National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov.

2006, Nagpur

STATE OF THE ART LECTURE

1. Rain Water Harvesting, Conservation and Management Strategies

for Urban and Rural Sectors
* Dr. R. K. Sivanappan

1. Introduction Nabateans and other people of the Middle east.

Water is essential for all life and used in many
different ways, It is also a part of the larger
ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio
diversity depends. Fresh water scarcity is not limited
to the arid climate regions only, but in areas with
good supply the access of safe water is becoming
critical problem. Lack of water is caused by low
water storage capacity, low infiltration, larger inter
annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation (due
to monsoonic rains) and high evaporation demand.
The term water harvesting was probably used
first by Geddes of the University of Sydney. He
defined as the collection and storage of any form of
water either runoff or creek flow for irrigation use.
Meyer’s of USDA, USA has defined it as the
practice of collecting water from an area treated to
increase runoff from rainfall. Recently Currier ,USA
has defined it as the process of collecting natural
precipitation from prepared watershed for beneficial
use. Now a days water harvesting has become a
general term for collecting and storing runoff water
or creek flow ,resulting from rain in soil profile and
reservoirs both over surface /under surface.
Previously this was used for arid and semi arid areas,
but recently their use has been extended to sub humid
and humid regions too. In India water harvesting
means utilizing the erratic monsoon rain for raising
good crops in dry tracks and conserve the excess
runoff water for drinking and for recharging
purposes.
2. History of Rain Water Harvesting
Water harvesting like many techniques in use
today is not new. It is practiced as early as 4500
B.C. by the people of Ur and also latest by the
While the early water harvesting techniques used
natural materials, 20th century technology has made
it possible to use artificial means for increasing runoff
from precipitation.
Evenari and his colleagues of Israel have
described water harvesting system in the Negve
desert. The system involved clearing hill sides to
smooth the soil and increase runoff and then building
contour ditches to collect the water and carry it to
low lying fields where the water was used to irrigate
crops. By the time of the Roman Empire, these runoff
farms had evolved into relatively sophisticated
systems.
The next significant development was the
construction of roaded catchments as described by
the public works Department of Western Australia
in 1956. They are so called because the soil is graded
into ditches. These ditches convey the collected
water to a storage reservoir. Lauritzan, USA has
done pioneering work in evaluating plastic and
artificial rubber membranes for the construction of
catchments and reservoirs during 1950’s. In
1959,Mayer of water conservation laboratory, USA
began to investigate materials that caused soil to
become hydrophobic or water repellent. Then
gradually expanded to include sprayable asphalt
compounds, plastic and metal films bounded to the
soil compaction and dispersion and asphalt fiber glass
membranes. Early 1960, research programmes in
water harvesting were also initiated in Israel by Hillal
and at the University of Arizana by Gluff. Hillal’s
work related primarily to soil smoothing and runoff
farming. Cluff has done a considerable amount of
work on the use of soil sealing with sodium salt and
on ground covered with plastic membranes.

* International Consultant in Water Resources & Irrigation,

No:14, Bharathi park, 4th Cross Road, Coimbatore 641 043

1
 Water harvesting was practiced more than
1000 years back in South India, by way of
construction of irrigation tank, ooranis, temple tanks,
farm ponds etc, but the research in India on this
subject is of recent one. Work is taken up at
ICRISAT, Hyderabad, Central arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur, Central Research Institute for
dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, State
Agricultural Universities and other dry land research
centers throughout India.
In Pakistan, in the mountainous and dry
province of Balukhistan, bunds are constructed
across the slopes to force the runoff to infiltrate. In
China, with its vast population is actively promoting
rain and stream water harvesting. One very old but
still common flood diversion technique is called
‘Warping’ (harvesting water as well as sediment).
When water harvesting technique are used
for runoff farming, the storage reservoir will be soil
itself, but when the water is to be used for livestock,
supplementary irrigation or human consumption, a
storage facility of some kind will have to be
produced. In countries where land is abundant, water
harvesting involves; harvesting or reaping the entire
rainwater, store it and utilize it for various purposes.
In India, it is not possible to use the land area only to
harvest water and hence water harvesting means
use the rain water at the place where it falls to the
maximum and the excess water is collected and
again reused in the same area. Therefore the
meaning of water harvesting is different in different
area/ countries. The methods explained above are
used for both agriculture and to increase the ground
water availability.
The water harvesting for household and for
recharging purposes are also in existence for long
years in the world. During rainy days, the people in
the villages used to collect the roof water in the
vessels and use the same for household purposes
including drinking. In South East Asian countries
people used to collect the roof water ( thatched roof
by providing gutters) by placing 4 big earthern drums
in 4 corners of their houses. They use this water for
all household purposes and if it is exhausted only
they will go for well water. The main building of the
Agricultural College at Coimbatore was constructed
100 years ago and they have collected all the roof
water by pipes and stored in a big under ground
masonry storage tanks by the sides of the building.
2
These rainwater are used for all labs, which require
pure and good quality of water. In the same way
the rainwater falling on the terrace in all the building
constructed subsequently are collected and stored
in the underground masonry tanks Even the surface
water flowing in the Nalla’s in the campus are also
diverted by providing obstructions, to the open wells
to recharge ground water.
Hence Rainwater harvesting is as old as
civilization and practiced continuously in different
ways for different purposes in the world The only
thing is that it has not been done systematically in all
places. Need has come to harvest the rainwater
including roof water to solve the water problems
everywhere not only in the arid but also in the humid
region.
3. Need for Rain Water Harvesting
Water is a becoming a scarce commodity and
it is considered as a liquid gold in this part of the
country (especially in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem
Districts of Tamil Nadu). The demand of water is
also increasing day by day not only for Agriculture,
but also for household and Industrial purposes. It is
estimated that water need for drinking and other
municipal uses will be increased from 3.3 MHm to
7.00 MHm in 2020/25. Similarly the demand of water
for industries will be increased by 4 fold i.e. from
3.0 MHm ti 12.00 MHm during this period At the
same time more area should be brought under
irrigation to feed the escalating population of the
country, which also needs more water. But we are
not going to get one litre more water than we get at
present though the demand is alarming.
The perennial rivers are becoming dry and
ground water table is depleting in most of the areas.
In Coimbatore, the depletion is about 30-50m in the
last 30-40 years. Country is facing floods and drought
in the same year in many states. This is because, no
concrete action was taken to conserve, harvest and
manage the rain water efficiently.
The rainfall is abundant in the world and also
in India. But it is not evenly distributed in all places.
India being the monsoonic country, the rain falls only
for 3 to 4 months in a year with high intensity, which
results more runoff and soil erosion. Total rain occurs
only in about 100 hours out of 8760 hours in a year.
It also erratic and fails once in 3 or 4 years. This is
very common in many parts of the country.
 The availability of water in the world, in India
and in Tamil Nadu is given below with rainfall.
Places Rainfall Population Availability of
in mm Water/Person/Yr
M 3 /P/Year
World 840 6 Billion 700
India 1150 1.0 Billion 2200
Tamil Nadu 925 62.5 Million 750
If the availability of water is 1700 M3/p/y,
there will be occasional water stress, and if it is less
than 1000 M3/p/y, it is under water scarcity condition.
Though India is not under water stress conditions
but Tamil Nadu state is already under water scarcity
condition, but there is no need for panic since it is
possible to manage this condition as in the case of
Israel where the availability is only about 450 M3/p/
y, by means of water harvesting, water conservation
and water management.
Water scarcity / stress is not limited to the
arid regions; only but also occurring in high rainfall
areas also. Chirapunji gets more than 11,000mm of
average annual rainfall but face drinking water
problem before monsoon commences whereas in
Ralegoan Siddhi, in Maharastra there is no water
scarcity problem though the annual average rainfall
is only about 450mm. Hence to mitigate water
problem / drought etc, there is an urgent need to
follow our ancestral way of water harvesting and
the latest technologies adopted in Soil and water
conservation measures on watershed basis including
roof water harvesting etc which are described in
detail below.
The Theme paper on Water vision 2050 of
India, prepared by Indian Water Resources
Society(IWRS) has indicated that a storage of 60
MHm is necessary to meet tbne demand of water
for irrigation, drinking and other purposes. But the
present live storage of all reservoirs put together is
equivalent of about 17.5 MHm which is less than
10% of the annual flow in the rivers in the country.
The projects under contruction (7.5 MHm) and those
contemplated (13 MHm) are added, it comes only
37.50 MHm and hence we have to go a long way in
water harvesting to build up storage structures in
order to store about 60 MHm.
More than 75% of the areas comes under
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hard rock in Tamil Nadu. Further the porosity of the
rock is only about 3%. The natural recharge of
rainwater in this region is only about 8 -12%, which
is very minimal. Therefore there is an urgent need
to take up the artificial recharge of the rain for which
water harvesting and water conservation structures
are to be build up in large scale. The rainfall in coastal
area is more than 1200 mm (Chennai) still; drinking
water is a problem in almost every year. This is
because the entire rainwater is collected in masonry
drains (from houses, streets/roads etc) are taken to
the sea instead of taking into the ground water
aquifers or in surface reservoirs by pumping if need
be. The ground water available can be used during
summer and make the aquifer empty so that the
rainwater can be put into the aquifers during rainy
period by suitable water harvesting measures.
All the above details indicate the need for
water harvesting measures in urban and rural area
for the use of Agriculture, drinking and other
purposes.
4. Methods of Water Harvesting in Rural and
Urban Areas
There are different / various system of water
harvesting depending upon the source of water
supply and places as classified below.
a) In situ Rainwater harvesting
• Bunding and terracing.
• Vegetative / stone contour barriers.
• Contour trenching.
• Contour stone walls.
• Contour farming.
• Micro catchments.
• Tie ridging methods
• Farm ponds.
b) Direct surface runoff harvesting
• Roof water collection
• Dug out ponds / storage tanks
• Tankas
• Kundis
• Ooranis
• Temple tanks
• Diversion bunds
• Water spreading
c) Stream flow / runoff harvesting
• Nalla bunding
 • Gully control structures municipalities / corporation without any difficulty to
• Check dams – Temporary some extent.
Permanent To sum up the following types of Water
• Silt detension tanks Harvesting System for different uses can be
• Percolation ponds implemented in different parts of the country.
d) Sub surface flow harvesting
• Sub surface dams No. Region Types of Water Use
• Diaphragm dams
e) Micro catchment’s / watershed 1 Arid Artificial catchments Drinking
• Inter terrace / inter plot water harvesting plains to capture rainfall
(tankas or kundis in
• Conservation bench terrace
Rajasthan)
f) Runoff inducement by surface treatment
• Roaded catchments Tanks or talabs in Drinking
• Use of cover materials – Aluminum foils, Rajasthan to capture and
Plastic sheet, bentonite, Rubber, etc surface runoff irrigation
• Using chemicals for water proofing, water
repellent etc. to get more run off water. Embankments / Irrigation
obstructions across water & also
A comprehensive watershed development on drainage / Nalla to for recharging
watershed basisincluding water harvesting structures capture surface runoff
are given in the figure 1.
2 Semi Tanks / Ponds/Eri to Irrigation
Arid capture surface runoff water and
5. Plan of Action for Rainwater Harvesting places and also chains of drinking water
As stated early, rainwater harvesting is as old tanks called cascade. through
as civilization and is practiced in many countries recharge of
including India from time immemorable. But ground water
government and people remember this only when
water is not available even for drinking purposes. 3. Flood Mud embankment Irrigation
There is no use of spending huge sum of money plains which may be water and
breached during the drinking water
when we notice the water scarcity for drinking,
floods. through
industry and agriculture. These activities / structure recharging
should be taken / constructed before the rainy season ground water
so that the rain water which goes as runoff outside
the sub watershed / city limits can be collected and 4 Hill and Diverted stream flows Irrigation
used directly or by recharging into the ground. Mountain Jammu, M.P., water
Government is undertaking the wasteland / region Maharastra
watershed development programs, but not done in a
comprehensive / integrated manner / holistic 6. Case Study In Water Harvesting
saturating the watershed in all water harvesting There are numerous case studies available in
measures. Hence there is a need to take up water harvesting both in Rural and Urban sectors.
watershed development programmes – mainly water In Rural areas it is Soil and Water conservation
harvesting measures in a scientific and systematic measures taken on watershed basis to conserve and
manner. augment ground water. In the urban sector, it is
The government of Tamil Nadu has laid mostly roof water harvesting for direct use and
condition that in any building construction, water recharging the ground water and also collecting of
harvesting work should be included and executed, surface runoff from pavements / roads and
but in practice, it is not perfect. The authorities recharging it into the ground through recharge pits
concerned should monitor the programme so that or using abandoned / existing wells. The following
the drinking water problem can be solved in all are the places where rain water / roof water

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harvesting has been implemented in a successful
manner.
1. Rural areas
a. Ralegoan Siddhi in Maharastra state
b. Lakshman Nagar and Varisai Nadu inTheni
Dt., Tamil Nadu.
c. Alankulam Taluk in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.
d. Aravari watershed in Alwar Dt., of Rajasthan.
e. Maheshwaram watershed in Andhra Pradesh.
f. Kapilnalla watershed in Karnataka
2. Urban Sectors
Mostly the roof water harvesting measures are taken
up.
a. India
i. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,
all main buildings.
ii. PRICOL, Periyanaickenpalayam (Industry
Building), Coimbatore
iii. TWAD Board / office and PWD office at
Chennai.
iv. Numerous Apartment buildings in Chennai.
v. Sundaram and Clayton Ltd, Padi, Chennai –
(Industry buildings)
vi. TVS training schoool at Vanagaran, Chennai
vii. Rastrapathi Bhavan, Delhi.
viii. Center of science and environment building at
Delhi.
ix. Institute of economic growth, New Delhi.
b. Foreign Countries
i. Thailand – Many houses including thatched
houses in villages.
ii. Japan – office complex.
iii. Germany – office buildings.
iv. Singapore – office buildings.
Rules and regulations have been framed for
Rain Water Harvesting in all corporation,
municipalities and panchayat unions in Tamil Nadu.
The Gujarat government has issued a general
resolution for the effort that no new construction
would be allowed if it does not have provision for
roof top rainwater harvesting. This would be valid
in all 143 municipalities and 6 urban development
authorities in the state. It is heartening to note that
Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and
Industries (FICCI) have taken action to implement
5
the rain water harvesting to their Industry premises.
If the above measures are implemented in
Rural and Urban areas, the drought in rural areas
and drinking water problem in Urban and Rural
population can be solved to some extent. The people,
NGO, and Government should joint together and
implement the rain water harvesting in a big way in
all places in the years to come to solve water scarcity
problem in the country.
7. Conclusions
It is very important to make water everybody’s
business. It means a role for everybody with respect
to water. Every household and community has to
become involved in the provision of water and in
the protection of water resources. Make water the
subject of a people’s movement. It means the
empowerment of our Urban and Rural community,
i.e., to manage their own affairs with the state playing
a critical supportive role.
Further involving people will give the people
greater ownership over the water project including
watershed development, Soil and Water
conservation and water harvesting will go a long
way towards reducing misuse of government funds.
It will also develop the ownership (own water supply
systems), they will also take good care of them. In
this way it is possible to solve water problems facing
the county in the 21st century.
References
• Ake Nilsson, Ground water dams for small-scale water
supply, IT publication, 1988.
• Center for science and environment. A water-harvesting
manual, Delhi 2001.
• Center for Science and Environment – Making water
everybody’s business, New Delhi, 2001.
• Chitale M.A., A blue revolution, Bhavans Book
University, Pune 2000.
• CII, Rainwter harvesting – A guide, New Delhi 2000.
• Rajiv Gandhi, National Drinking water missions
Handbook on Rainwater harvesting, Government of India,
New Delhi, 1998.
• Sivanappan, R.K., Soil and Water Conservation and
Water harvesting, Tamil Nadu Afforestation project,
Chennai, 1999.
• Sivanappan, R.K. Water harvesting, ICCI, Coimbatore
2001.
• Stockholm water Symposium – ‘Water harvesting’
Stockholm, Aug 1998.
• Verma HN & Tiwan KN current status and Prospects of
Rain Water Harvesting, NIH, Roorkee, 1995.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

2. Water Issues and Related Concerns

* Prof. (Mrs.) Vijaya Agarwal ** Prof. (Dr.) J. H. Agarwal

ABSTRACT
By 2025, world population will be 8 billion – water will become scarcer. Global
farming accounts for 70% of water use, while only 17% of farmland is irrigated and
it provides only 40% (estimated) of world’s food. Water application losses in irrigation
are quite high – almost 40 % of the total irrigation water is lost. Per capita irrigated
agricultural land is declining – main reason shortage of water. Water table is falling
steadily in intensive farming regions. People and ecosystems are under threat from
persistent chemicals like pesticides, fertilizers and heavy metals in waters. There are
no serious efforts to gain water by practices like rainwater harvesting, watersheds
and mini-ponds, reuse and recycling of waste water. It is said there is enough freshwater
in world – however, it is not always available in the right place or right form. The
problem is mainly of access, distribution, and optimum utilization.
The paper discusses related concerns and outlines what need to be done.
Key words : Fresh water, harvesting and conservation of water, water reuse, water
management in agro-ecosystems, electronics and IT based devices.

