LIST OP CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Deoiaions on Arrangement 1

Shell-side and Tube-side Fluids 2

Counter-ourrent or oo-ourrent Plow 2
Number of Tube-side and Shell-side Passes 2
Type of Shell 3
Tube Pitoh 4
(vi Baffles and impingement plates 4
(vii Unbaffled Heat Exchangers 5
(viii Tube Vibrations in Heat Exchangers 5
(ix Pina 6

1.2 Steps in Design 7

CALCULATION OP AREA REQUIRED U

2.1 Basic Equations 11

2.2 Calculation of Mean Temperature Pifferenoe 14

Counter-current Arrangement 14
Co-current Arrangement 15
1 - 2N Arrangement 15
Cross Flow 15
Exchangers in Series 15

2.3 Approximate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 16

2.4 Calculation of Film Coefficients 17

Jp and Jo values 17
Plow inside Tubes 18
Cross-flow outside Tubes 18
Unbaffled Heat Exchanger - Longitudinal Flow 19
Flow in Annular Space^ Jaoketed Tubes or Tubes
with Core Rods 20
Baffled Heat Exchanger 20
Finned Tubes 21
G-as Radiation 21

2.5 Estimation of Dirt Coefficients 22

ECONOMIC VELOCITIES AND CALCULATION OF PRESSURE DROP 24

3.1 Economic Velocities 24

3.2 Tube-side Pressure Drop 25
3*3 Shell-side Pressure Drop 28

CONDENSATION 30

4.1 Condensate Film Conductance (h_-) 30

Theoretioal Condensate Film Conductance 31

Condensation inside horizontal Tubes 32.-
Condensation on the outside of horizontal Tubes 32
Condensation on Vertioal Tubes 33
 Page

4.2 The Calculation of Looal Heat Flux when Inert Gases

are present 34

4.3 The Design of Condensers with small amounts of Inerta 36

(i) Note on the effeot of superheat 37

4.4 Condensers for Steam Power Plants 38

4.5 The Design of Condensers with large amounts of Inerta 38

(i) Desuperheating Zone 39

(ii) Condensing Zone 39
(iii) Cross-Plow or Mixed Flow Condensers 40
(iv) Simplified Method of Calculation 42

4.6 Pressure Drop in Condensation 42

4.7 Design of oounter-ourrent Condensers 44

BOILING 46

5.1 Two phase Conveotion Boiling Heat Transfer 46

5.2 Nuoleate Boiling Heat Transfer 46
5.3 Design of Waste Heat Boilers and Reboilers 48
5.4 Calculation of Pressure Drop in Boiling 53
5.5 Carry-over from boilers 54
5.6 Mist Flow Region 55

COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR THE DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS 56

6.1 Computer Programs for Heat Exchangers with no Phase

Change or with iso-thermal boiling or oondensing 56

Presence of Condensables 57
Fouling 57
Comparison between ST4 and ST3 58

6.2 Computer Programs for Condensers 58

(i) Shell-side Condensation in the presenoe of

inerts 58
(ii) Tube-side Condensation in the presenoe of
inerts 59

6.3 Computer Programs for Reboilers and Evaporators 60

7 CALCULATION OF METAL TEMPERATURE 61

7.1 Mean Shell Temperature (no phase change) 61

7.2 Mean Tube Temperature (no phase ohange) 61
7.3 Maximum Tube Temperature 63
7.4 Tube Temperature inside Tube-sheet 63
7.5 Mean Shell Temperature with Condensing Superheated
Vapour 64

8 GAS RADIATION 65
 Page

9 PHYSICAL DATA 72

9.1 Thermal Conductivity of Solids 72

9.2 Density of Fluids 72

(i) &ases 72
(ii) Liquids 74

9*3 Dynamio Viscosity of Fluids 74-

9.4 Specifio Heat Capaoity of Fluids 75
9.5 Thermal Conductivity of Fluids 75
9.6 The Properties of Gas Mixtures ., 76
9.7 The Sffect of Pressure upon the Properties of Gases 76
9.8 Coefficient of Conduotanoe for Parallel Flow 78
9.9 Coefficient of Conductance for Cross Flow 78
9.10 Coefficient of Conductance for Filmwise Condensation 78
9.11 Surfaoe Tension 79

10 LIST OF SYMBOLS 103

11 CONVERSION FACTORS 108

12 LIST OF REFERENCES 110

TABLES

I Typioal Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 17

II Typical Dirt Coefficients for Normal Fluids 23
III Typical Optimum Mass Velocities 25
^ IV Thermal Conductivity of Solids 73
V Critioal Pressures and Temperatures 77
VI Dynamio Visoosity of Gases at Low Pressure 101
VII Specific Heat Capacity of Gases at Low Pressure 102
VIII Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Low Pressure 102
THERUAL DESIGN OF SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

INTRODUCTION

This Code of Practioe is oonoerned with the thermal design

and the calculation of pressure drop in shell-and-tube heat
exchangers. Sections on boiling and condensing are included.
Fired heaters and air-cooled ooolers are exoluded.

It is assumed that information will be given on the rate,

the composition, the inlet and the outlet temperatures of the
two fluids. Physical properties needed are specific heat,
thermal conductivity, density and visoosity (additional
properties are needed for boiling and oondensing).

Methods of calculation have been taken from the ICI Brochures,

from published literature, and from confidential publications
by Heat Transfer Research Inc. in Alhambra, California, and by
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Servioe, at Harwell*

Section 9 gives the required physical data. (See list of f

References, plO8). (.

The design of air-oooled heat exchangers is dealt with in

Ref. 27. The subject of the vertical falling film evaporator
is dealt with in Ref. 28.

No mention is made of the various types of plate heat exchanger.

They should be considered as alternative to shell-and-tube heat
exchangers, being cheaper, less likely to foul, and easier to
dean. However, they are limited to pressures below 10 - 15
bar; the volumes rates of flow of the two fluids must be of
the same order of magnitude) a suitable gasket material must
be available to resist the temperature and oorrosion of the
fluids. The spiral heat exchanger and the "Lamella" welded
plate heat exchangers are more robust developments of the
normal plate heat exchanger.

1,1 Decisions on Arrangement

Before detailed thermal design can proceed, certain

decisions must be taken on the arrangement of the heat
exchanger. At the same time, consideration must be
given to problems in mechanical design. An answer
must be found to eaoh of the questions in the following
sections.

The nomenclature to be used in the description of shell-

and-tube heat exohangers is defined on pages 2 to 6 of
the Standards of TEUA (Ref.5).

Further information on the selection of the best type of

ahell-and-tube heat exchanger is oontained in Ref 12.
 (i) Shell-side and Tube-side Fluids

The first step is to deoide whioh fluid should

flow through the tubes and whioh through the shell*
There is an advantage in putting the higher pressure
fluid through the tubes, as the shell oan the* be
designed for the lower pressure and the tubes are
less.likely to leak. Similarly there would be an
advantage if one fluid were corrosive in putting
that fluid on the tube side, as the shell would
then not need to be made in corrosion-resistant
material. It is often preferred to put the store
dirty fluid on the tube side, as the inside of the
tubes oan be cleaned mechanically without removing
the bundle. If one fluid has a much larger
volume rate of flow than the other, it is usual to
put this fluid on the shell-side and to have several
passes in series on the tube-side.

It may be necessary to design a heat exchanger with

both arrangements of fluids and to make an eoonomio
comparison between the two, before deciding whioh
fluid should go on which side.

(ii) Counter-current or Co-current Flow

The counter-current flow exchanger gives the

highest thermal effioienoy and the oo-ourrent flow
exchanger gives the lowest thermal efficiency*
The latter is only used when the hot gas enters at
a very high temperature and it is necessary to keep
the tube wall temperature well below the gas inlet
temperature.

(iii) Bumber of Tube-side and Shell-side passes

An n-m exchanger has n passes on the shell-side and

m passes on the tube-side. To obtain true counter-
current flow, it is necessary to use a 1-1 or 2-2 shell
or several suoh shells in series or parallel. The
2-2 shell has the disadvantage that it requires a
oentral longitudinal baffle, and it is difficult to
form a seal between this baffle and the shell, unless
they are welded together, but this means that the
bundle cannot be removableee Section (iv) 2nd paragraph).

A oommon arrangement is the 1-2K shell (see Section

2.2. (iii) ), but this has both oo-ourrent and
counter-current flow. To lessen this disadvantage,
several shells can be arranged in series in oounter-
ourrent flow.
(iv) Type of Shell

The simplest and generally the cheapest type is the 1-1

shell with fixed tube-sheets, (Fig 1.1, p.8). The
disadvantages are that the tubes cannot be removed from
the shell for cleaning the outside of the tube3, and the
tube-sheet must be thick enough to resist the load'due
to differential thermal expansion between shell and
tubes. The load due to thermal expansion can be
reduced to a negligible amount by the use of expansion
bellows, either in the shell or in the outlet pipe.
However, these are expensive, liable to fail and
difficult to replace.

U-tubes (Fig 1.2) overcome the expansion problem and

oan be made into a removable bundle. However, counter-
current flow cannot be aohieved except with a
longitudinal baffle, (Fig 1.3). If the tube bundle is
removable, the longitudinal baffle must also be
removable, so it is necessary to provide a flexible
seal between this baffle and the shell. Such a seal
usually consists of an arrangement of spring plates,
but these are easily damaged when replacing the bundle
in the shell. Alternatively, the shell may be
fabricated in two halves which can be welded to this
baffle; this eliminates the leakage of fluid, but the
bundle is not removable. Vhere there is a large change
in the temperature of the tube-side fluid at a high
temperature level, the U-tubes should be arranged on a
radial pattern, as the normal vertical pattern results
in too large a temperature gradient across the
horizontal diameter of the tube-sheet.

Floating head heat exchangers (Figs 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6) are
the most expensive. There is inevitably a big by-pass
space between the tubes and the shell; this is less with
a split ring floating head (Fig 1.5) than with a pull-
through floating head, (Fig 1.4). By-passing can be
reduced by the use of sealing strips. To avoid using
bellows the outside packed floating head heat exchanger
(Fig 1.6) may be used when a 1-1 arrangement is
required and the temperature differences are too great
for fixed tube sheets. Any leakage from the gland i3
to atmosphere but can be a serious nuisance in service.
This type of heat exchanger is useful when cooling
water is on the shell side.

The J shell (Fig 1.7) gives divided flow and so reduces

the pressure drop on the shell side.
 The kettle reboiler (Fig 1.8, p.10) is used when the
shell-side fluid is a boiling liquid and there is no
external vessel for disengaging vapour from liquid.
The shell must be of sufficient diameter to prevent
exoessive entrainment of droplets by the vapour from
the surfaoe of the boiling liquid (see Seotion 55)

(v) Tube Pitch

If using a removable bundle, square pitoh should be

used to enable the outside of the tubes to be cleaned
mechanically. Conversely, in an exchanger with a
fixed tube bundle, which cannot be meohanioally
cleaned, the tubes should be put on triangular pitch
to reduce the shell diameter. Reducing the pitoh
increases the heat transfer coefficient and reduoes
the shell diameter. The minimum permitted pitoh is
defined in Ref 5, but this may have to be exoeeded
with welded tubes. It may be neoessary to increase the
pitoh to reduoe pressure drop.

(vi) Baffles and Impingement Plates

Baffles are normally segmental, the out of the baffle

being horizontal, and the inlet and outlet nozales at
the top and bottom of the shell, as shown in elevation
in the sketches - Figs 1.1 to 1.8. Vertical baffle
outs are used in condensers only, to facilitate
drainage of the oondensate. The reoommended out of
the baffle ranges from 15 to 33& of the shell diameter,
depending on the ratio of baffle spacing to shell
diameter, as shown in Fig 3.6.1.5-1, page D3. 6.1.5-1,
of the HTRI Design Manual (Ref 6).

Double segmental baffles may be used to reduoe the

shell-side pressure drop, the recommended arrangement
being as shown in Fig 1.9, p.10. With floating head
exchangers, "disc and doughnut11 baffles may be used;
these are similar to double segmental baffles except
that the hole in baffle type A and the outside of
baffle type B are circular.

The baffle spacing must be sufficiently large to avoid

exoessive pressure drop; it must also be sufficiently
small to give an adequate heat transfer ooeffioient and
to support the tubes so that they do not vibrate. The
maximum baffle spacing is normally half the maximum
unsupported length, beoause the tubes in the windows are
supported only by alternate baffles. However, if there
are no tubes in the windows, the baffle spacing may be
increased up to the maximum unsupported length. A heat
exohanger with no tubes in the window should therefore
be considered when the shell-side fluid is a low-
pressure gas. For information on tube vibrations, see
Section (viii) opposite.
 Impingement plates are baffles fitted opposite
to the inlet nozzles to protect the tubes from
erosion. TEMA (Ref 5) specify conditions
when they are required. They are always
required with saturated vapours, liquid/gas
mixtures or corrosive fluids. For liquids
(including a liquid at its boiling point) they
are not required if the nozzle velooity is less
than 0.9/L000//0 m/s and for gases they are not
required if the nozzle velocity is less than
1.5/1OOO//0 m/s, where/>is the fluid density in
kg/m3.

(vii) Unbaffled heat exchangers

!Zhese are sometimes used when a long thin heat

exchanger is needed. The tubes must be fitted with
spaoers to support and steady them. The spacers
usually consist of sleeves around the tubes at
intervals, the positions being staggered; such an
arrangement about doubles the pressure drop.
Tube with longitudinal fins are occasionally used
in unbaffled heat exchangers.

(viii) Tube Vibrations in Heat Exchangers

Vibration of the tubes of heat exchangers occasionally

cause serious failure of the tubes, by fatigue at the tube-
plate or baffles, by wear at the baffles, or by adjacent tubes
banging against each other. For damage to occur,
two separate conditions cans rise.

1 The natural frequency of vibration of the tubes

may be of the same order of magnitude as the
frequency of the pressure wares that arise in
the flow of the fluid between the tubes. In
this way, resonance ooours and the tubes are liable
to fatigue damage. This is more usual with
large unsupported lengths and with tubes of small
diameter. The method of calculating natural
frequency is given in Seotion 3.1 of Hef.15 and
of calculating pulsation frequency in Section 3.2.

2 The energy oontent of the fluid may be high

enough to cause mechanical damage due to a
foroed vibration which is not resonant. The
damage oriteria are dealt with in Seotion 4 of
Hef.15.

It is good praotioe to avoid if possible velocities

greater than 1.8 m/s when water is on the shell side}
for liquids other than water, this figure should be
modified in inverse proportion to the square root of
the density of the fluid. This velooity should not
be exceeded in the nozzle, in the esoape area between
the nozzle and the impingement plate or tubes,
between the tubes, or in the windows. Large heat
exchangers with gas on the shell side should be
checked by the Noise and Vibration Section.
 It is also desirable that there is
adequate oontaot pressure between the tubes and
the baffles, otherwise the unsupported length
will be greater than was intended and hence the
natural frequency much lower. Inspectors should
be waned to oheok that the holes in the baffles
are not oversize. One method of ensuring adequate
oontaot is to have a slight camber on the tubes.
Another method is to fit plastic sleeves between
the tubes and the baffles. However these remedies
are expensive and may not be necessary if normal
clearances are maintained.

When designing a heat exohanger, the first step is

to calculate the frequencies. If the lowest
natural frequency of the tubes is more than twiov
the highest pulsation frequenoy that oould occur,
then trouble is unlikely. The natural frequencies
can be calculated from equations (l) anl (2) of
Ref 15 and the pulsation frequenoy from equation
(3) or (4), whichever gives the higher frequenoy.
The velocity should be taken as that at the point
where the velocity is highest, at the highest flow
rate that might ever go through the shell of the
exchanger. The bundle damage numbers defined by
equations (5) and (6) should not exceed one.
In doubtful oases, consult the Noise and Vibration
Section.

Research work is in progress at Harwell on this

topic in the hope that a more precise method will
be devised for the determination of the conditions
leading to tube damage by vibration.

(ix) Fins

When the fluid on the shell side has a poor heat

transfer coefficient, consideration should be given
to the possibility of using low-fin tubes. They
have up to 19 fins per inch(75O nT1) on the outside of the
tubes, except that they are plain at the ends and
at the points where the tubes pass through the
baffles. The outside diameter of the fins is very
slightly less than the outside diameter of the
plain portion. The bore of the tubes is 3.2 mm
less than the bore of similar plain tubes and the
root diameter of the tubes is approximately 3 mm
less than the outside diameter. In this way, it
is possible to produce a tube that can be removed
and replaoed in situ and that has an external
surfaoe area some 2& times that of a similar plain
tube. Such tubes are likely to be economical if
the outside heat transfer coefficient is less than
a quarter of the inside coefficient.
1.2 Steps in Design

The steps to be taken when designing a heat exchanger arei-

(i) Caloulate the mean temperature difference, 0 - See

Section 2.2

(ii) Guess an overall heat transfer coefficient, U - See

Section 2.3.

(iii) Caloulate an approximate value of the heated surface

area required, A, from the heat load, q, and the
equation

A - ^| See Section 2.1.

n

(iv) Calculate the number of tubes per tube-side pass that

will give an eoonomic velocity and not exoeed the
maximum specified pressure drop - See Section 3*

(v) Deoide upon number of tube-side passes and

arrangement of shells to give acceptable arrangement*
Deoide upon shell size using tube-count data (eg
Ref 6, pages D3. 6.1.4-1 to 8)

(vi) Carry out detailed heat transfer and pressure drop

oaloulations to obtain the exaot design, using the
appropriate sections or computer program, (see Seotions
2 4 5 6). It must be remembered that the accuracy
claimed for the various correlations for heat transfer
and pressure drop is generally no better than + 40$ and
even greater errors can occur in the estimated"amount
of fouling. Even so, it is usual to allow a margin on
surface area of no more than 5-lC$, unless it is vital
to avoid underdesign.
 I I

FIG. 1-1 1-1 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA CEN FIXED TUBE SHEETS
INTEGRAL CHANNELS. REMOVABLE COVERS

FIG. 1.2. 1-2 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA AEU *U TUBE BUNDLE

REMOVABLE CHANNEL AND COVER

FIG. 1.3. 2-2 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA AFU REMOV*t

ll' TUBE BUNDLE, CHANNEL AND COVCR
FIG. 1. 1-2 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA TYPE BET
BONNET. PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

FIG. 1.5. 1-2 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA TYPE BES

BONNET. SPLIT RING FLOATING HEAD

HEAT EXCHANGER WITH OUTSIDE PACKED

FIG. 1.6 H
FLOATING HEAD
 I V

FIG. 1.7 1-1 HEAT EXCHANGER TEMA TYPE AJL

DIVIDED FLOW SHELL

FIG. 1.8 KETTLE TYPE REBOILER TEMA TYPE BKU

BAFFLE
TYPE
A

6 B

Lf

FIG. I.-9 HEAT EXCHANGER WITH DOUBLE SEGMENTAL BAFFLES

 11

CALCULATION OF AREA REQUIRED

2.1 Basic Equations

Fig 2.1 shows the fluid

temperatures (t and t. ) plotted
against the rate of heat removal
from the hot fluid (a ) for a
counter-current heat exchanger.

'ho
t - temperature of hot fluid C

t temperature of oold fluid C

Additional suffix i denotes inlet

temperature
Fig 2.1
Additional suffix o denotes outlet
temperature

q_ m rate of heat removal from the hot fluid between

its inlet and a point x m from hot end - W.

q rate of heat removal from the hot fluid in the

whole of heat exohanger - W

It is neoessary to know the values of W. and W .

wherei h
- heat oapaeity of the hot fluid - f/C

WQ - heat capaoity of the cold fluid - W/C

 12

The heat oapaoity of a fluid is given by Equation

2.1 or 2.2

(2.1)

where -

- Molar flow rate - kg mol/s

m . Mass flow rate - kg/a

o_ - Specifio heat capaoity of fluid - J/kgC

C - Molar capacity of fluid - J/kg molC
* = Molecular weight x op

Similar diagrams can be drawn for the boiling or condensing

of pure fluids. With pure fluids, for boiling, t is
oonstant at the boiling temperature) for oondensiSg,
t is oonstant at the saturation temperature.

