling can be by covering the surface of the material, by boring into it or biting it (fishbite).
It can result in the failure of equipment, or preventing it from operating. Fouling varies
widely and often unpredictably with geographical location, temperature, water velocity, depth
and a host of other factors. Similarly for fishbite.
The description of fouling and it effects is divided into three areas: surface covering; boring;
and fishbite.
8.3.2 Surface Covering.
This covers those organisms which live on the surface of the materials. The fouling of the
surface of equipment, which begins as soon as it is immersed, can be divided into three phases
taking place more or less simultaneously:
1. The formation of the slimy micro-biological film.
2. The attachment of macroscopic fouling organisms.
3. Their growth into the mature forms, visible as barnacles, mollusks, annelids, bryozoans,
algae, and other fouling growths.
Organisms which might affect submerged materials in salt water can be roughly divided in to
the three following groups:
1. Sessile Organisms. This group cannot survive without becoming firmly attached to a
suitable base. Attachment occurs while still in a very minute embryonic form, and once
attached, its position does not change. Very few can survive if they become separated from the
base upon which they have grown, and none which has become attached has the power to secure
a new foothold. These organisms consist of those with hard shells, such as annelids, barnacles,
encrusting bryozo, mollusks, and corals, and those without hard shells, such as marine algae,
filamentous bryozoa, coulenterates (hydroids), tunicates (sea squirts), and calcareous and
siliceous sponges.
2. Semi-Motile Fouling Organisms. This group may become attached early in life and remain on
the same spot until the die. Unless completely covered by other organisms and thus deprived
of food and water, they can survive and thrive, but they have the power of locomotion and
frequently do move from one location to another. These organisms include:
a) Sea anemones and allied forms, which may become firmly fastened to material surface, but
they also have the ability to move very slowly by sliding along over a mucilaginous slime
which they excrete, however, they remain in firm contact with this surface.
Page 123
b) Some worms which construct tubes of mud and sand for protection. These worms can
abandon these tubes, which may be 8 inch ( 200 mm ) or more in length and move to another
location. The old tubes are left behind and contribute to fouling.
c) Certain crustacea build small temporary sand and mud tubes, cemented to submerged
materials.
d) Various mollusks, including some species of mussels, attach to any convenient base by
means of a mat of very strong chitinous hairs. These mollusks have the power to loosen their
hold-fasts and migrate to new locations. When they die, the mat of chitinous hairs remain
firmly attached to the material last occupied.
3. Motile Organisms. This group of organisms may indirectly influence the corrosion of metals
in salt water They constitute of some of the worms, particularly the scavenger varieties which
leave mucilaginous excretions, and mollusks, such as the sea slugs and snails that excrete a
slimy film which may have little or no effect on a metal, but because of its consistency
frequently smothers and rolls the more minute fouling organisms covered by it.
In addition to marine bacteria, large numbers of other unicellular marine organisms are
usually among the first to appear on any submerged material.
Temperature is a very important factor in the life of marine organisms. In higher latitudes the
breeding season of most fouling organisms is restricted to the warmer summer months.
However, the organisms which do become attached during this period continue to thrive and
increase in size over their life time. In the warmer waters, the breeding season is longer, until
in the tropics it is almost continuous and materials can badly fouled during any month of the