1.0 WHAT NEED TO BE DONE? – Some
suggestions
1.1 Ground Water Recharge, Reuse, and
Efficient Systems
• Watersheds, Check dams, Roof water
harvesting (should be made compulsory and
mandatory), India uses around 15% of rain
water while Israel almost 100% (see
Appendix).
• Efficient irrigation systems: Sprinkler, drip,
trickle (macro and micro irrigation). Drip
irrigation cuts water use by between 30% and
70% , increases crop yield by between 20%
and 90%, compared with traditional irrigation.
• Sequential water use : Reuse, recovery and
recycling of waste waters.
• Switching to less water-dependent crops.
• Water conservation and higher efficiencies for
water-conveyance, water-application and
water-use. Scientific management of water by
making use of electronics and IT based aids
like soil-moisture measurements.
• Participation of women in conservation of
water.
• Competent, knowledgeable and experienced
personnel to be involved in management of
water related activities and balanced
distribution of water.
1.2 Water needs of plants
Agriculture accounts for 70% of fresh water
use. It requires as much as 2000 litres of water to
grow 1 kg of rice. Water (with elements H + O) is
a vital component for crop growth. Plants need
water for:

* Selection Grade Assistant Professor (Electrical Engineering), Department of Agricultural Structures and
Environmental Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University,
Krishi Nagar, Adhartal P.O., Jabalpur 482 004, Email : vijaya_agarwal@gmail.com Phone : 0761 – 2681820
** Retired Director Instrumentation & Project Coordinator UNDP-GOI-MAEP, JNAU, G-83 Krishi Nagar,
Adhartal P.O., Jabalpur 482 004 Email : jhagarwal@sancharnet.in Phone : 0761 – 2680400

6
• Temperature regulation,
• Photosynthesis,
• Transport of nutrients from soil to plant, and
• Transport of assimilates from plant parts to the
produce location.
1.3 Excess water harmful
Excess water to crop is harmful. It causes/
results in :
• Spoilage of soil-health, salinity built up.
• Loss of nutrients due to excessive leaching.
• Contamination of surface and ground water.
• No proportionate increase in yield, and wastage
of water and energy.
2.0 SOIL-MOISTURE MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS
A variety of electronics and microprocessor-
based devices for soil-moisture measurement are
available for scientific water management in agro-
ecosystems. Some of the devices are based on
electrical impedance, infrared thermometry and
time-domain reflectometry. Salient features of five
such devices are given below:
1. Gro-Point GP-ERS Moisture Sensor and
Irrigation Management System (ESI
Environment Sensors Inc., Canada,
web site : www.esica.com ).
• Soil moisture range: 5 – 50 % (volumetric) +/-
1%.
• Rechargeable battery or mains operated.
• Available with hand-held display or with data
logger.
• Intelligent Irrigation System, with a set of
sensors, computer,
software and irrigation controller.
2. Moisture-Point, Multi-Probe Sensor MP-917
(ESI Environment Sensors Inc., Canada,
web site: www.esica.com ).
• Soil moisture range : 0 – 50 % (volumetric) +/-
1.5%.
• A single probe gives moisture profile.
• Rechargeable battery or mains operated.
• LCD display or datalogger or RS-232 with
PC.
3. Irrometer-Tensiometer Probe (Irrometer
Company, USA,
7
web site: www.irrometer.com).
• Tensiometric principle, indicates the amount of
moisture available to plants.
• Direct display of moisture.
• Automatic control of irrigation systems.
4. Watermark Soil Moisture Sensor – 200SS
(Irrometer Company, USA,
web site : www.irrometer.com ).
• Solid state, electrical resistance type.
• Available with meter, electronic control unit.
• Low cost.
5. Sentek Soil Moisture Probes – EnviroSCAN,
EnviroSMART, EasyAG and Diviner 2000
(Sentek, Australia,
web site : www.sentek.com.au ).
• Electrical capacitance principle, continuous
measurement of soil moisture over multiple
depths in root-zone.
• Easy installation, data download options for
retrieving data in the field or remotely.
• Provides information on crop water use and
water management in root-zone, facilitates
decisions on how much and when to irrigate.
These devices should be used for scientific
management of water in agro-ecosystems to make
efficient use of water and to minimize problems like
water logging, salinity built up, non-point
contamination (see Appendix , Fig. 2 (a), (b), (c)
and (d) for photographs of some soil-moisture
devices).
3.0 IT ENABLED SUPPORT SYSTEMS
FOR OPTIMUM UTILIZATION
Use of Crop Simulation Models, Weather
data and Knowledge Base(s):
• To select appropriate crop and crop variety
suitable to agro-climatic pattern, and switch to
less water-dependent crops.
• To decide about the date of sowing, duration of
crop.
• To decide about the irrigation inputs to crop by
monitoring soil-moisture and crop-water stress,
to decide when and how much to irrigate, and
to optimize utilization of water by using
efficient systems like sprinkler, drip and trickle
irrigation.
• To apply fertilizer to crops through irrigation
water by computer-controlled fertigation
techniques.
• To adopt controlled environment farming
wherever easily feasible: This provides
monitoring and control of lighting, humidity,
temperature, CO2 level, irrigation, nutrients
supply, chemical treatments, etc.
• To adopt a GIS coupled soil-water-balance
computation system to calculate the available
residual soil-moisture for its better utilization.
4.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Water is a very valuable resource. There are
no serious efforts to gain water by practices like
rainwater harvesting, watersheds and mini-ponds.
Rainwater harvesting should be made mandatory.
Sequential water use (reuse, recovery and recycling
of waste waters) should be planned wherever
possible so that the load on fresh water can be
reduced. Water’s presence in agro-ecosystems
should be treated on a holistic approach, and by
employing scientific management tools it should be
judiciously used. For agriculture, an integrated
water management practice consisting of three main
components – rain water harvesting, water-saving
micro-irrigation, and highly efficient crop
production – should be adopted. Conservation of
water should be taken as a way of life and widely
adopted.
SELECTED READING
• Goodchild, M.F., B.O. Parks and L.T. Steyaert
(Eds.). Environmental Modelling with GIS.
Oxford University Press, New York, 1993.
• Berkhoff, J. A Strategy for Managing Water in
the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank,
Washington, DC, 1994.
• Bian, F., Z. Sha and W. Hong. An integrated
GIS and knowledge-based decision support
system in assisting farm-level agronomic
decision-making. J. Geogr. Syst., 1995, 3, pp.
49-67.
• Soil-Moisture Systems. ESI – Canada <
www.esica.com > , Irrometer – USA
< www.irrometer.com > , Sentek – Australia <
www.sentek.com.au > .
• Hinrichsen, D., B. Robey and U. D.
Upadhyay. Solutions for a Water-Short World.
8
Population Reports, Series M, No. 14.
Population Information Program, Johns Hopkins
School of Public Health, Baltimore, December
1997.
• United States Department of Agriculture. ARS
National Program # 201 on Water Quality and
Management : Component I – Agricultural
watershed management, Component II –
Irrigation and drainage management,
Component III – Water quality protection and
management, 1998 – ongoing. <
www.nps.ars.usda.gov >
• Li, F., S. Cook, G. T. Geballe and W. R.
Burch. Rainwater Harvesting Agriculture: An
integrated system for water management on
rainfed land in China’s semiarid areas, AMBIO
– Journal of Human Environment, Vol. 29, Issue
8, December 2000, pp. 477-483.
• Gleick, P. H. The World’s Water 2000 - 2001:
The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources.
Island Press, Washington, DC, 2000.
• Rijsberman, F. and D. Molden. Balancing water
uses: water for food and water for nature
(Thematic background paper), International
Conference on Freshwater, Bonn, Germany, 3-
7 December 2001.
• Smajstrla, A.G., B.J. Boman, D.Z. Haman, F.T.
Izuno, D.J. Pitts and F.S. Zazueta. Basic
irrigation scheduling in Florida < http://
edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE111 > Bulletin # 249,
Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Department, Cooperative Extension Service,
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Florida, Gainesville, 2002.
• Fahimi, F.R., L. Creel and R.M. De Souza.
Finding The Balance: Population and Water
Scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa.
Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC,
2002.
• Simonne, E. and G. Hochmuth. Irrigation
scheduling as a means of applying the right
water amount and monitoring soil moisture for
vegetable crops grown in Florida in the BMP
era. Document # HS909, Horticultural Sciences
Department, Cooperative Extension Service,
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Florida, Gainesville, 2003 < http:/
/edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS166 >
• Rijsberman, F. Sanitation and Water, In: Global
 crises, global solutions (Ed. - B. Lomborg), 2. Soil-Moisture Probes :
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004,
670 p.
• IWMI. Beyond more crop per drop (Note
prepared by F. Rijsberman and D. Molden for
the 4 th World Water Forum, Mexico, 16-22
March 2006), International Water Management
Institute, Sri Lanka, Press release, 17 March
2006.

APPENDIX

1. Rainfall Facts : Percentage of Rainfall (a) Soil-Moisture Probe for moisture measurements in the
consumed to support direct and indirect human root zone of a crop (Sensors are mounted on a screwable
insert )
uses of water (Source: IWMI, Sri Lanka)
System / Uses % of Rainfall
Food – irrigation 2
Food – rainfed 4
Domestic & industry 1
In-stream ecology 8
Flood runoff 27
Permanent grazing 18
Grasslands 11
Forests & woodlands 17
Arid lands 5
All others 7
Total 100
(b) Tensiometer type soil-moisture probe.

(d) Soil-Moisture Probe working on impedance

principle.

[Note : Photographs of the probes from websites / product

(c) Sentek Soil-Moisture Probe working on literature. Disclaimer: No preference to any particular firm
capacitance principle. by the authors].

9
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

3. Rainwater Harvesting Techniques

* Dr. K. A. Patil ** G. K. Patil

ABSTRACT
Water is our most precious natural resource and something that most of us take for
granted. We are now increasingly becoming aware of the importance of water to our survival
and its limited supply. The human beings require water for various purposes. The most part
of the earth surface i.e. about 71 % is covered by water. Out of total volume of water
available on the surface of the earth 97 % is saline water, 2 % water is in the form of ice
and glaciers and only 1 % is fresh and potable water. India is well endowed nations in the
world in terms of average annual rainfall. It is unbelievable but it is true that Cherapunji
which gets 11000 mm annual rainfall still suffers from serious drinking water shortage.
Though India’s average annual rainfall is 1170 mm; in the deserts of western India it is as
low as about 100 mm. Hence, it is necessary to opt for rainwater harvesting measures for
fulfillment of water requirement.

INTRODUCTION harvesting can play important role for solving the

India is one of the developing countries. Due
to faster industrialization and urbanization and
increase in population water demand is increasing
day by day. Rainfall in India is highly irregular. Most
of it is concentrated during a few months of the year
and maximum amount flows away resulting in poor
recharge of ground water. There is significant spatial
imbalance in water resource available and water
demand. Therefore, it is becoming necessary to
bring water from distant places increasing the cost
of conveyance. It is also a common observation that
underground water table is depleting due to
uncontrolled extraction of water. The state of
Maharashtra covers an area of 307,713 square km
and supports a population of 82 million. Over half
of this population is in rural area which faces
problems related to water. Conventional sources like
open well, bore well and piped water supplies have
failed due to depleting water tables, poor water
quality and high cost involved in operation and
maintenance. Every year a great amount of water
is being lost that falls on terraces, all of which finds
its way to the storm water drains. Rain water
water problems.
WHY RAINWATER HARVESTING?
Rainwater harvesting means the activity of
direct collection of rain water which can be
recharged in to the ground water to prevent fall of
ground water level or storing in surface or
underground water tank. It is most suited in today’s
context due to following reasons.
1. It is the most scientific and cost effective way
of recharging the ground water and reviving the
water table.
2. It offers advantage in water quality for both
irrigation and domestic use.
3. It provides naturally soft water and contains
almost no dissolved minerals or salts, arsenic
and other heavy metals.
4. It can be done at individual as well as in a
community level. This way we can be self
sufficient in terms of domestic water
requirements and not just dependent on the
actions initiated by government or any other
local body.

* Lecturers in Civil Engineering Dept; Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad (M.S.) 431 005

10
 Collecting rainwater as it falls from the sky
seems immensely sensible in areas struggling to
cope with potable water needs. Rainwater is one of
the purest sources of water available as it contains
very low impurities. Rain water harvesting systems
can be adopted where conventional water supply
systems have failed to meet people’s needs.
COMPONENTS OF RAINWATER
HARVESTING STRUCTURE
All rainwater harvesting structures will have three
basic components:
1. Catchment area i.e. the surface area utilized for
capturing the rainwater.
2. Collection device, like tanks or cisterns or
percolation pits used for collecting or holding
the water.
3. Conveyance system i.e. the system of pipes or
percolation pits through which water is
transported from the catchment area to the
collection device.
METHODS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING
There are different ways by which rain water
harvesting is carried out. Some of the important
methods are discussed one by one as discussed in
coming paragraphs.
1. Utilizing Rainwater for Dewas Roof Water
Filter
Dewas is the name of the city located in
Madhya Pradesh. This roof water filter is first
practiced at Dewas and hence the name Dewas roof
water filter. Fig.1 shows details of Dewar roof water
filter. It can be made easily using sand pebbles of
different sizes. In this two caps are provided as T1
and T2. Keep the cap T1 and T2 always closed. The
T2 is used for periodical back washing of filter and
cap T1 is used for backwash drainage. Small pebbles
of size 6 mm are on entry side of rainwater. Use of
medicine for water purification is made through cap
T2. Do not recharge rainwater for first two days in
rainy season. Keep the roof always clean, especially
in rainy season so that quality of rain water falling
on roof is not deteriorated. The cost of this roof
filter excluding connecting pipe is about Rs 800.
For average condition in Maharashtra, from 100
square metres roof area about 50 m3 of water can
be percolated through this filter.
11
2. Utilization of Rainwater for Recharging Pit
Where there is no well or bore well in the
house, total rainwater falling on the open plot can
be recharged by making recharge pit. Water flowing
out of the plot can be directed to this pit. This pit
may get filled 10 to 15 times in one monsoon and
can recharge water up to 200 m3. This method is
effective in the area where permeability of soil is
more. The capacity of the pit may be taken up to 10
m3. The percolation of water through this pit of the
order of 200 m3 per annum is possible. The cost of
this structure may come about Rs 7000.
3. Utilization of Rainwater for Well Recharging
Rainwater flowing in the farm is diverted to
a water collecting tank of size 6 m x 6 m x 1.5 m
near well and a small filter pit of size 1.5 m x 1.5 m
x 0.6m is made at the bottom of large pit. Otherwise
suitable pit may be excavated depending upon the
availability of space near well. Fig.2 shows details
regarding recharge of open well by runoff from farm.
Filter pit is filled with sand, pebbles larger than 20
mm and pebbles/boulders larger than 75mm pebbles
is filled in three equal layers and connected to the
well by 150 mm diameter PVC pipe and this pipe
projects 0.5 to 1.0 m inside the well. The capacity
of the water tank may be taken about 50 m3. The
percolation of water 400 to 1000 m3 per year is
possible through this structure.
4. Utilizing of Rainwater for Bore well
Recharging
Arrangement of bore well recharging is as
shown in fig. 3. A six metre diameter collecting pit
of 1.5 m depth is excavated around the bore well
casing pipe. Another small pit of 1.5 m x 1.5 m x
0.6 m depth is made at the bottom of large pit and
filled with filter media. A 75 mm diameter PVC pipe
is connected to the bore well casing pipe after first
layer of 75 mm pebbles. An inverted elbow is
connected to the pipe.
5. Utilizing Roof Water to Recharge Trench
The roof water collected can be recharged
through recharge trench. Water can be recharged
throughout the year either by using used water or
rainwater. This recharge trench may get filled many
times as per availability of used or rain water. This
method is effective in the area where permeability
of soil is more. The capacity of the trench may be
taken up to 20 m3. The percolation of water through
this pit of the order of 100 to 200 m3 per annum is
possible. The cost of this structure may come about
Rs 5000.
6. Utilizing Surface Rainwater to Recharge Tube
well
Depleted aquifers are directly fed with surface
rainwater by using a recharge tube well so that
recharge is fast and evaporation and transit losses
are zero.
A typical recharge tube well is designed as
follows :
1. A borehole of 50 cm diameter is drilled to the
desired depth.
2. A 20 cm diameter casing i.e. outer pipe of the
bore well is designed by providing slotted
perforated sections against aquifers.
3. The depth of the recharge tube well should be
about 30 metre below the water table in the area.
4. The annular space between the borehole and
the pipe is filled with good gravel and developed
with a compressor till it gives clear water. To
stop the suspended solids from entering the
recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is
provided at the top.
5. A pit of dimensions 6 m x 6 m x 6 m is dug with
the tube well at the center.
6. This pit is filled with small rounded boulders,
stone chips and sand in layers with boulders at
the bottom and sand at the top.
7. The top one metre of the casing assembly in
this pit is filled with sand. The top of the casing
pipe is provided with a cap which is about 600
mm below the sand bed to prevent suspended
material from entering the well.
8. In order to release the air present in the casing
assembly during the percolation process of
floodwater, the air vent is provided through a
75 mm diameter pipe connected to the
recharging tube well within the top 600 mm
through a reducer tee of dimensions 200 mm x
75 mm. The air releasing pipe is then extended
to one of the banks where the vent is
constructed.
When flood water filters through the sand,
most of the suspended materials are filtered out. The
12
second sand filter surrounding the slotted section of
the well at the top prevents the remaining suspended
material entering the well. Beyond this is a coir
wrapping as a final protective filter before water
enters the well. The rate gradually decreases due to
setting of slit at the top. Every year, after the rainy
season about one meter of the sand at the filter bed
has to be replaced. Every year the well is developed
with a compressor once immediately after the
storage structures become empty because the water
level is shallow immediately after the monsoon and
development is effective.
During pumping when the water is clear, it
may be allowed on the filtered bed so that it takes
down the slit accumulated in the filter bed into the
well which is being developed. Through this method
the entire filter bed also gets cleared of the silt during
the time of infiltration.
7. Utilizing Roof Water to Collect into the Storage
Tanks
Rainwater from the roof surface is drained
through gutters into storage tanks. To prevent
contamination and dust to flow into the storage tanks
there is a provision of a hand movable gutter
connection which can be manually moved to divert
the water out. The rooftop is used as the collection
device. Guttering generally made of PVC is used to
transport the rainwater from the roof top to the
storage tanks. Storage tanks may be either above or
below the ground and should be properly covered.
In apartments more than one storage tanks can be
used and they can be interconnected through
connecting pipes. The storage tanks should have
provision of an adequate enclosure to minimize
contamination from human, animal or other
environmental contaminants. The end of the gutter,
which connects the storage tank, should be attached
with a filter to prevent any contaminants to get into
the storage tank. It is also advisable to drain the
first flow to get rid of the dust and contaminants
from the roof top.
CASE STUDY OF RAIN WATER
HARVESTING FOR BUILDING IN URBAN
AND VILLAGE AREA
Rain water harvesting system for annexure
building of Govt. College of Engineering,
Aurangabad is being considered for study purpose.
The Government Engineering College is located in
Marathwada region of Maharashtra State. The
average annual rainfall of Aurangabad town is
around 700 mm/year. The population of the city is
more than 10 lakh. Presently the water is supplied
to the town by Municipal Corporation, Aurangabad.
Considering the capacity of water treatment plant,
the water is supplied to town on alternate day.
The institute needs water about 350 m3 per
day. In last few years it is observed that the ground
water level of the town is being depleted. It is
essential to conserve the rainwater not only in the
city itself but also in areas surrounding to
Aurangabad. No one can neglect the importance of
rainwater harvesting. According it is proposed to
collect roof water from at least ten hoses from each
village. It is also proposed to collect rainwater from
roof of Annex building of this institute. If this roof
top rain water harvesting scheme is implemented
all civil engineering students from this institute will
have a role model. These students will see the system
and in future they will be motivated to implement
roof water harvesting system elsewhere. The
tentative estimate is as given below.
Estimate for rain water harvesting system for
annex building
Area of building : 2159.78 m2
Perimeter of building : 335.45 m
Average annual rainfall at Aurangabad : 700 mm
Coefficient of runoff : 0.8
Quantity of water to be harvested per year :
1209.47 m3
Requirement of soak pit : 6 m x 6 m x 1.5 m (Two
numbers)
I ) Cost of excavation : 2 x 54 m3 x Rs.60/-
= Rs. 6480/-
III) Plumbing cost
a. PVC pipe 6" size total length 200 m @ Rs
100/- per m = Rs.20000/-
b. PVC pipe 4" size total length 120 m @Rs 85/-
per m = Rs 10200/-
c. Labour charges (Lump sum)
= Rs 20000/-
d. PVC pipe accessories = Rs 10000/-
IV) Tube Well 100 m deep and 2 H.P. pump
= Rs.30000/-
Total Expenditure = Rs142680 /-
The total cost of rain water harvesting system
project is Rs.142680/-
Rain water harvesting system for village
community
This system is designed for the village
community situated in locality where there is
scarcity of water. The annual rainfall is 650 mm per
year. The water is supplied by panchayat/local
authority alternate day. Incase of summer season
the water is supplied by tankers. So it is proposed
to conserve the rain water by allowing it to percolate
so as to meet underground water. It is proposed to
conserve rain water collected on top of every house
and common rain water harvesting system is
designed for group of 10 houses having approximate
area of 70 m2 each
Estimate for rain water harvesting system for
village community
Area of group of houses : 700 m2
Perimeter: 340 m
Average annual rainfall: 650 mm
Coefficient of runoff: 0.8
Quantity of water to be harvested per year: 364 m3
Requirement of soak pit: 3 m x 3 m x 2 m

II) Cost of material for filling of soak pit I) Cost of excavation : 18 m3 x Rs.60/-
a. 75 mm to 100 mm size aggregate = Rs. 1080/-
= Rs. 12000/-
b. 15 mm to 25 mm size aggregate II) Cost of material for filling of soak pit
= Rs. 12000/- a. 75 mm to 100 mm size aggregate
c. Sand = Rs. 8000/- = Rs. 2500/-
d. Protection wall with perforation b. 15 mm to 25 mm size aggregate
= Rs 8000/- = Rs. 2500/-
e. Labour cost for filling material ( Lump sum) c. Sand = Rs. 2000/-
= Rs. 6000/-

13
d. Protection wall with perforations
= Rs 2000/-
e. Labour cost for filling material
= Rs. 5000/-
III) Plumbing cost
a. PVC pipe 4" size total length 200 m @Rs 85/-
per m = Rs.17000/-
b. Labour charges (Lump sum)
= Rs 8000/-
c. PVC pipe accessories = Rs 6000/-
Expenditure for one unit of ten houses
= Rs 46080/-
CONCLUSION
Water is essential element of life. Everyone
knows that, if we do not harness available sources
of water and use them judiciously with proper care
the problem of water scarcity is going to be serious.
Irrespective of fast development in all fields of
science there can be no substitute to water. Hence,
it is necessary to opt for various water harvesting
measures. It is the responsibility of government
organization as well as individual to harvest each
drop of water falling on earth surface. For this, it is
necessary that each person collect the raindrops
14
failing on his roof, plot, and farm and recharges it
under ground. Two cases of roof top water
harvesting for urban and rural area have been
considered in the present study. Similarly for other
building roof top rain water harvesting can be
implemented. In fact there is no village and
habitation in India that cannot meet its basic drinking
and cooking needs through rainwater harvesting
techniques.
REFERENCES
1. Gawai A.A. and Aswar D.S. (2006) “Towards
Self reliance for Water Needs through Rain
Water Harvesting” Conference on ‘Engineering
Technology for Efficient Rain Water Harvesting
and Soil Conservation’, S.G.G.Nanded, 29-30
May 2006.pp. 1-7
2. Kaushal Kishore (2004) “Rain Water
Harvesting”, Journal of Civil Engineering and
Construction Review, May 2004, pp.42-48
Magar R.B. and Waghmare S.T. . (2006) “Rain
Water Harvesting” Conference on ‘Engineering
Technology for Efficient Rain Water Harvesting
and Soil Conservation’, S.G.G.Nanded, 29-30
May 2006.pp. 44-51
15
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

4. Harvested Rainwater for Drinking

*Dr. N. Balasubramanya

Abstract
It is clear from the World water quantity that out of total available water, only 0.3%
is available for human consumption. But today even this is getting polluted due to human
activities like mining, industrialization has created acute shortage of potable drinking water.
Rain water harvesting is one of the most ancient and easy methods that can be adopted at
urban and rural level efficiently.
The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of using harvested rainwater as
a source of drinking water without causing any health risk. This can be achieved by adopting
suitable storage technique efficient and economical treatment methods.
Roof harvested rainwater samples were collected from five different places of
Bangalore during October 2005. The water samples were collected and stored in good
grade plastic containers and were subjected to periodical treatments (like chlorination,
solar disinfections and use of silver nitrate) and tests fro and use of silver nitrate and tests
for physical chemical and Biological parameters up to May 2006 as per IS 10500:1991.
All the above treatment methods suggested proved to be highly effective in reducing
the colonies fro an initial value of around 300 to zero.