From the above data, it is necessary to oaloulate the

required value of A for the configuration of heat
exchanger that has Seen decided upon, where A is the
external surface area of the tubes - m .

To do this, it is necessary to be able to oaloulate

the heat flux at various points in the exchanger.
Methods of estimating this are given later.

Let 0x - heat flux (ref o.d.) at point x - W/m2

For a small element of area A

SO,- px $Ao (2.3)

Integrating over the whole exohanger gives the total area

ast

(2.4)

This integral oan be solved algebraically for most heat

exohangers, and solutions are given in the next seotion.
For some oases of boiling or condensation, however, it
is necessary to solve it by determining the value of 0X
at the hot end, at the oold end, and at one or more,
intermediate points) it is then necessary to plot 4
against a , and the area under the curve gives the "x
required surface area of the heat exohanger.

It is often found that the heat flux is proportional

to the temperature difference. Thus

K - U * (2.5)
 13

where
n

0x heat flux at point x - W/m

U - overall heat transfer coefficient - W/m C

o '
0 temperature difference (t. - t ) at point x - C

If it can be assumed that U , W and W are constant

throughout the heat exchanger

Hence it oan be shown that

q " Wh <*hi " *ho> " V*oo - V V 9m <2-7)

where 9^ is the mean temperature difference (see Seotion 2.2).

The overall heat transfer coefficient (referred to the out

side diameter and denoted by U ) is calculated for a plain
tube from
indjd 1^11

sr"* nt1 +i+i (2-8>

d. inside tube diameter - m

& - outside tube diameter - m

o

d_ - mean tube diameter - m

o
h^- inside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m C

hdi" ineide dirt toat transfer coefficient - W/m^C

hfo- outside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m2oC
hdo" 0Ut8ide d11* ^ea* transfer coefficient - W/m2oC
h^ - wall heat transfer coefficient - W/m2oC
The wall coefficient is given by

(d0 -

where k - thermal conductivity of the tube - W/mC

Values of k are given in Table IV Seotion 9.1 p 73.

For finned tubes, use equation (1) of Ref.27

The methods available for calculating the film coefficients

are discussed in Section 2.4.

Some guidance on the estimation of dirt ooeffioients is

given in Seotion 2.5.
 14
2.2 Calculation of Mean Temperature Difference - (for sensible
heat transfer only, or for boiling or oondensing of pure
fluids).

Charts are available in the HTRI Design Manual (Ref 6),

Chapter D.I.2, for determining the mean temperature
difference (fim in equation 2.7). Alternatively, use may
be made of Pig 3, 4 or 5 of the ICI "Heat Transfer*1
Brochure (Ref 2), or of the charts in Ref 5.

The mean temperature difference can best be calculated from

the overall temperature difference (0O) and the thermal
efficiency (B) required for the two fluids, or from the
terminal temperature differences (i and 2).

These are oaloulated from the speoified terminal temperature

by:

- t 4 (2.10)
oi .........#

B = (t - t
o 00 ci o

9 9 c (t - t ) at the two ends of the exohanger . (2.13)

The Ha^S^area are defined in Figs 2.2 and 2.3.

(i) v^G&$$$Hi!rourr6nt Arrangement

FdrTTjgiven set of data, this

arVa$gement will give the
highest mean temperature
difference and henoe the heat
exohanger with the least area.
Here the log mean temperature
difference is applicable; thus -

9
m
9l-92 (2.14)

lo*e \
Hh/jre j and 2 are the

larger and smaller terminal
'temperature differences.

Fig 2.2 illustrates the

arrangement. Counter-
ourrent conditions can
also be attained with 2 Gl - *oo
" *o
' 'shell-aide passes and 2
tube-side passes.
" * oi

Pig 2.2
 15
(ii) Co-ourrent Arrangement hi _^_

This arrangement gives the

lowest mean temperature
difference, and cannot be
used if tco tno.
Here again the log mean
temperature difference
given by equation 2.14 is
0 qx
applicable (see Pig 2.3). q

i
e.

9_ = t. - t
2 ho co

Pig 2.3

(iii) 1-2N Arrangement

This is for a normal baffled 4

heat exchanger with single
pass on the shell side and
an even number of passes on
the tube-side, as illustrated
in Pig 2.4 (for N = l).
Here, for all values of N,

Pig 2.4

0 E
m

9 2 - (2.15)

)2 - - E - Rf)

where E
'A1
A graph for the solution of this equation is given
in the HTRI Design Manual - Ref 6, Pig D1.2.8.-1.

This type of heat exchanger becomes very uneconomical

when there is a temperature cross, i.e. when too> tno>
as in this region, Sm falls very rapidly with
increasing efficiency.

Equation 2.15 can also be applied to a divided flow

shell (TEMA type J, Ref 5), provided that there is
not a temperature cross.

(iv) Cross Plow

If there are only a few (ns) cross passes per shell, the
value of % obtained above must be multiplied by the
following oorreotion faotor, from equation 19 of Ref 2:-
 16

1 -

6ns
This formula holds if n v, 2 and the factor is not less than 0.85.

For a single pass of both fluids, use Fig 5 of Ref 2.

(v) Exchangers in series

When the length of tube required for a specified duty is excessive,

it may be convenient to have two or more shells arranged in series.
In the oase of the co-current and counter-ourrent arrangements,
this will not affect the total surfaoe area required. In the 1-2N
arrangement, the use of several shells in series, oountercurrently,
may substantially reduoe the total area required and oan make this
arrangement possible in conditions where the duty could not
possibly be achieved with one shell.

For n identioal shells of any kind in series

arranged as shown in Fig 2.5 for n = 4, the
ratio of the temperature differences at the
two'1 ends of a shell will be the same for all
shells; so

.(2.16)
9, 9
n+1

and the heat loads will be proportional to

the temperature differences. Hence
q2

T t
# ....(2.17)

where q = q1 + qg c
* . *

But-if the temperature lines are nearly

parallel, i.e. if 91*9n+i, then it may

u
be assumed that the heat load is shared
equally between the shells, thus:

.(2.18)
Fig 2.5

2.3 Approximate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients

Before oarrying out a detailed design of a heat exchanger, it is

necessary to make an approximate estimation of the number and length
of tubes required, so that the best arrangement can be decided upon.
The number of tubes must be great enough to keep the pressure drop
below the specified maximum, but not so great that the resulting low
velooity might lead to exoessive fouling (see Seotion 3). The total
length is then estimated from the surfaoe area, which oan be
calculated approximately from equation 2.7, using a guessed value of
Uo, the overall heat transfer coefficient referred to the outside
surfaoe area.
 17
The value of Uo oan be estimated from data on similar exchangers
in Process Data Sheets as in Table 14 of the "Heat Transfer"
Broohure. Table I gives a rough guidanoe.

TABLE I

Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients*

Duty uo
W/m2oC

gas/gas exchanger $? Pre88ure

without condensation K^S^if
(20 - 30 atm
25 -
250 -
50
400

Waste heat boiler, ( gas pressure

water cooled compressor ( 1 - 3 atm 125 - 300

interoooler, or gas (10-30 atm 250 - 550

oooler without (
condensation ( 100 - 2*00 atm 300- 750

liquid/liquid exohanger 350 - 1000

olean liquid/oondensing steam 1500 - 5000

2.4 Calculation of Film Coefficients

The film ooeffioient can be calculated from the velooity of the

fluid, the physioal properties of the fluid and the diameter of
the tubes. The following equations are for calculating the
film coefficient in parallel flow and cross flow. They make no
allowance for the enhancement due to condensation, which is dealt
with in Seotion 5. &as Radiation is dealt with in Seotion 8.
Now that oomputer programs are available for designing heat
exohanger3, the equations given below are used only for a
preliminary estimate.

(i) Jp and Jo values

The film coefficients are most conveniently calculated from

the values of Jp and Jo, the coefficients of conductance
for parallel flow and oross flow. These are funotions of
the physioal properties of the fluids and so depend on the
temperature (and the pressure in the oase of a gas that
does not obey the gas laws). Values of Jp and Jo are
calculated from the dynamic viscosity, specific heat
oapaoity and thermal conductivity of the fluids (see
Sections 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 respectively). The methods of
calculating Jp and Jo, together with values for oommonly
used fluids, are given in Seotions 9.8 and 9.9.

* For a more aoourate estimate of the overall heat transfer

coefficient, see Figs 8 to 14 of Ref 12.
 18

Seotion 9.6 deals with gas mixtures and Section 9.7 with
the effeot of pressure upon the properties of gases.
The film coefficients are also dependent upon the mass
velocity of the fluid (denoted by G) which is the mass
flow rate (kg/s) divided by the cross-seotional area
for flow (m2). Alternatively it is the fluid density
(kg/n>3) multiplied by the mean velooity of flow (m/s).
Thus the units of & are kg/s m2.

(ii) Flow inside Tubes

hfi = J G~*~ C2'1*)

where hf. = inside film heat transfer coefficient - Wl/m C

d. = inside diameter of tubes - m

J = coefficient of conductance for heat transfer

p in parallel flow, at the mean fluid
temperature (from equation 9.13 P78)

G = mass velocity of fluid - kg/s m

The mass velooity can be calculated from:

6 = 1.273m (220)

2
where m = mass flow rate - kg/s
n = number of tubes per tube-side pass
P
The above is applicable only to fully turbulent flow,whioh
ooours when the Reynolds Number (defined in equation 3.4-,
p.26) is greater than 10,000. For the laminar (or
streamline) flow range, which occurs when the ReynoldB
Number is less than 2,000, use may be made of Fig 11, p.20
of the ICI "Heat Transfer" Brochure (Ref 2). For very
visoous liquids it is more aoourate to use the latest HTRI
correlations whioh are summarised in Seotion 7, P12, of
Ref 51. For the transition flow range, oaloulate the
heat transfer coefficient at a Reynolds Number of 2,000
and at a Reynolds Number of 10,000, and then determine the
heat transfer ooeffioient at the actual Reynolds Number by
linear interpolation. Alternatively, if the Reynolds Number
is not far below 10,000, the correction factor may be taken
from the MHeat Transfer11 Brochure (Ref 2) Fig 10, p.19.

(iii) Cross Flow outside Tubes

For pure cross-flow at right angles to a bundle of tubes:

(2.21)
 19
where hf = outside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m C

d = outside diameter of tubes - m

o

J = coefficient of conductance for heat transfer

in cross flow, at the mean fluid temperature
(from equation 9.14, p.78)

G = maximum mass velocity of fluid - kg/s m

The mass velocity can be calculated from:

& (2.22)

where m = mass flow rate - kg/s

b = baffle space - m

d = inside diameter of shell - m

8

n^ = number of tubes across the diameter of the shell.

Equation(2.23) is for turbulent cross-flow past 8 or more rows

of tubes. For less than 8 rows, see Table 2, p.21, of Ref 2.
When the Reynolds Number based upon the maximum velocity and
outside diameter of the tube (GmdoAV) is less than 10,000,
the heat transfer coefficient calculated from equation (2.21;
should be multiplied by the following correction faotor,
obtained from Fig 4, p.D3.3-8 of Ref 6.

Reynolds Number 30 100 300 1000 3000

Correction factor for:

staggered tubes 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0
inline tubes 1.1 0.95 0.8 0.85 0.9

(iv) Unbaffled Heat Bxohanger - Longitudinal Flow

In an unbaffled heat exchanger, provided that the tubes

completely fill the shell, the outside heat transfer
coefficient is given by

hfo=JP
fo=JP S^L C2.23)
de
where hfq = outside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m2C
d = equivalent diameter, see below - m

J = coefficient of conductance for parallel flow at

p the mean fluid temperature
n

G = mass velocity of fluid - kg/s m

The mas8 velocity oan be calculated from:

& = 1.273 m (2.24)

 20

where m = mass flow rate - kg/s

d = outside diameter of tubes - m

o

d = inside diameter of shell - m

8

n. = total number of tubes

t

The equivalent diameter oan be oaloulated from:

d = d82 - "tdo2 (2.25).

e d + n. d
s to

If the tubes do not completely fill the shell, by-passing

occurs between the tubes and the shell, so that poorer results
are obtained. Thus this arrangement oannot be used with a
floating head.

(v) Flow in Annular Spaces - Jaoketed Tubes or Tubes with Core Rods

With jaoketed tube heat exchangers, the outer fluid flows

through an annular apaoe and heat is transferred to the
inner surface of the annulus. When core rods are fitted
inside tubes there is also annular flow, but in this case
heat is transferred to the outer surface of the annulus.
In both cases equation (2.23) should be used for the
determination of the heat transfer coefficient, the
equivalent diameter being

d =d -d (2.26)
e s o

where d = outer diameter of inner tube - m

o

d = inner diameter of outer tube - m

s

(vi) Baffled Heat Exchanger

The estimation of the outside heat transfer coefficient is

extremely oomplex, as the flow is partly parallel to and
partly across the tubes; furthermore, a considerable amount
of fluid oan by-pass around the bundle and leak through
the clearances between the baffles and the tubes and between
the baffles and the shell. HTRI have produoed a oomputer
program for solving this problem (see Seotion 6.1). They
have also developed an approximate method of estimating
the effeotive crossflow fraotlon for heat transfer, for
heat exchangers built to TEMA Standards (Ref 5) This
estimation method is given in Seotion D3.3 of the HTRI
Design Manual (Ref 6) and is based on Ref a. 8 and it-6.

The first step is to determine the nominal crossflow fraotion,

FPBn, whioh is plotted in Pig 1 (p. D3.3-6) against bundle
diameter for different values of the ratio of ligament
thiokness to tube pitch. Three bundle types are considered -
fixed tubesheet (FXTS), split ring floating head (SRFH) and
pull-through floating head (PTFH). For SRFH and PTFH it was
assumed that sealing strips would be plaoed in the bypass
channel (one for eaoh six tube rows). The orossflow fraction
for pressure drop, FFB is oaloulated from
 21

FFB . (FFBn)(SC)(RC) (2.27)

where SC and RC are correction factors for baffle spacing

and Reynolds Number respectively, obtained from Figs 2 and 3
(p D3.3-6). The effective crossflow fraction for heat
transfer, FFB. , is given by

FFB. o FFB + 0.125 or * (2.28)

h p

FFB. - 1, whichever is the smaller

The effective mass velocity for heat transfer is given by >

mh t (PFBh) and
0 o m

where b space between baffles m

d. outside diameter of bundle m

d a outside diameter of tubes m

o

p tube pitch m

m m total mass flow rate between baffles kg/s

The effective mass velooity for heat transfer, G . , is then

used in place of G in equation (2.2l) for calculating the upper
limit of the heat transfer coefficient. It may also be used in
equation (2.30) below for calculating the heat-transfer corrected
crossflow Reynolds Number, so that the correction factor
tabulated in Section (iii)(p.l9) can be applied to the heat
transfer coefficient, if neoessary.

Re . o 0 . d-f/y .**..*..* (2.30)

The shell-side heat transfer coefficient obtained by the

approximate method described above must be multiplied by a
further empirical correction factor determined to give the
best average fit of the HTRI data to their "stream analysis"
method.

For single segmental baffles,multiply h. by 0.73*

Far double segmental baffles, multiply fi by 0.6.

(vii) Finned Tubes

An extensive survey is made in Ref 29 of the published

information on heat transfer and pressure drop for finned tube
banks in cross-flow. Alternatively, data for specific items
oan often be obtained from the manufacturer's publications. Fin
efficiency is plotted in Fig 46 of the "Heat Transfer" Brochure
(Ref 2).
(viii) Gas Radiation
Monatomic and most diatomic gases do not radiate heat, but vita
polyatomic gases radiation may substantially increase the boat
transfer rate in a heat exchanger at temperatures in the region of
500 C and above. The radiation coefficient, hg, should be added to the
oonvection coefficient (hfi or hf0) calculated from the equations
given above. An approximate method of calculating hR is given
in Seotion 8.
 22

2.5 Estimation of Dirt Coefficients

These oan only be estimated from past experience. Table II, p.23
gives typical figures for normally clean fluids. It is important
to oheok whether the fluids are likely to give exceptionally serious
fouling conditions. Further information is given on p.123-7 of the
TEMA Standards (Ref 5).

If the tube material is liable to even slight corrosion, dirt will

adhere muoh more easily and will be harder to remove than with a
material that retains the normal finish of a tube.

A high velocity of cooling water always helps to keep the tubes

clean. Velocities of 1 to 2.5 m/s are normally used; anything
higher oan lead to erosion.

With a gas containing dust in suspension, particles adhere muoh more

strongly when heat is transferred from hot gas to a cooler surface
than with the reverse direction of heat flow. Under the former
oiroumstanoes, fouling is greater with greater temperature difference
and with smaller partioles.

If the shell-side fluid is likely to cause fouling, it is important

to avoid stagnant zones and not to have a baffle out of more than

If an estimate can be made of the likely thickness of a deposit, the

dirt resistance can be found from Fig T-2.1, p.123 of the TEMA
Standards (Ref 5) Alternatively, it oan be calculated from the
thermal conductivity of the material - see Table IV p.73.

The dirt thickness and the dirt heat transfer coefficient are related
by

h. =kfl (2.31)
x
xd

where h, = dirt heat transfer coefficient W/m C

n

k. = thermal conductivity of dirt w/mC

a

x. = thickness of dirt deposit m

To obtain ha in W/m^C, divide 5.678 by the fouling resistance in

British Units (h ft2 F/Btu).
 23
TABLE II

Typical Dirt Coefficients for Normal Fluids

Under corrosive conditions and with abnormally dirty fluids, lower coefficients
will be obtained.

Fluid hfl W/m2oC

River Tees Water 600

Cooling tower water with a velocity of:*

i m/s 1500

1 m/s 3000

2 m/s 6000

Boiler feed water 6000

Boiler blow down 2500

Condensing steam 6000

Boiling water 6000

Boiling ammonia (clean or with purge) 5000

Boiling ammonia (total evaporation with

traces of oil) 600

Anunonia synthesis fluids

reformer gas 1000-2500

catalysed gas 2500-3500

synthesis gas 3500

steam 6000

potassium carbonate solution 2500

naphtha 2500

"Sakaphen" lining (0.18 to 0.20 mm thick) 5000

Approximate values; see Seotion F 4.3 of HTRI Design Manual (Ref 6) for
more acourate values, which are not only a function of water velooity,
but also of bulk temperature, surface temperature and the quality of the
cooling water; an allowance can also be made for the amount of solids in
suspension (Fig F 4.3-7). The application of this method to oooling
tower water using treated and untreated G-ately make-up water is dealt with
in Ref 13. This treatment is strictly only for parallel flow; for cross-
flow on the shell side of a cooler or for a plate heat exchanger, the same
treatment may be used, but the fouling faotor thus obtained must be
multiplied by the oorreotion factor found in Seotion F 4.2.1 B or C (page
F 4.2-2 or 3) of Ref 6.
C0H01HC VELOCITIES AHD CALCULATION OP PRESSURE DBOP

In deoiding upon the best arrangement of tubes, trial and error

is necessary in order to aohieve a velocity that is somewhere
near to the eoonomio velooity and that gives a pressure drop
less than the specified maximum.

The tube-side velooity oan be fixed by fixing the number of tubes

per tube-side pass. From this, it is possible to oaloulate an
approximate total length of the tube-side pass from an approximate
heat transfer coefficient. If this is too long to be accommodated
in one shell, then there must either be several tube-side passes
in one shell, one tube-side pass in several shells in series, or
both. The shell-side oross-flow velocity is fixed by the baffle
pitoh and shell diameter. To keep down the shell diameter, it
may be necessary to use two shells in parallel.