year.
Many of the fouling organisms are affected by light. The majority occur most plentifully on
shaded, or dark, surfaces. This is true of mussels, hydroids, and many of the algae. Green
algae thrive best in the light. In general, the lighter shades of protective coatings on
submerged materials are somewhat less subject to fouling than the darker shades, all other
factors being equal.
Many species of the algae, after landing, secure a firm attachment by exuding a mucilaginous
material with hardens to a glue-like consistency. As the plant grows, root-like growths spread
over the surface of the base, greatly increasing the firmness of attachment. Plant-like animals
known as hydroids use a similar method. Other groups of fouling organisms, such as the
barnacles and some of the mollusks, excrete a calcareous material which is deposited to
provide attachment to the surface. Some organisms excrete a siliceous cementing material.
A hard, smooth surface generally provides a more secure footing for fouling organisms than a
soft material. The adherence on hard vulcanized rubber is much stronger than it is on soft
rubber. On a smooth polished surface organisms can obtain an exceptionally firm foothold and
it is very difficult to remove such organisms even with metal scraping tools. On ordinary
steel, for example, the firmness of attachment is much less.
The physical condition of a firm hard surface which provides an excellent base for fouling
organisms may change with time. The initial growth may lead to forming corrosion products
and the character of the surface is changed. The organisms become fastened not to the metal,
but to the surface of the film of corrosion products. The firmness of foothold of the organisms
is then equal only to the adhesion of the corrosion film. With a material where the corrosion
product film formed on the surface of the metal is negligible, a fouling organisms may be
expected to maintain its foothold throughout its life.
Page 124
Copper and certain high-copper alloys form less corrosion products, and a larger proportion
is carried away either in solution or in suspension. This process prevents any prolonged
attachment of fouling organisms, as well as the toxic effect of the copper. If this corrosion
process is interfered with, then fouling will then proceed as on other inert surfaces.
After the animal attaches to the surface, the area of the cementing material enlarges as the
animal grows. If the base is equally adherent to a metal over the entire area, this base may be
expected to protect against corrosion. If the surface is uneven, and water penetrates, there
will be different oxygen concentrations at points under the lime base and elsewhere on the
surface of the metal. Oxygen concentrations cells may then accelerate corrosion. This occurs
with many of the fouling organisms, particularly with many of the numerous species of
barnacles. It also may be caused by one or more micro-organisms, such as diatoms of
Foraminifera, having become attached to a portion of the area over which the macro-organism
grows. Any uneven growth of micro-organisms on a portion of the metallic surface over which a
macro-organism extends its base may result in unequal adherence of the latter. Because of
this unequal firmness of attachment beneath some portions of the base, oxygen concentration
cells may develop, resulting in corrosion.
Another entirely different and very important type of corrosion is encountered when, in the
process of expansion of the base by growth, an organism completely covers a smaller organism.
The covered organism quickly dies. Degeneration sets in which can result in the production of
hydrogen sulfide, an acid condition results which causes accelerated corrosion.
Plastic tapes, which were wrapped around rods for exposure tests, were damaged by fouling
organisms attaching themselves and growing under overlaps and tearing the tapes.
Examination of the collection of sedentary populations on the surfaces of submerged samples