Introduction increases due to increase in the population. Hence,

For centuries world has relied upon rainwater
harvesting to supply water. Rainwater harvesting
promotes self sufficiency and fosters an appreciation
for water as a resource. It saves money, saves other
resources of water, reduces erosion and storm water
runoff and increases water quality.
Rainwater can provide clean, safe and reliable
water for drinking so long as the collection system
is properly constructed and maintained and treated
appropriately for its intended use.
Rainwater harvesting means capturing rain
where it falls or capturing the runoff in a village or
town and taking all precautions to keep it unpolluted.
One third of world’s population will
experience severe water scarcity by the end of this
century. In rural areas, the water may not be fit for
drinking due to the polluted water bodies, due to
contaminated ground water and also due to acute
water scarcity. In urban areas, water demand
the most effective way to obtain fresh drinking water
is to harvest rainwater. Rainwater harvesting system
is inherently simple in form, and can often be
assembled with readily available materials by
owners, builders with a basic understanding of the
plumbing and construction skills.
The present investigations was proposed with
a vision to overcome the scarcity of drinking water
during the non – rainy seasons such that it gives
easy and economical solution that can be adopted
both in urban and rural areas.
Sample Collection and Storage
Rainwater samples were collected from five
different places of Bangalore during October 2005.
The samples were stored in good grade plastic cans.
The above samples were tested for physical,
chemical and microbiological parameters. Table 1
gives the experimental finding.

* Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore – 54

16
 Table 1 : Experimental Results of Physical, Chemical & Biological Parameters

Sample Date of Expt Turbidity pH Do Hardness Chloride Alkalinity Acidity

NTU mg/l of mg/l mg/l mg/l of mg/l of
CaCO3 CaCO3
1. Banashankari 14/08/05 4.6 7 7.8 56 13.96 86 06
2. MSRIT 17/01/06 6.3 8.4 7.7 22 16 30 08
3. Shivajinagar 21/11/05 8.3 8.11 8 58 13.2 40 06
4. Vijayanagar 18/01/06 11.9 7 7.7 58 21.3 46 12
5. Vidyaranyapura 12/12/05 7.3 8 8.1 46 12 18 14

A detailed study of Table 1 reveals that both
the physical& chemical parameters are very much
within the limits for drinking water standards
specified by WHO (1984) and IS 10500:1991.
However, the colony counts were quite significant
in all the five samples.
Therefore, it was decided to emphasize more
on the microbiological contaminations and suitable
treatment methods to make the rainwater fit for
drinking.
sis hours. Such an exposure increases the
temperature of water and also gives an extended
dose of solar radiation killing the microbes.
Chlorination
Chlorination is one of the most reliable
methods of disinfecting drinking water. In this
method the calculated amount of chlorine is added
to one litre of water sample for a specified tune and
thereafter tested for the coliform counts.

Treatment methods and Results Silver Nitrate

All the five rain water samples were subjected Silver nitrate is very small doses of 0.05 to
to the following treatments. 0.1 mg/l helps in disinfecting the drinking water.
• Solar disinfection Silver nitrate in smaller doses does not impart any
• Chlorination taste, odour or produces any harmful effect on
• Using Silver nitrate human body.
• Combination of the above method.
Combination of the above methods
Solar Disinfection In order to investigate the effectiveness of the
Solar disinfection is a process where in treatment methods following combinations were
microbes are destroyed through temperature and tried.
ultra violet radiation provided by the fun. a) Chlorine + Solar disinfection
Water is filled either in a clean transparent or b) Silver nitrate + Solar disinfection.
painted (Black) bottle oxygenated by shaking,
followed by topping up. It is placed in the horizontal Tables 2,3 & 4 presents the details of coliform
portion on tope exposed to direct sunlight for about counts of the above specified treatments.
Table 2: Coliform Count (At room temperature)
Sample Date of Collection Date of experiment Coliform Count/100ml (Average of 3 tests)
Chlorination Silver Nitrate
1. Banashankari 20/10/05 17/05/06 0 0
2. MSRIT 25/10/05 17/05/06 0 0
3. Shivajinagar 25/10/05 17/05/06 0 0
4. Vijayanagar 25/10/05 17/05/06 0 0
5. Vidyaranyapura 28/10/05 17/05/06 0 0

17
 Table 3 : Coliform Count (Solar disinfection using transparent bottle)

Sample Date of Date of Expt Coliform count / 100ml

Collection Transparent Bottle Chlorination Silver nitrate
(Average of 3 tests)
1. Banashankari 20/10/05 17/03/06 40 0 0
2. MSRIT 25/10/05 24/03/06 38 0 0
3. Shivajinagar 25/10/05 02/04/06 40 0 0
4. Vijayanagar 25/10/05 15/04/06 35 0 0
5. Vidyaranyapura 25/10/05 21/04/06 28 0 0

Table 4 : Coliform Count (Solar Disinfection using black painted bottle)

Sample Date of Date of Expt. Coliform Count / 100 ml (Average of 3 tests)

Collection Black Bottle Chlorination
1. Banashankari 20/10/05 17/03/06 2 0
2. MSRIT 25/10/05 24/03/06 2 0
3. Shivajinagar 25/10/05 02/04/06 3 0
4. Vijayanagar 25/10/05 15/04/06 2 0
5. Vidyaranyapura 28/10/05 21/04/06 0 0

Careful study of Table 2 depicts that Conclusions

chlorination and Silver nitrate in very small dosages
are very effective even at room conditions, justifying
their selection.
Detailed study of Table 3 indicates that solar
disinfection using a transparent bottle is not very
effective in reducing the coliform counts. However,
addition of chlorine and silver nitrate have proved
to be highly effective, further strengthening their
selection as disinfectants.
Finally from Table 4, it can be seen that solar
disinfection using a black painted bottle has yielded
in a more effective disinfection, the coliform counts
have very significant, reduced. The reason being
that a black bottle or body absorbs more heat, which
enables in destroying the bacteria. In the present
investigations is was observed that the water
temperature in the bottles recorded a temperature
around 500 C.
It is also very interesting of disinfection to
note that the chlorination method has established
its supremacy.
Rainwater collection is easy and economical
both in rural and urban areas.
Rainwater harvested during Oct 2005, tested till
May 2006 without much changes in physical
properties like colour, odour & turbidity, inspite
of the fact that they were from various sources
and stored in normal food grade plastic
containers.
All the treatment methods suggested are highly
effective in reducing the microbiological
contamination and also viable both at rural and
urban levels.
Rainwater harvesting and its treatment is
affordable by individuals and will be highly
useful in drought prone areas.
Future
It is suggested that similar investigations are
made on a number of samples collected from
different places, stored under different conditions.