3.1 Eoonomio Velooities

This subject is dealt with in the "Heat Transfer" brochure

(Ref 2), where Table 18, p. 16*9, gives typical optimum
velocities for different tube-side fluids in a carbon steel
heat exohanger. A part of this table is reproduced in
Table III opposite, where the optimum value of the mass
velocity (Go) is given for several fluids for different
values of the heat transfer ooeffioient from the outside
fluid to the inside dirt film (hf). For stainless steel
tubes in a carbon steel shell, increase the tube-side
velocity by 20#, and for a heat exohanger all in stainless
steel, increase it by 39#, over the value obtained for a
carbon steel heat exohanger.

For fluids of slightly different properties, it may be

assumed that the economic velooity is inversely proportional
to the oube root of the actual density of the fluid. Thus

The aotual velooity and the economic velooity oan differ by

a factor of up to 1.5 without producing an obviously
uneconomic design. However, if the speoified pressure drop
necessitates the use of a velooity less than a half of the
eoonomic velooity, then the speoified pressure drop should
be queried.

It is more diffioult to determine the economic velocities of

the shell-side fluid. As a first approximation, the velooity
through the window space above the baffle and
the velocity at the minimum aeotion for cross flow ( eqn.
2,22) should be of the same order of magnitude as eaoh other
and should not differ greatly from the economic velooity
obtained in the same manner as for the tube-side fluid. In
a gas-to-gas heat exohanger, the inside and outside heat
transfer coefficients should not differ greatly from eaoh
other.
 25

TABLE III

Typioal Optimum Haas Velocities

Optimum mass velocity

Go (kg/a m2)
Density,
Pressure Temp
Fluid
(bar abs)
P Value of hf (w/m2 C)
(c) (kg/m*)
100 300 1000 3000

Clean
1 20 1000 700 900 1200 1500
Water

Sulphuric
20 1830 1800 2300 2800 3200
Acid (98#)

1 50 1.09 19 22 23 24
Air
8 50 8.7 64 74 84 93

1 100 0.61 12 14 16 17
Steam 11.2 200 5.6 44 55 63 69
19.5 230 9.5 61 73 84 94

f j/0 HO
256 75 92 170 220 280 340

hf - heat transfer coefficient from outside fluid to inside dirt.

3.2 Tube-side Pressure Drop

This is given in terms of the velocity head of the fluid,

expressed in units of pressure. Thus

>***.....****..... .. (3.2)

where G = mass velocity of fluid kg/a m'

p = dynamic pressure, i.e. the

velocity head expressed, in the
units of pressure N/m2
= density of tube-side fluid kg/m3
Information on the density of fluids is given in Seotion 9.2.
It is necessary to calculate the values of G and hence of Pv
for both the tubes and the nozzles. The total tube-side
pressure drop is then

APt = (C l/i +iKt)p + K .p. K P .... (3.3)

ncr vno
 26
where C = friction factor (from Pig 3.1, p.27)

d = bore of tubes - m

C = total length of tube-side passes - m

Kt = sum of tube velooity head losses at tube)

inlet and outlet and between passes )
r (see p.28
K . a inlet nozzle loss jfor
ni (values
KnQ = outlet nozzle loss )

Kf = loss in ferrules (if fitted)

pvni = velooity heaa *" inlet nozzle - N/m2

Pvno = velooity head in outlet nozzle - N/m

Pvt = velooity head in tubes at mean temperature N/m2

p^ = velooity head in ferrules (if fitted) - N/m2
A P^ = pressure drop on tube-side - N/m

The friotional losses depend on the friotion factor (C) whioh

is plotted in Fig 3.1 (taken from Ref l) as a function of the
relative roughness (Sr/d) and the Reynolds Number, defined as

(3.4)

where d = bore of tubes - m

G = mass velocity of fluid in tubes - kg/s m

Re = Reynolds Number

v = mean velocity of fluid in tubes at mean temperature - m/s

n = dynamic viscosity of fluid at mean temperature -

L Ns/m2 (kg/s m)

P = density of fluid at mean temperature - kg/nr

Information on the dynamic visoosity of fluids is given in

Section 9*3.

When dealing with gases and viscous liquids it is neoeasary to estimate

the mean temperature of the fluid in the tube; this can be found from
Pig 7.1, p.62, substituting "tube" for "shell" everywhere.

The following values should be taken for the roughness (SxO of tubes
of -

carbon steel or other material that might be

slightly oorroded - = 50 pm

stainless steel - c = 25 pm
 RELAT - '~
0-07 0-07

90-0

0-06
it:
0-02
_D .B %
soo

0-05 o-o:
UOij Z"~ I A
SCO-0

If
27

0-004 _

REYNOLDS
NUMBER
_
L
i-. -
0-002 _
-_ 0-001

m 00006-
1 -
9000-0

/1ii i
_ . m
/ f" 0-01

6 7 8 <
\XnfJ//i!n5J/1rfi/wI. \m/.EiIrl:I*t'<tIf.il*
REYN0
Z
RICT SIOE 1)
/IfMVLwKi
t/1-IiAJnjrfM/_^.-1.IttL:jJnri]l1f[:l-T_i4..IL*tjJ
 28
If the inside of the tube is liable to moderate corrosion or to an
appreciable amount of scaling, the roughness should be taken*3
250 um ana an estimate must he made of the reduced bore of the tube
due to scaling when calculating the velocity head and the length/
diameter ratio. The thickness of the deposit can be calculated
from the dirt heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity
of the dirt, using eqn (2.3l), P22.

In addition to the friotional losses, the losses at inlet and outlet

of each tube pass, the turn-around losses and the nozzle losses must
be inoluded. The following information, taken from Section D 3.3 of
the HTRI Design Manual (Ref 6) should be used:

Tube inlet plus outlet losses 0.9 tube velocity heads )

Turn-around loss in floating ) use these

head oover or channel 0.7 tube velocity heads ) values to
) determine
Loss in 180 bend of U-tube 0.6 tube velocity heads j K.
(additional to )
friotional losses) )

Inlet nozzle loss, ^ni = 1'1 Nozzle velocity heads

Outlet nozzles loss, K = 0.7 Nozzle velocity heads

no

No aooount is taken of the pressure loss or gain due to change of

momentum as the fluid is heated or cooled.

3.3 Shell-side Pressure Drop

It is very important to check the shell-side pressure drop. This is

done in the HTRI Computer Program ST4 (see Seotion 6,l). It is
important to allow for the increase in diameter due to the
deposition of dirt (see seoond sentence of this page)j dirt
considerably increases shell-side pressure drop, partly by reduoing
flow area, but mainly by reducing bypassing between tubes and
baffles.

The shell-side pressure drop may be estimated approximately using

the method developed by HTRI for estimating the effective orossflow
fraction for pressure drop, PPBp. The method is given in Section
D 3.3 of the HTRI Design Manual (Ref 6) based on Refs 8 and 46.
It requires the use of eqn. (2.27) on p.21 to estimate PPBp (as in
Seotion 2.4 (vi) dealing with heat transfer). The effective mass
velocity for pressure drop is then given by:

Gmp = G.t (PPB

x
)
p'
(3.5)

where &t is the total crossflow mass velocity without bypassing,

calculated from eqn. (2.29). The pressure-arop corrected orossflow
Reynolds Number is then given by
 29a

mp o'
(3.6)

The crossflow friction factor (Co), defined as the number of velocity

heads lost per row crossed, oun then be read from ?ig 5,2, taken from
Pig k, p. D 3.3-8 of Ref 6. The pressure drop in each window can be
taken us one velocity head based on the velooity through the window.

. STAGGERED. USE FOR TUBE LAYOUT ANGLES OF 30* 45* AND 60*
" '"c USE FOR TUBE LAYOUT ANGLE OF 90*
PR-RATIO OF TUBE PITCH TO TUBE OUTSIDE DIAMETER

20

1 1
to
8
V
s TARG ERED
6

N
s N ' i

INLINE^ s
# R -1*3 3

I 10 1*25

c M
" 06 V *
S
s
04 Hi

0-1

10 U 6 8 102 2 4 6 2 4 6 8 104 2 4 6 8 tOS I-'*

CROSSFLOW REYNOLDS NUMBER ReVB FR^NI 6QN. 3.6

FIG. 3.2 FmCTlON FACTOR FOR CROSSFLOW

The shell-side nozzle pressure drop can be calculated from the

following formula, which ives Kjj, the number of velocity heads
lost per nozzle, the velocity head being that in the nozzle.

L + 1 (3.7)
n
(R 0.,ss)2

where R = esc&jje area

nozzle area

S = slot area

nozzle area
 29b

The escape area is the circumference of the nozzle bore multiplied

by the average depth of the outer tubes below the end of the nozzle
(H).

Henoe R = 2jH (3.8)

**
where H = average depth defined above - m

djj = bore of nozzle - m

When there is no impingement plate, S = 1 - tube o.d.

tube pitoh

When an impingement plate is included, S = 0, and H is the average

depth of the impingement plate below the end of the nozzle.

The total shell-side pressure drop is then

(2C)FV (*") * Pv WM kP
A Ps =-(Q-7B5n_C_b^tp
V o1 vi
.An s > Kni.ii vm, i irno n vno
rvw
(3 9)
\jy/

where the symbols are as defined after eqn. (},3), exoept

Cq = friction faotor (Fig 3.2)

nr = total number of rows of tubes per shell-side pass

n = number of shell-side passes

pvx = velocitv neaa in crossflow at mean temperature (eqn. 3.10) N/m2

P^ = velocity head based on flow area of window at mean
temperature N/m

APg = pressure drop on shell-side N/m2

pvx = %*/*? (3.10)

&mp = effective mass velocity (from eqn. 3.5) kg/S m2
= density of shell-side fluid kg/m5

Properties should be estimated at the mean shell-side fluid temperature

given in Pig 7.1, p.62.

For double segmental baffles (Ref l) in turbulent flow, pressure drop

is 30-5O?i and heat transfer 60 to 85^ of that for single segmental
baffles. When applying the above method of calculating pressure drop
to double segmental baffles, the mass flow rate per baffle is half the
total, nr is taken as the total number of rows of tubes per shell-side
pass and the total shell-side pressure drop is multiplied by an
erapirioal faotor of 1.25.

Shell-side pressure drop may be reduced by (a) use of J sheil (b) use of
double segmental baffles (c) increase in tube pitoh. The best method is
\?) provided that this does not result in too big a shell diameter.
Method (a) gives more benefit for a given loss in heat transfer
coefficient than method (b), so should be used unless there is a
temperature cross.
 30

4 COHDENSATIDH

Heat transfer in condensation takes place through two

resistances in seriest-

(i) Condensate film resistance

(ii) Gas Film resistance

The calculation of the condensate film conductance (reciprocal

of resistance) is dealt with in Seotion 4.1. tte dry gas film
Heat transfer coefficient oan be calculated from the equations
for oonveotive heat transfer without ohange of phase, dealt
with in Section 2.4j when condensation occurs, this
coefficient is enhanced by the mass transfer of the condensing
vapour and the method of calculating the local heat flux is
given in Section 4*2 It is not neoessary to calculate the
gas fila resistance if the condensing vapour does not contain
more than a few percent of inert gases n the purge (Seotion 4.3).

When substantial amounts of inert gases .are present, the

calculation" of the resistance of the gas film both to the
transfer of heat and to the diffusion of the vapour through the
inert gases involves complex oaloulations (See Seotion 4.5)1
the computer programs mentioned in Seotion 6.2 should normally
be used.

4.1 Condensate Film Conductance (h )

The oonduotanoe of the film of oondensate falling over the

surface can be calculated from a theoretical equation
'- derived by Husselt, who assumed that the foroe of gravity
alone oauses the oondensate to flow over the surfaoe in
streamline flow (Hef 3, P.329). In practice, the
conductance of the film of oondensate may be increased
by turbulenoe in the film, by epfiBh and by vapour shear.
When condensation is oocurring inside horizontal tubes
the conduotanoe is less than the theoretical value
beoause there is a pool of oondensate running along the
bottom of the tubes.

It is normal to oaloulate first the theoretioal conduotanoe

using the method described in paragraph (i). It is very
often found that the resistance of the oondensate film is
negligible compared with other resistances, but if this
is not so, the empirical correction factors described in
paragraphs (ii), (iii) -(iv) should be estimated and
applied. For further details, see Hef. 39.

It must be remembered that the value of h oaloulated by the

methods described subsequently are the average values over the
whole length of the tubes. Local values of the conductance
are greater than average near the top of the tubes, where the
film is thinnest, and less near the bottom.
 31

(i) Theoretical Condensate Film Conductance

The method adopted is taken from the ICI "Heat

Transfer" Brochure (Ref. 2), p.36. This gives

Be (4.1)

where Re - 41V7 (4.2)

Using SI Units, this oan be simplified to

*... ...(4.3)
where JK . 2.02 k
.(4.4)
where h^ = oondensate film conductance
oaloulated from Nusselt's equation W/m2oC
f* mass flow rate of oondensate per
unit length (defined below) kg/s a

g - acceleration due to gravity (9.81) m/s2

k - thermal conductivity of condensate f/m C

7 - viscosity of condensate Hs/m

P - density of oondensate

Values of Jj, the coefficient of conductance for

condensation calculated from eqn. 4.4 are plotted
against film temperature in Pig. 9.22.

For in-tube condensation with horizontal tubes -

r - n/ln.
' t **\4
/,

For shell-side condensation with horizontal tubes

... (4.6)
For condensation with vertical tubes -

(4.7)
where m - mass flow rate of oondensate kg/s
d - diameter of tubes m

1 length of tubes m

n. total number of tubes

 32

(ii) Condensation inside horizontal Tubes

To allow for condensate running along the bottom of
the tube, it is reoommended in Ref. 17 that the value
of hoV oaloulated from eqns. 4.3 and 4.5 should be
multiplied by a eorreotion factor of 0.72.

If, however, there is a high velocity at the inlet,

vapour shear forces may exceed gravity forces. The
equation reoommended by Ref. 17 for these conditions
is

cb J
P
*)** 1 (4.8)

where h oondensate film conductance in vapour 2

shear controlled region W/mC

J " coefficient of conductance for heat

p transfer for the condensed liquid
in parallel flow

0 total mass velocity of liquid and

vapour kg/8 m

z mass fraction of vapour

p. m density of condensed liquid kg/n

density of unoondensed vapour kg/m

The value of h falls as condensation proceeds and the

value of z diminishes. However, the conductance can
never fall below the value oaloulated for the gravity
controlled region. It is difficult to combine values
in the intermediate region,the true combined value
lying somewhere between the larger of the two and the
sum of the two values calculated on the assumptions of
gravity control and vapour shear oontrol. Thus it is
safe to assume that

\ " -72hcN r
h - h . whichever is the larger (4*9)
O OB

(iii) Condensation on the outside of horieontal Tubes

In this oase, h _ is oaloulated from equations 4*3 and 4.6.

The latter differs from the theoretical equation given 4a
Jlef. 2 in that it uses the total number of tubes rather
than the number of vertical rows of tttbas. This
simplifies the calculations and the oomrection for
th number of tubes is included in eqn. (4.10).
 33

In practice, the condensate film oonductanoe is

greater than the theoretical value, because of
vapour shear and because of inundation - turbulence
ereated by condensate falling on to a tube from
the tube above it. It is not yet possible (Ref. 18)
to estimate the enhancement due to horizontal flow
of vapour across horizontal tubes. The effeot of
inundation is dealt with in Ref. 18 from which the
following correction factors have been obtained
for use in the equation.

Hxf (ny) (4.10)

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
f (ny) 1.0 0.920 0.796 0.701 0.610 0.503 0.433

where n number of tubes vertically above eaoh other,

(iv) Condensation on Vertical Tubes

In this case, h _ is oaloulated from eqns 4*3 and 4.7.

In the latter, a is the inside or outside diameter of
the tubes, according to whether condensation is occurring
on the tube side or shell side. For shell side
condensation, m should be taken as the mass flow rate
of liquid condensed between adjaoent baffles (Ref. 18,
P.12).
In praotice, the condensate film oonduotanoe is greater
than the theoretical value beoause of turbulence. Even
in the Btreamline-flow region there is an enhancement of
about 26$ beoause of surface ripples (Ref. 2, p. 37)}
with vertical tubes, turbulent flow is often reaohed,
with greater enhancements. The simplest treatment of
this topic (Ref. 3, p.334) can be put in the form

h h u x f (Re) .....*.......(4*11)

where Re is the Reynolds Bumber, defined by eqn. 4.2

when Re <1800, f (Re) . 1.26

when Re > 1800, f (He) . 0.0052 Re O#733 (4.12)
If vapour shear foroes predominate, when flow is 00-
current, eqn. 4*8 may be used, as for horizontal tubes*
With counter-current flow of vapour and condensate,
shear forces hold up the condensate, thicken the film
and reduce the oondnotanoe (see Section 47)

A more aocurate, and more oomplex method of calculating

. the condensate film oonduotanoe for oondensatL on inside
vertical tubes is given in Ref. 17, p.l9j this allows
for theeffoots of both vapour shear and gravity.
 34

4*2 The Calculation of Local Heat Flux when Inert Gases are present
(Hefs. 17, 37 and 39)

When a pure vapour is condensing, the temperature of the

surface of the condensate film equals the saturation temperature
of the vapour. With inert gases present, there is a
greater concentration of inert gases and hence a lower
saturation temperature at the interface than in the talk of
the vapour/gas stream. It is necessary to be able to
oaloulate the sensible heat transfer flux, jif , and the
latent heat transfer flux, 0,, at various pats of the
condenser. The total flux Is the sum of these two, which
are given by-

(4.13)
1 - e

(4.14)

where f(M) - function of molecular weights defined in eqn. (4.16).

h . dry gas film heat transfer ooeffioient 9

** (calculated from Section 2.4) - W/m C

o specific heat of gas/vapour mixture JAgC

o specific heat of oondensing vapour J/kgC

M^ - molecular weight of oondensing vapour kgAg mols

H - molecular weight of inert gas

t^ temperature at interfaoe C

t, bulk temperature of gas mixture C

X. mols of vapour/mol of inert gas at inter*

x faoe

X - mols of vapour/mol of inert gas in main

stream of mixture

V 7\
X - latent heat of oondensing vapour j/kg
^a sensible heat transfer flux W/o

0L - latent heat transfer flux W/m

The value of X. oan be calculated from*

(4.15)
 35

P total pressure - B/in

p. - vapour pressure of condensate at t. - N/m2

f (M) may be assumed to be unity when Mv and Mg are
approximately equal or when XA is small, otherwise
(v \Q5
i O...
M ) If
f(u)-i 1 + i V ,(4.16)
M H t H
e m

The value of t. must be found by trial and error so that

heat transfer from the interface to the ooolant equals heat
transfer to the interface from the vapour/gas mixture, i.e.

where - tQ) (4.18)

where t temperature of coolant - C

U combined heat transfer coefficient for ooolant

dirt films, tube wall and condensate film,
referred to surface area for condensation (see
equation 2.8) - W/m2<C

equation 4.18 gives the local values of t. and ^ , as

shown in Fig, 4*1. This treatment negleots the ^eat removed
from the condensate. To allow for this, see equation (11) of
Ref 17.

Interface Temperature tj

Pig. 4.1
 36

A method of avoiding the need to calculate the interface

temperature by trial-and-error has been developed by
C.F. Braun (Ref. 37) for the case of a saturated mixture
of gas and vapour* This method gives the enhancement in
dry gas film heat transfer coefficient due to condensation,
making certain simplifying assumptions. Thust-

h \2 H 1#5 x
--" 2 "* A v _ *" (4.19)

where symbols are defined above and

he m effective gas film heat transfer ooeffioient W/m2oC

R - universal gas constant - 8314 J/kg mol K

T. - absolute tempsrature of vapour/gas stream K

- 273 + th

The overall heat transfer coefficient (U ) can then be

determined from eqn. (2.8), substituting

for h^ or hfo aocording to Aether

condensation occurs on the inside or outside of the tube.

The local heat flux is then given by

jj " ^*o h ~ c ..... (4.20)

The values of h calculated by this method may be

overestimated, especially at the inlet of a condenser
with a high initial vapour content. This is not serious,
beoause the high values of h will not have muoh effect on
the values of U . Sqna (4.?9) and (4.20) may be useful
for obtaining a first approximation for 0 before using the
trial and error method described previously.