of construction materials showed plastics exposed were low in the relative amount of fouling
accumulated. The results obtained suggested that smooth, nonporous, nonfibrous surfaces,
especially if also hard, are poor accumulators of sedentary organisms.
8.3.3 Boring.
Boring is a direct attack on the surface of the material which can result in little damage, or up
to major destruction.
Almost all materials will have some indication of borer attack in at least one exposure. In
most cases, however, the attack was limited to surface indentations up to 1/8 inch - 3 mm in
diameter and 1/16 inch - 1.5 mm deep. In some cases borer damage is observed early in the
exposure period, with no additional damage during several years of additional exposure. In
some cases borer damage will occur on a plastic specimen at the area of contact with the
sediment on the ocean bottom, but there is no damage 1 or 2 feet - 0.3 or 0.6 meters above the
bottom. In other cases damage is observed only under or in the vicinity of the wood bait in
contact with the material, or only under a piece of jute-tape wrapping which enables the borer
to get a start in penetrating the material. In some cases, borers attack a given material during
one exposure but not during other exposures at different times at the same approximate
location. Thus, like many other natural processes, borer attack is unpredictable. However,
borer activity seems to be more in waters that are warmer, and at the ocean bottom rather than
away from the bottom.
Borer attack on plastics is usually restricted to rather shallow surface damage, however
instances of substantive borer penetration, as deep as 3/4 inch - 19 mm has been reported.
Two plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) plastics, trioctyl phosphate and nitrile rubber-
polyester, can be heavily penetrated by borers and lose their mechanical integrity. Nylon pipe
can be penetrated by borers during the first year of exposure, but there can be no additional
Page 125
damage during the next 9 years. A silica-filled styrene polyester casting can suffer borer
penetration after 6 years of exposure but none additional for the next 7 years. Epoxy resin
cast rod can suffer sufficient number of borer attacks so as to reduce its mechanical strength.
A number of factors would appear to influence the extent of borer damage of plastic materials.
Penetration of plastics by borers may be aided by their starting in materials such as wood or
jute wrapping or becoming established in heavy irregular calcareous fouling and then
penetrating into the adjacent plastic material. Generally, waxy or smooth materials such as
polymers ( e.g. polyethylene and polypropylene ) do not show penetration, usually with only
slight surface damage, although there are exceptions. These materials can be submerged for
years with no attack.
Failure of borers to penetrate into plastic materials has been attributed to four causes: a hard
surface; a waxlike surface; a soft, flexible smooth surface; and thick bacterial slime growth,
which interfered with the borer getting a start. Pholad entry into a silica-filled polyester
casting has been reported, which was surprising in view of the extremely hard nature of the
formula and the fact that it contains silica. One theory suggests that pholads may be able to
burrow into materials harder than their shells of aragonite because the materials are often
friable and the harder grains that are broken off serve as an abrasive at the point of the
burrowing.
For PVC plastics, the harder PVC plastics are just as heavily attacked by both teredos and
pholads as the softer ones. Cellulose acetate butyrate which had a surface hardness
comparable to the PVC formulation with no plasticizer is attacked more severely than the
softer formulations. It is postulated that the less-yielding nature of the harder materials
facilitates removal of shavings from the surface by the boring organisms and that these
shavings are less likely to clog the denticulated ridges of the shell so that the rasping action
can proceed more efficiently. PVC formulations containing inert, inorganic fillers and those
containing the toxicants are relatively free of damage by the teredos.
In most cases the plastics, including polymeric materials, with some exceptions, are not
attacked by marine microorganisms. However, some poly(vinyl chloride) plastics containing
lead stabilizers will become blackened by sulfate-reducing anaerobic bacteria. These
microorganisms as a result of their utilization of the organic material, produce hydrogen
sulfide which reacts with the lead compounds, turning the plastic black. However, there is no
indication that this discoloration affects the properties of the plastic.
Many types of rubber and elastomers have been exposed, with generally good resistance to
borers and to microorganisms and show little deterioration in physical properties. These
materials are important for their use as electrical insulation as well as gaskets and seals.
Most rubber materials were either not attacked or suffered slight surface damage. The main
exceptions were silicone rubber and polyurethane. Silicone rubber suffered severe surface
deterioration, probably from marine animals, as well as borer attack.
No attack by marine organisms for exposures of up to 3 years for butyl, natural, and neoprene
rubbers has been reported. Styrene-butadiene rubber exhibited slight damage in two out of
seven exposures, but silicone rubber underwent serious surface deterioration in every
exposure apparently due to the nibbling of marine animals. Severe surface cracking of silicone
rubber in addition to borer damage has been reported. Significant borer attack on two
formulations of neoprene was reported but not on a third, borer attack on one formulation of
styrene-butadiene rubber and surface cracking on another after 7 years, and severe borer
attack as well as chemical deterioration in 2 years for an ester-based polyurethane, but they
reported no deterioration or attack for an ether-based polyurethane in 5 years. Three
formulations of ethylene-propylene rubber showed no deterioration in 5 years, but a fourth
exhibited surface blistering in 7 years in areas where fouling organisms were attached. A
Page 126
nitrile-butadiene rubber exhibited no deterioration in 15 years.
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-propylene rubber, and chlorinated polyethylene