18
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank the management
of M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore
560054 for all the encouragements & inspiration
provided for the study. Also many thanks are due to
Mr.Sunil Hegde, Mr.Anantha Padmanabha &
Mr.Vinay Final Year B.E. Students for their help
during the course of the experimental investigations.
References :
1. Bell, F.A.Jr, D.L.Jerry, J.K.Smoth, and
S.C.Lynch, Studies on home water treatment
systems. Jr.Am water works Assoc. 75:104-107-
1984.
2. Davies C.M., and Evison L M “Sunlight & the
survival of entropic bacteria in natural water
Journal of applied Bacteriology 7, 265-274-
1991.
3. Drinking water standards, www.epa.gov/safe
water/md.html.
4. I.S. 10500:1991 “Drinking Water Standards”.
5. Jalbottt R “Rural water supply and Sanitation
program in India – Goals, roles & innovation.
19
Proe. 23rd WEDC Conf. Sep 1-5 1997, Durban
S.Africa.
6. Sharma S.K. and Jain S.K, Proceedings of the
International Conference on Management of
Drinking water resources – central leather
Research Institute. Anna University & Tamil
Nadu Water supply & Drainage, Board,
Chennai, 1997, pp129-138.
7. Wegelin M & Sommer B, Solar water
disinfections (SODIS) – Destines for world
wide use. Water lines, Vol 16, No.3, IT
Publications, London 1998.
8. Winter bottom, Daniel “Rainwater Harvesting,
An ancient technology – cisterns in
reconsidered, Landscape Architecture”, April
.2000 pp 42-46.
9. White G.C, Hand Book of chlorination &
Alternative Disinfectants, Johns Wiley & Sons,
Inc, New York 1999.
10. Wolfe R.L., 1990, “Ultraviolet Disinfection of
Possible water” Env.Sci and Technology 24(6),
768-773, 1990.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur
5. Rain Water Harvesting and Ground Water Recharge
*Madhaorao Bajirao Deshmukh
1.1 Water is an essential natural resource for
sustaining life and environment. The available water
resources are under pressure due to increasing
demands and the time is not far when water, which
we have always thought to be available in abundance
and free gift of nature, will become a scarce
commodity. Conservation and preservation of water
resources is urgently required to be done. Water
management has always been practiced in our
communities since ancient times, but today this has
to be done on priority basis.
1.2 India’s population has recently crossed the one
billion mark, with an ever-increasing population, our
country faces a serious threat to the management of
her water resources as the gap between demand and
supply widens.
2.1 In our villages and cities, down the ages, people
have developed a wide array of techniques to harvest
rainwater, which are simple, efficient and cost
effective. There is a tendency to ignore these
traditional water-harvesting systems. We should
draw upon the wisdom of our ancient life sustaining
systems and through better management, conserve
our precious water resources.
2.2 Harvesting of rainwater is of utmost important
and the ministry of water resources is embarking on
such programme. A judicious mix of ancient
knowledge, modern technology, public and private
investment and above all, people’s participation will
go a long way in reviving and strengthening water
harvesting practices through out the country.
3.1 Ground Water Resources: - Annually
replenishable resources are assessed as 432 billion
cubic meters (BCM)
*B.Sc., B.E. (Hon), AMICE (USA), Ex- Superintending Engineer, 54, Tatya Tope Nagar, Nagpur
20
By adopting water harvesting, an additional 160
BCM shall be available for use.
3.2 Ground water level in some areas are falling at
the rate of one meter per year and rising in some
other areas at the same rate.
You can capture and recharge 650000 liters of
rainwater from a 100-sq. meters size rooftop and
meet drinking and domestic water requirement of
family of four for 160 days.
The number of wells and borewells for
irrigation in the country has increased five fold to
175 lacks during past fifty years.
There are 25 to 30 lack wells and borewells for
drinking, domestic and industrial uses.
More than 80% of rural and 50% of urban, industrial
and irrigation water requirement in the country are
met from ground water.
3.3 Causes Of Fall In Ground Water Levels
• Over exploitation or excessive pumpage either
locally or over large areas to meet increasing water
demands.
• Non-availability of other sources of water.
Therefore, sole dependence is on ground water.
• Unreliability of municipal water supplies both
in terms of quantity and timings, driving people to
there own sources.
• Disuse of ancient means of water conservation
like village ponds, baolis, percolation tanks and
therefore, higher pressure on ground water
development.
3.4 Effects Of Over Exploitation Of Ground
Water Resources
• Drastic fall in water levels in some area
• Drying up wells/ borewells
• Enhanced use of energy
• Deterioration in ground water quality
• Ingress of sea water in coastal areas.
4.0 Method And Techniques Of Rain Water
Harvesting
• Roof – top rain water harvesting and its
recharge to underground through existing wells and
borewells or by constructing new wells, borewells,
shafts etc.
• Capturing and recharging city storm water run
off through wells, shafts, storm water drains.
• Harnessing run off in the catchment by
constructing structures such as gabions, check dams,
bhandaras, percolation trenches, sub-surface dykes
etc.
• Recharging treated and industrial affluent
underground by using it for direct irrigation or
through ponds, basins or wells etc.
5.0 Objective Of Rain Water Harvesting
• Restore supplies from the aquifers depleted due
to over exploitation
• Improve supplies from aquifers lacking
adequate recharge.
• Store excess water for use at subsequent times.
• Improve physical and chemical quality of
ground water
• Reduced storm water run off and soil erosion
• Prevent salinity ingress in coastal areas.
• Increase hydrostatic pressure to prevent/ stop
land subsidence.
• Recycle urban and industrial wastewater etc.
• Rehabilitate the existing traditional water
harvesting structure like village ponds, percolation
tanks, baolis, tanks, etc
• With minor scientific modifications and
redesigning, convert the traditional water harvesting
structure into ground water recharge facilities.
• Use the existing defunct wells and borewells
after cleaning and also the operational wells as
recharge structures.
6.0 Benefits Of Rain Water Harvesting
• Rise in ground water levels in water
• Increased availability of water from wells
• Prevent decline in water levels
• Reduction in the use of energy for pumping
water and consequently the costs.
• Reduction in flood hazard and soil erosion
21
• Benefiting in the water quality
• Arresting sea water ingress
• Assuring sustainability of the ground water
abstraction sources and consequently the village and
town water supply system
• Mitigating the effect of droughts and achieving
drought proofing
• Reviving the dying traditional water harvesting
structures and their rehabilitation as recharge
structures.
• Effective use of lack of defunct wells and
tubwells as recharge structure
• Up gradation of social and environmental status
etc.
7.0 Proposed Policy Measures For Rain Water
Harvesting
• Provides at least one roof-top rain water
harvesting structure for every 200sq. meters plot in
urban areas.
• Revive/ rehabilitation all village ponds
• Subject to technical feasibility, provides at least
one check dam / KT weir / Sub- surface dyke in
each streamlet with catchments of 1 to 3 sq. km.
• Provide all drinking water wells with a recharge
structure
• Ban construction of irrigation wells / tubewells
within a distance of 200 m or less (depending on
scientific criteria) of the drinking water supply well.
8.0 Success Stories Of MAHARASHTRA
• In Yaval taluka, Jalgaon District, Six
percolation tanks, two recharge shafts and one
injection well were constructed- A total of about 546
ha area benefited
• In Amravati District, three percolation tanks
and ten cement plugs benefiting an area of 280 ha
and 100 ha respectively have been constructed- rise
in water level up to 10 meters recorded.
• Experiments of catchments treatment carried
out at Adgaon and Palaswadi in Aurangabad,
Ralegaon Siddhi in Ahmednagar and Naigaon in
Pune by Shri Anna Hazare - effort have led to revival
of streamlets and enhanced availability of ground
water in the water shed.
9.0 Proposed Strategy
• Organize Mass Awareness Programmes
involving district administration and NGOs to
educate in different sections of users and to make
the programme demand oriented.
• Roof-Top rain water harvesting and its recharge
underground through more than two lack existing
but defunct drinking water and irrigation wells, or
by constructing new wells, borewells, Shafts,
spreading basins etc.
• Make roof-top rain water harvesting and
recharge mandatory in all urban dwellings.
• Capturing city storm water run- off and
recharging it through wells, shafts, spreading basins,
storms and water drains etc.
• Harnessing run off in catchments by
constructing structures such as gabions, check dams,
bhandaras, percolation trenches, bus-surface dykes
etc.
• Impounding surface run from village
catchments and water shed(s) in village ponds and
percolation tanks.
• Rehabilitation all ancient rain water harvesting
structures.
• Invoke legal provision, if and when required,
to regulate indiscriminate boring of wells and to
make the installation of recharge facilities mandatory
• Constitute water user Association (WUA) or
village Beneficiary Groups (VBG) NGOs to
organize the constitution of these bodies. The WUA/
VBG and NGOs to be associated with the project
right from the concept to completion stages.
• For expanding further scope of work, the
22
industrial houses to be invited to participate in the
work and adopt towns and villages and provide
financial support.
• Government organizations to act as facilitators
and provide technical and financial support for
creating the demonstration facilities etc.
10.0 Future Action Plans
• Prepare national and state level water
harvesting perspective plans.
• Develop plans and implement roof-top rain
water harvesting measures using 1,00,000 wells
(existing, defunct and or operative wells to be used
in the first instance)
• Provide rural drinking water wells with
recharge facilities- cover 1,00,000 wells
• Harvest and recharge city storm water in 100
towns
• Revive and rehabilitate 1, 000 dying village
ponds.
• Design and construct 200 percolation tanks,
5000 check dams/ bhandaras and 1,000 sub surface
dykes.
• Recycle secondary treated urban waste water
through aquifers at five centers.
• Identify potential aquifers in drought prone
areas and declare these apart as “Ground Water
Sanctuaries”
Ref: - CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARD-
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur
6. Rain Water Harvesting Tanks for Supplementing Minor Irrigation
Tanks during Drought
* Mohd. Mahboob Hussain
Introduction :
India’s total land area is 3287263 Sqkm. The
cultivated land is 55.7% i.e., 183.09 million hectors.
Average annual rainfall is 117 Cm; average monsoon
rainfall is 55 Cm. The occupation of about 70% of
people in India is agriculture. The population of
India is fed on the food production of the country.
Main source of water in this country is rainfall
during monsoon season. The rainfall mainly
confined in the months from June to September. But
it is not regular and erratic with respect to both time
and place. Now a days drought and floods are the
sever hazards in different parts of our country. The
requirement of agricultural produce is expected to
rise steeply by 2025.Hence India must concentrate
on increasing area under irrigation and improving
the productivity of both land and water to meet the
needs of the population. The demand of water
increasing due to several factors such as increase in
population growth, which has led to a situation in
which water has become a scarce resource. Hence
it is very essential to harvest rainwater during rainy
season. Rainwater harvesting is the intentional
collection of rain water from a surface and its
subsequent storage in order to supply water during
the time of demand. Rain water harvesting is
essential in view of the fact that rainfall, which is a
source of fresh water, occurs in very short spells
and runs off as a waste unless arrangements are
made for its storing.
Main source of irrigation development are
dams and canals. Other option are water harvesting
structure such as for ground water development,
surface minor irrigation systems, watershed
* Deputy Executive Engineer, Medium Irrigation, I & C.A.D.Department, Govt. of A.P., Hyderabad
23
development etc. Rainwater harvesting is usually
classified into two types (i) harvesting for
agriculture (irrigation) needs and (ii) harvesting for
domestic and other needs. For irrigation needs the
rainwater can be harvested during rainy season by
constructing any of the following structures.
1. Major storage reservoir
2. Medium storage reservoir
3. Minor storage tanks
4. Watershed development Structures, like
Check dams, percolation tanks, Sunken gully pits
etc.,
Looking in to the rainfall trends in past forty
years it is felt that rain water above 75% P.L. should
be stored for beneficial use during droughts / low
rainfall year. In this paper it is proposed to construct
Rain Water Harvesting Tanks for the beneficial use
of water for supplementing minor irrigation tanks
during drought years. Rain Water Harvesting is
being promoted extensively in India, particularly
in the Southern States.
Need for Rain Water Harvesting Tanks :
Since rivers occasionally swells, hence some
countries have built oversized capacity reservoirs
to store surplus water which will other wise be
wasted in to sea. For example, Egypt had built
Oswan Dam to store water about five times the yield
available in Nile River. During droughts they are
successfully irrigating lands so that the country is
not vulnerable by famine. In most of the areas of
semi-arid region yearly rainfall is below the normal
for continuous two to three years followed by a
normal rainfall year. The year wise monsoon rainfall
for some of the rain-gauge stations of Ranga Reddy
District in Andhra Pradesh are shown in annexure-
I and graph enclosed showing rainfall variation for
last 40 years indicates that lot of water above 75%
P.L .is wasted. More over from rainfall graphs it
can be seen that there are number of years when
there is rainfall more than 75 % P.L followed by a
low rainfall year. From graph of Monsoon rainfall
versus year for Medchal R.G.S, the following
conclusions are drawn.
(i) In the year 1967 there is excess rainfall over
75% P.L. followed by a normal rainfall year
1968 and a low rainfall year in 1969.
(ii) In the year 1971 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1972.
(iii) In the year 1974 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1975.
(iv) In the year 1976 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1977.
(v) In the year 1978 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1979.
(vi) In the year 1983 there is flood followed by a
normal rainfall year of 1984 and a low rainfall
year of 1985.
(vii) In the year 1990 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1991.
(viii) In the year 1996 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 1997.
(ix) In the year 2000 the rainfall is much higher
than 75% P.L. followed by low rainfall year
of 2001.
From the above it can be stated that the water
above 75% P.L. can be stored in the proposed Rain
Water Harvesting Tanks and used in the low rainfall
years. Presently any irrigation project is design to
utilize water out of the available 75% dependable
yield. Water has to be harvested, preserved and
utilized for beneficial used, as it is becoming a scarce
24
natural resource. Hence all water over and above
75% dependable yield is wasted in to sea. Since
rainfall is a natural phenomenon, we do not know
when and in which year rainfall will be above 75%
P.L., hence it is the need of the hour to harvest Rain
water above 75% P.L. also and to utilize during the
drought / low rainfall year. It is proposed to construct
Rain Water Harvesting Tanks without any canal
system with a sluice to letdown water in the down
stream for existing minor irrigation tanks.
For one R.G.S (i.e., TANDUR) the year wise
total yield available for one of the subgroup having
20 Sq.Miles for 40 years have been calculated. The
yield available @ 75 % PL also has been calculated
using strange’s table which works out to 255.64
Mcft. The surplus yield available after deducting
the yield @ 75 % PL from the total yield is also
calculated year wise. Statement showing the above
values year wise are presented in annexure- II
enclosed. From the statement it is observed that for
30 years there is surplus yield available. The
maximum surplus yield is 801.20 MCft. The
average of surplus yield for 30 years is 267.495
Mcft, but where as the 75% dependable yield is
255.64 Mcft. The average of surplus yield is slightly
higher than the yield available at 75% dependability.
Since every year the surplus yield may not be
available so much, hence it is proposed to utilize at
least 50% of the yield available at 75%
dependability duly constructing Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks. In the statement minus values
indicates that the yield available is below the 75%
PL yield for ten years out of 40 years. Hence there
is scope for storing this surplus yield in the proposed
Rain Water Harvesting Tanks.
More over sometimes heavy rainfall occurs
in one single month followed by a dry spell of 20 to
30 days. In such case also this excess water due to
heavy rainfall can be stored in Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks and released for existing minor
irrigation tanks during dry spell so that crops can
be grown successfully.
The World Banks has published a report
“India’s Water Economy: Bracing for a turbulent
future”. In this report it is highlighted that India’s
storage capacity of 200m3 per person is too little, as
compared to over 5000 m3 per person in U.S.A.
and Australia, and 1000 m3 per person in Mexico
and China. It is also highlighted that the need for
storages in India will be even more in the post
climate change scenario. In India the poverty in
irrigated districts is one third of that in unirrigated
districts. Hence the proposed Rain Water Harvesting
Tanks will increase storage capacity per person in
India.
Methodology for Proposing Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks :
In a sub-group of a given sub-basin of a river
basin there may be few minor irrigation tanks, check
dams and percolation tanks which together may
utilize 75 % dependable yield. Whenever there is
high rainfall above 75% P.L. in the catchment, the
water go waste down stream and ultimately joins
sea. We may not be able to know how much surplus
water (above 75% P.L.) a sub-group catchment
yields. Hence it is proposed to utilize at least 50 %
of the water utilization of that of existing tanks
designed to utilize 75 % dependable water, so that
if there is failure of monsoon next year we can make
use of this water for irrigation and avoid drought.
The following sketch shows probable locations of
Rain Water Harvesting Tanks in a given sub-group.
The Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should be located
in the initial reaches of streams, so that the stored
water can be utilized for filling the minor irrigation
tanks when there is scanty rainfall and hence crops
can be grown successfully.
Design of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks :
Select the site of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks
such that it can feed the minor irrigation tank
25
through natural stream with minimum conveyance
losses. The Rain Water Harvesting Tanks should
essentially have a sluice and a surplus weir to
dispose off flood water. The sluice can be used to
let down water to the down stream existing minor
irrigation tanks. The design procedure of minor
irrigation tank can be adopted for design of Rain
Water Harvesting Tanks. The capacity of each Rain
Water Harvesting Tank can be fixed based on the
number of tanks to be taken up as Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks duly utilizing at least 50 % of the
utilization of that of minor irrigation tank designed
for 75 % dependable water. Eg: - In a given sub-
group if the 75% dependable water is 100 M.cft.
and the existing utilization is 80 M.cft. under
existing minor irrigation tanks. Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks should be design to hold 40 M.cft.
of water, which is 50% of present utilization. To
store 40 M.cft. of water, now propose 4 tanks of
each 10 M.cft. live capacity in the upper reaches of
streams so that this water can be utilized during
droughts / low rainfall year.
Plan of operation for Rain Water Harvesting
Tanks :
Once these Rain Water Harvesting Tanks are
constructed, the sluices should be kept open so that
when it rains the water will flow down to the existing
minor irrigation tanks to fill them up to their full
tank level in the monsoon. When the minor irrigation
tanks are filled up the sluices of Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks should be closed so that water
can be stored in these Rain Water Harvesting Tanks.
Then depending up on the number of fillings
required ( as per design ) again water can be released
to lower existing minor irrigation tanks for their full
utilization as per hydrological clearance given . Now
close the sluices of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks
and store water up to full tank level. If there are
heavy rains again the surplus water will
automatically flow down through surplus weir. Next
year when monsoon are late, some quantity of water
from these Rain Water Harvesting Tank can be
released through sluices to the existing minor
irrigation tanks so that farmers can take up land
preparation and sowing can be done in time. Even
if the monsoon fails the remaining water also can be
released to down stream tanks so that the crops can
be grown successfully. In a year when total rainfall
is less than normal, these Rain Water Harvesting
Tanks can be kept empty.
Conclusions :
(1) The concept of Rain Water Harvesting Tank
is to store water during excess rainfall year
(above 75% P.L.) and to utilize during drought
/scanty rain fall year.
(2) Since Rain Water Harvesting Tanks are
designed to store surplus water over and
above 75% P.L yield, there will not be any
effect on existing minor irrigation system.
(3) Success rate of existing minor irrigation tanks
can be ensured by regulation of water from
Rain Water Harvesting Tanks, thus utilizing
water optimally.
(4) Generally minor irrigation tanks are designed
for 150% irrigation intensity. Because of
proposed Rain Water Harvesting Tanks in
upstream by storing surplus water, the
intensity of irrigation can be increased to
200% by supplying water for Rabi crops by
virtue of which food production can be
enhanced.
(5) These Rain Water Harvesting Tank can serve
as percolation tank in upper reaches of
catchments to improve ground water table,
as there will be some dead storage below sill
level of sluice of that tank.
(6) Because of construction of Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks the loss due to flood
damages can be minimized.
(7) Wastage of heavy surplus water in to sea can
be minimized.
(8) Rain Water Harvesting Tanks also will be very
much useful for flora and fauna for
maintaining ecology of that area.
26
(9) There will be soil conservation in the upper
reaches of the catchment because of
construction of Rain Water Harvesting Tanks.
(10) There is a need to workout surplus yields for
every year for each Rain Gage Stations and
prepare model for storing water in Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks to utilize surplus water
optimally.
(11) As water is becoming scarce natural resource,
the cost of construction of Rain Water
Harvesting tanks should not come into way.
(12) There is a need to formulate a coherent policy
or strategy towards strengthening extension
and technical support for Rain Water
Harvesting Tanks for crop production.
References :
(1) “Innovative participatory technologies for
water shed development in drought prone
areas of India” by Sri. T. Hanmanth Rao,
Consultant of united nation.
(2) “Hand book for planning water shed
management works”, Government of India,
Ministry of water resources, CWC,
December, 2000.
(3) Paper on “Irrigation development in India”
by Sri. Uddhao Wankede published in
proceedings of National Seminar on “
Irrigation development India” held from 9-
10 October 2004 hosted by the Institution of
Engineers (India), Nagpur local Center.
(4) Irrigation manual by Illys.
(5) “Rain water harvesting – a case study in a
collage campus in Mysore”, by Sri. M. R.
YADUPATHI PUTTY & Sri. P.RAJE URS,
Dept. of civil engineering, National Institute
of Engineering, Mysore published in
Hydrology Journal of Indian Association of
Hydrologist volume 28, November 3-4,
September – December 2005.
 ANNEXURE - I
Monsoon Rainfall ( in mm ) of different Rain guage stations of R.R. District in A.P
S.No Year Medchal Tandur Himayat Sagar
1 1960 N/A N/A 551.2
2 1961 N/A 909.1 571.2
3 1962 N/A 1063.6 856
4 1963 759.9 942.8 751.8
5 1964 710.3 751.5 710.8
6 1965 671.9 663.6 796
7 1966 468.2 493.1 689.4
8 1967 804.2 670.2 865.4
9 1968 663.4 652.3 440.9
10 1969 600.9 684.4 452.4
11 1970 754.9 992.9 842
12 1971 797.7 459.3 497.6
13 1972 547.8 454 221.7
14 1973 957.6 1097 633.5
15 1974 784.4 850 614.4
16 1975 566.7 1116.5 1689.6
17 1976 720.1 725.1 906.8
18 1977 584.1 480.8 568.5
19 1978 783.3 1216.6 1009.7
20 1979 440.3 585.2 564.6
21 1980 845.2 650.5 577.6
22 1981 1102.8 711.9 660.1
23 1982 862.8 665.9 564.6
24 1983 1858.5 1036.6 793.2
25 1984 673.7 651.6 595.6
26 1985 563.1 822.6 550.9
27 1986 445.9 645 586
28 1987 604.8 853.8 795.5
29 1988 933.4 961.1 741.4
30 1989 845.3 864.4 711.5
31 1990 760.4 1173 721.6
32 1991 624.8 767.4 393.4
33 1992 645.8 795.8 611.9
34 1993 767.5 697.2 479.8
35 1994 787.2 479.8 598.7
36 1995 899.9 790.8 1077
37 1996 775.8 758.6 803.7
38 1997 533.6 648.3 514.4
39 1998 988.6 1342.1 983.5
40 1999 701.3 670.7 540.8
41 2000 791.3 861.9 N/A
42 2001 589.6 N/A N/A N/A –
43 2002 629.4 N/A N/A Not Available.

27
 Annexure- II
Statement showing the surplus yield beyond 75% dependability

No. Year Monsoon Yield per Total Yeild Yeild Surplus % of Surplus
Rainfall Sq.miles from Available Yeild Yeild beyond
in mm in MCft subgroup @ 75% PL 75 % PL
C.A ( 20 Sqm)
1 1961 909.1 27.25 545 255.64 289.36 113.19
2 1962 1063.6 38.566 771.32 255.64 515.68 201.72
3 1963 942.8 29.53 590.6 255.64 334.96 131.03
4 1964 751.5 17.742 354.84 255.64 99.2 38.8
5 1965 663.6 13.317 266.34 255.64 10.7 4.19
6 1966 493.1 6.479 129.58 255.64 -126.06 -49.31
7 1967 670.2 13.628 272.56 255.64 16.92 6.62
8 1968 652.3 12.783 255.66 255.64 0.02 0.01
9 1969 684.4 14.297 285.94 255.64 30.3 11.85
10 1970 992.9 33.148 662.96 255.64 407.32 159.33
11 1971 459.3 5.417 108.34 255.64 -147.3 -57.62
12 1972 454 5.255 105.1 255.64 -150.54 -58.89
13 1973 1097 41.248 824.96 255.64 569.32 222.7
14 1974 850 23.447 468.94 255.64 213.3 83.44
15 1975 1116.5 42.841 856.82 255.64 601.18 235.17
16 1976 725.1 16.322 326.44 255.64 70.8 27.7
17 1977 480.8 6.079 121.58 255.64 -134.06 -52.44
18 1978 1216.6 51.618 1032.36 255.64 776.72 303.83
19 1979 585.2 9.872 197.44 255.64 -58.2 -22.77
20 1980 650.5 12.698 253.96 255.64 -1.68 -0.66
21 1981 711.9 15.647 312.94 255.64 57.3 22.41
22 1982 665.9 13.426 268.52 255.64 12.88 5.04
23 1983 1036.6 36.404 728.08 255.64 472.44 184.81
24 1984 651.6 12.75 255 255.64 -0.64 -0.25
25 1985 822.6 21.767 435.34 255.64 179.7 70.29
26 1986 645 12.437 248.74 255.64 -6.9 -2.7
27 1987 853.8 23.691 473.82 255.64 218.18 85.35
28 1988 961.1 30.863 617.26 255.64 361.62 141.46
29 1989 864.4 24.37 487.4 255.64 231.76 90.66
30 1990 1173 47.745 954.9 255.64 699.26 273.53
31 1991 767.4 18.627 372.54 255.64 116.9 45.73
32 1992 795.8 20.213 404.26 255.64 148.62 58.14
33 1993 697.2 27.448 548.96 255.64 293.32 114.74
34 1994 479.8 6.048 120.96 255.64 -134.68 -52.68
35 1995 790.8 19.926 398.52 255.64 142.88 55.89
36 1996 758.6 18.139 362.78 255.64 107.14 41.91
37 1997 648.3 12.593 251.86 255.64 -3.78 -1.48
38 1998 1342.1 52.838 1056.76 255.64 801.12 313.38
39 1999 670.7 13.652 273.04 255.64 17.4 6.81
40 2000 861.9 24.21 484.2 255.64 228.56 89.41

28
29
30
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur
7. Rain Water Harvesting and Recharging Ground Water
*R. K. Parghane *S. P. Kulkarni **A.W. Dhawale
INTRODUCTION :
Water is the most important resource of the
entire society as a whole, since no life is possible
without water. As water, being a limited resource,
its efficient use is basic to the survival of the ever
increasing population of the world. In India, the
ground water is mainly used for drinking and
agricultural purposes. About 85% of drinking water
is available through dug well, bore well, filter point
and tube well etc. The per-capital availability of
water at national level has reduced from about 5,177
m3 in the year 1951 to present level of 1,869 m3.
In view of this, water management is very critical
for the growth and development of any economy,
more so in a large country like India which is
endowed with many large rivers, lakes and wells
that need to be conserved, better managed, recharged
and channellised for meeting the ever growing
requirement of agriculture, industrial and urban
growth. Moreover exploitation of ground water has
been taken up by millions of individual farmers
mostly in regions where surface water is either
scarce or absent to meet their dire water needs.
Although this has lead to local depletion or decline
of ground water levels causing serious concern about
rainwater harvesting & the need to recharge ground
water. The quantum of ground water so far harnessed
is one third of the replenishable ground water of
431 km3 a year. In the comprehensive strategy
needed for the conservation and development of
water resources, several factors are to be kept in
view. These include the availability of water, its
quality, location, distribution and variation in its
occurrence, climatic conditions, nature of the soil,
competing demands & Socio-economic conditions.
In dealing with each of these, every effort must be
made to make the best use of water for the survival
of human life, animal and plant life.
*Lect.in Civil Engg., Govt. Polytechnic, Nanded **Lect.in Civil Engg., Govt. Polytechnic, Washim
31
WATER AVAILABILITY :
India receives precipitation (including
snowfall & rain) of around 4,000 billion cubic
metres (BCM), only 1,869 BCM is accessible water,
of which India uses barely a third. Nearly 1,179
BCM of water drains in to the sea. Region, whose
yearly renewable freshwater availability is below
1,700 m3/ person is called as the water stress region.
And the region whose yearly availability falls below
1,000 m3 / person is termed as water scarcity region.
But national figure of annual average per capita
water availability is 2,464m3. It shows that the
country is not in the water stress range so far.
However in some regions per capita availability is
as low as 411m3. (Kanyakumari, Pennar, Kutchh,
Kathiawar, Krishna basin, etc. )
The run-off which is about 215 MHM needs
to be arrested by making proper planning on micro
level as well macro level. Microlevel means water
conservation schemes of the state governments
which is to be implemented in every village. But on
macro level, a large chunk of water must be arrested
by programme like national river – linking.
Availability and utilization of water in India is
shown in table No.1 & Fig. No.1.
Table No. 1
No. Item Quantity
(Cu.Kms.)
1. Annual precipitation volume
(including snowfall) 4,000
2. Average annual potential flow
in rivers 1,869
3. Per Capita Water availability
(1997) 1,967
4. Estimated utilizable water resources 1,122
i) Surface water resources 690
ii) Ground water resources 432
 The average annual precipitation is
400 million Hectare Metre (MHM)

Evaporates Percolates Run - off

70 MHM 115 MHM 215 MHM

Moist soils Enters into the ground water table

65 MHM 50 MHM

Fig. 1 : Details of precipitation water

RAINWATER HARVESTING AND ITS have been depicted in the Fig.No.2, Fig.No.3, Fig.
TECHNIQUES : No.4.
Rain is the ultimate source of fresh water
with the ground area around houses and buildings
being cemented, rain water which run–off from
terraces and roofs was draining into low-lying areas
and percolating into the soil and causing floods else
where.
Rainwater Harvesting is a system by which,
rainwater that collects on the roofs and the area
around buildings is directed into open wells, bore
wells, tube wells through a filter tank or in to a
percolation chamber, built specifically to serve the
purpose. The rain water can be stored in tanks and
can be recharged in to the ground to improve ground
water storage. Fig. No. 2 Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting
The storage of rainwater on surface is a
traditional technique and the structures used were
underground tanks, ponds, check dams, percolation
wells, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a new
concept of rainwater harvesting.
There are following three techniques of rainwater
harvesting.
a) Storing rain water for direct use.
b) Recharging ground water aquifers, from roof
top run off.
c) Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff
from ground area.
Fig. No. 3 Recharging of Bore well
The techniques of rainwater harvesting