4*3 The Design of Condensers with small amounts of Inerts

It seldom happens that a vapour is quite free of inerts, so

it is important to have some form of purge from the vapour side.
With condensation on the shell-side, it is necessary to have
the baffles closely spaced, to avoid dead pockets, which are
completely ineffective in transferring heat. The baffles
are normally spaced more closely at the exit than at the
inlet and, so that an economic velooity is maintained despite
the lower volume rate of flow.

If the amounts of inerts at the exit is less than *ff>f the

effect of inerts can be neglected and the condensing coefficient
calculated from Section 4.1. This can then be combined with
the other coefficients in equation 2.8 to give the overall
coefficient, p it can be put into the HTRI Computer Programme
ST3or 4*
 37

(i) Note on the effeot of superheat

When no inerts are present, the interface

temperature equals the saturation temperature.
Then the heat flux as given by Equation 4.18 is now

* Uo <*.-*0> (4.21)
where 0 . heat flux - w/m2

UQ overall coefficient (including

oondensing coefficient, h , but
excluding gas film coeffiSlent.
kgf) " w/m2oC
tQ temperature of coolant C

t0 saturation temperature of vapour C

In other words, the degree of superheat has no

effeot on total heat flux, so superheating can be
negleoted, provided that the saturation temperature
(not the vapour temperature) is used in
calculating the mean temperature difference.

With a high degree of superheat, 0 from Equation

(4.21) might be less than 0 from equation (4.13), in
which oase the wall is dry* and no condensation
occurs. The coefficients hrf and U can be
oombined to give U and the equations for sensible
heat transfer can be used until the point is reached
where JJ . pg. The use of equation(4.2$ is always
safe in the desuperheating region.

If it is required to oaloulate the rate of removal of

superheat during condensation, the rate of oooling at
a point x metres from the point of entry is

T_ - - t) v"'" fc (4.22)
m pv *

where h. - dry gas film heat transfer coefficient - W/m2C

opy speoifio heat of vapour J/kgC

t. - temperature of vapour - c

tfl saturation temperature c

A - surface area of heat exchanger - n2

x distance from point of entry to point
under consideration -

- total length of tube-side pass - m

m m mass rate of uncondensed vapour - kg/a

 38

0 Heat flux W/m

A Latent heat

The value of dt^ dx can be calculated at the point of

entry, as all i?ems in the right hand side of
equation 4.22 are known. If an accurate relationship
between t and x is required, it is necessary to
calculate the temperature gradient at different
points, allowing for the fact that w is getting less
as vapour condenses.

4.4 Condensers for Steam Power Plants

In large condensers oondensing steam under vacuum it is

possible to achieve overall coefficients greater than the
theoretical coefficients calculated by the methods already
described. This is because the splashing of condensate
from tube to tube enhances the condensing coefficients to
several times the value given by the equation for filmwise
flow (See Seotion 4.1)* The design of such condensers
is dealt with by Praas and Ozisik (Ref. 4) on p.206-216.

4*5 The Design of Condensers with Large Amounts of Inerts

When a vapour oontains a significant amount of inert gases,

it is necessary to calculate several local values of
heat flux W ) by the method given in Section 4.2. It is
generally foftnd that the final heat flux is many times less
than the initial, due to reduced temperature difference and
increased inerts content. If the final flux is found to
be more than two thirds of the initial flux, then the mean
flux for the exchanger can be taken as the log mean of the
two* For a more aocurate calculation, determine also the
heat flux at the point where half the heat has been
transferred. The required area is given by

A. -4
& k * * K*^y (4.83)
where Aq external surface area m

q - heat load W

fi - heat flux at inlet W/m2

heat flux when half the heat has
been transferred W/m

0O - heat flux at outlet W/m2

RB all heat fluxes must be referred to the outside area.
For further accuracy it is necessary to caloulate the flux at
more intermediate points, and to plot the local values 1

against a the heat flow up to the point.

 39

The required surface area (from equation 2.4) is

equal to the area under the curve, (See Fig. 22 of
Ref. 2 for an example)*

(i) Desuperheating Zone

When there is an appreciable amount of superheat) the

exchanger must be divided into two zones, a desuperheating
zone, where the tube wall temperature is above
saturation, and a condensing zone. The change from
the desuperheating zone to the condensing zone occurs
when the wall temperature falls to the dew point of the
vapour gas mixture (t )j this oocurs when

The area required for the desuperheating zone can be

calculated by the normal methods for sensible heat
transfer only.

(ii) Condensing Zone

The area required for the condensing zone must be

determined by plotting l/jZf against q_ as described above.
The first point on the grafh is for tSe onset of
condensation and is given by q_ - 0 and the value of 0
obtained from equation 4.24. ^ere $. is zero, but the
values of JJ^ will be found to increase to a maximum and
then decrease as condensation proceeds.

If, at the onset of condensation, the value of t - t

J 1 m. 118
is only a few degrees, it may be assumed that the mixture
is saturated at all subsequent points. If there is
still an appreciable amount of superheat when condensation
begins the above assumption will lead to a small amount
of overdesign and it may be necessary to oaloulate, by
trial and error, the value of t. at subsequent points
until it falls to within a few Segrees of the local
saturation temperature.

The drop in the value of th is determined from

c ec-
pm

where AA increment in area o

A t^ - vapour/gas temperature at point n minus

vapour/gas temperature at point (n + l) t- C.
Other symbols are as defined on p. 34, with the
following modifications.
 mean mass rate of unoondensed vapour and
inert gases at points n and (n + l) kg/s

" mean 8Peci^io nea* of uncondensed vapour/

inert gas mixture at points n and (n+1) J/kgC

It is convenient to oonsider a series of points in

the condensing zone defined by the value of X , the
mols of vapour present in the main stream of %e
vapour/gas mixture per mol of incondensable gas.
It is then necessary to calculate the heat flux at
each point and the total amount of heat that has
been transferred from the hot fluid by the time
that it reaches each point.

If there is an appreciable amount of superheat,

the loss of temperature from one point to the
next can be calculated from the following equation
obtained from eqn. 4.25 and a similar equation for
the increment in condensate rate.

[log.
where &X - value of X at point (n) minus

value of X at point (n+l)

m

The other symbols have been defined previously in this

Section.

When the vapour/gas mixture has been oooled to within

a few degrees of the saturation temperature (t ), it
may be assumed that at all subsequent points

Allowance must be made for the pressure drop along the

condenser, because this reduces the saturation
temperature and consequently reduces the heat flux
(the oaloulation of pressure drop is dealt with in
Seotion 4*6).

(ill) Cross Flow or Mixed Flow Condensers

For the calculations desoribed above, it is assumed

that the flow is counter-current. Thus, the local
ooolant temperature is given by

*. *-
 where t - looal temperature of coolant - C
o

t - outlet temperature of coolant - C

<L - heat flow rate up to the point being

considered. - W

heat capacity of coolant (See eqn. W/C

2.1 or 2.2)
The temperature/heat-load diagram will take the
form shown in Pig. 4.2. The t./a line will
be straight in the de-euperheating^zone and
curved in the condensing zone. With oross or
mixed flow the condensing zone should be sub
divided into further zones over which the t /a
line is approximately straight. It is theft
necessary.to determine, for each zone, the
value of the correction faotor P for application
to the log mean temperature difference to give
the true mean temperature difference. This
can be found from Seotion 1.3.4 and 1.3.5 of Ref. 2 and
Pigs. Dl.2.8-1 D.I.2.8-2 and D.l.2.10-1 of Ref. 6.

The surfaoe area calculated for each zone on the

assumption of counter current flow should then
be divided by the value P for that zone to give
the oorrected surfaoe area required for the zone.

thi

Desuperheating
Zone

co

*ho

ci

Pig. 4.2
 (iv) Simplified Method of Calculation

To simplify the oaloulatione, it may be assumed

thatt

a desuperheating is oomplete before condensation begins

b the condensing vapour/gas mixture remains saturated.

o the local heat flux during condensation may be

determined from eqns. 4.19 and 4.20.

d the pressure at all points equals the outlet pressure.

The area required for the desuperheating zone .can be

calculated by the normal methods for sensible heat
transfer, assuming that the dry gas coefficient applies
till the gas reaches saturation| this may lead to
significant overdesign if the local temperature
difference is small.

The area required for the condensing zone must be

oaloulated by graphioal integration, as desoribed
in Seotion 4.5 (p.38)#

4*6 Pressure Drop in Condensation (excluding nozzle losses)

The pressure drop in a condenser is less than the value

oaloulated on the assumption that inlet oonditions prevail
through the condenser (i.e. number of velooity heads lost
multiplied by velocity head at inlet). The factor by
which the pressure drop oaloulated on this basis must be
multiplied to give the true pressure drop has been oaloulated
by HTRI and is given in their Design Manual (Ref. 6) -
Fig. C.2.6.4-2 for condensation inside tubes and Pig, C2.6.5.3-1
for condensation on the shell side of baffled orosa-flow
oondensers. These curves are based on the assumption that
the oross-seotional area for flow and the density of the
vapour do not change throughout the condenser. In an
inerts condenser, the density of the vapour inoreases
throughout the oondenser due to oooling and changes due to
a ohange in vapour composition. If these curves are
applied to an inerts oondenser, the mean vapour density
should be used in the calculations.

If the HTRI method is not sufficiently aocurate, due to a

reduotion in the oross-seotional area of flow or an
appreciable ohange in vapour density throughout the
condenser, the pressure drop must be determined by
Integrating the values of the pressure gradient calculated
for various points in the oondenser. To obtain the looal
pressure gradient for two-phase flow, caloulate what the
pressure gradient would be if the gas/vapour mixture were
flowing alone and what it would be if the condensate were
flowing alone. These are determined from the equation for
in-tube condensation.
 43

- dP = C p (4.28)
dl ~d v

or for shell-side condensation by

-3= COPV (

where p = velocity head, converted to pressure units - K/m

P = total pressure of fluid - N/m

C = friction factor for flow inside tubes,

obtained from Fig 3*1

C = fr5ction factor for flow across tubes,

0 obtained from Fig 3.2

d. = pipe bore - m

{, = length - m

n = number of tube layers that the fluid has

passed.

Thus, it is necessary to calculate the Reynolds Numbers for gas and

vapour only and for condensate only and find the corresponding two values
of C orC_ and of dP/d-flor dP/dnr. The combined pressure gradient for
in-tube condensation is:-

7/2 (4.30)
where suffix v denotes gas/vapour flow only and suffix L denotes
oondensate flow only. This equation is approximate but is always
safe. A more accurate method is given in Ref 3Qwhich may be used
to determine the local pressure gradient during condensation.

The equation for shell-side condensation is the same but with n

substituted for-t.

From the step-wise calculations used in thermal design, it is possible

to calculate the surface area needed to reach the various points, and
hence the values of 1 or t^at these points.

The total pressure drop is then obtained by plotting p against t or

dl
dg against n . The area under the curve is equal to the total

fractional pressure drop in the condenser.

To the friotional pressure drop must be added the inlet and outlet
losses. There is also a small gain in pressure due to the deceleration
of the gas, which must be subtracted to give the total drop in static
pressure, but this is normally neglected.
4*7 The Design of counter-current Condensers

It is often oonvenient to use counter-current in-tube

reflux oondensers with vertioal or inclined tubes. The
use of counter-current flow of vapour and oondensate
introduces the danger of flooding at the bottom of the
tubes and leads to some reduction in the condensate film
conductance, because vapour shear is holding up the
oondensate and increasing the thiokness of the film.

Experiments have been oarried out at Harwell (Ref. 38) on

flooding, with air and water in a 1.25-in. bore tube at
various angles of inclination to the horizontal from
5 to 90 These showed that the beat results jpxe
obtained when the tube was inclined at 30 to 70
and that these were considerably better than the
results obtained with a vertioal tube. For these results
to be applicable to a condenser, they have been plotted
in non-dimensional form in Fig. 4.3, using the following
parameters recommended in Hef. 39.

(4.31)

where 6.^ - bore of tube m

6^ mass velooity of vapour kg/a b

0L - mass velocity of liquid kg/s m2

g - acceleration due to gravity m/s

Jy - non-dimensional volumetric flux of

vapour

*
jL non-dimensional volumetric flux of
liquid

jOy, m density of vapour kg/m

m density of liquid kg/m

It would be unwise to exoeed 70 of the oaloulated flooding

rate at the lower end of the tube, beoause of unoertaimties
in the correlation. No information is available on the
effect of vapour shear on the condensate film oonduotanoe,
but it is not likely to be reduoed a lot if the rate at the
vapour inlet is not above 1Of> of the flooding rate,
particularly with inclined tubes if the oondensate film
conductance is oaloulated for the vertioal position.
 \

FIGURES AOAINST CURVES ARE THE ANGLE OF INCLINATION OF THE TUBE TO

THE HORIZONTAL.
ji* AN0 JV* ARE THE FLUX DENSITIES OF LIQUID ANO VAPOUR EXPRESSEO IN
JL NON-DIMENSIONAL FORM OEFINED BY EQNS. (4.31) AND(4.32.) FLOODING OCCURS
IF THE OPERATING POINT LIES ABOVE THE CURVE

0-60,

0-50.

JV

040

0-3Q.

JL

FIG. 4.3. FLOODING IN AN INCLINED TUBE

5 BOILING

Boiling increases heat transfer because

(i) the presence of vapour increases the velocity of the liquid

in contact with the heated surface (2-phase convection) and

(ii) bubbles of vapour and associated liquid leaving the heated

surface convey heat rapidly from the surface Cnuoleate
boiling).

When boiling heat transfer is not the limiting coefficient, the simple
treatment given below may be applied to boiling either on the shell
side or on the tube side. Otherwise, the more aocurate methods in
Ref 9 or 20 should be used.

The heat flux due to convective boiling and due to nucleate boiling
can be calculated by the approximate methods described in Sections 5.1
and 5.2 respectively. The*total flux is less than the sum of the two
because velocity suppresses nucleate boiling; this is dealt with in
Refs 9 and 20. However, for approximate calculations it may be
assumed that whichever mechanism gives the higher flux is the
controlling mechanism and the heat flux due to the other mechanism
may be ignored.

5.1 Two-phase Convection Boiling Heat Transfer

Fig 5.1 gives the enhancement in convective heat transfer

coefficient due to boiling. The convection coefficient
should first be calculated for single-phase flow (see
Section 2.4), assuming that the total mass flow is present
as liquid, and this should be multiplied by the enhancement
factor.

As the dryness fraction increases, a point is reached when

the wall of the tube becomes dry and the heat transfer
coefficient suddenly falls to the value for single phase
flow for vapour flow only. The curves in Pig 5.1 roust
therefore not be extrapolated beyond the limit marked on
them. The exact point at which the mist flow regime
begins is difficult to predict; the limit on Pig 5.1 nas
been calculated on the assumption that mist flow occurs
when the volume rate of vapour exceeds 1000 times the
volume rate of liquid (Ref 9). A more accurate treatment is
given in Seotion 5.6.
5.2 Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer

The heat flux in nucleate boiling is given (Ref 14) by

= 5.58 x 10* (Pc x 1O"5)2-3 (1.8Pr*17 + AP/'2 +

10Pr10) 3'55 x eB3*53 (5.D
2

where P = oritical pressure - N/m

p = reduced pressure (see equation 9.8, p.76) 0
6r = temperature difference across boiling film - C
je = heat flux - V//m2
This equation is valid for values of Pr up to 0.9.' Some
values of Pe are given in Table V, p.77.
TP
LO
I
.)
^'-" FRACTION VAPOURIZED
OF BOILING CONVECTVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFF TO COEFF FOR NO BOILING Jfe WT
m FRACTION VAPQUftl2gD
 Pig. 52 gives values of 0L/0-3* , oaloulated from
eqn.(5.l), for different values of P and P , Figs. 5.3
and 5*4 give the relationship between the nuoleate
boiling heat flux and the temperature differenoe
aoross the boiling film for boiling water and ammonia
respectively.

Maximum Heat Flux

In nuoleate boiling, heat flux inoreases rapidly with

increasing temperature difference up to a maximum, after
whioh the heat flux falls steeply with further increase
' in temperature differenoe. It is therefore important
to operate below this maximum. For a single horizontal
tube, the maximum heat flux ban be obtained from
eqn. 5.2 1-1, or 5.2 1-2 of Section C of Ref. 6 (p.C5. 2.1-1).
Fiff* 5*5 gives values of $ max, the maximum heat flux,
oaloulated from the latter equation, aa a funotion of
of F0 and ?s With a multi-tube bundle, the maximum flux
is appreciably reduced and a correction factor to allow
for this is given in Fig. D 5.1-3 of Ref. 6.

5.3 Design of Waste Heat Boilers and Reboilers

In many cases, particularly with boiling water, the

boiling heat transfer coefficient (h-- fll/On) is many
times greater than the combined heat transfer coefficient
for the heating medium, including dirt films and wall
oonductanoeB. In whioh case, an overall coefficient can
be based on a guessed value of h_, the boiler designed
using the normal equations for sensible heat transfer and
a constant boiling temperature} the aotual value of h-
oan then be calculated by the methods given previously
to oheck the guessed value.

The design of vertical thexmosyphon reboilers and natural

circulation evaporators is complicated because the boiling
temperature varies due to variations in pressure with height
and beoause the circulating rate must be determined by
trial and error. At the bottom of the tubes, the liquid
is below its boiling point, due to hydrostatio head, but the
wall t emperature will be above the boiling point for all or
most of this zone; hence the forced convection coefficient
in the single phase zone will be enhanoed by nuoleate boiling
at the wall. A method of design is available in Ref. 9. but
normally a oomputer program can be used (see Section 6.3).

For horizontal heat exchangers with shell-side boiling and

heating by sensible heat transfer, it is necessary to determine
#_, the heat flux, at several different points along the length
or the tubes, if the boiling heat transfer ooeffioient is
likely to be significant. It is then neoeosary to plot \f$
against q_, the heat flow rate up to the point (as with x
condensation in the presenoe of inerts). From Equation 2.4 (p.12),
the required surfaoe area is equal to the area under this
ourve. The heat flux at the hot end should be oheoked against
the maximum heat flux (see Seotion 5*2).
fl (Sr

06 -08 0-1 0*2 0*6 0-8 1-0

REDUCED PRESSURE Pr

FIG. 5.2 HEAT FLUX IN NUCLEATE BOILING

 NUCLEATE BOILING HEAT FLUX Kw/m:

o o o

z
MMM,


mm
m ^^ MM MB.
MM
r -M MM "ana
MMa Ma
MMM M MM.
-c MMM ___ ..M
SB D1 (
s __ --
^s a on ba r a
m tint
1
70 -
--.
-MM! M M.
MMM
MMM MMM MMM
"~
-m-a-i MMM
c -Ma M- M
" i
-aw -ta i_5_D
-~. -M* *_-
U1
"1 MMa >--B -TM
* MMM ^.a M-aaa _-aa_i
m MM -a a
MMM o
" ^ MMM MM.
^ MMMI
0 - -MM MM.
MM. MM. 1
Ma Ml
MM. -
==C _= MM-
MMM - _30
s -<= -.
^^ mmZ MMM w BaBaa
~~ MM MM MMB a
"* MM MMM M a_ BBB1
MM. MM.
"^ MM. -1
^^. "^. MMM MM --a
o MMM ---

-o
I "
mm.
MMai
M
MM.
MM.
"MM MM.
M.
^-- HB-a
.
M. -M-m
a MM.
20
a m-ai BIB,
** MMM MM.
= H-a =9- m-> aaa
r -=a mi => M- -1 ME -mC
> *-, . M
MM. --.
Ml MMM. -
o ai
^ mZZ "-Ml MM.
MM.
-MM Mi -ai
"--I -aim, ---ai *aa
"-. mm,
> . "^ -M, M--aa
"M, -
"MM. ->
- ---. MM.
o -M mm "MM MM. MM.
V. 1 "- _ to
in MM -
**. MM.
S3.. is a--- = --* =-91 BB1 MM
to -M. mmS -- M= S-
5 =- MM.
-M- -M-l -a.
>; "MM1 -M.
- 7-5
mm.
--1
"-- "- . -aa,
"-- mm. mM
M - M-aj aal
"M MM.
- M. "-. MM a, _5
^. m. "-.
Mmmi -MM
^ "^ mmM
2 :--. -- .
m
->. -aaaa -ma.
r aa
**- Ml -> -maai MB.
z MM.
- -. MM. MM_ MM.
z CT IM Mm. _3
m. -a-m-_
ft
"~M. MMM
mm. a =aa
Tl --M -S->. M. -a_aaj
-S5 "a. _
-=:
I a
mW_,
^ M.
---.
-_M
s MMM --.a.
Mm.
a*

me
.
33
--M.