were exposed for 8 months to 14 months in the Pacific Ocean at Naos Island, Canal Zone. These
materials were attacked by borers on faces in contact with wood but not directly from the
water. The intensity of attack was less than that for a series of poly(vinyl chloride) plastics
previously referred to and having approximately the same hardness range. It was postulated
that this may have been due to a physical peculiarity involving a combination of toughness and
elasticity.
The organic-material/fiber-reinforced composites subjected to extended ocean exposures were

not usually attacked by borers or other marine life.
Cellulosic fibers and ropes are attacked by borers and microorganisms and can be severely
damaged, whereas synthetic materials are generally not affected. The synthetic materials
include polyacrylonitrile, poly-.(acrylonitrile-vinyl chloride) copolymer, polyethylene
terephthalate(polyester), nylon, and poly(vinyl-chloride-acetate) copolymer. Cellulose acetate
and cellulose triacetate fibers are destroyed by borers and microorganisms in 1 to 4 years.
Exposures of up to 3 years of 1/4 inch - 6 mm nylon and 5/16 inch - 8 mm polypropylene

ropes were not attacked by borers or by microorganisms. 1/2 inch - 13 mm cotton and manila
ropes similarly exposed were severely damaged by microorganisms and by borers and
microorganisms respectively. Strength tests were conducted on the rope specimens, and
although the results vary somewhat, in general the nylon and polypropylene ropes retain
approximately 80% and 100% of their respective initial strength after exposures of up to 2
years. The cotton and manila ropes, on the other hand, retain 0 to 50% of their initial strength
under the same conditions. In one 6 month exposure polyethylene rope retained its full initial
strength.
Unprotected concrete will be populated by marine organisms, which can attack the concrete
and over time, cause considerable damage. Concrete with low permeability is more likely to be
more resistant to attack. Fouling decreases with increasing depth.
8.3.4 Fishbite.
Most fish bites occur between 1968 and 3936 feet - 600 and 1200 meters, with the peak of
activity between 2952 and 3280 feet - 900 and 1000 meters. The deepest bite detected was at
5084 feet - 1550 meters. The failure of polyethylene ropes due to fishbite occurred near
Bermuda in depths up to 4920 feet - 1500 meters and was attributed to the Sudis hyalina. The
tooth fragments found and the geometry of the bites, was used to attribute the damage to Sudis
hyalina. It is suspected that the fish are attracted by luminescent organisms entangled on the
lines. It has also been reported that the same effect was not observed for black polyethylene
ropes.
Further failures from fishbite, occurring at certain depths in some locations, resulted in
complete parting of a line in many cases. Failures of 18 buoy stations in deep water off the
coast of Bermuda, in which the 9/16 inch- 14 mm polypropylene mooring cables broke. There
was a high mortality rate in the first few days. After the fifth day, the rate dropped and
remained remarkably constant through 200 days. It has been reasoned that if the attacks were
provoked by the attachment of fouling organisms to the cable, the incidence could be expected
to increase with time, but this did not seem to be the case. Reports on the distribution of
fishbites in the lines of two deep moorings that were set in 6560 feet - 2000 meters of water
off of Bermuda. In one mooring exposed for 1 week in the spring using 9/l6 inch - 14 mm
polypropylene with a poly(vinyl chloride) sheath, fishbites were found from 1312 to 2624 feet
- 400 to 800 meters. The second mooring was exposed for 6 weeks in the fall using 0.145 inch
Page 127
- 3.7 mm steel cable with a 0.0875 inch - 2.2 mm thick polyethylene coating, and in this case
fishbites were found from 492 to 4920 feet - 150 to 1500 meters with diminished frequency
deeper than 3280 feet - 1000 meters.
It has been reported that certain varieties of marine fish are attracted to white polyethylene-
covered cables and lines. It is recommended that black polyethylene-covered cables be used,
since they do not attract fish. The recovery of a deep sea array that had been submerged for 1
year at 4200 feet at the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas, showed no damage of any type to a black
polypropylene-coated steel wire rope which rested on the ocean bottom or to a black
polypropylene rope catenary whose maximum and minimum operational depths were 4200 feet
and 2600 feet respectively.
8.4 Fouling on the Deep Ocean Floor.
There is very limited information on fouling in the deep ocean. Fouling has been shown to vary
with depth. The information that follows is based on work done by the U. S. Navy Civil
Engineering Laboratory using Submersible Test Units.
At the 2350 feet - 716 meter depth marine boring animals belong to the genus Zylophaga can
bore into materials such as acrylic, polystyrene, electrical insulating tape, Delrin and
cellulose acetate. Natural materials such as Manila rope would be effectively destroyed by
borers. Sea anemones will attach themselves to materials including polyethylene covered