32
 Fig. No. 4 Recharging of Open well
WHY RAINWATER HARVESTING ?
To meet our water demand, we entirely
depend upon rivers, lakes & ground water. However
the rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these
sources. The rainfall is highly seasonal and occurs
over a short rainy season with a very large dry
period. As a result, there is a progressive decrease
in the ground water level. Hence, it should be
admitted that rain water harvesting is essential
because.
i) Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand
and we have to mostly depend on ground water.
ii) Due to rapid urbanization population growth
and industrialization, improved sanitation,
living standard, infiltration of rain water into
the sub-soil has decreased drastically and
recharging of ground water has diminished.
iii) Over exploitation of ground water results in to-
i) Ground water depletion.
ii) Drying up of wells / bore wells.
iii) Enhance use of energy.
iv) Ingress of sea water in coastal area.
It is now alarming to seriously consider
about conserving water by harvesting and managing
this natural resource by artificially recharging the
system.
HOW MUCH RAIN WATER CAN BE
HARVESTED FROM ROOF TOP ?
The estimation of water available from top
of roof (flat terrace) is worked out by multiplying
the roof area with normal rainfall data for monsoon
period. Total quantity of rain water available from
roof top to be used for harvesting is about 70% to
90%, due to losses like evaporation, absorption,
leakages etc.
33
Following table shows how much roof
water can be harvested by considering 80%
efficiency and according to roof top surface areas.
Roof top Area (Sq.m)
Considering hypothetical case following
calculations shows as to how much rain water can
be harvested.
 Consider a building with a flat terrier area =
125 Sq.m.
 Average annual gainful in the area is say 1000
mm (40 inch)
 Suppose, there is no loss of water from the
terrace floor, then in one year, there will be
rainwater on the terrace floor to a height of
1000mm.
 Height of rainfall = 1000 mm, Volume of
rainfall = 125 x 1000= 1,25,000 litres
 Assuming that only 80% water harvested.
Volume of water harvested = 1,00,000 litres.
 A family of four needs 87,600 litres of water
per year. (@ 60 litres / person)
ARTIFICIAL GROUND WATER
RECHARGE :
Optimum development and sound
management practices are vital to the sustained use
of ground water. Ground water recharge may be
increased by conservation measures and artificial
recharge procedures. Artificial recharge to ground
water is a process by which the ground water
reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that
obtaining under natural conditions of replenishment.
In general any man-made system or facility that adds
water to an aquifer is an artificial recharge system.
Artificial recharge of ground water is,
therefore, preferred and encouraged in the present
 Roof Rain Fall (mm.)
top
Area 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000
(Sq.m) Harvested Water from Roof Top (Cum) @ 80%
20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 12.8 16.0
30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12.0 14.4 19.2 24.0
40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16.0 19.2 25.6 32.0
50 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 32.0 40.0
60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24.0 28.8 38.4 48.0
70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28.0 33.6 44.8 56.0
80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.60 32.0 38.4 51.2 64.0
90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.80 36.0 43.2 57.6 72.0
100 8.0 16 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0 64.0 80.0
150 12.0 24 36.0 48.0 60.0 72.0 96.0 120.0
200 16.0 32 48.0 64.0 80.0 96.0 128.0 160.0
250 20.0 40 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 160.0 200.0
300 24.0 48 72.0 96.0 120.0 144.00 192.0 240.0
400 32.0 64 96.0 128.0 160.0 192.0 256.0 288.0
500 40.0 80 120.0 160.0 200.0 240.0 320.0 400.0
1000 80 160 240 320 400 480 640.0 800.0
2000 160 320 480 640 800 960 1280.0 1600.0

days, so as to augment the natural available
underground yield for management of water supply
systems. Artificial recharging techniques is under
intensive research and is being increasingly used in
France, Israel, U.K. Germany etc.
Ex.- Estimation of
i) The specific yield of the aquifer and
ii) The volume of Recharge during the wet season.
Soln -
Consider, the area of aquifer is 4 km2.
Water pummeled out in lowering W.T. i.e.
Volume of water drained by 6.8-4.8 = 2m is 2 M.m3
Total Volume of aquifer drained in lowering W.T.
by 2 m
= Area x 2m
= 4x106x2m3 = 8M.m3
Specific yield of aquifer S.Y.
Specific yield, S.Y.= Volume of water drained
Total volume of aquifer drained
=
2Mm3 x 100 = 25%
8Mm3
During wet season, the W.T. rose by, 6-4.8
= 1.2 m., Since 2m lowering of W.T. equals 2M.m3
of water, 1.2 m rise will equal to 1.2 M. m3 of
recharge.
DIVERSION OF RUN OFF IN TO EXISTING
SURFACE BODIES
Construction activity in and around the city/
town is resulting in the drying up of water bodies
and also reclamation of these tanks for conversion
in to plots for houses has impacted urban hydrology
as under.
1. Over consumption of water increases water
demand.
2. More dependence on ground water use.
3. Increase in run off, decline in well yields and
fall in water levels.
4. Reduction in open soil surface area.
x 100
Reduction in infiltration and deterioration of
water quality.

34
RECHARGING OF UNDERGROUND
STORAGE :
In order to store the surplus surface water
the artificial surface reservoirs are constructed by
building dams, in the summer, artificial underground
reservoirs are now-a-days developed by artificial
recharge for storing water underground.
The development of such a reservoirs may be
advantageous as compared to the development of a
dam reservoir, because of the following reasons.
i) Much pure water can be obtained from an
underground reservoir source.
ii) No space is required for building such a
reservoir.
iii) The cost of building such a reservoir by
recharging the aquifers may be considerably
less than the cost of the surface reservoirs.
Moreover in an underground reservoir, the
aquifer in which the water is stored shall itself
act as a distribution system for carrying the
water from one place to another, and as such,
the necessity of constructing pipe lines or
canals (as is required in a surface reservoir)
is completely eliminated.
iv) The water lost in evaporation from an
underground reservoir is much less than the
water lost from a surface reservoir.
v) The raising of the water table by artificial
recharge may help in building pressure
barriers to prevent sea water intrusion in the
coastal areas.
METHODS OF RECHARGING :
The below mentioned methods are being
generally adopted for ground water recharging.
1. Spreading Method.
2. Recharge-well Method.
3. Induced Infiltration Method.
1. Spreading Methods :
This method consists in spreading the water
over the surfaces of permeable open land and pits,
from where it directly infiltrates to rather shallow
aquifers. In this method, the water is temporarily
stored in shallow ditches or is spread over an open
area by constructing low earth dykes (called
percolation bunds). The stored water, slowly and
steadily, percolates downward so as to join the
nearby aquifers. The recharging rate depends upon
35
the permeability of the spread area and on the depth
of water stored, and is generally less, say of the order
of 1.5m/day, though rates as high as 22m/day have
been possible.
2. Recharge-well Methods :
This method consists in injecting the water
in to bore holes called recharge wells. Depending
upon the favorable condition of surface, the water
is fed in to recharge wells by gravity or for increasing
the recharge rate, it may be pumped under pressure.
The recharge wells used are just like ordinary
production wells. In fact the ordinary wells are
many a times could directly used for recharge during
the off season, when the water is not required in
use. With this method high recharge rates can be
obtained. This method is widely used in Israel.
Moreover, this method may help in injecting water
in to the aquifers and also where it is most needed.
To avoid clogging of the well screens, the water
used for recharging well should be free from
suspended impurities.
3. Induced Infiltration Method :
This method is sometimes used for recharge
is that of the induced infiltration which is
accomplished by increasing the water table gradient
from a source of recharge. In this method, Renney
type wells are constructed near the river banks. The
percolating water is collected in the well through
radial collectors and is then discharged in to a lower
level aquifer ‘B’ for storage as Shown in fig. No.5.
This types of well construction is very common in
France and is sometimes referred to as French
system of tapping underground water.
In addition to the above mentioned
methods, the recharge to ground water is
accomplished by using some of the structures are
a) Pits : The pits have been constructed about 3
metres deep & 1 to 2 metres wide filled with
boulders, gravel and coarse sand such types
of ponds are constructed for recharging
shallow aquifer.
b) Trenches : Trenches are constructed
subjected to the availability of permeable
stream at shallow depth. These trenches are
back filled with filter materials. The trenches
may be 0.5 to 1 metre wide, 1 to 1.5 meter

Fig. No.5 Induced infiltration method of
recharge
deep and 10 to 20 meters long depending on
the availability of water.
c) Dug wells : Existing dug wells may be
utilized as recharge structure and water should
be allowed to pass through filter media before
storage.
CONCLUSION -
The proper conservation, maintenance and
careful use of water resources, along with
developing additional storages may considerably
reduce the chance of water famines for further
generations to come. In addition to these measures,
it is necessary to find out means and ways for
36
increasing the available usable water by developing
artificial rain technology. It is also of vital
importance to conserve water by practicing
economy and avoiding its wastage.
However ground water exploitation is
inevitable especially urban areas. To curtail its
reduction, a strategy to implement the groundwater
recharge, in a major way needs to be launched with
concerted efforts by various Non-Governmental and
Governmental agencies and the public at large, to
increase the water table and make the groundwater
resource, a reliable and sustainable source for
supplementing water supply needs. It is about
building our relationship with water and the
environment. Harvest rain. Learn the prestigious
value of each rain drop.
REFERENCES :
1. Dr. S.V.Dahasahasra, Dr. Y.B.Katpatal &
Dr.M.M.Mahajan, “National River –
Linking” Journal of CE & CR, May – 2004,
PP.26 – 34.
2. Eye Opener, “Rainwater Harvesting &
Recharging Ground Water” enROUTE, JUL-
DEC. 2005, Vol IX, PP. 16-17.
3. Kaushal Kishore, “Rainwater Harvesting”,
CE & CR Journal, May 2004, PP.42-48.
4. Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh, “Rain Water
Harvesting – A Ray of Hope” Orissa Review,
August 2004, pp. 38-40.
5. Dr. Gauhar Mahmood & Sharshikant
Chaudhary “A Comprehensive Water
Management Plan – A Case Study of
Lakewood city, Harayana” Journal of Indian
Water Works Association, July – Sept. 2004,
pp. 219-228.
Santosh Kumar Garg, “Hydrology and Water
Resources Engineering” Khanna Publication.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur
8. Artificial Recharge of Aquifers in Urban Setup
*Mrs. Grace Selvarani
Introduction
To meet the growing water supply demand, we
are depending maximum on surface water, which is
stored in the form of lakes and reservoirs.
Availability and storage of water in reservoirs and
lakes depends ultimately on yearly rainfall. If
rainfall is inadequate or if there is draughts for
successive years, surface water bodies get consumed
and in such a case, we have no alternative than using
the ground water. Therefore we must guard against
the depletion or spoiling of our most valuable
ground water storage. Natural conservation and
efficient use of this natural storage and at the same
time making arrangements for additional recharge
of ground water aquifer by one way or other, to
replenish the used ground water becomes our
responsibility. We should make maximum use of
the easily available normally wasted, local
renewable source of water that is rainwater. The
effective way to store rainwater is by allowing it to
percolate into ground by enriching ground water
storage.
The artificial recharge to ground water aims at
augmentation of ground water reservoir by
modifying the natural movement of surface water
utilizing suitable civil construction techniques.
Artificial recharge techniques normally address to
following issues –
(i) To enhance the sustainable yield in areas where
over-development has depleted the aquifer
(ii) Conservation and storage of excess surface
water for future requirements, since these
requirements often changes within a season or a
period.
(iii) To improve the quality of existing ground water
through dilution.
(iv) To remove bacteriological and other impurities
from sewage and waste water so that water is
suitable for re-use.
* Lecturer in Applied Mechanical Dept., M.H. Saboo & Siddik Polytechnic, Byculla, Mumbai - 8
37
The basic purpose of artificial recharge of
ground water is to restore supplies from aquifers
depleted due to excessive ground water
development.
1. Basic Requirements for Artificial Recharge
Projects
The basic requirements for recharging the
ground water reservoir are:
a) Source Water Availability
Before undertaking any artificial recharge
project, it is a basic prerequisite to ascertain the
availability of source water for the purpose of
recharging the ground water reservoir. Availability
of non-committed surplus monsoon runoff in space
and time can be assessed by analysing the monsoon
rainfall pattern, its frequency, number of rainy days
and maximum rainfall in a day and its variation in
space and time.
b) Identification of Area
The artificial recharge projects are site specific
and even the replication of the techniques from
similar areas are to be based on the local hydro-
geological and hydrological environments. The first
step in planning the project is to demarcate the area
of recharge. The artificial recharge of ground water
is normally taken in following areas:
1. Areas where ground water levels are declining
on regular basis.
2. Areas where substantial amount of aquifer has
already been de-saturated.
3. Areas where availability of ground water is
inadequate in lean months.
4. Areas where salinity ingress is taking place.
2. Scientific Inputs
In order to plan the artificial recharge schemes
following studies are needed.
 Hydro meteorological Studies
Hydro meteorological Studies are undertaken
to decipher the rainfall pattern, evaporation losses
and climatological features. These can bring out
the extent of evaporation losses in post monsoon
period which would be helpful in designing the
storages of particular capacity with a view to have
minimum evaporation losses. The data on rainfall
intensity, number of rain-days, etc. help in deciding
the capacity and design of the artificial recharge
structures.
Hydrological Studies
For determining the source water availability
for artificial recharge, hydrological investigations Figure (1) Elements of RWH system
are required to be carried out in the Watershed/Sub-
basin/basin where the artificial recharge schemes
are envisaged. Hydrological studies are undertaken
to work out surplus monsoon run off which can be
harnessed as source water for artificial recharge.
Soil Infiltration Studies
In case of artificial recharge through water
spreading methods, soil and land use conditions
which control the rate of infiltration and downward
percolation of the water applied on the surface of
the soil assume special importance. These two
phenomena are closely related since infiltration
cannot continue unimpeded unless percolation Figure (2) Components of Rooftop RWH system
removes infiltrated water from the surface soil.
Hydro geological Studies. ‘In situ’ precipitation will be available almost at
A detailed hydro geological study providing every location but may or may not be adequate to
information on regional hydro geological rock units, cause artificial recharge but the runoff going
their ground water potential and general pattern of unutilised outside the watershed/ basin can be
ground water flow and chemical quality of water in stored/ transmitted through simple recharge
different aquifers are necessary so as to know structures at appropriate locations. Various kinds
precisely the promising hydro geological units for of recharge structures are possible which can ensure
recharge and correctly decide on the location and that rain water percolates into the ground instead of
type of structures to be constructed in field. draining away from the surface. While some
structures promote the percolation of water through
Geophysical Studies soil strata at shallow depth (e.g. recharge trenches,
The main purpose of applying geophysical permeable pavements) others conduct water to
methods for the selection of appropriate site for greater depths from where it joins the ground water.
artificial recharge studies is mostly to help and (e.g. recharge wells). At many places, existing
assess the unknown sub-surface hydro geological features like wells, pits, and tanks can be modified
conditions economically, adequately and and be used as recharge structures, eliminating the
unambiguously. Mostly it is employed to narrow need to construct any structures afresh.
down the target zone, pinpoint the probable site for A few commonly used artificial recharging
artificial recharge structure and its proper design. methods are explained here. Innumerable
Concept : innovations and combinations of these methods are
possible.

38
a. Direct surface techniques This is the most common method for artificial
Flooding recharge. In this method, water is impounded in
Basins or percolation tanks series of basins or percolation tank. The size of basin
Stream augmentation may depend upon the topography of area, a flatter
Ditch and furrow system area will have large basin. The most effective depth
. of water in basin is 1.25 m because lesser or greater
b. Direct sub surface techniques depths resulted in reduced rate of infiltration. This
Dug well/Bore well recharge method is applicable in alluvial area as well as hard
Recharge pits /Recharge well rock formation. The efficiency and feasibility of this
Percolation pit (Soak away) method is more in hard rock formation where the
Recharge trenches rocks are highly fractured and weathered.
Modified injection well
Aquifer storage and recovery 3. Stream Augmentation
Seepage from natural streams or rivers is
c. Indirect Techniques one of the most important sources of recharge of
Induced recharge from surface water source the ground water reservoir. When total water supply
. available in a stream / river exceeds the rate of
d. Recharging Techniques to arrest sea water infiltration, the excess is lost as run off. This run
intrusion off can be arrested through check bunds or widening
the steam beds thus larger area is available to spread
I DIRECT METHODS the river water increasing the infiltration. The site
selected for check dam should have sufficient
A. SURFACE SPREADING METHODS thickness of permeable bed or weathered formation
1. Flooding to facilitate recharge of stored water within short
This method is suitable for relatively flat span of time. The water stored in these structures is
topography. The water is spread as a thin sheet. It mostly confined to stream course and height is
requires a system of distribution channel for the normally less than 2 m. To harness maximum run
supply of water for flooding. Higher rate of vertical off, a series of such check dam may be constructed.
infiltration is obtained on areas with undisturbed
vegetation and sandy soil covering. 4. Ditch & Furrow system
In areas with irregular topography ditches or
2. Basin & Percolation Tanks furrow provide maximum water contact area for
recharge. This technique consists of a system of
shallow flat bottomed and closely spaced ditches /
furrow which are used to carry water from source
like stream /canals and provide more percolation
opportunity. This technique required less soil
preparation and is less sensitive to silting. Generally
three pattern of Ditch & furrow system is adopted
(i) lateral (ii) dendritic & (iii) contour. In area of
low-transmissibility the density of ditch & furrow
will be high.

B. SUB-SURFACE METHODS

Figure (3) Generalized cross-section of artificial (1) Artificial recharging of aquifers through
recharge of groundwater using a surface bore well/dug well
spreading technique. Figure (4) shows typical systems of
recharging wells directly from rooftop runoff.

39
Rainwater collected on the rooftop of the building
being diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or
filtration tank, from which it flows into a recharge
well (bore well or dug well). If a bore well is used
for recharging, then the casing of the bore well
should be preferably be slotted or perforated pipe,
so that more surface area will be available for the
water to percolate
Figure (4) Artificial recharging of aquifers through
bore well/dug well
Developing a bore well would increase its
recharging capacity. Developing is a process where
water or air is forced in to the well under pressure
to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make
it more permeable.
If a dug well is used for recharging the well
lining should have openings, (weep holes) at regular
intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides.
Dug well should be covered to prevent mosquito
breeding and entry of leaves and debris. The bottom
of recharge-dug wells should be de-silted annually
to maintain intake capacity. It is preferred that the
dug well or bore well used for recharging shall be
shallower than the water table. This ensures that
the water recharged through the well has a sufficient
thickness of soil medium through which it has to
pass before it joins the ground water. Any old well,
which has become dysfunctional, can be used for
recharging, since the depth of such well is above
water level.
40
Settlement tank :
Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and
other floating impurities from rainwater. A
settlement tank is like an ordinary storage container
having provisions for inflow (bring water from the
catchment), out flow (carrying water to the recharge
well) and over flow. A settlement tank can have an
unpaved bottom surface to allow standing water to
percolate into the soil.
Apart from removing silt from the water, the
de-silting tank acts like a buffer is the system. In
case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge,
especially of bore wells may not match the rate of
rainfall. In such situations, the de-silting chamber
holds the excess amount of water till it is soaked up
the recharge structure.
Design Parameters :
Providing the following elements in the system
can ensure the quality of water entering the
recharging wells.
1. Filter mesh at entrance point of roof top drains.
2. Settlement Chamber.
3. Filter bed.
Design parameters for settlement tank:
For designing the optimum capacity of the tank
following aspects have to be considered.
1. Size of the catchments
2. Intensity of rainfall.
3. Rate of recharge.
Since the de-silting tank also acts as a buffer
tank, it is designed such that, it can retain certain
amount of rainfall, since the rate of recharge may
not be comparable with the rate of runoff. The
capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the
runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall
intensity. In Mumbai, peak hourly rainfall is 90 mm.
(Based on 25 year frequency). The rate of recharge
in comparison to runoff is critical factor. However,
since accurate recharge rates are not available
without detailed hydro geological studies, the rates
have been assumed. The capacity of recharge tank
is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes
rainfall of peak intensity say 25 mm/hr.
Suppose the following data is available,
Area of rooftop catchment (A) = 100 m2
Peak rainfall is 15 min (r) = 25 mm=0.025 m.
Runoff coefficient, (C ) = 0.85
Then capacity of the de-silting tank =A x r x C =100
x 0.025 X 0.85 = 2.215 m3 (2125 lit).
(2) Recharge pits : (Recharge well)
Figure (5) Recharge pit Plan and section
A recharge pit is a pit 1.5 m to 3 m wide and 2
m to 3 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with (weep holes) at regular
intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered
with a perforated cover to allow entry of rain water
runoff.
(3) Percolation pit (soak away) :
Figure (6) Percolation pit (photograph)
41
Figure (7) Percolation pit in section
A soak away is a bored hole of up to 30 cm
diameter in the ground to a depth of 3 to 10 m. The
soak away can be drilled with a manual auger unless
hard rock is found at a shallow depth. The borehole
can be left unlined if a stable soil formation like
clay is present. In such a case, the soak away can be
filled up with a filter media like brickbats or pebbles.
In unstable formations like sand, the soak away
should be lined with PVC or M.S. pipe to prevent
collapse of the vertical sides. The pipe may be
slotted or perforated to promote percolation through
sides.
(4) Recharge trenches :
Figure (8) Recharge trench in section
 Recharging through recharge trenches, (5) Modified injection well
recharge pits and soak away is simpler compared to Injection techniques use wells to accomplish
recharge through wells. Fewer precautions have to artificial recharge. Injection wells usually place
be taken to maintain the quality of the rainfall runoff. water directly into a deep, confined aquifer where
For these types of structures, there is no restriction surface spreading would usually not work. Injection
on the type of catchments from which water is to be wells also require maintenance to remove particles,
harvested, (i.e.) both paved and unpaved catchments microbial growth, and chemical precipitates (solid
can be tapped. substances).Hence, modified injection wells are
A recharge trench is simply a continuous preferred.
trench excavated in the ground and refilled with
porous media like pebbles, boulders or brickbats. A
recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1m wide and1m to
1.5m deep. The length of the recharge trench is
decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The
recharge trench should be periodically cleaned off
the accumulated debris to maintain the intake
capacity.
In terms of recharge rates, recharge trenches
are relatively less effective since the soil strata at
depth of about 1.5 m is less permeable. To enhance
the recharge rate, percolation pits can be provided
at the bottom of the trench.