.
->
-M>_-. -a--.
a_-.
aa

m
 NUCLEATE BOILING HEAT FLUX Kw/m2
O)
o e

in
n
M Sa,
X IP*
m
"a
$ g "-*
W 5a "a.
4. aa
aa
n. "a, aa
-- "a, a
"a* -a.
1 aa
"a, "a. aaa a,
c in
1 "a,
"a.
a.
aa
aa
aa aaa
aa.
aa
X *> Sa. "as SJa SSCaa -a,
as -a= Ha.,
"a. aa
a. a, aa aa.
a a
Tl a. aa, M.H
a, aa --1
aa aa -a. a. aa
H m . a. "aa aa aaa aaaa
.a.. a.
S aa aa
aa aaa aaa
aaa aa.
0 30 -a. a, aa.
- 30 b ar _ob o)ut
Sa aa aa. a a
> cn
s -.
^a a. = Ba> a Ma .
"-. a S K
aa .... aa ->*->
V, aa,
^; a. aa ..a
C aaa aa a^a
z a, a. aa, .... aaa.
a. "a. a.
aa,
- 1 , . ...a
"a, a_ aa aa. .a.,
c 3) "a. a. aa.
*a aa
aa
\s a. - 2?
n in a. aa aa
N ^J. ^a aa aa.
o> = J..B .a
a-j "a aa . S= ^^
r -5. a^ "a, a .w.
aaa a-.
s a. aaa aa
rn o "a., aa
"a. "a -a, aa
a. a.
to aa aa -"- aaa en
aaa
o
\ "a, aa, aa a. a. ....
a. a. a.
$ s ^a. -a, pa. aa aaa
-o -^
m -j
s a, "I a. V
a! -a,
= aa
a. a.. aa aa,
-a. -a
a. a* aa
s "a -a.
L *, aa a. a. aa
o -a. a aa.
"a, -a. aa aa.
3
s aa aa,
SB. =3 aa
0" is aa,
F" o ; "a <a. =a = ---a
1 -a ....
to -a, ". aa.
"a. aa aa.
en ^a aa.
a
Z "a. - "a. aa,
-a.
-a . aa
-a. a. aa KM*.
aa, c
"a
CD -a. -a
O a^ ~a aa aa.
> aa -a aa
-a. aa.
a. aaa
aa
"a. aa aaa
s. "aa. aa
a. aa m^
a. =a
c -a
*^
-a,
*a aa
aa.
it -n *. -a -a
a. a, aa
-a aaaa
a. a.
aa.
9a as
c = -m
a.
^ a.
a.
*-a aa a.
aa.
aa.
=a a
a
a. a
aa!
-a
-a

aa.
a.
-a.
aa,
aa
aa
aa.
a.
-a.
Mm
 17

^-
16 ^
15
/
r

14
\
\
13 / \

/ \
\
L " / s cn

IO / \
>
\

\
\
\
o o 1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O "7 O 8 o 9

Pr

FIG- ss- RATIO OF SINGLE TUBE MAXIMUM HEAT FLUX TO CRITICAL PRESSURE VERSUS REDUCED PRESSURE
(FROM EQN. 5.2.0 PAGE CS2j/l OF H.T.R.I. DESIGN MANUAL) (REF. 6)
 53
It ia important to enBure that the velocity of the liquid entering
the tubes of reboilers is sufficient to avoid serious fouling.

To calculate the local heat flux in an exchanger where the boiling

heat transfer is controlled by nucleate boiling, a graphioal
solution may be adopted by plotting /fo, obtained from Equation (5.l),
against 9b, and J0, obtained by Equation (5.2), against 9B. The
point of intersection gives the actual values of 0 and 9B (see
Fig 5.6). x

(5-2)
where j6 = heat flux -

9 = local temperature difference

between hot and cold fluids -
C

9_ = temperature difference across

boiling film - C

UH = heat transfer coefficient for

heating medium, including
dirt films and wall
oonductanoe - W/m2oC

Examples are given in Drawings B *"

SX.No. 174565 and SX.No. 174567. Fig 5.6

5.4 Calculation of Pressure Drop in Boiling

(excluding nozzle losses)

This is a very complex problem, particularly in vertical pipes.

Two phase pressure drop is dealt with in Ref 30 for adiabatio flow
and the methods there may be used to determine the local pressure
gradient due to friction and gravity in boiling.

The frictional pressure gradient at any point oan be calculated

approximately, as in condensation, by Equations (4.28), (4.29) and
(4.30) in Seotion 4.6, whioh may over-estimate the pressure drop.
If the gradient varies signifioantly through the exchanger, then
it is necessary to plot dp/dl against 1, the area under the curve
giving the total pressure drop. A more aoourate treatment is riven
in Ref 20.

To the frictional pressure drop must be added the inlet and outlet
losses and the pressure drop due to acceleration. The lest is given
by:

2
where A.Paco = pressure drop due to acceleration - N/m2

py = velocity head expressed in units

of pressure K/m

Suffices i and o refer to inlet and outlet conditions respectively.

 54

It is difficult to calculate accurately the pressure

drop due to a rise in level and this is important in
the design of thermosyphon boilers* If it can be
assumed that the liquid and vapour are intimately
mixed, the change is given by:

(5.4)

where g aooeleration due to gravity

y fraction vapourised

AP increase in pressure due to increase in height - V/n

A Z inorease in height above datum - m

/1 . density of liquid - kg/"3

- density of vapour - kg/m
When boiling liquid is flowing upwards in a pipe, the pressure
drop due to inorease in height (- AP ) is greater than the
value given by Equation 5*4, because the vapour moves faster
than the liquid (See Ref.30 for more accurate methods of
calculation)*

The flow of boiling water has been studied extensively and a ,,.T"*
simple method of predicting pressure drop is given by '*
JBS Thorn (Ref.ll). The curves in this paper (enlarged
copies of which are available) have been prepared for the
oase of a constant heat input per length of pipe and for a
pressure drop that is small oompared with absolute pressure*

5*5 Carry-over from Boilers

The subject of the entrainment of droplets by the vapour

rising from the surface of a boiling liquid is dealt with in
Eef. 31. Fig. 3-1 of this report gives the ratio of liquid
entrained to vapour generated as a function of a velooity
coefficient defined in eqn (3-7) for heights greater than 10
inohes. There is a considerable scatter in the results, but
the graph can be used to determine the order of magnitude of
the carry-over (or the maximum oarry-over possible). It
was found that for heights less than 10 inohes. carry-over was
greater and correlation was sensitive to height and very
diffioult.

The entrainment ratio is given by

S - 0.1781 0 3 (5*5)

where E entrainment ratio kg liquid/kg vapour

g m acceleration due to gravity - 9.81 m/s
0 vapour generation rate per . # 2
v unit area of liquid surfaoe
pL m density of liquid kg/or
 55

p m density of vapour kg/nT

V - surface tension of liquid l/m

This equation is valid if 10~^< B <10"X.

The measured values of E ranged from 0.1 to 2.5
times the values given by the recommended correlation
(eqn 5.5).

On pages 14 and 15 of Ref. 31 is given a quick method

of estimating the required shell diameter of a kettle
retailer, given the bundle diameter, the vapour density,
the vapour flow rate per unit bundle length and the
permitted ratio of liquid entrained to vapour generated.

5.6 Mist Flow Region

This region is usually avoided in boilers because the heat

transfer ooeffioient becomes low when this region is reached.
However, it oannot be avoided in once-through vaporisers. The
oriterion for mist flow recommended by HTRI is given in Ref 9.

The heat transfer ooeffioient in the mist flow region is that for
dry gas (eqn. (2.19) p.18) the mass velocity (&) being for vapour
only. Heat is transferred from the dry wall to the vapour and
thence to the droplets of liquid, the vapour becoming superheated.
HTFS have devised a method of dealing with heat transfer in the
mist flow region (Ref U$). It was developed for cryogenio heat
transfer but oan also be applied to higher temperatures. However,
it gives no method of predicting when mist flow occurs.
 56
COMPUTER PROGRAKS FOR THE DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Computer programs are available from the following sources for the
rating and/or design of heat exchangers.

a Heat Transfer Research Ino

b Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Servioe
0 ICI Divisions and Corporate Laboratory

All new programs can be used with SI units. The HTRI programs are
written in British units and the older ICI programs in Billingham
mixed units.

The ICI Corporate Laboratory has set up a Prooess Engineering Computer

Program Library Team which is building up a library at Runoorn. Part
of their function is to assess the relative merits of the various
programs on heat transfer and to prepare new programs where this is
considered necessary by the Heat Transfer Panel and the Chemical
Engineering Computer Program Library Working Party.

This Section of the Code of Practice recommends whioh programs should

be used under the three headings of

1 with no phase ohange on either side or with isothermal

oondensing or boiling - Seotion 6.1.

2 with condensation on one side - Seotion 6.2.

3 with boiling on one side - Seotion 6.3.

For a gas oooler in which a small amount of condensation occurs, see

Seotion 6.1 (i).
No aoourate program is available for the most diffioult problem, which
occurs when there is boiling on one aide and condensation of a mixture
on the other side. It is possible to use (2) or (3) if condensing or
boiling heat transfer is the limiting faotor.

6.1 Computer Programs for Heat Exchangers with no Phase Change

or with isothermal boiling or condensing

The most commonly used program for this is the HTRI program ST4,
which has just replaced ST3. HTFS have also produced a program
for this subject (STEP 3); the treatment of heat transfer and
pressure drop on the shell side is less rigorous than in the
HTRI program but STEP 3 oontains cost optimisation and may be
used beoause of this.

The HTRI program is described in Ref 7. In addition to dealing

with no phase ohange, it is also applicable to boilers or
oondensers provided that the boiling or oondensing process is
isothermal. It is neoessary to input a single value for the
heat transfer coefficient for boiling or oondensing; thus the
programs must not be used for boilers where the boiling heat
transfer coefficient falls aignifioantly from the hot end to
the oold end. ST4 will oaloulate a condensing coefficient for a
pure vapour. The program can be used for the design of a new
heat exchanger or for rating, i.e. checking the performance of
an existing heat exohanger or of a heat exohanger that has
already been sized.
 57
The main advantage of the HTRI program is that it applies the latest
HTRI "Stream Analysis Method" to the shell side fluid. In this
method it is possible to oaloulate the amounts of fluid that flow in
the different streams, which are: A - between the tubes and the
baffles, B - in oross-flow, C - between the bundle and the shell,
S - between the baffles and the shell and F - through the spaces
between tube-rows where there are pass-partitions. In this way, the
shell side heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop can be
calculated more accurately than by any other method (see Ref 8 for
details).

If there is some doubt about whioh fluid should be put on the shell-
side and which on the tube-side, a change card should be included so
that the computer will design for both; the oheaper oan then be
chosen.

(i) Preaenoe of Condensables

If the hot fluid contains small amounts of condensable

components, it is still possible to use the ST4 program,
provided that the latent heat load is less than the
sensible heat load. The cooler must be divided into
two zones, the de-superheating zone, treated normally,
and the condensing zone, for which the true speoific
heat must be replaced by the effective specific heat On'.
which will be greater than the true specific heat of the
vapour Cp. Thus:

c.1 q (6.1)

where q = total heat load in condensing zone - W

m = total mass flow rate - kg/s

t . = hot fluid temperature at inlet to oondensing

111 zone - C
t = hot fluid outlet temperature - C

Op1 = effeotive speoific heat - j/kgC

The enhancement factor to be applied to the dry gas film heat

transfer coefficient may be calculated from eqn. (4.19), p.36
but this factor must be divided by (cp'/cp)0^ for tube-side
condensation, or by (op'/cp)0*^ for shell-side condensation to
compensate for the enhancement that has already been introduced
by using the effective rather than the true specific heat.

(ii) Fouling

The thickness of the dirt deposits must be included in the input,

as these cause an appreciable inorease in pressure drop. The
dirt thickness and heat transfer coefficient are related by
eqn. (2.30) p.22.

Some typical values of h<j are given in Table II, p.23. Some
values of k, are given in Table IV, p.73.
 58

(iii) Comparison between ST4 and ST3

ST4 is basically similar to ST3 but incorporates

an increased range of options. Its main
advantage is that it will oope with many more types
of heat ezohanger. Shell types dealt with are
TBik B, F, 0 and J, pure cross flow and pure
longitudinal flow. Baffles may be segmental,
double segmental, triple segmental or with no tubes
in the window* Baffle out may be vertical,
horizontal or at 45 Different arrangements
of vertioal and horizontal tube pass partitions may
be specified.

The latest correlation for fouling by oooling water

can be used for determining the fouling resistance
of the oooling water, provided that it is possible to
supply values of the pH, the total alkalinity, the oaloiun
hardness and the total suspended solids of the water.

6*2 Computer Programs for Condensers

The three main HTHI programs (Eef. 7, 10 and 1$) can be used
for heat ezohangers in which a pure vapour is oondensing
(isothermal condensation) or for gas ooolers in which a small
amount of oondensation oocursj HTRI have now produced an
-approximate rating program to oover the full range of
oonoentration of inerts (Bef. 16). The various more aoourate
programs available are discussed in Bef. 43 and recommendations
are given below,

(i) Shell-side oondensation in the presenoe of inerts

Hond Division Program HP I45AO has been in use for a

number of years. It is based on the methods in the
"Heat Transfer" Bxoohure (Bef. 2). It is a design
program and cannot be used for rating. It can be
used for multieomponent condensation. A complete aooount
of this program is given in Bef. 44. It should only
be used for a rough design or when the programs described
in the following paragraphs cannot be used.

The former HOC Division produced Program HE ?003 for the

oondensation of a single oomponent. This uses the
HTRI stream analysis sub-routine to estimate shell-side
dry gas film heat transfer coefficient and pressure dropj
thus it is more aoourate than HP 145 40* I* is only
rating program, so for design purpose a rough design must
be made first and the program used to oheok the design,
which must then be modified and re-oheoked if necessary.
It is assumed that desuperheating is complete before
oondensation begins. The input must include a oooling
curve for the oondensation zone. The heat flux is
oaloulated either by the Colburn Hougen method as given
in the "Heat Transfer" Broohure (Bef. 2) or by the
HTHI approximation (Bef. 37)* It can oope with TfflU
 59

E, P or J shells and segmental or double segmental baffles,

which may be spaced more closely towards the outlet. It is
recommended for use at present.

HTPS have been working for several years on a sophisticated

rating program for the shell-side condensation of a single
component (Ref 18). This deals with simultaneous desuper-
heating and condensing and with fog formation after the
saturation temperature has been reaohed. The latest version
(SCON 3) is now available and operates satisfactorily for
most problems. The program will deal with a large variety
of designs and its use is reoommended when the anerts level
is significant.

(ii) Tube-side condensation in the presence of inertB

Kond Division Program MK OO89A has been in use for u number

of years. It is a design program for multi-component
condensation based on the methods in the "Heat Transfer"
Brochure (Ref 2). It thus has the same limitations as
KF 145A0 described in the previous Section.

HTPS have produced a program - COND 1 - which calculates

heat transfer and pressure drop in the in-tube condensation
of a single oomponent (Ref 17). No shell-side calculations
are included. The enhancement in dry gas film heat transfer
coefficient due to the presence of condensed liquid, which
is neglected in all other programs, is over-estimated in
this program.

The Library Team have just prepared a rating program for in-
tube condensation with inerts. This uses the HTRI programs
for the heat transfer and pressure drop on the shell side
(ST4 for sensible cooling or RKH 1 for evaporative oooling).
The methods of HTFS in Ref 17 are used for determining the
conductance of the condensate film and the tube-side pressure
drop. The tube-side sensible heat transfer coefficient is
caloulated by the methods used by HTRI in their programs.
The tube-side mass transfer coefficient is calculated by
analogy from the heat transfer coefficient. The temperature
and composition of the gas/vapour mixture are estimated at
various points along the condenser (in the Mond Programs it
is assumed that the mixture is always saturated). This
program (TICON) is now operating satisfactorily for the
condensation of a single component, but there are difficulties
with multi-component condensation which have not yet been
overcome. The only programs that so far deal with multi-
component condensation are those produced by Mond Division,
which will handle up to 9 condensable components, but they make
a simplifying assumption that will lead to an underestimation
of the mass transfer rates when appreciable quantities of
more than one condensable component are present. The new
program will give more accurate mass transfer rates with
multi-component mixtures.
 60

6.3 Computer Programs for Reboilers and Evaporators

The reoommended oomputer programs to be used when boiling

heat transfer is involved are those prepared by HTRI.

Computer program RTF2, desoribed in HTRI Computer Manual

2 (Ref. 10) is applicable to the design, rating and
evaluation of test data, of equipment for vertical
thermosyphon reboilers and for horizontal and vertical
forced-flow reboilers) it could also be applied to
evaporators. In the thermosyphon case, the
circulation rate is determined by trial and error.
The heat transfer rate and pressure gradient are found
at several points along the tube. The print-out gives
the number of tubes required in a design case, the heat
load in a rating case, and the dirt resistance when
evaluating test data. Ifultioomponmt liquids oan
be dealt with. The program calculates the shell side
coefficient. When heating is by sensible heat transfer,
the stream analysis method should be used. The curve
of boiling fluid temperature as a function of fraction
vapourised is oaloulated in the program from vapour/liquid
equilibrium constants or it may be specified directly in
the input. A warning message is printed if the velocity
either at the top of the tubes or in the exit piping
exceeds 70J& of the estimated oritioal velooity for two-
phase choke flow. A new feature of RTF2 is the
introduction of a subroutine to oheok whether the boiling
flow is stable or unstable} this takes a lot of oomputer
time, so should only be used on the final run. If
unstable boiling is predicted, the trouble should be
rectified either by increasing the cross-sectional area
of the exit piping or by introducing a restriction in the
inlet piping. Two methods are given in this program
for estimating the heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop in the boiling Bone; Method 1 should be used
in preference to Method 2, but if it is vital not to under-
design; try both methods and use whichever gives the lowest
heat transfer, rate.

Computer program RKH1, desoribed in HTRI Computer Manual 3

(Ref.l9\ is applicable to kettle reboilers, internal
reboilers and horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. It deals
with design, rating and evaluation in the same manner as
RTP2.

HTPS have issued a program (TRSB l) for the design and rating of
vertioal thermosyphon reboilers, described in Ref. 20.
It is similar in its approach to BTP2, but not so
convenient to use.
 61

CALCULATION OP METAL TEMPERATURES

For stress analysis, it is necessary to calculate the mean temperatures

of the shell and tubes. With high temperature heat exchangers it may be
required to know the maximum temperature of the tubes and the temperature
of the tubes at their junction with the tube-sheet.

7.1 Mean Shell Temperature (no phase change)

This may be taken as the mean temperature of the shell-side fluid,
which is given by the following equation for either a co-current or
a counter-current heat exchanger.

t =t.+f(t -t.) (7.1)

sm si m so si

where f is a faotor obtained from Pig 7.1

m

t . = inlet temperature of shell-side fluid - C

t = outlet temperature of shell-side fluid - C

so

t = mean temperature of shell-side fluid - C

sm

The factor fm is a function of the ratio of the difference between

shell-side and tube-side fluid temperatures at shell-side outlet to
that at shell-side inlet.