cables laid on the ocean floor. Amphipods will inhabit materials including plastics and woods
but will probably not do damage as they will probably feed on the slime bacteria and
microorganisms that will occur on these materials.
At 5500 feet - 1677 meters marine fouling organisms generally do not attach to metals. Trace
to abundant bacterial slime growth can occur on plastics and fittings. Natural materials such
as Manila, cotton and jute may suffer degradation due to microbial activity. Deep-sea
organisms may attach to plastics and other materials but will probably not cause damage.
8.5 Prevention.
The standard method of protection is to apply some form of coating over the exposed surfaces,
such as an anti-fouling point, bituminous enamels, tar coatings or anti-fouling rubber
(NOFOUL). Depending on the location of the equipment, government regulations may severely
limit the range of coatings that can be used. All coatings, particularly anti-fouling paints,
have an effective life after which their protection declines.
Slime formation on anti-fouling paints may eventually, by a simple blanketing action prevent
lethal concentrations of the toxic agents from building up at the slime film-water interface.
Where sufficiently high toxic concentrations can be realized at the slime film-water interface,
the surfaces may be maintained free from macro-growths for may months. The effectiveness of
anti-fouling paint depends upon its ability to hinder or prevent the primary attachment of the
larvae of the organisms. Once attached, the adult organisms grow regardless of the toxicity of
the paints since the poisons have little or no effect on them at concentrations attainable in the
paint-water interface zone.
An alternative is to use materials which are resistant to fouling, or can be clad with such a
material.
However, some organisms are capable of penetrating protective coatings over metals, and
probably other materials. Certain species of barnacles are capable of penetrating or otherwise
damaging protective coatings on metals. As the organism grows and its base spreads out over
the surface of the material, it exerts a very strong downward pressure. This pressure results
Page 128
in the outer edge of the base may penetrating the protective coating, pushing it over the sides
of the organism. In some of the thick bituminous enamels and tar coatings, the organisms may
penetrate through approx. 1/4 inch - 6 mm of coating to the base metal, which subsequently
becomes exposed to corrosion aggravated by its localization. On a hard, dense, protective
coating, penetration by these organisms is prevented, but in many cases the growing organisms
become more firmly bonded to the protective coat than is the latter to the metal. If the
organism is dislodged, the paint under comes away, resulting in accelerated corrosion of the
exposed metal. With some paint coats, that accelerated corrosion in the form of pits directly
beneath the organism occurs even while the paint system is apparently undisturbed. This may
be the result of oxygen concentration cells having been formed beneath two adjacent areas,
over one of which the paint coat is firmly adherent and at least somewhat impervious, and the
other, because of the action of the fouling organism, is not adherent.
Annexes.
Page A1
A. Failure of Static O-ring Seals.
This annex describes failure in static O-ring seals.
A.1 Introduction.
The failure of static elastomeric O-ring seals will cause the failure of a system, not to mention
the cost involved in the failure and its rectification. The following descriptions provide a
guide to O-ring failure, and are from several sources and experience. They have been broadly
grouped into three categories: Installation, operation and other. It should be noted that causes
of failure can occur under several different categories.
A.2 Failure Mechanisms.
A.2.1 General
O-ring seals are liable to failure from deficiencies in design, or to human error during
installation. The following is a summary of O-ring failure, and is intended to give the ocean
engineer an overview of the more common types of failure and a listing of recommended
corrective actions. The different types and causes to seal failure covered are typical of
equipment used in the ocean, though not for mining type work.
As with most failures in engineering, the failure of an O-ring in service can be attributed to a
combination of causes. Most often, with the absence of one of the conditions existing at the
time of failure, the O-ring would have continued performing.
A.2.2 Installation.
A.2.2.1 O-ring Left Out.
Leaving out the O-ring results in total failure of seal.
Prevention/Correction:
Effective quality control with O-ring seals being inspected before assembly and records kept.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, quality controller.
A.2.2.2 Cleanliness of O-ring and Parts.
O-ring gland and other surfaces over which O-ring must pass during assembly contaminated
with metal particles, dirt or fibers, resulting in possible failure of seal.
Effective quality control with O-ring and Parts needing to be cleaned prior to assembly and
assembly done under clean conditions.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, quality controller, storage.