Design of a recharge trench :

The methodology of design of a recharge
trench is similar to that for designing a settlement
tank. The difference is that water holding capacity
of recharge trench is less than the gross volume
because it is filled with porous materials. A factor
of loose density (voids ratio) of the media has to be
applied to the equation. Using the same method as
used for design of settlement tank:
Area of rooftop catchment (A) =100 m2
Peak rainfall is 15 min. (r) = 25 mm (0.025 m)
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85
Voids ratio D = 0.5 (assumed)
Required capacity of recharge tank
= (A x r x C)/D Figure (9) Modified injection well
= (100 x 0.025 x 0.85) / 0.5
= 4.25 m3 (4250 liters) In this method water is not pumped into the
The voids ratio of the filter material varies aquifer but allowed to percolate through a filter bed,
with the kind of material used, but for the commonly which comprises sand and gravel. A modified
used materials like brickbats, pebbles and gravel, a injection well is generally a borehole, 500 mm
void ratio of 0.5 may be assumed. diameter, which is drilled to the desired depth
In designing the recharge trench, the length depending upon the geological conditions,
of the trench is an important factor. Once the preferably 2 to 3 m below the water table in the
required capacity is calculated as illustrated above, area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200
length can be calculated by considering a fixed depth mm diameter is inserted. The annular space between
and width.

42
the borehole and the pipe is filled with gravel and
developed with a compressor till it gives clear water.
To stop the suspended solids from entering the
recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is provided
at top.
(6) Aquifer Storage and Recovery
Figure (10) Generalized cross-section of aquifer
Storage and Recovery
Aquifer storage and recovery is a special type
of artificial recharge of groundwater that uses dual-
purpose wells for both injecting water into the
aquifer and recovering (withdrawing) it later.
Although the intent of artificial recharge generally
is to increase groundwater storage for later use,
incidental activities such as excess irrigation, storm
water disposal, canal leakage, and leaking water
pipes may also result in artificial recharge. Artificial
recharge and aquifer storage and recovery are
valuable water management tools that effectively
help to offset increased demands for water.
II INDIRECT METHODS
C. INDUCED RECHARGE
It is an indirect method of artificial recharge
involving pumping from aquifer hydraulically
connected with surface water such as perennial
streams, unlined canal or lakes. The heavy pumping
lowers the ground water level and cone of
depression is created. Lowering of water levels
induces the surface water to replenish the ground
water. This method is effective where stream bed is
connected to aquifer by sandy formation.
The greatest advantage of this method is that
under favourable hydro geological situations the
quality of surface water generally improves due to
43
its path through the aquifer material before it is
discharged from the pumping well.
D. RECHARGING TECHNIQUES TO
ARREST SEA WATER INTRUSION
The situation of over-extraction of ground
water in coastal aquifers cause problem of seawater
intrusion. The method that is used to control sea
water intrusion is to use recharge well barriers
through a line of injection tube wells driven parallel
to the coast. This mechanism establishes a pressure
ridge which pushes the saline front seawards.
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
Whether the harvested water is used for direct
usage or for recharging ground water, it is of utmost
importance to ensure that the rainwater collected is
free of any pollutants that might be added to
rainwater from the atmosphere or the catchment.
While polluted water directly used for consumption
would have an immediate impact on health, polluted
water recharged into the ground would cause long
term problems of aquifer pollution. Damage done
to aquifers by recharging polluted water is
irreversible.
Most of the precautions to ensure rainwater
quality have been summarized below.
(1) At the catchment level
8 Keeping the catchment clean
8 Using gratings to trap debris at the catchment
itself
8 Paving the catchment with ceramic tiles stone
tile or other such non erosive materials
(2) At the conduit level.
8 Provision for first flush to drain off from initial
spell of rain
(3) Before recharging.
8 Allowing for sedimentation of water
8 Filtering the water
In establishments like industries it is very
necessary to ensure that the catchments surfaces are
free of chemical wastes, fuels, lubricants etc.While
physical and biological impurities in water can be
easily removed by de-sedimentation and filtration,
it is very difficult to remove chemical impurities.
SCALE OF WATER HARVESTING:
Most methods described here are applicable at
a singular building or establishment level. However,
the same principles can be applied for implementing
water harvesting at a larger scale, say, a residential
colony or an institutional cluster. To an extent, the
nature of structures and design parameters remain
the same; the physical scale and number of
structures may increase corresponding to the size
of catchment.
To control the total amount of runoff received
by a large-scale system, the catchment can be
subdivided into smaller parts. A locality-level water
harvesting system illustrated in figure shows how
the runoff from individual houses can be dealt with
at the building-level itself, while remaining runoff
from the storm water drain (which drains water from
roads and open areas) can be harvested by
constructing recharge structures in common areas

Figure (11) Tapping storm water drains in a community level system

References:
1. ‘A Water Harvesting Manual’ Published by Centre for Science and
Environment
2. ‘Guide on Artificial Recharge to Ground Water’ Published by Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources
3. web site www.rainwaterharvesting.org
4. www.waterencyclopedia.com
5. http://www.aboutrainwaterharvesting.com/rwh_methods.htm

44
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

9. The Scope of Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas

*Sandip. H. Deshmukh **Prof. R. B. Magar

Abstract :
A project is being undertaken for the feasibilty study of RainWater Harvesting for
the buildings in the premises of Fr.Agnel Technical Education Complex, Vashi. The
research is being carried out as a part of one of the objectives of Agnel Seva
Ashram, ‘Save Electricity & WaterAbhiyan’ (SEWA ). In a city like Mumbai, where
the ground surface is heavily concretised, the main way to harvest rainwater is to
tap the water falling on the terraces of buildings. Thus, in residential or commercial
buildings, the pipes on terraces should be connected not to the BMC drains but to
a recharge well or recharge pit. This process is termed ‘recharging’ the groundwater.
The same bore well or tube well then can be used for pumping out the groundwater.
Key words : Aquifer, Recharging, Catchments Area, Average annual rainfall.

1. INTRODUCTION an area of more than 1,000 square metres to install

The rapid development in science and
technology in the world has brought the countries
closer to each other and the world has become a
global village. ‘Vasudeiva Kutumbakam’ (The world
the one family) is the need of the day. The integrated
world is the new concept which Acharya Vinobaji
Bhave had given in his slogan of ‘Jay Jagat’ long
back in the same context.
However as we see our country progressing in
the global market there is increase in the suicides
of Indian farmers every year. Today, it is the
responsibility of engineers in all the disciplines to
come together to provide them with possible
alternatives to cope up with the problems of
environmental imbalances and scarcity of proper
knowledge to adjust with the weather uncertainties.
On the other side, there are urban cities which
are over-flooded with the population and finding the
difficulties like inadequate supply of municipal water.
Even though Bombay Municipal Corporation is in
denial of a water crisis, since October 2002 it has
made it mandatory for all new constructions covering
a rainwater harvesting system that will tap the
terrace water and make it flow to a bore well.
The BMC will henceforth supply such buildings
only 90 liters/person/day for drinking, cooking, where
as they are expected to derive another 45 liters/
person/day from rain water for flushing of toilets
and other not potable uses.While many builders have
only recently and grudgingly started implementing
BMC’ s directive, it will come as a surprise to many
that the costs of doing it are not that high.
2. THE PRINCIPLE OF RAINWATER
HARVESTING
Rainwater falling on the ground is absorbed
by the earth and it constitutes the groundwater. This
water is stored amidst the loose soil and hard rocks
beneath the earth’s surface just as sponge stores
water. Just as the water can be sucked out of a
sponge, so can groundwater be sucked out from
beneath the earth through bore wells. All this can
happen only if the rainwater is allowed to touch the
loose earth. Extreme urbanisation in a city like

*Asst.Professor **Sr.Lecturer
Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex, Sector 9A, Vashi, Navi Mumbai 400703.
E-mail: sandiphk@rediffmail.com, rbm59@rediffmail.com

45
Mumbai has meant that at least three-fourths of the
city’s surface area has been developed, that is,
covered in hard concrete by way of buildings and
roads.
The BMC’s extensive drainage system in the
form of big nullahs and small arterial gutters is
designed to ensure that rainwater does not
accumulate on the roads and buildings. It is another
matter that nullahs and gutters get choked with
garbage and silt and many areas of Mumbai still
experience flooding. But even this flooded water
cannot seep in through the hard concrete. Which is
primarily why one needs to devise techniques that
can make the rainwater seep into the earth. It is also
necessary to ensure that only reasonably pure
rainwater goes into the ground, or else there is a
grave risk of contamination of groundwater. The
different techniques to make rainwater seep into the
ground, which otherwise would not happen
naturally, is known as ‘rainwater harvesting’.
In a city like Mumbai, where the ground
surface is heavily concretised, the main way to
harvest rainwater is to tap the rainwater falling on
the terraces of buildings. The idea is to prevent this
water from running off in BMC’s drains and divert
it to bore wells or storage tanks. Thus, in residential
or commercial buildings, the pipes on terraces
should be connected not to the BMC drains but to a
bore well. This process is also termed as ‘recharging’
the groundwater. The same bore well is then used
for pumping out the groundwater for use.
3. THE PROJECTS DONE ON RWH IN
MUMBAI
Let us have a short survey on the projects on
RWH done in the past in Mumbai & near by area.
Fig.1 : Evaluating Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting Potential
46
This will consolidate our methodology & validate the
procedure. The simple formula to find the water
harvesting potential is given below in Fig.1.
3.1 RWH for Indian Woman Scientists
Association
The site of the construction is located at
Plot.No.20, Sector 10A of Vashi, Navi Mumbai. In
this site both the methods of rainwater harvesting
i.e. storage and recharge is proposed. The site falls
in a deccan trap terrain with top layer covered with
clay.
3.1.1 Recharging underground aquifers
The roof water from the top through the rain
water pipes can be collected by series of chambers
with interconnected pipes and diverted to the
recharge well. The evaluation of rainwater
harvesting potential is done by the method shown
the Fig.1.
The collection chambers are designed to be of
0.5 m x 0.5m x 0.5m in size and the interconnecting
pipes are of 6 inches in diameter.
The recharge well is of 2m x 1.5m x2m in size,
and the recharge bore of 20m depth. This recharge
well can be filled with filtering materials consisting
of layer of pebbles and sand each of 0.3m in
thickness. In the recharge well a recharge bore well
of 6 inch diameter of 50m depth should be drilled
using air compressor.
A slotted casing pipe of 1m length should be
provided inside the recharged well. This slotted pipe
will be wrapped with coir rope to prevent the entry
of fine silt into the recharge bore well. The cost for
recharge well including collection chambers and
interconnecting pipes is Rs.30, 000.
 Fig. 2 : Design & Estimate of Recharge Well

3.1.2 Trench cum percolation pit : The surface
runoff from the drive way, lawn and the part of the
roof water normally flows to the road would be
harvested by constructing a collection trench
measuring 2.5m length,0.5m width and 0.75 m
depth. This will be covered with a metal grill for
easy vehicular movement. The runoff collected will
be used for recharge purpose by constructing two
percolation chambers of 0.5m x 0.5x 0.5m in size
with a recharge bore of 10m depth of 6 inch
diameter. The collection chamber can be provided
with pebbles for filtering purpose. Two numbers of
trench cum percolation pits will be constructed in
two gates and the total cost will be Rs 40,000.

47
 Fig. 3 : Trench cum Percolation Pit
3.1.3 Storage tank system: The rainwater can be
stored in a sub surface concrete tank below ground
level and will be used for flushing purpose. This
sump can be either in addition to the existing tanks
or if the drinking water is stored in separate tank,
the rainwater can be directly routed to existing
storage tanks through filtration chamber.As per our
observation the association has routed the complete
roof water to the existing storage tank of capacity
50,000 litres through a filtration chamber of size
1m x 1m x 1m.The first flush device is a diversion
valve of 3 inch size. The initial rooftop rainwater
with silt is flushed out to the sew age drain.
Then the filtered water from the filtering tank
is connected to the storage tank. The cost of
constructing the storage tank along with first flush,
filtering tank & interconnecting pipes is 72,000/-
Fig. 4 : Design of Storage Tank Design
48
3.2 RWH proposal for Anoopam Mission
Centre, Kharghar :
Another case study was observed to be carried
out for Anoopam Mission Centre, Kharghar, and
Navi Mumbai.
The options for RWH proposed a) Storage of
Rainwater b) Recharging Underground Aquifers
The Average Annual Rainfall in the region is 2250
mm with Runoff coefficient 0.85 (as per CSE).
Catchment’s Area & Potential Rainwater
Quantity :
Consider the Terrace (Roof top) Area as the
minimum catchment’s area available: 656 Sq.m.
Quantity of Water available =656sq.m x 2.250x0.85
=1254.6m3 =12, 54, 600 Litres/4moths
Assuming 50 days of the rainy days per year
the Harvestable Water per day =25,092L/day
 Water Requirements /day (Min):
50 Residents @ 135 L/ h /day =6,750L
60 Day staff or Personnel @ 45L/h/day =2,700L
1000 Visitors @15L/h/day =15,000L
Total Flushing Requirements = 11,100L /day
Garden Requirements = 680 Sqm @ 4L/sq.m
= 2,720 L /day
Total Water Requirements =27,170 L /day
The harvested rainwater can be used for
flushing and gardening purposes. The rain water
from the terrace is to be routed to an underground
Rainwater Storage Tank though a silt trap & 2
filtering tanks each of 1mx 1mx1m size with a
facility for bypass or overflow into Cidco Storm
Water Drain or Nallah. The terrace and filter media
needs to be cleaned before letting water into tank
and mesh filter should be provides at the rainwater
pipe inlet. No fertilizers or pesticides should be
allowed to enter the system. Thus with the above
data a suitable size of the tank can be arrived.
3.3 RWH in Urban Housing Societies
3.3.1 Potential and estimate of installing
rainwater harvesting in a 12-year old building in
Kandivli :
In the Coronet Co-op. Housing Society,
Lokhandwala Township, Kandivli there are two
wings of seven floors each and four flats on each
floor. That means the total flats are 56 with the area
of terrace equal to 360 sq. m.
Assuming the average yearly rainfall in
Bombay of 2 metre high per sq. m.
The harvestable rainwater volume: 360 sq.m x
2m x 0.85 = 612 (cu. m.) = 612,000 litres
One-time estimated cost of installing a
rainwater harvesting system is evaluated as shown
below:
For 50-250ft deep bore well : Rs 45,000 to Rs
60,000
Settlement tank and filtration tank: Rs 15,000
to 30,000 adjacent to bore well
Piping work: Rs 15,000 to Rs 20,000
==============================================
Total cost : Rs 75,000 to Rs 1, 10,000
(Average cost per flat = Rs 1350/- to 1965/-)
==============================================
3.2.2 RWH for Ekta Woods : In the month of
February 2006 it was observed that a new group of
49
buildings, Ekta Woods of Ekta Shelters Builder at
Borivli (East), having three wings of eight floors
each and four flats on each floor, the rainwater
harvesting system was in the final stage of
construction. A casual enquiry with the site-
supervisor revealed that its total cost was about Rs
300,000. When you average it out across the
collective 96 flats in the three wings it worked out
to just Rs 3,100 per flat which is just 0.17 per cent
of the average cost of a flat of Rs. 18,00,000.
4. THE PROJECT ON RWH AT
Fr. A. T. E. COMPLEX :
A project is being undertaken for the feasibility
study of Rainwater Harvesting for the buildings in
the premises of Fr. Agnel Technical Education
Complex, Vashi. The research is being carried out
as a part of the one of the objectives of Agnel Seva
Ashram (ASA) as to ‘Save Electricity & Water
Abhiyan’(SEWA).
4.1 Factors Influencing RWH potential:
There are various factors which are influencing
RWH potential. Rainwater harvesting is catching
rainwater, when and where it falls for the use. It
can be done in two ways, either by diverting it into
tanks, ponds etc or as ground water by injecting into
the soil aquifers.
The choice of the system depends on
• Geography of area, topographical features of
the site etc.
• Ecological and climate conditions
• Rainfall available at the site
• The rainfall Pattern
• Site characteristics like type of catchments,
runoff coefficient of site
4.2 Benefits Projects on RWH:
1. It is an attempt to make a standby arrangement
or emergency supply services for the water needs
of the complex.
2. Rain water harvesting replenishes the ground
water table and enables the dug wells and bore wells
to yield in a sustained manner.
3. If ground water is brackish, harvesting will
reduce the salinity of water. Flooding of low lying
areas and roads can be avoided to a large extent,
since rain water that is not harvested both within
the house as well as out side is responsible for Plan B : To dig a trench of 3m deep and 1m wide
flooding. along the inside portion of the compound wall and
4. Rain water harvesting can be used for irrigation fill it with HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene)
purpose. Film and clay along the length of the wall of the
5. It promotes conjunctive use of river, rain campus as shown in the fig 6. This will not allow
ground, and sea and sewage water. the saline sea water to drip into the soil of
6. It prevents unsustainable exploitation of the Fr.A.T.E.C.campus. Then using the bore wells of
aquifer. 15m to 18m deep we will pump out the existing
7. It ensures efficiency, economy and equity in the saline water from the soil creating the voids which
water use through co-operative management of can be recharged with the rainwater. Using the
water sheds and command area. recharge well technique we will fill the underground
aquifers with the rainwater collected from the roof
4.3 The various plans of RWH : tops as shown in Fig 7. Then we can take two
• Plan A : The first option is to utilize the three additional bore wells to retrieve this stored water
existing water tanks of fire fighting system of during non monsoon season. The care should be
capacity 1,52,400 liters (50800*3) to fill the taken that we pump less quantity of water than what
rainwater collected from the roof top. We can route we will recharge. We are also trying to construct
the rainwater pipes of the BalBhavan & Boy’s hostel open well instead of bore well if it is feasible.
Building to these tanks through proper
interconnected pipes, Devas filters and filtration
chambers.
These two buildings have got rain water
harvesting potential per year of 16,25,630 liters. The
yearly flushing requirement for the two building per
year is 71,35,750 liters (considering 85litres
consumption per day per capita excluding drinking
water requirement).
There is one more tank of capacity 1,020,50
liters which can be used for drinking purpose. There
is a provision to divert the BMC water supply to
this tank with a flow control valve to fill the other
three tanks if these tanks remain empty.
One of the water pumps would be pumping
the water from these three interconnected tanks
supplying water to the buildings of Boy’s hostel &
BalBhavan for flushing.