7.2 Mean Tube Temperature (no phase change)

This may be calculated from the mean shell temperature and the
difference between the mean tube and the mean shell temperatures
( ). The latter is given by:
stm

q stm =uo ed irr-

ChfQ
+ rr-
hflo
+ Jr \
2hw ;
(7.2)
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient ref o.d. _
(eqn. (2.8)) - W/m^C
h_ = outside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m C
fo

= outside dirt heat transfer coefficient - W/m C

do

h = wall conductance - W/m C

w

& = mean temperature difference - C

m

The film heat transfer coefficients should be calculated at the

mean fluid temperature.

Alternatively, the mean temperature of the tube-side fluid may be

calculated from an equation similar to (7.l) but with tube-side
fluid.substituted for shell-side fluid, and the difference between
the mean temperature of the tube and the mean temperature of the
tube-side fluid may be calculated from an equation similar to (7.2)
but with inside substituted for outside in the coefficients.
 62

CO - CURRENT COUNTER - CURRENT

WHERE fm = MEAN SHELL TEMP SHELLSIDE INLET TEMP

SHELLSIDE OUTLET TEMP - SHELLSIDE INLET TEMP.

O 9

O-8

0-7

O-6

O 5

O-4

0-3

O5 Ol 4 -5-6 -7 -8-9 K> 4 5 6 7 B 9 IO

TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AT SHELL-SIDE OUTLET

TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AT SHELL-SIDE INLET

FIG. 7. | FACTOR FOR CALCULATING MEAN SHELL TEMPERATURE

 63
7.3 Maximum Tube Temperature

When choosing the material of the tube it may be necessary to

calculate the temperature of the tubes at the hotter end of the
heat exohanger. The difference between the shell-side fluid
temperature and the tube wall temperature at the hotter end of
the heat exohanger (9 ..) is given by:

9
3 th
(7.3)

where U = overall heat transfer coefficient ref o.d.

(eqn. (2.8)) - W/mZC
= outside film heat transfer coefficient - W/m2C
'fo

'do
= outside dirt heat transfer coefficient - W/m2C
= wall conductance
w

9, = difference between shell-side and tube-side

fluid temperatures at the hotter end - C

The film heat transfer coefficients and Uo should be calculated

at the fluid temperatures at the hot end.

When the hot fluid is inside the tubes, an allowance must be made
for the enhancement in the inside film heat transfer coefficient
at entranoe. As a first approximation, the coefficient
calculated in the normal manner (eqn. (2.19), p.18) should be
doubled. For further information on enhancement at entrance, see
pages 128 to 139 of Ref 4-7.

7.4 Tube Temperature inside Tube Sheet

The temperature of the tube (tx) at a

distance x from the outside of the
tube-sheet can be calculated from
eqn. (7.4) or (7.5).

When the outer face of the tube

sheet is insulated

t. - t
t x = oosh Kx/t (7.4)
t. - t oosh. L sinh K
t s

when the outer face of the tube sheet is not insulated

sinh Kx/i + L ooah Kx/l ... (7.5)

sinh K + L cosh K. + jt L (cosh . K + L sinh
h_

where:
 (7.6)

.... \fi/

t = tube temperature at point x - C

t. = temperature of tube-side fluid - C

t = temperature of shell-side fluid - C

B

I = thiokness of tube sheet - m

x = distanoe from outside of tube sheet - m

d. = tube bore - m
2
a s tube plate area per tube - m

k = thermal conductivity of tube plate - W/mC

h. = heat transfer coefficient, tube- 2

aide fluid to tube wall - W/m C

h = heat transfer coefficient, shell-

8 side fluid to tube sheet - W/m C

For square pitch,

2 2
a = p ~Tf d.

for triangular pitch,

a = 0.866 p2 -ird.2 .... (7.9)

where p = pitoh

At the inlet to the tube, ht is approximately twice the inside film

coefficient (hf^) beoause of enhancement at entrance. It may be
assumed that ha is equal to hfo, the shell-side heat transfer
coefficient, with an allowance, if neoessery, for dirt.

7.5 Mean Shell Temperature with Condensing Superheated Vapour

When a superheated vapour is supplying heat by condensing on the shell

side of a shell-and-tube heat exohanger, the mean shell temperature,
whioh equals the mean shell-side fluid temperature, can be calculated
by step-wise integration of eqn. (4.22), p.37.
 65

8 GAS RADIATION

When high temperatures are involved, it may be neoessary to add

the gas radiation coefficient, h, to the forced convection
coefficient (See Section 2.4 (vm) p. 21). The following
equation may be used to calculate the coefficient of radiant
heat transfer from the hot gas (on either the shell-side or the
tube-side) to the surface of the tubes.

hjj - *U +.) ^ (8.1)

where

fag - radiant heat transfer coefficient W/m2oC

black body radiant heat transfer
coefficient w/m C

B emissivity of the tube surface

m emissivity of the gas

Values of h^ can be read from Pig. 8.1, using the known mean
temperature of the gas and the mean temperature of the tube
surface, which must be determined by trial-and-error, using
the method of Section 7.2.

Values of 6a are given in Ref. 2, Table 34, p.251.

The emissivity of the gas, _, depends on its temperature and

on p, the partial pressure of the gas in bars, and L, the
effective path legnth in metres.

For the tube side,

I* - 0.9 i (8.2)

where A^ inside diameter of tube - m.

For the shell side,

L - 3.4 V/AQ (8.3)

where V internal volume of shell less volume of tubes - m^

Aq- external surface area of tubes - m2
The method of determining the emiaaivity of carbon dioxide, water
vapour and mixtures of these gases with non-radiating gases is
given in Ref. 2, Section if.8.1, p.68. The relevant graphs
are reproduoed here in S.I Units (Figs. 8.2 - 8.6). The
emissivities of the gases at atmospheric pressure can be read
from Figs. 8.2 and 8.3; these values must be multiplied by the
correction faotors read from Figs. 8.4 and 8.5 to allow far the
effects of total pressure. When both carbon dioxide and water
vapour are present, the total emissivity of the mixture, B^, is
less than the sum of the emissivities calculated for each gas
alone. Thus

where

_ = gas emissivity

6. = emissivity of carbon dioxide

6, = emissivity of water vapour

= correction for spectral overlap

The value of <& can be read from Fig. 8.6. It depends on the
effective path length, L, the partial pressure of oarbon dioxide,
Pe, and the partial pressure of water vapour, p*.

The emissivity of ammonia and mixtures of ammonia with non-

radiating gases can be read from Fig. 8.7 (Ref.3).

If it is necessary to extrapolate the curves in Fig 8.4 or 8.5 to

higher pressure, it must be remembered that the corrected value
of the emissivity of oarbon djoxide or water vapour cannot greatly
exceed the value given by the highest curve in Fig 8.2 or 8.3 at
the appropriate temperature. Alternatively, for gas mixtures
containing oarbon dioxide, water vapour and non-radiating gases,
use may be made of Fig. 8.8 where the product of emissivity and the
absolute temperature of the hot gas is plotted against the product
of the beam length and the sum of the partial pressures of oarbon
dioxide and water vapour. Curve A (Ref 53) is for a total pressure
of 22 bar and ourves B and C (Ref 54) are for atmospheric pressure*
 1i 1
^^^^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^

wmmmatammmimmu ^^^^^^

1
V300-

300 -*

\00

i
200 ^^^^^^^

_^y S^y
1 - *-^
y+ y^ S^y Sy y
. 60
^y^ '/^
' y ' / />
y^
40
y > s
y^
30 y y

r /
r

20
/ /
/

[ / y
/
r /

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

TEMPERATURE *C

FIG. 8.1 CHART FOR FINDING hBR

THE BLACK BODY RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

5-67 x 10"8 (t/- T2*)

T1 " T2
 68

>

01

2
UJ

<n

0-00)
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
TEMPERATURE CO

FIG. B.2 EMISSIVITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE

The emissivity is shown as a function of the temperature and PL, the

product of partial pressure (bar) and mean beam length tm) Values of L can b<
calculated from equation E2 and 8a The total pressure has been taken as 1 bar;
corrections tor the effect of total pressure are given in Fig.8.4
 0007
0 2S0 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
TEMPERATURE PC )

FIG. 8.3 EMISSIVITY OF WATER VAPOUR

The emissivity is shown as a function of the -temperature and pL. the product
of partial pressure (bar) and mean beam length (m ), Values of L can be calculated from equation
a2andaa. The total pressure has been taken as I bar and the partial pressure of
water vapour as zero; corrections for the effect of total pressure and partial
pressure are given in Fig' 8.5
 70

03
0-05 0-5 1-0
TOTAL PRESSURE (bar)

FIG. 8.4 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR EMISSIVITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Tht curves give the factor by which the emissivity of carbon dioxide at
1 bar total pressure must be multiplied to give the emissivity at
other total pressures

pL-o-O"O25 metre bar

0-075

0 0-2 0-* 0-6 0-9 1*0 1-2

ARITHMETIC MEAN OF TOTAL AND PARTIAL PRESSURES (bar)

FIG.8.5 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR EMISSIVITY OF WATER VAPOUR

The curves give the factor by which the emissivity of water vapour at
1 bar total pressure and zero partial pressure must be multiplied by
to give the emissivity at other total and partial pressures
 71

0*2 0* 0-6 0-8 t-0 0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0*8 1-0 0 0-2 04 N 0-8 1*0
Pw/tPe+Pw) Pw/fPcPw Pw/<Pe*Pw)
(0) 130*C (b)540 *C (C)93O*C and obovt

CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SPECTRAL OVERLAP

(CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER VAPOUR) (REE2)
age equation 6.4

1-0
0-8 400
0-6 S B 5 0
^z *
300
9
4
-C
04 ^ _: .

a,
200
Ml


>
.

0-2 ^ b ,
>
100

Is
< s

s s 0-06 0-1 02 04
s s
S, s
01 [Pc+ Pw)L METER bar
*

048 s s
s s s
\
0-06 (
s
CURVE P Pw/pe
S s \
A 22 1
s
0-04
B 2
Is
s V 1
5i s
\
(A s s C 1 1
s s
z V
s s
0-02 y s
pc .PARTIAL PRESSURE C02
s s pwsPARTlAL PRESSURE H20 . bar
s \
s > V P 'TOTAL PRESSURE
s Th ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
001
OF HOT GAS K
r
OO08

O006
FIG. 8.8 EMISSIVITY OF CARBON
>
0404
DIOXIDE & WATER VAPOUR

THE CURVES GIVE THE PRODUCT OF

0002 EMISSIVITY AND TEMPERATURE FOR A
50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 TEMPERATURE OF 600 TO 1100C
TEMPERATURE *C

FIG. 8.7. EMISSIVITY Of AMMONIA(REF.3)

 72

9 PHYSICAL DATA

The main physical properties required in the design of heat

exchangers are discussed in this Section. Values are given
for commonly used fluids and solids. Methods are given
for dealing with mixtures of fluids and for estimating the
effects of high pressure upon the properties of gases.

9*1 Thermal Conductivity of Solids

The heat transfer coefficient of a layer of material of

thickness x m and thermal conductivity k W/mC is
given by

h - | W/m2oC (9.1)
This equation oan he used to determine the heat
transfer coefficient of a tube wall (eqn. 2.9) or of
a layer of protective material or of a deposit of dirt
on the tubes (eqn. 2.30). Values of k for commonly used
materials are given in Table IV, from Refs. 3 and 7*

9.2 Density of Fluids

Information on the density of liquids and gases is given

in Figs. 9*4 " 9*7* The density of steam and water have been
obtained from Ref. 21.

(i) Gases

The density of a gas can be calculated from the

gas laws whioh state that

2 - zRT (9*2)
e m
where

II - molecular weight of gas

F b absolute pressure of gas N/m

R - universal gas constant - 8314 j/kg mol K

T absolute temperature of gas K

z b correction factor for deviation from gas laws.

P b density of gas kg/nr

 73

TABLE IV

Thermal Conductivity of Solids

Thermal conductivity
(w/mC) att
Material 20C 200C 500C

Copper (pure) 386 372

Aluminium 203 215 268

Brass (70 Cu, 30$ Zn) 99 109

Aluminium Brass
(7$ Cu, 22^ Zn, # Al) 100

Cupro-Niokel
(9<# Cu, log Ni) 50 59

Cupro-Niokel
(7056 Cu, 3C# Ni) 27

Cupro-Niokel
(3056 Cu, 7O5f Ni) 26 27

Nickel 62 57

Carbon Steel (or CrMo steel) 50 45 38

Austenitic Stainless Steel 16 17 21

nSakaphenN 1.0

Hard rubber, polyurethane 0.15

Calcium sulphate boiler soale 2.5

Cooling tower water scale 1.4*

Cement 0.90

Asphalt 0.62

Slimy deposit 0.4-

0.5

Lubricating oil 0.15

latest measurements from HTRI show that the thermal

conductivity of cooling tower water scale increases
from 1.2 to 2.1 W/mC as the velocity,of flow of the
water is increased from zero to 1.6 m/s.
 Hence

P = MP (9.3)
8314zT

Alternatively

'r . p X 293 (9.0

z 1.013 x 105 273 + t

where

/R = density at 20C and 1.013 bar absolute kg/m3

P = pressure of gas N/m absolute

t = temperature of gas C

Values of z for the more commonly used gases are given

in Pigs 9.1a and b. For other gases and mixtures see
Seotion 9.6, p.76 and Pig 9.16.

In Figs 9.4 and 9.5, values of /r are tabulated for

commonly used gases. Alternatively, /^r may be taken
to be tt/2k.

(ii) Liquids

The density of saturated water, methanol and ammonia is

plotted against temperature in Fig 9.1o. In Figs 9.6
and 9.7, values of /'r are tabulated for commonly used
liquids.

9.3 Dynamic Viscosity of Fluids

Values of the dynamic viscosity of various gases are given in

Table VI (p.lOl) and in Figs 9.2 to 9.5, and of liquids in
Figs 9.6, 9.7. The graphs give the dynamic visoosity in mNs/nr
(g/ms) which is the same as centipoise. Thus the values read
from the graphs must be divided by 1000 to give the value of ft.
the dynamic visoosity in the SI units of Ns/ra2 (kg/ms),
required for substitution in the equations in this Code of
Praotice.

Further information on the visoosity of fluids is given in

Chapter E4 of Ref 6.

9.4 Specific Heat Capaoity of Fluids

Values of the specific heat capaoity of various gases are given

in Table VII (p. 102) and in Figs 9.8 to 9.10 and of liquids in
Fig 9.11. These graphs give the speoifio heat capecity in kJ/k
Thus the values read from the graphs must be multiplied by 1000
to give the value of op, the specific heat oapaoity in the SI
units of j/kgC, required for substitution in the equations in
this Code of Practice.
 75
9.5 Thermal Conductivity of Fluids

Values of the thermal conductivity of various gases are given in

Table VIII (p.102) and in Pigs 9.12 to 9.14 and of liquids in
Fig 9.15* These graphs give the thermal conductivity in the SI
units of W/mC. Thus they give the values of k required for
substitution in the equations in this Code of Praotice.

Further information on the thermal conductivity of fluids is given

in Chapter E2 of Ref 6.

9.6 The Properties of Gas Mixtures

This Section deals with the estimation of the dynamic visoosity, the
specific heat capacity and the thermal conductivity of low-pressure
gas mixtures from the properties of the components. With high-
pressure gas mixtures, the mixture laws must be applied at the
operating temperature and at low (atmospheric) pressure; the
corrections for pressure must then be applied to the low-pressure
properties of the mixture, as desoribed in Section 9.7.

The specific heat of a low-pressure gas mixture is

cp =

where c = specific heat capacity of mixture J/kgC

c . = speoifio heat capacity of oomponent "i" "

x. "i"
= massfraotion of oomponent "i

The most accurate equations for the dynamic viscosity and thermal
conductivity of a low-pressure gas mixture are those of Wilke (Ref 32)
and Mason and Saxena (Ref 33) respectively. These are quoted in
Ref 17, p.29.

A ooaputer program (Program Name VP&O is available on the ICI link

in Equipment Group for using the above laws to calculate weight and
volume fractions, molecular weight, specific heat capacity, dynamic
viscosity, thermal conductivity and the values of the coefficients
of conductance for parallel and crossflow (Jp and Jo). The input
properties are given in Tables VI, VII and VIII, pJOl and 102.

For hand oaloulations, the dynamic visoosity and thermal conductivity

of a low-pressure gas mixture oan be oaloulated more simply but less
accurately from the following equations taken from Ref 6.

(9.6)

k = jyjfcj (j)? (9.7)

 76
where k = thermal conductivity of mixture - W/mC

k^ = thermal conductivity of component "i" - M

%, = dynamic viscosity of mixture - Ns/m

^ = dynamic visoosity of component "i" tt

M^ = molecular weight of component "i"

** y^ = mole fraction of component fli"

These equations are liable to error if hydrogen is one of the

components.

9.7 The Effect of Pressure on the Properties of Gases

The properties, at various pressures, are plotted against

temperature for steam in Figs 9.1a, 9.2, 9.8, 9.12 and for
carbon dioxide in Pigs 9.1a, 9.3, 9.9, 9.13. For other gases,
the properties are plotted and tabulated against temperature at
low pressure only, i.e. at a pressure sufficiently low for
variations in pressure to have no significant effect on the
property; this may be taken as atmospheric pressure for gases
and a pressure well below saturation pressure for vapours.
This Section gives methods of deducing the properties of a
gas or gas mixture from its properties at atmospheric pressure.

The first step is to determine the properties at the aotual

temperature but at low pressure of the gas or gas
mixture. The corrections for pressure depend upon the reduoed
pressure ami the reduoed temperature, which are defined by

Pr =f (9.8)
o

where P = fluid absolute pressure _ K/m2 absolute

PQ = critical pressure of fluid - n/m2 absolute

P - reduced pressure

T = fluid absolute temperature - K

T = critical temperature of fluid - K

Tr = reduced temperature

Values of Po and Tc for various gases are given in Table V.

For mixtures

pc =
(9.11)

where yj = mole fraction of component "iM

Pci = oritical pressure of component "iM

TQj = critioal temperature of component "i"

 77

TABLE V

Critioal Pressures and Temperatures

Critical
Pressure Critical
Fluid bars - Temperature
(= 105N/m2) C
absolute

Air 37.75 - 140.7

Ammonia 113 132.2
n-Butane 38 151.6
n-Butylene 40.2 146.1
Carbon dioxide 73.9 31.1
Carbon monoxide 35.2 - 140.0
Ethane 48.9 32.2
Ethylene 51.1 10.0
Hydrogen 12.96 - 240.0
Hydrogen Sulphide 90.1 100.0
Methane 46.5 - 82.3
Methanol 79.8 240.0
Nitrogen 33.9 - 147.3
Nitrio Oxide 65.9 - 94.0
Oxygen 50.5 - 118.8
n-Pentane 33.8 196.7
Propane 42.55 96.7
Propylene 46.0 91.7
Sulphur dioxide 78.9 157.0
Sulphur trioxide 84.9 218.3
Water 221.0 374.0

The density of the high-pressure gas or gas mixture can be

oaloulated from eqn. (9.3) or (9.4) using the value of z
read from Fig 9.16; for a mixture, M or Pj must be taken to
be the mean value on a volume (or molar) basis. The visoosity
and thermal conductivity of the high-pressure gas or gas mixture
oan be determined by multiplying the values at atmospheric pressure
and the operating temperature by the correction faotor read from
Figs 9.17 and 9.19 respectively. Fig 9.18 gives values of
(Cp - Cp*) which is the increment in molar heat capaoity due to
pressure. This must be divided by the moleoular weight of the gas
to oonvert it to the increment in specific heat capaoity. Thus
the corrected specific heat is given by

0=c* + (cp - V) >..i (9.12)

P P M

where c = specific heat oapaoity at operating pressure J/kgC

and temperature

= speoifio heat oapaoity at atmospherio pressure

and operating temperature

C - C = pressure inorement in molar heat oapaoity J/kg nuxC

P P
(from Pig. 9.18)

= molecular weight of gas

 78

9*8 Coefficient of conductance for heat transfer in

parallel flow

For the flow of a fluid parallel to a bundle of tubes,

equations 2.19 and 2.23 give the heat transfer coefficients
for flow inside and outside the tubes repsectively. To *
use these equations it is necessary to know the value of J ,
which is given by p
0.4 ,0.6
J - 0.023 o (9.13)
P P

ct
where o specific heat oapaoity of fluid JAgC
P
coefficient of conductance for
heat transfer in parallel flow \n

k thermal conductivity of fluid W/mC

"\ o dynamic viscosity of fluid Ns/m

Values of J for commonly used .fluids are.

plotted against temperature in Fig. 9.20.