Page A2
A.2.2.3 Incorrect Lubricant.
The use of an incorrect lubricant can result in failure of the O-ring by chemical action or by
not providing the necessary lubrication, leading to failure of the seal. This problem is more
commonly found where equipment is assembled in the field and a lubricant was not in the kit
provided for the equipment. Often the nearest material that looks like a lubricant is used,
particularly if there is pressure to have the equipment reassembled quickly for use.
The solution is to ensure that the kit for assembling/servicing the equipment has sufficient
amount of the proper lubricant in it. Educate people that assembly needs to be done carefully
and not hurried.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, user.
A.2.2.4 Over Use of Lubricant.
This occurs when too much lubricant is used, overfilling the O-ring groove. When assembly
occurs, if the excess lubricant cannot escape, the the O-ring can be forced out of its proper
position and be caught between the two surfaces that the O-ring is to seal and be damaged.
This can result in the O-ring failing to seal and allow entry of the water (or fluid being
sealed).
The solution is good instructions, and instruction of personnel in making O-ring seals.
Responsible person or cause: Installer.
A.2.2.5 Not Enough O-ring Lubrication.
Insufficient lubrication applied to O-ring to allow to slide over surfaces in installation and
move as pressure is applied and removed. Can result in damage to surface of O-ring and
possible loss of sealing.
The solution is good instruction of personnel in making O-ring seals.
Responsible person or cause: Installer.
A.2.2.6 Wrong Size O-ring.
Installation of an O-ring of incorrect diameter or cross section. Wrong diameter can result in
stretching of O-ring if the diameter is too small, or bunching up of the O-ring if too large,
both resulting in the seal not being made. If the O-ring cross section is too small, then the
seal will not be made. If too large then the O-ring may be damaged as the equipment is
assembled, or the equipment may not close properly.
This can also occur when an O-ring needs to be replaced.

Page A3
There are several solutions, firstly all O-rings be labeled carefully as to where they are to
used, and secondly, to select O-ring cross sections and diameters so that the O-ring grooves
will only take the right O-ring.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, design engineer, supplier.
A.2.2.7 Damage to O-ring.
This shows up as short scratches or nicks (cuts) or peeling on surface of O-ring. Any of these
defects may cause the seal to fail.
Possible causes:
a. Use of sharp edged tools.

b. Sharp corners on O-ring grooves.
c. Sharp corners on mating metal components such as the O-ring gland or threads over which
the O-ring must pass during assembly.
d. Insufficient lead-in chamfer.
e. Oversize O-ring on piston seal application.
f. O-ring was not lubricated or improperly lubricated before installation.
g. O-ring twisted or pinched during installation.
h. O-ring dirty upon installation.
i. General carelessness.
a. Use of proper tools for installing or removing O-ring.

b. Break sharp edges.
c. Break all sharp edges on metal components and cover threads with tape.
d. Create a lead in chamfer.
e. Double check O-ring to insure correct size.
f. Lubricate O-ring properly during installation with correct lubricant.
g. Improve instruction to prevent lack of care during installation.
h. Properly clean O-ring before installation and insure O-ring properly stored prior to use.
i. Effective quality control and instruction.
Responsible person or cause: Design engineer, installer, quality control, supplier.
A.2.2.8 Damage to Groove or Mating Surface.
This shows up as marks in groove or mating surfaces.
Possible causes:
a. Use of sharp edged tools.

b. Scores from marking out not removed.
a. Use of proper tools for installing or removing O-ring.