Fig. 5 : Routing rainwater to the storage tanks Fig.6 Compound Wall of HDPE Film

50
• Plan C : The third plan is most assured way of
getting the rain water collected from the roof tops.
This includes collecting the water from the rooftops
into underground tanks or open wells designed
according to rooftop area and the average annual
rain fall.
This plan has limitations of high initial
investment cost of constructing tanks of Rs.1000/-
per m 3 and regular maintenance of the filters.
However this is the most ensured way of getting
the rainwater during the no monsoon season. With
proper filtration system incorporated we can even
use rainwater stored in these tanks for drinking
purpose.
Fig.7 Recharging bore well with
Wall of HDPE Film
Fig. 8 : Rainwater Harvesting
for Bal Bhavan Building
51
• Plan D : In this plan we are planning to mount
loft tanks wherever necessary in staff quarters. The
rainwater pipes can be routed to these tanks fitted
in the houses. These tanks can be interconnected in
such a way that, once the tank on the upper floor is
full, water starts filling the tank on the adjacent
lower floor. These tanks can be used only to store
water for flushing purpose.
5. PILOT STUDY FOR DIFERENT PLANS
5.1 PLAN A:
Total Catchments area of = 530 + 320 = 850 m2
Boy’s Hostel and BalBhavan
Average annual rainfall = 2.25 m
in Navi-Mumbai
Total quantity of Harvestable Water = 850 X 2.25
= 1912.5m3
Considering 15% losses = 1912.5 X 0.85
= 1625.625 m3
(For four months)
Total quantity of water available = 16, 25,625 L
(By considering 50 Rainy days)
Quantity of harvestable water = 32,512.5 L /
Day.
Assuming the requirement of 85L /capita/day
The total requirement of water for = 230X85x365
= 19,550L/day = 19.55 m3 /Day =136.85m3/Week
both the buildings.
 As mentioned earlier, we have decided to Then the total volume of 450m3 rain water can be
route the rainwater pipes of the BalBhavan & Boy’s harvested by the method of under ground storage
hostel buildings to the existing three tanks of fire water tank.
fighting system of capacity 50,800L each through This will be sufficient for 450/37.5=12 days
proper interconnected pipes, filters and filtration of non monsoon season saving the equivalent cost
chambers. The total size of water that can be stored of Rs.4,950/- per Year.
will be 1,52,400L i.e.152.4 m3.This will be quite
sufficient for weekly storage of rainwater 136.85m3
during rainy season. Also after the monsoon this
water will be sufficient for 152.4/19.55 = 8 days
during summer season.

Fig. 9 Rainwater Harvesting Fig.10 Rainwater Harvesting of Fr. Agnel Degree

for Boys Hostel Building &Diploma Buildings

5.2 PLAN C:
Total catchments area = 2500 sq. m. 5.3 PLAN B :
Average annual rainfall = 2.25 m We are trying to implement this plan by first
in Navi-Mumbai doing hydro geological investigation and estimating
Total quantity of Harvestable = 2500 x 2.25 the rough estimate of construction of gravel pack
= 5,625 m3 ring well cum bore well. This is necessary to be
Water carried out in order to identify points or locations
Considering 15% losses = 5625 x 0.85 for ground water development. As per the quotation
= 4,781.25 m3
Total quantity of water available = 47, 81,250 L
(For four months)
(By considering 50 Rainy days)

Quantity of Harvestable water = 95,625 L / Day

available per day

Assuming the requirement of 15L /capita/day
The total requirement of water = 2500 x 15 =
37,500L/day = 37.5m3 /Day
If we design and construct two tanks of size
15m length X 5m Width X 3m depth having the
total Area = 225m3 Fig.11 A open tank constructed with HDPE film

52
from one of the consultants the assessment cost will
be Rs 7,500/-
After this assessment we will be able to
conclude whether we can take open well or not. Also
the estimate for one gravel pack ring well cum bore
well given including all taxes is 1,53,210/-. For
protection against the saline water to enter inside
the soil of the complex, HDPE film of gauge 500
micron can be used as imperious film in the trench
that we are going to excavate .The cost of the film
is around Rs.50 per m2. We have to calculate the
film area required and the quantity of excavation of
the trench. The rate of excavation depends on the
strata below the ground.
5.4 OBSERVATION TABLES
After carrying out the pilot study we have made
a observation Table 1, comparing the water
harvesting potential of each building with the annual
water requirement .This also facilitate cost benefit
analysis of the project. Also Table 2 shows the rough
estimate of the particulars of Plan A which very soon
we have decided to implement.

NO. PARTICULAR ITEM UNIT RATE / UNIT TOTAL QNTY. TOTAL COST
I PVC PIPES
1 DIA.100mm m 155 28.22 4374.1
2 DIA.120mm m 165 56.6 9339
3 DIA.140mm m 175 29.92 5236
4 DIA.150mm m 180 15.9 2862
5 DIA.160mm m 185 18.5 34225
II DEVAS FILTER - 600 7 4200
III ELBOWS 45° ANGLE - 100 7 700
IV
1 EXACUVATION m3 150 17.89 2683.5
2 P.C.C. m3 15000 1.19 1785
3 BRICK WORK m3 1400 7.45 10430
TOTAL RATE : 55,469.10/-

53
 Fig.12 Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex, Vashi

6. FURTHER STUDIES IN PROGRESS

We have decided to first implement Plan A which involves designing the interconnecting pipes with
DEVAS filters. The rain pipes will be connected to main pipeline through these filters that are costing
approximately Rs. 600/- each. The following figure shows the DEVAS filters which can be manufactured
easily from PVC pipes and sands of various sizes. The crucial factor is soil assessment and determination in
what way we can recharge and retrieve the rainwater. This will be the area of our further research.

Fig.13 : Manufacturing of Devas Filters for Water Purification

54
7. CONCLUSION and FUTURE SCOPE
As per our Vedic scriptures the Great Saint
Parashara says
|| Annam Hi Dhanya Sanjatam, Dhanyanm Krishya
Vina Na Ch ||
Tasmad Sarvam Parityajya, Krushim Yatnen
Karayet ||1||
|| Vrustimula Krushi Sarva, Vrushti Mulam Ch
Jeevanam ||
Tasmadadau Prayatnen,Vrushti dhnyanam
Samacharet ||2||
“Which means we get food from grains.Without
doing farming we can not get grains. Therefore
leaving every thing aside we should do harvesting.
As the root of agriculture is in the rains, life is
dependent on rains. Therefore we should very
meticulously study the rains”
Thus in the direction of his guidance we march
forward to get more and more knowledge about rain
harvesting and water management. We should feel
proud of harvesting rainwater in our own houses
“WATER SCARCITY DIVIDE PEOPLE…..
….. RAINWATER HARVESTING UNITES THEM”.
55
and flats, complexes since it makes us more self
sufficient and less dependent on government for our
requirements of fresh water. Let us make a sincere
attempt to harvest rainwater falling on both rooftop
as well as the open area all around our homes to
prevent any further deterioration of ground water
source.
8. REFERENCES
• Anil Agarwal, Available from: http://
www.rainwaterharvesting.org Accessed: 2006-07-
23
• Sunita Narain & Rahul Ranade (2003). A Water
Harvesting Manual, Centre For Science And
Environment, New Delhi
• M. Jacob, (2005), ‘Technical Report for rainwater
harvesting’, Navi Mumbai
• Gopal Chandorkar (2005). Parjanya Mapan va
Purva Anuman, Proceedings of Traditional Wisdom
in Water Management, pp. 96-101, A National
Conference at Nasik, October 2005, The Indian
Council for Water & Culture, Aurangabad
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

10. Measures for Water Conservation and

Improvement in Water Quality
*R. S. Goel **V. B. Patel

ABSTRACT
Safe water supply and environmental sanitation are vital for protecting the
environment, improving health and alleviating poverty. According to the World Bank
estimates, water pollution accounts for about 60% of the major annual environmental
costs in India. Availability of water in India is under tremendous stress due to growing
population, rapid urbanization, increase in per-capita consumption, industrial growth
and other demands for maintaining ecology. It is to be stressed that non-development
of water storage projects is not a viable or available option; due to the large temporal
variations in river flows in Indian monsoonic climate. Integrated water management
is most vital for poverty reduction, environmental sustenance and sustainable
economic development in India because water has the potential for both disease
causation and prevention. This article highlights the challenges in supplying the
qualitative water for the bulging requirements of water for various uses in our highly
populated country and suggests measures to overcome the serious crisis. The article
would help the policy planners, municipal agencies and professional societies to
properly focus and channelise their energy for integrated water resources development
and management.

Keywords- water quality, water management, wastewater, reuse, recycle,

INTRODUCTION become a serious problem. Safe water supply and

It is estimated that 80% of all diseases and over
1/3 rd of deaths are caused by consumption of
contaminated water and on an average as much as
1/10th of each person’s productive time is sacrificed
to water related diseases. India supports 1/6th of the
world’s population on 1/50th of world’s land with
meager 1/25th of the world’s water resources. Due
to the indiscriminate discharge of untreated sewage
and industrial effluents into natural water bodies, the
quality of surface water as well as ground water is
deteriorating in India. Deteriorating water quality has
environmental sanitation are vital for protecting the
environment, improving health and alleviating
poverty. Unless facilities for the treatment of
domestic sewage and industrial effluents are manifold
increased, the increasing pollution load due to
urbanization will further deteriorate the quality of
water bodies. Preserving the quality and the
availability of the freshwater resources is the most
pressing of the many environmental challenges on
the national horizon. It is imperative that conservation,
recycle, reuse of precious water and proper

*Former Vice-President, Indian Water Resources Society, Former Convenor of Programmes, Water Management
Forum, Convenor, Coordination Committee, Water Related National Professional Societies, Chief Engineer,
Narmada Tapi Basin Organisation, Central Water commission, Sector 10 A, Gandhinagar (Gujrat) – 382043
E-mail - goelrscwc@yahoo.com
**Vice-President, Indian Water Resources Society, Former Chairman, Central Water Commission, Former Chairman,
Board of Governors, Water Management Forum, Co-chairman, Coordination Committee, Water Related National
Professional Societies, 128, Manekbaug Society, Ambawadi,Ahmedabad–38 00 52 E-mail - vbpatel@multimantech.com

56
treatment of waste are given serious attention for
sustainability of built environment for our highly
populated country.
CONCENTRATED WATER NEEDS DUE TO
RAPID URBANIZATION
During last 50 years the share of urban
population in the country has increased from 14% to
33%. During the last fifty years the population of
India has grown two and half times, but Urban India
has grown by nearly five times. India’s population
has already crossed 1 billion mark and it has been
assessed that the urban population may reach 50%
of the total population by the middle of this century,
as against about 33% at present. Already there is
acute shortage of drinking water supply in cities like
Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Chennai
and water is being transmitted long distance to cater
to the needs. Between years 2000 and 2050
freshwater withdrawals by urban areas will rise
from an estimated minimum of about 15 BCM to a
projected maximum of about 60 BCM. Options like
watershed management, rainwater harvesting,
groundwater exploitations, which create spatially
distributed resources, are unable to meet these
concentrated demands. Supply of safe drinking water
to such a large urban population besides meeting the
commercial, industrial, cattle and recreational
purposes is proving a Herculean task and calls for
creating concentrated sources of water to meet the
concentrated demands.
WATER CONSERVATION
Water Conservation has three broad
connotations; maximum storage of rainwater,
economical and optimal use including prevention of
wastage/ leakage and multiple use – Reuse and
Recycling. In urban water supply almost 30 to 40%
of the water is wasted through the distribution
system. In Industrial sector also, there is a scope of
economy in use of water. Public awareness should
be generated through a massive campaign of
communication through all available media and by
the utility management itself setting an example for
conservation. All urban dwellers should be made
aware of the source from which water is being
brought to the city and from which additional water
will have to be brought in the future. They should
be aware of the costs involved, not only in financial
57
terms, but also the cost that other communities have
to incur in terms of opportunity lost by not using the
water. The measure for water conservation should
include metering of supplies as a matter of policy
and increase in tariff rate on a sliding scale. Use of
treated effluents, in place of filtered water for
horticulture and large gardens, and fitting of waste-
not taps on public stand-posts to avoid wastage of
water should be encouraged.
WASTEWATER GENERATION
Between years 2000 and 2050 freshwater
withdrawals by urban areas will rise from an
estimated minimum of about 15 BCM to a projected
maximum of about 60 BCM. About 80 percent will
be returned as polluted wastewater to nearby surface
water bodies. This will result in massive pollution of
fresh surface water resources. A large part of the
sewage in most of the municipalities is still flowing
into the aquatic environment without any treatment,
thereby increasing the oxygen demand in shrinking
water bodies and increasing the bacterial load of
water, the main cause of water borne diseases.
Discharge of untreated domestic waste water is
predominant source of pollution of aquatic resources
in India. Urban centers contribute more than 25%
of the sewage generation in the country. The smaller
towns and rural areas do not contribute significant
amounts of sewage due to low per capita water
supply. Waste water generated in these areas
normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. Owing
to the indiscriminate discharge of untreated sewage
and industrial effluents into natural water bodies, the
quality of surface water as well as ground water is
deteriorating. A result of this is that the principal
drinking water supply sources of cities and towns
are becoming polluted of which is increasing
considerably the cost of water treatment.
Even in the mega cities namely Mumbai,
Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai; wherein about two third
of the total wastewater of 23 metro cities is
generated, the waste management is highly
unsatisfactory despite the huge infrastructure and
paraphernalia due to many socio-political and
managerial problems. Of the wastewater generated
in Class I cities, 12 metropolitan cities accounted for
about 65 percent. Mumbai and Delhi generated more
wastewater than that generated in all the Class II
cities together. About 80% of about 20% collected
wastewater in these cities was receiving primary or especially during lean season for various diverse uses
primary and secondary treatment. Further, out of the has greatly diminished the dry flows in streams. To
wastewater generated in Class II cities, only 5% reverse this situation, moderation of floods and
was being collected and only 2% was receiving some increasing the dry season flows is imperative. The
kind of treatment. Almost all the wastewater was increasing discharge of domestic and industrial
being disposed in the rivers and agricultural lands, wastes has also led to the contamination of ground
affecting surface and ground water; creating highly water, making it unfit for human consumption at
alarming situation. many places. In some regions, over-exploitation of
The major water polluting industries are leather, ground water has led to salinity ingress and severe
sugar, distilleries, paper and pulp, chemicals, iron and depletion of ground water accentuated by low
steel, and metal plating. A large part of industrial recharge capabilities. For small scale sector, a
water pollution is caused by small-scale units. The scheme titled Common Effluent Treatment Plant
integration of proper water supply, recycling and (CETP) has not been uniformity successful as
reuse of water, roof water harvesting and adequate different units within the same complex release
sanitation facilities in all cities and bigger towns is different types of effluents which cannot be treated
absolutely vital for revival and maintaining the through a single technology. More important, pooling
integrity and purity of rivers eco-system. In the 8th of resources for this common cause has not found
five-year plan 24 highly polluted stretches in rivers favour with small scale & cottage industry.
of 16 states were identified and Ganga Action Plan
Phase I & II were launched which were later on Waste Water Generation from Different types
integrated into National River Conservation Plan. of Industries and Possible Reuse
Focus of the River Action Plans has been on sewage
with very little success with regard to the other two Industry Average Volume of Possible
forms of water pollution viz., industrial pollution and Wasteland per Unit Percent
agricultural run off. of Product Reuse
Thermal Power 155 kl./hr/MW 98
SURFACE WATER POLLUTION Plant
About 75% of domestic water supplies from Pulp & Paper 250 kl./tonne 50
urban areas come back as return flow, deteriorated Iron and steel 150 kl./1000 lit/tonne 40
in quality due to organic, chemical and bacterial
Pharmaceutical 4.5 kl./tonne 40
pollution. Even though, drains and rivers have been
functioning as waste disposal channels from time Distillery 15 lit/lit of alcohol 25
immemorial; but the pollution load in earlier times Textile 250 lit/kg cloth 15
was within the self-purification capacity of these Tannery 34 lit/kg of raw hides 12
streams. Due to the bulk of discharge of effluents
with very heavy doses of impurities of the modern The main challenge lies in devising instruments,
day world which are mostly untreated, the pollution which make it attractive for corporate sector to
load is now manifold and beyond the self-purification conserve and recycle water by adopting less water
capacity of the rivers. Analysis of water quality data intensive processes and encourage material recovery.
for 1997 reveals that Gujarat tops in chemical The direct regulation of the “Command and control
pollution, followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Type” has not worked due to weaknesses in
Tamilnadu , Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. The worst enforcement coupled with low level of penalty.
affected states in terms of presence of coliform Under regulation of this kind, perceived benefit from
bacteria in water, are Uttar Pradesh, Gujrat, conservation must be more than the cost of
Tamilnadu and Assam. In terms of BOD values compliance.
Kerala is at the bottom and Maharashtra at the top
(most polluted). GROUND WATER POLLUTION
Many of the modern water pollutants are non- Regulation and conservation of ground water
biodegradable. Greater abstraction of water, present technical and administrative difficulties