9*9 Coefficient of conductance for heat transfer in oross flow

For flow across a bundle of tubes, equation 2.21 gives the

heat transfer coefficient for pure cross flow, and equation
2.26 gives the heat transfer coefficient for a baffled
shell-and-tube heat exchanger. To use these equations it
is neoessary to know the value of J t which is given by
fL-
o 0-3 k 0.7
Jo - 0.33
p
(9.14)

where e . specific heat oapaoity of fluid j/kgC

P

coefficient of conductance for

heat transfer in cross flow

k thermal conductivity of fluid O

\ dynamic viscosity of fluid Ns/m*

Values of J for commonly used fluids are
plotted against temperature in Fig. 9.21.

9.1 Coefficient of conductance for film-wise condensation

It is shown in Section 4.1 (i) that this is given by

JH - 2.02 k (^2/^) (9.15)

where k e thermal conductivity of condensate W/mCv
^ viscosity of condensate Ns/m
P density of oondensate kg/*3
/m
Values of J. for water, Thermex, ammonia and methanol are plotted against
saturation temperature in Fig. 9.22*
 79

9*11 Surfaoe Tension

The surfaoe tension of saturated water, anmonia and

oethanol against their vapour is plotted in Fig. 9.23 against
temperature. ...
 0

N 0-95 <- ^-< P

K
O

0-9
\
_i 0-85
m

(A

w
ui

t *
o

75

0-7

/
0-65
200 tOO 600 800 1000

TEMPERATURE *C

B
M
I

10

f
0-fl /
o
C

in
in
0-8 /
a.

0-7
300 bo r ob.-J-A/
1/7

100 200 3C5

fEMPERATURB *C

A. STEAM. B. CARBON OIOXIOE. C. METHANE

FIC. ftig CORRECTION FACTOR FOR DEVIATION FROM GAS LAWS

 B
13_ 1-3

N
N
tc
o
u 1-2
u.

V) .
UJ ",
m 11
a:
a. o. ^
*-
o o
u u
too

-
1

50
.

M) T 1-0
100 200 300 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE 'C TEMPERATURE 9C

1-2

- -300^

. 2 o_o
i
r ^

10 0

--
(A 50

1-0
a.

o
o

0-9 0-7
100 200 300 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE *C
TEMPERATURE *C

A. HYDROGEN. B. 3M HYDROGEN : NITROGEN. C. NITROGEN. D. AMMONIA.

FIG9'b CORRECTION FACTOR FOR DEVIATION FROM GAS LAWS ( REF. 26 )

 82

IOOO

9OO
^
8OO
r

6OO

5OO ' '

SO IOO ISO 2OO 2 SO 3OO 3SO

TEMPERATURE C
DENSITY OF SATURATED WATER (REF. 2l)

85O

METHANOL
-..

7SO

7OO .

65O

6OO -
p
AMMONIA

~o> 55O

5OO _
-

45O

4OO _

35O
-2O 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO

TEMPERATURE C

FIG. 9. IC. DENSITY OF SATURATED LIQUID AMMONIA & METHANOL (REF. 26)
 83

0OS

0-04

!
E
- 0O3

f
N tic Ibai
0-02

7 1 ^i

/
0-01

1W200300J0500e00700600900K0
TEMPERATURE I'O

FIG. 9.2 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF STEAM (REF. 22)

005

0 100 200 300 400 5CD 600 700 600 900 1000
TEMPERATURE CC)

FIG. 9.3 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE (REF.25)

 Hi

en

n"

O
U

0-015

0-01

0-008
200 400 800 800 1000
TEMPERATURE C

FIG. 9.4 VISCOSITY AND DENSITY OF VARIOUS GASES AT

ATMOSPH ERIC PRESS URE ( RE F. 1.4Q.S2 )
At moderate pressures the effect of pressure on viscosity may be neglected

NOTE, i H* - 103 mNs

m2 m*

3 0-025
S
.9-
c
Methane
u
Ethylene
M
Ethane
E 0-02
Propane
m
n-Botylene
n-Butane
n-Pentane
Mathanol Vapour
z
E 0-015

S
^ o-oi

0*005
200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE *C
VISCOSITY AND DENSITY OF HYDROCARBON GAS AT
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ( REF. 1.26)

At moderate pressures the effect of pressure on viscosity may be neglected

R.tp.B 20* C and 1-013 bar
.3
NOTE \ Hi -10 mNs
fl|2 2
 50-0
Density at R.t.p.
N.. LIQUID (kq/m1)
0-0
1 Caustic soda 50V. 1525
2 Olycerol 50V. 1126
30-0
3 Aniline 1023
4 Calcium chloride brine 122B

5 Isopropyl alcohol 785

\
20-0 6 n-Propyl alcohol 803
7 Ethyl alcohol 100 V. 789
8 Water 998

\
9 Carbon tetrachloride 1594

10 Methanol 100 V. 791

11 Acetone 10"*/. 7 9"
10-0 12 Arnmonid 610
XI V
6-0
it
VI
\
X
6-0
X \
c 5-0
e>
u s >
a
M 40 X
6 \ \
3-0 N S
r
\

N
*\
z
E
2-0

(A
O
N
O
n

1*0
\ ^~
0-8
X.
0-6 .

0-5 Jo ,

0-4

-*
0-3

'.Sa

0? L_

1
-^
0-1
20 40 60 80 100

FIG. 9.6 VISCOSITY ANL fLN-.TV Oh HQUir. jK'ER 1 )

Rtp20*C and 1*013 bar

NOTE. | NS o 103 mNS

 86
| 0-6
THERMEX
l0.5 [Density
(5)Rtp)
It

I 0-4

0-3

(A

E
0-2 300
150 200 250
TEMPERATURE PC)

Sulphuric Acid 1836

Sulphuric Acid 78*/. 1704
SulphuricAcid 60*/ U98
Nitrobtntcna . 1203
Hydrochloric Acid 301 11*9
Aettic Acid 100'/* 1050
Nitric Acid 96*/. 1* 93
0-Xyltnt
Btnzanv
Tolutn*
n-Octan
n-Hptont
n-Hexone
n-Pantant

<

O
U
(A

0-2
40 60
TEMPERATURE CC I
FIG.9.7 VISCOSITY AND DENSITY OF ACIDS AND HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS>(MF.i)

R.t.p.n20^and 1-013 bor

10
 87

10

9 1
8

7
1

1
x
o

S
hi
a.

Note. 1 bar s m5N/

US Ib f/in2

3 "a

MM
SB
2

0 100 200300400500600700600 900 1000

TEMPERATURE CO

FIG. 9.8 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF STEAM

(REF. 23)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE CO

FIG. 9.9 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE

(REF. 25)
 88
1-2
B
15-5

u M u 150 J2..

J? 14-5
11
. 2 2 uo
10
13-5
200 400 E00 600 1000

TEMPERATURE CO

200 400 600 800 1000

TEMPERATURE CO

40

4-5

30

o >-
40

I
A

1C
10
3-5

I
12
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
30
TEMPERATURE CO

2-5

20

1-5
Mr
1 Acetylene (D)
2 Air (A)
3 Ammonia (C)
k n-Butane (O) 10
5 i - Butylenc (O) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
6 Mcthanol Vapour (D) TEMPERATURE CO
7 Carbon Monoxide (E)
e Chlorine (C)
9 Ethane (O)
10 Ethane (D)
11 Fluorine (E)
12 Hydrogen IB)
13 Hydrogen Chloride (C)
U 3-1 Hydrogen / Nitrogen (C) 1
15 Hydrogen Sulphide IC)
16 Methane ID)