b. Inspection of machining of groove and mating surfaces.
Page A4
Responsible person or cause: Installer, machinist, quality control.
A.2.3 Operation.
A.2.3.1 O-ring Extrusion And Nibbling.
O-ring has a ridge, nibbles and small missing pieces along diameter next to joint.
Possible causes:
a. Excessive clearance. Pressure extrudes O-ring through gap between mating surfaces.
b. Pressure causing the clearance to increase and let the O-ring extrude.
c. Shallow groove. O-ring extruded into gap during assembly.
d. O-ring cross section too large for groove.
e. Improperly machined groove.
a. Too much clearance between parts, decrease clearance by reducing machining tolerances.
b. Use back-up devices such back up rings. Make mating parts more rigid. Replace current O-
ring with a harder O-ring.
c. Make groove deeper, or if possible, use smaller cross section O-ring.
d. Determine correct O-ring size for groove.
e. Remachine groove to correct form
Responsible person or cause: Designer engineer, machinist.
A.2.3.2 Dirt or Fibers in Seal.
This is a failure to keep the O-ring, the groove and parts over which the O-ring must pass
during assembly, clean. This is likely to cause the O-ring seal to fail. The components must be
cleaned prior to assembly and the assembly area must also be clean. This can often occur in
field assembly of equipment when not enough care is taken in keeping the O-ring, the groove
and parts clean, and contaminating the lubrication.
Instruction of personnel, particularly those doing field assemblies, on the need for keeping O-
ring seals, mating parts and lubricant clean.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, poor quality control, storage.
A.2.3.3 Compression Set.
This is characterized by a flattening of the sides of the O-ring which are squeezed to provide
the seal which has become permanent. This loss of elasticity can result in the failure of the
seal.
Possible causes:
a. O-ring material has poor compression set resistance.

b. O-ring has too much squeeze, improper gland design.
c. O-ring is swelling due to fluid incompatibility
d. Incomplete curing (vulcanization) of O-ring material during production.
e. Introduction of fluid or lubricant incompatible with O-ring material.
Page A5
a. Use higher quality, low compression set material.

b. Check groove dimension
c. Select O-ring material compatible with intended service conditions.
d. Inspect incoming O-ring shipments for correct physical properties.
e. Check correct fluids or lubricants used.
Responsible person or cause: Design engineer, installer, poor quality control.
A.2.3.4 O-ring Leakage.
General leakage past the O-ring.
Possible causes:
a. Improper gland design. Too much or too little compression, not enough room for
displacement under compression or tolerance stack up.
b. Insufficient squeeze.
c. Cut O-ring.
d. Scratch on gland.
e. Improper lubricant distribution.
f. Corrosion path.
g. Dirty or contaminated O-ring.
a. Check of groove dimensions, O-ring size and characteristics.

b. Size O-ring groove to provide correct squeeze, or select correct O-ring for groove depth.
c. Improve installation methods, provide better training, provide adequate chamfer or align-
ment.
d. Improve installation methods, provide better training, improve inspection in manufacture.
e. Provide better training, or provide effective lubricant.
f. Improve design or installation method, ensure proper heat treatment, inspect for flaws in
the material.
g. Improve installation methods, provide better training, and inspect O-ring for contam-
ination.
Responsible person or cause: Design engineer, installer, machinist, poor quality control, heat
treater, supplier.
A.2.3.5 Weathering or Ozone Cracking.
O-ring surface shows signs of deterioration or cracks. This is caused by the exposure of O -
ring to weather, atmosphere, pollutants or UV light, resulting from attack on polymer chains
causing destruction of material and cracking.
a. Select a material that is more resistant.

b. O-ring used may have been overage when installed. Check packaging prior to installation for
use by date.
Responsible person or cause: Installer, supplier.

Page A6
A.2.4 Other.
A.2.4.1 No Obvious Reason.
There is no apparent reason for the failure to seal and no damage to O-ring or groove. It will be
necessary to check all aspects of assembly, O-ring and groove, manufacture, and how
equipment was transported and used.
Responsible person or cause: Design engineer, installer, machinist, quality control, shipper,
user.
A.2.4.2 Modification of Equipment.
Sometimes, in order to fit different electronics, etc., the pressure housing is modified without
reference back to the original design. Such a modification could be increasing the internal
diameter of the main tube at its end. In extreme cases this can leave a face seal without an
effective sealing on its internal surface. When pressure is applied the O-ring moves inwards
and water flows around it, entering the housing. The failure of the equipment is probably the
best deterrent.
Responsible person or cause: End user.