17 Nitric Oxide (A) --

18 Nitrogen (A) -
-
19 Oxygen (E) ,^^ -

20 Pcntanc ID) 1-00 r1

21 Propane (O)
22 Propylcnc ID)
23 Sulphur Dioxide IE) 23_
24 Sulphur Trioxidc (E)
y

kg'C kg*C 05
200 400 600 800 1000

TEMPERATURE CO

FIG a 10. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF VARIOUS GASES AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

~~~ "" (REF 2.40,50)
 B
89

vn

x^
2-5

1=
i
.

2-0
m

30
^^
3=

25 1-5 77
At

20
20 40 60 BO 100 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE CO
TEMPERATURE (*C)

2-75 2-5

5O
2-25

* 2O

1-75 m6
150 200 250 300 350
1-75
TEMPERATURE <*C)

24
m 1-5
1.,,,

u 23
1-25

f 0 20 40 60
TEMPERATURE CO
80 100
2 2-2

2-1 50
20 40 60 80 100 3^J
TEMPERATURE CO -

4-0

-
1. Acetic Acid IB) NOTE
2. Acetone (A) 30

3. Ammonia (F)
KJ L
L r-Amyl Alcohol (A) Kgt Kg'C -

5 Aniline (O)
f
3 20
6 Benzene (O)
-
26
7 25'/. Calcium Chloride (P) m

6 Carbon Tetrachlwide (F) 1-0

9 50V* Caustic Soda (F)

10- Oecane (E)

11. Thermex (O -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
12. Ethyl Alcohol IA) TEMPERATURE CO
13 99*/. Ethylene Glycol (A)
K 50V. Glycerol (A)
15. Heptane (E)
16 Hexane (E)
17 30V. Hydrochloric Acid (B)
18. Methanol (A)
19. 50V. Nitric Acid (B)
20 207. Nitric Acid (B) 26. Sulphur Dioxide (F)
21. Nitrobenzene (O) 27 987. Sulphuric Acid (B)
22. Octane IE) 28. 78*/. Sulphuric Acid (B)
23. Pentane (E) 29. 607. Sulphuric Acid (B)
24h-Propyl Alcohol (A) 30. Toluene (D)
25. 257. Sodium Chloride (B 31. Water (A)

FIG. 9,|| SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY VARIOUS LIQUIDS (REF 2)

 90

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 tOOO
TEMR'C

J- THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF STEAM (REE 24)

NOTE lbar-IOBNAn2
USlbf/in2

0 100 200 300 400 500 GOO 700 BOO S00 tOOO
TEMP. *C

FIG. 9.13. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE (REE 25)

 91

0*6C
o-io

-
050
0-08

- 0-40 y y
0-06
y E
y
y^
-

y y
0O4
'A 020 y
/
0-10 i
0-02
0 200 400 600 000 1000 0 200 400 600 800 tOOO
TEMPERATURE I*C) TEMPERATURE I'd

009

0-14 008 /

0-12
-
A
/ 007 J
0-1
y y
//
006 y

008t y
006
J / y^ o
005 y

004
/ E
0O4

0-02 0O3

( f

i 1 i 0O2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE CO
0O1

200 400 600 800 1000

TEMPERATURE I*C)

1. Air (A)(Rel.48) 5. Ethana (C)lRef.2) 9. Methans tC)(Ret.49)

2. Ammonia (0}lRet.49) 6. Ethylena(C)(Ref-2) 10 Nitrogen (A)(Ret.48)
3. Argon (D)(Ref. 40) 7. Fluorine (A) (Ref.2) 11. Oxygen (A){Rei48)
4. Carbon Monoxide (D)|Ref.49) 8. HydrogenB)(Ret.49.40) 12. Sulphur Trioxide (D){Ref.2)
13. Methanol Vapour (C)(Ref.41)

FIG. 9.14. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS GASES AT

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 0-18 A 92 0-8 B

-

-
0-7

0-16
0-6
25

iti"
*

* 0'S

&14 -

\
0*4

0-3
0*12 i I i i i 11 i
0 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE CO 0-2

07
0-1 ^-


-
0-6
-40-20 0 20 40 60 80 160
TEMPERATURE (*C)
0-5 D

i
#o 0-4

$ 0-3
..
-

18
0-2
;-
^= .1 03
0-1

* i i i 11 i i i 1 i 11 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE CO
0-14. E_
0-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE CO
0*13

0*15 F

0-12 s >
-

0-14 \
0-11

0-10
0-13
SO 100 150 200 250 300

\N
TEMPERATURE (*C)
-

1 Acetic Acid (0) 16 Hexane IF)

*2 Acetone IA) 30*/. Hydrochloric Acid ID)

\\
17
0-12
3 Ammonia IB) 18 Methanol (C) "
4 i Amyl Alcohol IC) 19 59*/* Nitric Acid ID) --I
S Aniline (A) 20 20V. Nitric Acid ID) *
6 Benzene IA) 21 Nitrobenzene (A)

\
7 25*/.Calcium Chloride IB) 22 Octane IF) 0-11

\
8 Carbon Tetraehloride IB) 423 Pentanc(F)
9 SO'/. Caustic Soda IB) 24 n-Propyl Alcohol (O
10 Decane IF) 25 26'/* Sodium Choride (Brine)IB )
+ II Thermex IE) 26 Sulphur Dioxide B
12 Ethyl Alcohol IB) 17 98*/* Sulphuric Acid ID) 0-10
13 89'/. Ethylene Glycol IC) 28 78*/. Sulphuric Acid ID)
14 50*/* Olycerol (C) 29 60*/. Sulphuric Acid ID)
IS Heptane (F) 30 Toluene (A)
31 Watr (C) 009 i 1 i 11
0 20 40 60 80 tOO
FROM REF. 42 FROM TRAOE BROCHURE TEMPERATURE I*C)

FIG. 9.15. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS (MAINLY REF. 2)

Six MO I

1-00

MO I

O.IK
4
N 1-00

ce
o 0-90
u CJ

u.
080

0-70

0-60

Pr-Rcductd pressure
0-50

Tr - Reduced temperature
040

030

030 L 0-2
00 0-5 K) 1-5 2-0 2 5 3-0 3-5 40 4-5 5-0 5-S 6-0 6-5 7-0 75 80 85 9 0 9-5 100

Pr

FIG. 9.16. THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE DENSITY OF GASES ( REF. 5 )

1-0 fO
0-1 3 -5 -6 -7 8 -9 1-0 3 * 5 6 7 8 9 70-0

REDUCED PRESSURE, Pr

FIG. 9.17. THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE VISCOSITY OFGASES (REF. 34)
 95

150000
1

to oooo
I
80000
/

60000
/
40000

30000 t
f T-
/
>
*^

/ /
20000 y
i "T / r - - =
15000 A / / 7
f / f AT

toooo
// / jA* ,
8000
7 7 / /, / /
6000
/ 7/ / / y At

-
o
4000

3000
A/
/
w/ A
/
A
/

f
A
.. -^At

E / j /7 7 / t* aS
^ 2000 V 7
/$* /'
AfT
A
AT
f

I 1500
s
/ S 'a4T y /'
a.
o
A
A f j ~2_ j y*
o. 1000
J
r A
~aT_ / / / /j r
a/ f

7 7
u

800
f J A /
/ /
A\
V

y A* . ' / / /
600
/
// /t /^ /
5 6 7 8 9 10 20
/
400 // y
Pr

y A A ^~ 7 A * y' aT AT
Cp-Molal hot capacity at
300 / / / /> high pressure.
y J y 7 7 / Xa A*

Cp*-Molar heat capacity at

200
/ / y / low pressure.
Tr -Reduced temperature
A

4* /
150 A

r Pr-Reduced pressure
too

50

00
0-1 O'i 0-3 0-i* 0-6 0-8 10 2 3
Pr

FIG. 9.18. THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE MOLAR

HEAT CAPACITY OF GASES (REF. 35 \
 96

-a
^<;
__ 4

I '
3 (t / /
y
/
1/ / '/ /
V/
i
-
,

0-6 08 1 2 5 6 7
Pr

Pr: Reduced pressure

Tr : Reduced temperature

FIG. 9.19 THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE

THERMAL CONDUCTIVrTY OF GASES (REF.36)
 8 1/
r
22

20
-
<*-

18

/
7

- /
16

/
1. AMMONIA

/
6 2. NITROGEN - WATER
3. AIR 14 /

/
4. CARBON MCINOXIDE
5. OXYGEN -

12
5

243^, 10
-

/
f
4

3
/
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i i

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

2 1

TEMPERATURE (*C)
200 400 600 800 1000

TEMPERATURE CC)

I
/ >
50

/
u

45

HYDROGEN 1.59*/. NITRIC AC 10

2.60'* SULPHURIC ACID
40
3.98*/* SULPHURIC ACID
4. THERM ex

35
200 400 600 800 1000 50 100 150 200 250 300

TEMPERATURE I'd
TEMPERATURE (*C)
frO

7'5
CA RBON
7-0 OK XIDE

ft i
!
I
6O

1
120
5-5 ! 110
STEAM

i KK)

11
1 111 on

4-0 380
a.
3*5 "to
3-0 ff r*
^>
2-*
SO
b?
2-0
0
',.. 100 200 300 400 BOO 600 700 600 9001000
40
0 tOO 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 800 900 HXM
TEMPERATURE I'Cl TEMPERATURE it I

CP*K06
FIG. 9.20. Jp VALUES FOR VARIOUS FLUIDS (FROM EQ. 9.13. Jp = 0O23
 16

MM.
2 - ,
^
44 s
/
-
/

1
40
y

/
WATER
12 1. AIR -

2. AMMONIA 36
3. NITROGEN
u 4. OXYGEN -

5. CARBON MONOXIOE
\
/
< 10

/
-

28

, - A

/ 24

?n

16 h.. 1 1 1 1 1 1 i l l 1 1 I

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

TEMPERATURE CO

0 200 400 600 600 1000

1 15
TEMPERATURECC)
1 - 59*/. NITRIC AtCID

13 I - 607. SULPHUR IC ACID

7
) - 98'/. SULPHUR IC ACD
90

/
. - THERMEX
11

80
/
ui
/
/
/
70

/
HYOROGEN

60

SO
50 100 150 200 250 300
200 400 600 800 1000 TEMPERATURE CO

TEMPERATURE (*C)

12 24
1
23

11 .CARBO N 1
22

10
1
DIOXIDE 21
20

1 STEAM

! 19
IB

17 >

16
15
It
1 w
1
w U
_

il

50
"I

r
8
7
6
*
5
4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500 GOO 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE CC) TEMPERATURE (*C)
0-3 .,07
R& 9.21. 4c VALUES FOR VARIOUS FLUIDS (FROM EQ. 9.U. Jfc = 0-33
 99

2400

2000

320 r
I THERMEX
315

1200 310
200 220 240 260 280 300
TEMPERATURE C

900
50 100 150
TEMPERATURE C

500

1500 475

/
1400 "450
/
METH/

a 1300 425

/
1200 400
-20 . -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE C TEMPERATURE C

FIG. 9.22. Jn VALUES FOR VARIOUS FLUIDS

(from equation 9.15 JN = 202 KL (P lfi
 IUU

\fl

80.

CONVERSION TO Ibf/ft. MULTIPLY BY 6-85x10.-5

70

60

50

E
jj 40
M

e
>.
o

E 30

20

10

100 150 200 250 300

50

TEMPERATURE *C

FIG. 9. 23. SURFACE TENSION OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS (ftEF. 42)

 101

TABLB VI

DYNJWIC VISCOSITY OP GASES AT LOW PRESSURE

H2 N2 CO CO2 CH4 H2O A KH3 CH3OH

Temp.
C Dynamic Viscosity in >uNs/m2j
divide by 10& to convert to SI units Ns/m'1

0 8.40 16.6 16.6 13.65 10.3 8.11 21.0 9.22

20 8.84 17.5 17.5 14.60 11.0 8.91 22.3 9.97 9.6
40 9.25 I8.5 18.5 15.53 11.6 9.71 23.6 10.7 10.4
60 9.63 19.4 19.4 16.44 12.3 10.51 24.9 11.4 11.0

80 10.0 20.3 20.2 17.34 12.9 11.32 26.1 12.2 11.5

100 10.4 21.2 21.1 18.23 13.5 12.13 27.3 12.8 12.1
150 11.2 23.2 23.1 20.4 14.9 14.16 30.1 14.7 13.7
200 12.1 25.1 25.1 22.4 16.3 16.21 32.8 16.5 15.3
250 12.9 26.9 26.9 24.4 17.6 18.26 35.3 18.3 17.1
300 13.7 28.6 28.7 26.3 18.8 20.3 37.7 20.1 18.9
400 15.3 31.9 32.0 29.8 21.1 24.5 42.2 23.8 22.3
500 16.9 34.9 35.2 33.0 23.3 28.7 46.4 27.5
600 18.4 37.8 38.2 36.0 25.3 32.8 50.4
700 19.9 40.6 41.0 38.9 27.2 36.7 54.3
800 21.4 43.2 43.7 41.5 29.1 40.5 58.0
900 22.7 45.8 46.4 44.0 30.9 44.1 61.6
1000 24.1 48.3 49.0 46.4 32.6 47.5 65.0

Ref
52 52 40 25 52 22 52 49 26
No.
 102

TABLE VII

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OP GASES AT LOW PRESSURE

N2 CO CO2 CH4 H20 A NH3 CH3OH

H2
Temp.
C Specific Heat Capacity in j/kgC (SI Units)

0 14230 1038 1042 828 2080 1659 523 2180 1330

100 14440 1040 1048 919 2470 1889 523 2250 1590
1050 1060 997 2850 1939 523 2420 1830
200 14550
1062 1080 1061 3200 1998 523 2600 2060
300 14590
400 14610 IO84 1105 1114 3530 2062 523 2770 2280
500 14660 1110 1130 1158 3840 2129 523 2910
600 14800 1135 1160 1196 4140 2198
700 14960 1158 1181 1227 4390 2268
800 15120 1178 1199 1252 4640 2339
900 15340 1194 1220 1275 4870 2408
1000 15540 1211 1231 1294 5070 2473

Ref 50 49 50
40 40 40 25 40 23
No.

TABLE VIII

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OP GASES AT LOW PRESSURE

CO C02 CH4 H20 A NH3 CH5OH

H2 N2
Temp.
C Thermal Conductivity in mW/mC;
divide by 103 to oonvert to SI units W/mC

0 171 24.3 22.3 14.9 30.1 15.9 16.3 21.0 15.2

31.9 28.0 22.7 43.8 24.8 20.9 30.1* 22.6
100 2*5
30.5 57.7 33.2 25.7 41.9* 32.0
200 254 38.3 33.7
300 290 45.6 39.0 38.0 73.2 43.4 29.0 54.7* 43.6
400 322 46.0 44.4 45.1 89.2 54.9 32.4 69.1* 57.1
500 354 56.4 48.9 52.0 106 67.4 36.0 83.9*
600 390 61.5 54.0 58.6 122 80.6
700 424* 66.4 59.0* 64.9 138 94.3
800 456* 70.9 63.8* 71.1 156* 108
900 489* 75.3 69.0* 77.0 173* 122
1000 522* 79.5 73.5* 82.8 190* 135

Ref 24 40 49 u
49, 40 48 49 25 49
No.

* extrapolated value, assuming constant Pranatul Number at

high temperatures.
 103
10 11 ST OP SYV.BOLS
2
a Tube-plate urea per tube m
2
A Surface area m
o
A Outside surface urea m
o

b Baffle space m

C Friction Factor for flow inside tubes

Co Friction Factor for flow across tubes

Cp Molar heat oapaoity of fluid j/kg raolC

Op Specific heat capacity of fluid j/kgC
Cp' Effective specific heat capacity of gas cooled with
condensation "

Cpm Specific heat capacity of gas/vapour mixture "

OpV Speoific heat of condensing vapour "

de Equivalent diameter m

dj Inside diameter of tube m

dm Mean diameter of tube m

djj Bore of nozzle (shell-side m

do Outside diameter of tube m

ds Inside diameter of shell in

E Ratio of entrained liquid to vapour generated

Eo Thermal effioienoy of cold fluid

Ejj Thermal efficiency of hot fluid

F True mean temperature differenoe/log mean

temperature difference

fm Faotor for calculating mean shell temperature

f(M) Function of molecular weight (eqn. 4.16)

f(Re)Function of Reynolds Number (eqn. 4.12)
G Muss velocity kg/m2s
Ge Equivalent mass velocity of fluid M

Gl Mass velocity of liquid '

Gin Maximum mass velocity of fluid in cross flow "

Oy Muss velocity of vapour "

G+ Hajdsum orosaflow mass velocity in baffled shell, <

assuming no leakage ?
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s
H Average depth from end of shell-side nozzle to outer
tubes (or to impingement plate if one is inoluded) m
hg Boiling heat transfer coefficient W/m2C
 104

Blaok-body radiation heat transfer W/m C

coefficient

h Heat transfer coefficient of

0 condensate film w
h_j- ditto calculated from Nusselt's equation

h,, Inside dirt heat transfer coefficient "

h. Outside dirt heat transfer coefficient "
do

h Effective gas film heat transfer coefficient

6 in condensation N
hf Inside fluid film heat transfer coefficient "

h. Outside fluid film heat transfer coefficient "

fo

h - Dry gas film heat transfer coefficient

& in condensation w
h_ Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation "
n

h Heat transfer ooeffioient from shell-side

8 fluid to tube-sheet "
h. Heat transfer coefficient from tube-side
fluid to tube wall inside tube-sheet "
h Heat transfer coefficient for tube wall "

J Coefficient of Conductance for heat

p transfer in parallel flow
J Coefficient of Conductance for heat
0 transfer in cross flow
J_ Coefficient of conductance for heat
transfer in condensation W/m C
j. non-dimensional volumetric flux of liquid

j non-dimensional volumetric flux of vapour

k Thermal conductivity

K Parameter defined by Equation 7*6

K Number of velocity heads lost in a nozzle

n
L (Effective path length of radiant beam
(Parameter defined by Equation 7*7
/ (Thickness of tube sheet
(Total length of tube-side pass

H molecular weight kg/kg mol

U Molecular weight of incondensable gas "
II Uoleoular weight of condensing vapour "
m Mass flow rate kg/a
 105

N Number of pairs of tube-side passes

n Number of identical shells in series

np Number of tubes per tube side pass

n<f Number of tubes across fliaineter of the shell

nr Number of rows per shell-side crosspass

ns Number of crosspasses per shell

n^ Total number of tubes in shell

nv Number of tubes vertically above eaoh other

2
P Fluid pressure N/m
2
Pc Critical pressure of fluid N/m
Pr Reduced pressure (see eqn, 98)
2
p (Partial pressure of radiating gas V/w
(Tube Pitch m
2
Pj Vapour pressure of condensate at t.j N/m
pv Velocity head expressed in undts of pressure
2
(eqn. 3.2) N/m
q Heat load W

Qj Kolar flow rate kg imol/s

qx Heat load as far as point x ft. from hot end W

R (Shell-side nozzle escape area/nozzle cross-sectional

(area
(Universal Gas constant = 8314 J/kg mol K
Re Reynolds Number (eqn. 3*4)
S Slot area between tubes under nozzle/nozzle cross-
sectional area
o
S,, Window area ni

tc Temperature of cold fluid C

toi Temperature of cold fluid at inlet "

tco Temperature of cold fluid at outlet "

tg Gas temperature "

tn Temperature of hot fluid lf

*hi Temperature of hot fluid at inlet "

t^o Temperature of hot fluid at outlet "

t^ Temperature of oondensate/vapour interface "

ts (Saturation temperature of a vapour or vapour/gas
(mixture "
(Temperature of shell-side fluid '
t8j Temperature of shell-side fluid at inlet "
*am Mean temperature of shell-side fluid "
 106

Temperature of shell-side fluid at outlet C

so

Temperature of tube-side fluid "

Temperature of tube wall N

Temperature of hot fluid K

Reduoed temperature (see equation 9.9)
U Overall heat transfer coefficient 2o
W/m*C
U Combined heat transfer coefficient of
cooling fluid, dirt, wall and oondensate
film
U Combined heat transfer coefficient of
H
heating fluid, dirt, wall and
condensate film n

U Overall heat transfer coefficient

o
referred to outside area "

V Velooity m/s
V Internal volume of shell less volume .
of tubes m

V Heat oapacity of cold fluid W/C

c

h Heat capacity of hot fluid "

Ma88 fraction vapourised

Distance from point of entry to m
point under consideration
Thickness n

Mass fraotion of component i in a

mixture

Hols of vapour/mol. of inert gas in

equilibrium with condensate at interface

Mols of vapour/Mol. of inert gas in main

m
stream of vapour/gas mixture
Mole fraction of component i in a
mixture

Z Height above datum

z Correction factor for deviation from

gas laws

r mass flow rate per unit length or unit

periphery kg/sm

h vV x
Emissivity of gas

Emissivity of tube surfaoe

Dynamic visoosity Hs/m2(kg/ms)

6 Temperature difference between the hot
and cold fluids at a point in the heat oQ
exchanger

Temperature difference aoross boiling film C

6m Mean temperature difference over the

heat exohanger C
9 Difference between inlet temperatures
0 of hot and cold fluids C
0 .. Temperature difference between the shell oQ
fluid and the tube wall at the hot end
of the exohanger

6 . Difference between the mean shell and

mean tube temperatures C

9. ) Terminal temperature differences

in heat exohanger C

Latent heat

Density

Density of a gas at 20C and 1.013 bar

absolute pressure N

Density of liquid "

Density of vapour M

Heat flux W/m2

Heat flux in boiling "

Heat flux between interfaoe and coolant M

Heat flux due to latent heat transfer N

Heat flux due to sensible heat transfer N

Heat flux at point x ft from hot end "

Pressure Drop fl/m

APaM Pressure drop due to acceleration N

Increase in pressure due to increase in height w

(Bqn 5.4. P.54).
 . 108 ^ ^

11 CONVERSION FACTORS

Although extensive tables of conversion factors are available,

the following factors are useful for converting to the S I
system of metric units from the mixed units of the ICI Brochures
and the British units used by HTEI, and vice versa.

a Length

lm = 3.28 ft
. = 39.4 in

b Area

1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
c Volume

1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
s 220 IK gallons
= 264 US gallons

d Mass

1 kg = 2.205 1b

e Density

1 kg/m5 = 0.0624 lb/ft3

f Mass Velocity

1 kg/s m2= 737 lb/h ft2

g Pressure

1 atm = 1.013 x ioj? N/m2

1 bar = 1.0 x 103 R N/nr
1 kgf/cm2 = o.98l x 105 N/m
1 lbf/in2 = 6895 W%
1 in.Hg = 3386
1 in.H90 = 249
1 mm Hg 133.3
1 mm HgO = 9.81

Energy

1 kwh = 3. 60 xlO6 J

5
1 Btu = 1055
1 ft lbf = 1 .356

Power

1 hp a 746 w
1 kcal/h ; 1 .163
1 Btu/h = 0 .293 w
Dynamic viscosity

1 Ns/m2 = 10 poise
1000 centipoise
2W.9 lb/ft h

Heat flux

1 koal/h ft2 = 12.52 W/m2

1 Btu/h ft2 = 3.155 W/nT

Heat transfer coefficient

1 kcal/h ft2C = 12.52 W/m2C

1 Btu/h ft2. P = 5.678 W/nrC
1 koal/h m2 C = 1.163 W/m2C

Thermal conductivity

1 caO/s om C = 418.7 W/m C

1 Btu/h ft P = 1.731 W/m C
1 kcal/h m C = 1.163 W/m C
1 kcal/h ft2 C/in = O.3I8O "
= 0.1442 M

Specific heat capacity

1 koa3/kgC = 1 Btu/H> P = 4187 J/kgC

 no

12 LIST OP REFERENCES

1 ICI Engineering Researoh Broohure "Fluid Flow", 1950.

2 ICI Engineering Researoh Broohure "Heat Transfer", 1959.

3 W H McAdams - "Heat Transmission11, Mo&raw-Hill, 1954.

4 A P Fraas and K N Ozisik - "Heat Exohanger Design",

John Wiley & Sons, 1965.

5 Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers' Association,

5th Edition, 1968.

6 Heat Transfer Research Ino Design Manual.

7 HTRI Computer Manual 1 - Shell-and-Tube Exchanger Computer

Program ST-4.

8 J W Palen, J Taborek and A Yarden - "Stream Analysis Method for

Prediction of Shell-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in
Segmentally Baffled Exohangers", HTRI Report S-SS-3 No. 1,
January 1967.

9 J W Palen and J Taborek - "Thermal Design of Vertioal Thermosyphon

Reboilers", HTRI Report B-VT-1, August 1968.

10 HTRI Computer Manual 2 - Reboiler Programme RTF-2, Design of

rating of axial flow boiling equipment.

11 J R S Thorn - "Prediction of Pressure Drop during forced oirculation

boiling of water", Int.J. of Heat and Mass Transfer, 1964, 2 709.

12 John C Rose - "Heat Exchanger Selection with speoifio reference to

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exohangers", HTFS Design Report No. 18 Part II,
November 1972.

13 Letter from R A Smith to those attending the joint meeting of the

Heat Transfer and Water Treatment Panels on 10 January 1973
"Fouling by Cooling Tower Water", 30 November 1972.

14 J Starczewski - "Heat Transfer to nucleate boiling liquids"

British Chem. Eng., August I965, 10, 523.

15 W Waddington and J B Erskine - "The Prediction of Tube Vibration and

Damage in Shell and Tube Heat Exohangers", ICI Agricultural Division,
Projects & Engineering Department EDN 4072, June 1971.

16 HTRI Computer Manual - Condenser Rating Program CRS.

17 D Butterworth - "Condensation inside Tubes", HTFS Design Report No. 4

1969.
18 W H Emerson - "Performance of Shell-and-Tube Condensers", HTFS
Design Report No. 5, 1969.

19 HTRI Computer Manual 3 - Reboiler Program RKH Design or rating of

shell side boiling equipment.

20 D Butterworth - "The Design of vertioal Thermosyphon Reboilers",

HTFS Design Report No. 1, 1969.
 111

,1 KSDll Item No. 68010, "Density of water aubstunoe", .Tun*

22 KSmi Itwn No. 68OO<;, "Dynamio visoooity of wuter substance",

April 1968.

23 ESDU Item No. 68008, "Specific Heat capaoity of water substance".

March 1968.

24 ESDU Item No. 67031, "Thermal Conductivity of water substance",

April 1967.

25 N P Vukalovioh and V V Altunin "Thermophysical Properties of

Carbon Dioxide" translated into English under the direction of
UKAKA Collet's (Publishers) Ltd, 1968.

26 J H Perry "Chemical Engineer's Handbook", 4th Edition,

McGraw Hill, 1963.

27 R A Smith - "The Design of Air-cooled Heat Exchangers", ICI

Agricultural Division, Projects & Engineering Department
Code of Practice V/CP/lOB, May 1972.

28 ? Newton - "Palling Film Evaporator", ICI Agricultural Division,

Projects & Engineering Department Code of Practice V/CP/13A,
December 1970.

29 T Aoki and J Taborek - "Survey and Evaluation of Heat Transfer

and Pressure Drop Correlations for ideal finned Tube Banks with
staggered tube layouts", HTRI Report No. ESG-4, June 1972.

30 R A Smith - "Estimation of pressure drop in the adiabatio flow

of gas-liquid mixtures in pipes", ICI Agricultural Division,
Projects & Engineering Department, Code of Practice V/CP/l6A,
June 1973.

31 K Nakajima, J W Palen and J Taborek - "Analysis and Prediction

of Entrainment and its Application to Kettle Reboiler Shell
Sizing", HTRI Report B-K-l No. 2, July 1970.

32 C R Wilke "A viscosity equation for gas mixture", I Chem Phys

18 517 (1950).

33 E A Mason and S C Saxena "Approximate formula for the thermal

conductivity of gas mixtures", Phys Pluids 1, 361 (1958).

34 HI Carr, R Kobayashi, D B Burrows, "The effect of pressure on the

viscosity of gases", J of Pet Tech Am Inst Mining Met Eng 6 (10) 46,
1954.

35 AH Weiss, J Joffe, "Generalised correlation for effect of pressure

on isobaric heat capacity of gases", Ind Eng Chem, 4jj>, 120, 1957.

36 J M Lenor, W A Junk, E W Comings, "Measurement and correlation

of thermal conductivities of gases at high pressure", Chem Eng.
Prog 41, 539, 1953.

37 J Hoffman and J Taborek - "Review of C P Braun Reports on Inshell

Condensation with non-condensables", HTRI Report C-SH-3 No. 1.
April 1963.
 /

112

38 Letter from R A Smith to Membere of the Heat Transfer Co-ordinating

Committee who participate in HTFS "Design of Counter-Current Flow
Condensers", 30 November 1971.

39 Letter from R A Smith to Members of the Heat Transfer Co-ordinating

Committee who participate in HTPS, "Calculation of Heat Transfer in
Condensation", 28 October 1971.

40 H M Spiers - "Technioal Data on-Fuel", 6th Edition, The British

National Committee World Power Conference, 1961.

41 J Willenz "Data Book", "Thermal oonduotivity chart for gases", p.A67

issued by ICI Billingham Division, January 1958. '

42 X K Na.ngia and J Taborek - "Physioal Properties of Liquids - Status

of present knowledge and importance in Design Methods for Heat
Transfer and Fluid Flow", HTRI Report No. P-l-2, June 1971 and
supplementary graphs on conductivity.

43 I tf Spearman and J Sourfield "An Evaluation of Computer Programs

Currently Available within ICI on the Topic of Condensation in the
Presence of Inerts", CIRL Tech Note R/71/12, August 1971.

44 J J Settle, "Computer Program for the Design of Cooler - Condensers

for Process Mixtures containing condensable and non-condensable
Components (Process Mixture in Shell), Mond Division Report No
V.V 45/A, March 1964.

45 F H Cass - "An Examination of Forced Convective Boiling (post-dryout)

data for cryogenic Fluids", HTPS (Design Report No. 13 Part II
November 1972.

,46 J W Palen, J Pundyk and J Taborek - "Performance of Shell-and-Tube

Heat Exchangers with Double-Segmental Baffles" HTRI Report No
S-SS-3-4, June 1972.

47 A Schaok (translated from the 6th German edition by I Gutman)

"Industrial Heat Transfer" London Chapman and Hall, 19.65.

48 Y R Mayhew and G F C Rogers - "Therraodynamic and Transport Properties

of fluids", Oxford Basil Blackwell 1969.

h3 R A Smith and P J Dunn "Physical Properties of various liquids and

gases for heat-transfer calculations", ICI Billingham Division Report
CP No. B12?,406, 8 November 1956.

!>0 K A Beckett, .T LHHwksley, J C Rose "Physical Data for Methanol Process

Design1, Section IV "Physioal Properties of Methanol Synthesis Gas",
ICI Agricultural Division Report A.126226, May 1965.

51 J W Palen, A L Yarden, J Taborek "Improved Heat Transfer Correlations

for Liquids in Laminar Flow inside of Tubes", HTRI Report No
S-ST-1-8, June 1973.

52 msSST^S^Tof G*3es" MetrlDnit8"-National

 113

53 M J Wheatley "Calculation of radiative heat transfer from the flame to the

walls of the oombustor in a gas turbine combustion chamber". University
of Sheffield, department of Chemioal Sngineering and Fuel Technology,
July 1^72
A C Hottal and A F Sarofim "Radiative Transfer", McBraw-Hill 1967.