Ocean Engineering - Pressure Housing Design Notes Compiled by Ian S. Coote

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Ocean Engineering - Pressure Housing Design Notes Compiled by Ian S. Coote

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Ocean

Copyright 2012 by Ian S. Coote.

Neither Ian S. Coote, or any of his associates

2. Pressure and Depth. 2

3. Pressure Housing Design. 4

4. Pressure Housing Stress Analysis. 19

4.4.3,5 Displacement due to Pressure and Temperature. 30

5.1 Seal Types. 55

7.3.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys. 105

8. Fouling and Interaction with Marine Animals. 119

8.1 Introduction. 119

A. Failure of Static O-ring Seals. A1

3.4.2(a) Flange type end closure. 5

3.4.2(b) External screw down ring type end closure. 6

3.4.2(c) Quick access type end closure. 7

3.4.2(e) Marman clamp type end closure. 9

3.4.2(f) Internal screw down ring type end closure. 10

3.4.2(g) Welded seal type end closure. 11

3.5.2(a) Spherical housing made from glass hemispheres. 12

3.5.2(b) Housing made out of ceramic hemispherical end 13

3.6.2(a) Glass cylinder viewport. 14

3.6.2(b) Glass hemispherical viewport with cylindrical 15

3.6.2(c) Flat plate viewport. 16

3.6.2(d) Conical frustum viewport. 16

3.6.2(e) Spherical segment viewport. 17

3.6.2(f) Spherical segment viewport with conical seat. 17

4.3.2(a) Thick walled cylinder. 20

4.3.3(a) Flat end. 22

4.3.4(a) Thick walled sphere. 23

4.4.2.1(a) Cylindrical shell. 25

4.4.3.1(a) Flat end closure. 28

4.4.4.1(a) Spherical segment ( domed ) end 32

4.4.5(a) Assembly of pressure housing for 34

4.5.3(a) Arrangement of reinforcing area of circular opening in 38

4.7.2(a) Parameters for shell yield. 42

4.7.4(a) Tangent and secant moduli from stress/strain curve. 45

4.7.5 Comparison of (linear) buckling analysis with non- 46

4.8(a) Maximum permissible deviation from a circular 47

4.8(b) Maximum arc length for determining plus or minus 48

4.9.2.2(a) Flat disk viewport. 49

4.9.3(a) Short term critical pressure of flat disk acrylic 51

4.9.3(b) Short term critical pressure of conical frustum 52

5.1(a) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - face seal 55

5.1(b) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - piston seal 56

5.1(c) Gasket seal arrangement for two seals - dual piston 56

5.1(d) Gasket seal arrangement for single seal - static crush 57

5.2.4(a) Piston O-ring groove dimensions. 65

5.2.4(b) Limits for O-ring extrusion. 68

5.2.4(c) Face O-ring groove dimensions. 69

5.2.4(d) Method of prevention of O-ring seal extrusion for face 71

5.3(a) Arrangement of metal O-ring seal, mechanism for 75

5.4(a) Arrangement of metal K type seal, mechanism for 76

5.6(a) Arrangement of mating surfaces for electron beam 79

8.2(a) Megamouth shark (megachasma pelagios) 120

8.2(b) Small tooth cookie cutter shark (isistius rasiliensis) 120

8.2(c) Small tooth cookie cutter shark mouth structure. 121

8.2(d) Long tooth cookie cutter shark (isustius plutodus) 121

4.9.3(a). Conversion Factors for Acrylic Flat Disk Windows. 53

4.9.3(b). Conversion Factors for Acrylic Conical Frustum 53

5.2.2(a) O-ring Compounds. 60

5.5.2(b) Compatibility of O-ring Compounds with Fresh and 63

5.2.4(a). Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring Seals. 66

5.2.4(b). Groove Dimensions Piston O-ring 66