58
because precise delineation of aquifers is difficult
and monitoring and control of extraction by large
numbers of individually owned wells is not feasible.
Accordingly, depending upon the characteristics of
the pollutants and application of water, the pollutants
may migrate to the saturated zone along with recharge
water, thereby affecting ground water quality. The
reasons for ground water pollution mainly related to
the faulty agricultural practices, industrial pollution,
municipal pollution, mine pollution and natural
pollutants present in the ground water itself. Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) is monitoring the
quality of ground water at 16,000 hydrograph stations
in the country.
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCES DUE TO
DETERGENTS
The health risk posed by phosphate rich
detergents is not yet recognized in India despite a
worldwide awareness and ban in several countries
in Europe and America. Detergents contain many
ingredients which could be a threat to the environment
and human health. A common ingredient, sodium
tri-polyphosphate (STTP) softens the water thus
helping to remove dirt from clothes and to keep the
dirt off during the washing cycle. Phosphorus, part
of STPP is an essential nutrient for the growth of
aquatic plants and as such adds to the cultural
eutrophication, a process in which the excess
nutrients result in algae bloom, kill fish and increase
pathogenic organism, causing loss in aesthetic and
recreational values of water. Strict regulations be
made requiring that not more than 5% phosphorus
in detergents.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Care is necessary that treated wastewater
does not contain toxic matter beyond a threshold.
Otherwise, it may enter the food chain, both aquatic
and terrestrial. Besides, wastewater can damage
fertility of soil and quality of ground water if its
constituents are not kept within the prescribed limit
For the most economic disposal of wastewater from
various sources, recycling, re-use, renovation and
regeneration (summed up by the term “4-R
Concept”) must be practiced with utmost keenness.
Recycling refers to repeating the same use; re-use
is done by using effluent for other purposes;
renovation refers to treatment to the (tertiary) level
59
so that it is fit for use like fresh water, and
regeneration refers to replenishment of a water
source in a natural manner. Recycling and re-use
has been demonstrated to be cost-effective in a large
number of cases, with periods of return of
investments ranging from a few months to less than
five years. Thus it makes sense to practice
recycling/re-use for economic reasons, besides doing
so to meet moral or legal liability associated with
disposal of wastewater.
EFFECTIVE RECYCLE AND REUSE OF
WATER
In urban water supply, 30 to 40 % of the
municipal water is wasted through the distribution
system. In Industrial sector too, there is a scope of
economy in use of water. As per estimates by
Bureau of Industrial Costs and Prices, 10 to 30%
saving in water consumption in industries is possible
by recycling, modifications in processing, evaporation
control etc. Apart from ensuring leakage control,
water conservation strategy in industries should
include introduction of appropriate technology to
ensure efficient use of cooling and process water
and necessary pollution control mechanisms and
maximum recycling and reuse. Treatment of
wastewater in stabilization ponds is an effective and
low-cost method of pathogen removal, and is,
therefore, suitable for schemes for wastewater reuse,
particularly for irrigation of crops. Similarly,
duckweed ponds are quite effective in treating
municipal wastewater and at the same time the
harvested duckweed is a good fish and chicken feed.
As such, there is a need to develop appropriate and
cost effective technologies, for treatment and reuse
of municipal wastewater, suitable to Urban Local
Bodies for their adoption. Possible health risks to
agricultural workers should, however, be assessed
thoroughly and monitored regularly. Treated
wastewater should conform to pollution control
standards for adopting reuse practice.
There are various options for recycling and
reuse of grey water (bathroom and kitchen wash)
and black water (sewage). However, the grey water
and black water from large residential complexes
like Cooperative Housing Societies, multistoried
buildings and industrial effluents from large industries
can be recycled and reused for various purposes
other than drinking. The grey water may be put into
various types of treatment such as grease trap,
anaerobic filter etc and the filtered water may be let
into wet land, polishing ponds etc. and can be reused
for gardening and horticulture etc. The black water
may also be put into various types of treatment such
as screen, grit removal primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment etc. and the treated waste water
can be let into wet land for irrigation or for ground
water recharge. The municipal wastewater and
industrial effluent may be treated up-to tertiary level
and used for various purposes other than drinking
by various industries and cities. For example, in
Chennai the Chennai Metro Board is providing 30mld
treated municipal wastewater to Ennore Thermal
Power Plant for recycle and reuse for cooling &
other purposes. Likewise in Mumbai, many of the
industrial houses are using the recycled industrial
effluent for purposes such as air-conditioning, cooling
etc. In Pondicherry Ashram, the wastewater from
housing complexes and community’s toilets are
recycled and reused for horticulture purposes and
irrigation. State Governments may create Urban
Development Fund for Urban Infrastructure
development and the same can also be used for
setting up of pilot projects for waste reuse, recycling
and resource recovery.
INCENTIVES AND LEGAL ASPECTS
Suitable fiscal concessions and subsidies may
be considered by the Central and State Governments
to the industries, commercial establishments and any
other agencies which adopt/practice waste reuse,
recycling and resource recovery. Similarly, in case
the Urban Local Bodies on their own would like to
take the initiative and set up waste reuse, recycling
and resource recovery schemes in their respective
areas, similar fiscal concessions and subsidies may
also be made available to them. It may be made
mandatory in phases that large industries and
commercial establishments must meet a sizeable
percentage of their non-potable water requirements
from the reclaimed water. Similarly, for irrigating
crops, horticulture, watering public lawns/gardens,
flushing of sewers, fire-fighting etc. reclaimed water
should only be used. Economic instruments may
provide incentives to economic actors inducting them
to behave in an environmentally responsible manner.
Their merits include: effectiveness, efficiency,
flexibility and incentives for eco-innovation. Under
60
the scope of the polluter pays principle we can
consider of such subsidies such as originating from
funds created on the basis of pollution related charges
(e.g. acidification funds).
RENTING OF WATER
Above economic instruments provide incentives
to economic actors inducing them to behave in an
environmentally responsible manner. Their merits
include: effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility and
incentives for eco-innovation. Under the scope of
the polluter pays principle we can consider of such
subsidies as originating from funds created on the
basis of pollution related charges (e.g. acidification
funds). Another important thing about pricing of
water may be costing it according to its end use.
Farmers and low income industries may not be
charged at the rate of charges fixed for high yielding
industries.
MARKETING BOTTLED WATER
Considerably more satisfaction and benefit can
be obtained from the present water supply system,
if managed efficiently. Costly systems are
constructed, but for want of proper operation and
maintenance, the benefits are not received by the
people who have to incur considerable private costs
and have to resort to alternate means or
supplementary sources. Fast catching up practice
of selling mineral water bottles at rates even more
than milk and more than 1000 times than the tap
water in India is paradoxical. While half of our
population is unable to afford even the absolute
minimum needs to quench their thirst. Only water
supply utilities should be allowed to bottle and market
the bottled water to generate much-needed funds
for modernization and proper maintenance of existing
infrastructure.
PROTECTION OF NATURAL WATER
RESOURCES
Responsibility should be fixed on various civic
and industrial authorities to treat the wastewater
before disposing it in conveyance drains or natural
streams. Water quality should be monitored regularly
at every out-fall drain. State wise river basin
conservation plan should be formulated for different
basins. The pathogenic, toxic and biological and
physico-chemical effects of various types of water
pollution in different scenario and regions should be
scientifically analysed, collated, understood and
suitable action plans should be framed.
QUESTIONABLE USE OF WATER AS A
CARRIER OF WASTES
The traditional way of removing wastes from
industries, and homes has been to dilute them in water
and then carry this wastewater over long distances
to extract most of the waste in the sludge, leaving
polluted water as effluent. Such traditional and highly
unscientific method of using water carriers of wastes
need to be closely examined. There are many better
alternatives to treat the waste at its origin, without
using so much water. Use of low flushing and dry
toilets as well as use of ‘grey water’ drained from
showers, kitchens and laundries to flush the toilets,
should be targeted for adoption in at least in all new
construction of commercial institutions and planned
colonies in all class I and II cities.
MINIMUM FLOW REQUIREMENT
Quality of river waters is deteriorating with
large number of municipal and industrial effluents
being discharged untreated into rivers. Return flows
from irrigated areas pollute river water with residual
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Necessity for
maintaining minimum flow therefore, arise out of the
need to maintain water quality, river regime,
maintenance of river eco-system or other public
necessities.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC & ECOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF DROUGHTS
It is estimated that around 263 million people
live in drought prone area of about 108 m. ha., which
works out to 1/3rd of the total Indian geographical
area. Thus, more than 26% of total population of
the country face the consequences of recurring
droughts, on a wide spectrum of social concerns.
During the drought years there is a marked tendency
of intensive exploitation of ground water, resulting in
abnormal lowering of ground water table thus
accentuating the distress. Grave adverse impacts
are borne by flora, fauna and domestic cattle and
the very life itself fights against nature for its survival.
Droughts accentuate problems in cities in the form
of mushrooming of slums and pressure on the existing
civil amenities thereby adversely affecting urban life.
61
Large storage projects are essentially required for
diverting surplus water from flood prone areas to
deficit areas. Indira Gandhi Nahar Project has been
a boon for large tracts of Rajasthan in alleviating
droughts.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC & ECOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF FLOODS
Over 40 million hectares of the area of the
country experiences periodic floods. The average
area affected by floods annually in India is about 7.5
m. ha of which crop area affected is about 3.5 m.ha.
Floods have claimed on an average 1,529 human
lives and 94,000 cattle ever year. Apart from loss of
life and domestic property, the devastating effects
of floods, sense of insecurity and fear in the minds
of people living in the flood plains is enormous. The
after effects of floods like the agony of survivors,
spread of epidemics, non availability of essential
commodities and medicines and loss of their dwellings
make floods most feared natural disaster being faced
by human kind. Large-scale damages to forests,
crops & precious plants and deaths of aquatic and
wildlife, migratory and native birds in various National
Parks, Delta region, low altitude hilly areas and
alluvial flood plains of Assam, Arunachal, Uttrakhand,
U.P., Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, have always been
the matter of serious concern. River Valley Projects
such as Bhakra, Ramganga, Hirakud, Pong etc. have
proved highly successful in moderating the
magnitudes as well as frequencies of floods.
ACCELERATED WATER STORAGE
DEVELOPMENT
Water demands forecasts show that Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka and
Tamilnadu could face heavy water supply shortfalls.
The water shortages would be far more serious in
the water short basins like the Cauvery, Pennar,
Sabarmati, Mahi, and Krishna etc. To meet the
bulging water requirements, it would be necessary
to ensure substantial augmentation of water supplies;
requiring sufficient raising of water storage
capacities, thus necessitating completion of new large
water storage projects.
Supreme Court Majority Judgement for
Narmada Projects has also highlighted that against
the utilisable storage 690 cu. km. of surface water
resources out of 1869 cu. km.; so far storage capacity
of all dams in India is only 174 cu. km., which is
incidently less than the capacity of Kariba Dam in
Zambia/Zimbabwe with capacity of 180.6 cu. km.
and only 12 cu. km. more than the Aswan High Dam
of Egypt. The impact on environment should be seen
in relation to the project as a whole. Water of poor
quality leads to ill health, whereas water in insufficient
quantity claims large chunks of time spent in
augmenting the supply; otherwise, the significant time
could be spent on more remunerative tasks. We must
realize the basic fact that the medium and small
water projects as well as water harvesting schemes
cannot substitute the need of large water storages
but can at best complement the larger projects. This,
too, depends upon the hydrological, geological,
topographical and regional limitations. The
controversy of the large versus small dams is
irrelevant. Sustainable management of water
resources with due respect to ecological, economic
and ethical sustainability blended with technical
feasibility requires a holistic and integrated approach
involving engineering, socio-economic and
environmental aspects. Expansion of storage
capacity by completing on-going projects and
construction of new projects is imperative to enhance
water availability.
ROLE OF COMMUNITIES AND
PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES
It is essential that environmental aspects and
the process of planning and operation of water
resources projects be fairly understood by the experts
of different disciplines. Participation of people is a
must in the management of water. People have to
be made an integral part of the water management
system. The community is to be made not only water
conscious, but also to be integrated to participate in
the planning and management of such projects and
pollution prevention programmes. It is unfortunate
that a smear campaign has been launched during
last two decades against hydropower and water
resources projects by exaggerating the likely or
assumed adverse environmental impacts and by
suppressing their need and tremendous benefits.
Knowledge about the changes required in
cropping patterns and agronomic practices also must
be communicated to farmers to sensitise them about
the constraints of water supply and motivate them
to use it carefully and efficiently. Professional
62
societies can act as multi-disciplinary fora for national
and regional debates, analysis and framing of action
plans on water related matters by utilizing their
infrastructure, professional expertise, library,
publication and documentation services. These
societies can serve as rich sources in generating
technically sound options with well-defined limitations
& assumptions in Indian peculiar situations for taking
informed decisions. The services of professional
Societies like Indian Water Resources Society, The
Institution of Engineers (India), Indian National
Science Academy, Indian Water Works Association,
Indian Association of Hydrologists, Indian Society
of Hydraulics, Water Management Forum,
Association of Hydrologists of India & Indian
Buildings Congress having vast network, good spread
and pool of expertise may be channelised in debating,
dissemination and creating balanced scientific public
awareness.
WORKING GROUP ON WATER RELATED
ECOLOGICAL MATTERS
Considering the seriousness and deteriorating
state of affairs concerning quality and quantity of
available water particularly for urban use, alarming
water pollution levels and challenges in managing
water related ecological concerns, a Working Group
on Water Related Ecological Matters for X Five Year
Plan was formed vide Planning Commission’s O.M.
No. M-12018/1/2000-E&F dated 8th January, 2001
under the Chairmanship of Secretary (Water
Resources). The Group consisted of the
representatives of the Planning Commission,
Confederation of Indian Industries and the Ministries
of Environment and Forests, Agriculture &
Cooperation, Urban Development & Poverty
Alleviation, Industrial Development, Rural
Development, Department of Ocean Development
as well as Chairman, Central Water Commission;
Chairman, Central Ground Water Board; Chairman,
Central Pollution Control Board and Member (River
Management), CWC. The first author of this article
was inducted as Member Secretary for the Group.
Working Group in its Report has suggested that the
following measures may yield significant benefits
from the overcoming crisis in the field of water related
ecological arena :
Strict measures to ensure proper treatment of
waste water
 Strict enforcing of responsibility on users for
waste treatment before discharging into water bodies
Local bodies should be responsibile for
maintaining CETPs
Economic Instruments as incentives and
subsidies to induce users accountability to curb
increasing water demands and to encourage
recycling and reuse of water
Suitable cess collected on marketing of water
bottles be exclusively reserved for modernization of
public water supply systems.
Water sensitive urban planning
Wide spread use of water saving fixtures
Strategy based on agro-climatic regional
planning
Integrated planning and management of river
basins
Declaration of water resources projects as
green projects in respect of environmental clearance
Equitable distribution of water
Use of appropriate technology in water supply
and sanitation sectors
Scientific public awareness and curbing
environmental pseudoism.
Encouraging professional societies for
feedback, documentation and proper dissemination
Research and development activities in the area
of water quality management
Impose restriction in water abstraction and
ensuring discharge of only treated sewage/ trade
effluent on land, rivers and other water bodies with
a view to mitigating crisis of water quality;
To maintain minimum discharge for sustenance
of aquatic life forms in riverine system;
Encourage rain-water harvesting, roof top
harvesting for indigenous consumption
To utilize self assimilation capacities to minimize
cost of effluent treatment;
Encourage ground water recharging with strict
monitoring of the water quality
To create public awareness on water
conservation and economical water usage.
CONCLUSION
India supports 1/6th of the world’s population
on 1/50th of world’s land with meager 1/25th of the
world’s water resources. Further, 80% of all diseases
and over 1/3rd of deaths are caused by consumption
of contaminated water and on an average as much
63
as 1/10 th of each person’s productive time is
sacrificed to water related diseases. Deteriorating
water quality has become a serious problem. We
would have to maintain a balance between the thrust
areas of development (infrastructure and consumer
goods), which are said to improve the quality of life,
and the social aspects like bare necessities of life in
the areas of water, food, fiber, power, education,
health, housing and nutrition. Preserving the quality
and the availability of the freshwater resources is
the most pressing of the many environmental
challenges on the national horizon. Social tensions,
political instability and street fights are already on
the horizon; due to stoppage and slowing down the
construction of almost all major dams; ignoring the
bulging demands of water and power for municipal
uses in metro cities, by few environmental activists
and novelists; without professional analysis. It is to
be stressed that non-development of water storage
projects is not a viable or available option; due to the
large temporal variations in river flows in Indian
monsoonic climate. Conservation, recycle, reuse of
precious water and proper treatment of waste water
must be given serious attention for sustainability of
built environment for our highly populated country.
In such peculiar conditions, the initiative for
interlinking of rivers in India so as to meet the bulging
demands of water for various uses even for water
starved states is highly commendable and timely.
Note - The views in the article may not belong to
the Authors’ Organisations.
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64
• Indian Water Resources Society, 1999, ‘Theme Paper
on Water Vision 2050’, New Delhi.
• Indian Water Resources Society, 2002, ‘Theme Paper
on Integrated Water Resources Development and
Management’, New Delhi.
• Ministry of Water Resources, 1999, ‘Report of the
National Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development’, New Delhi.
• Ministry of Water Resources, 2001, ‘Report of the
Working Group on Water Related Ecological Matters for
Xth Five Year Plan’, New Delhi.
• Prasad Kamta and Goel R.S.(Editors), 2000,
‘Environmental Management in Hydro Electric Projects’,
ISBN-81-7022-870-0, M/s Concept Publishing Company,
New Delhi.
• Supreme Court Judgement, 2000, ‘Narmada Bahao
Andolan Vs. Union of India’, AIR, SCC, 2000.
• Water Management Forum, 2002, ‘Theme Paper on
Inter-Basin Transfers of Water – Challenges and
Opportunities’, New Delhi.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

11. Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management

Dr. S. G. Kirloskar

Abstract
The water crisis has taken considerable space in our lives. The problem of
water shortage has become a national and universal theme of discussion. The
water crisis has become alarming to such an extent that unless every citizen starts
acting towards saving and preserving the rainwater, the survival of present and
future generations would be in jeopardy. Thanks to the environmentally aware
masses for sowing the seeds of rainwater harvesting in the society.
In this paper, some of the methods of rainwater harvesting, particularly
feasible in urban areas, actually implemented elsewhere are discussed.

Introduction to the problem. The ecological balance has been

India is facing a huge water crisis today. There
is an enormous unmet demand for water. Even as
clean water sources are being viciously attacked by
pollution and over exploitation, hardly any river or
groundwater aquifer near a city escapes the perils
of pollution today. While agricultural lands go thirsty,
many thousands of villages find it difficult to get clean
drinking water. The dispute over tap waters heard
in the history in olden days and in the villages in
present times has been transferred to urban areas
too. The issue of water-crisis is more acute than the
petrol for which largely the human beings are
responsible.
There has been growing reliance on the use of
surface and groundwater, while the earlier reliance
on rain water and flood water has been declined,
even though rain water and flood water are available
in much greater abundance than river water or
groundwater. It is reported that the money pumped
in for rural drinking water supply and methods used
were unsustainable. Corruption, lack of people’s
interests in maintaining government schemes, land
degradation leading to heavy runoff, heavy
groundwater exploitation leading to lowering of
groundwater tables, neglect of traditional water
harvesting system and growing pollution are all added
collapsed owing to irregular rains, environmental
deterioration, and uncontrolled pollution.
The exclusive reliance on river and groundwater
is already leading to a number of problems.
Heavy extraction of water from rivers : The
rivers are so heavily exploited that there is no water
left during the summer season. Agencies involved in
water resource development are not bothered to
implement the legislation for the minimum river flows.
Construction of large dams and neglect of small
water harvesting structure :
Because of this, the numbers of displaced
populations will steadily increase, while forests will
submerge and availability of land for resettlement
will go down continuously.
Dependence on the state : There are financial
and human problems with state sponsored water
supply. The state subsidises water. People squander
it. The state soon runs out of money for new projects
to meet the burgeoning demand and for maintaining
projects already built. The state becomes responsible
for water supply. Demand will grow in future
because of population growth, increased urbanization,

Professor of Environmental Engineering and Principal of Rizvi College of Engg., Bandra (W), Mumbai 50

65
industrialization. Increased water pollution has further lid to avoid contamination.
reduced the availability of clean water which means
greater stress on remaining sources of ground and
surface water.
To get the reliever, people started boring the
tube wells only to lower the depth of water table
from 50 feet to 100-200 feet. The water crisis has
become alarming to such an extent that everyone
has to be educated to start saving and preserving
the rainwater. The concept of storing the rainwater
and elevating the level of water table, popularly
known as ‘water harvesting’ has already taken its
roots.
In the villages, the rainwater harvesting is being
practiced by building small bunds, by digging small
trenches around the wells. However in urban areas Fig. 1.1
specific methods have to be applied for rainwater
harvesting. Some of the methods are listed Bleaching powder is applied to prevent
(1) water from roof or terrace can be allowed to contamination and maintain the quality of stored
permeate near the bore or well or in the house water. Airtight covers on storage tank protect the
premises if bore or well is not available water from sunlight and contamination. Initial
(2) water from roof or terrace can be taken investment cost of the structure is little high.
(i) to well or bore through pipe or Operating cost consists of cleaning expenses once
(ii) to an underground tank of sufficient capacity can in a year and periodic expenses of bleaching powder
be built to receive the water through pipe. which would cost around only Rs. 1000/- per year.
Considering the life span of the structure of 20 years
The methods of water harvesting are described and the relief it brings, this method is the most
below. reliable.
(1) Permeating the water from the roofs into
premises of the house (2) A soak-pit can also be created at the outlet
Construction of underground structures of point of the house premises
20,000 l capacity to harvest water from rooftops for As shown in fig. 1.2, a soak-pit of 8’ depth and
domestic consumption , manual withdrawal of water, 5’ length can be prepared containing brickbats,
to use runoff water as recharge in shallow wells. stones, boulders etc. The water starts filling up the
The capacity depends upon the no. of people in the trench of the soak-pit. It is estimated that a small
houses with average consumption of 7 l per capita soak-pit gives 25000 liters of water in the monsoon
per day. season.
Many houses will not have bore wells or wells.
One can utilize the open space available at any corner
of the plot for the permeation of water. A trench of
9-10’ depth and 6-8’ length can be prepared
depending up on the availability of the space.
As shown in fig. 1.1, the boulders of 2-3’ dia. are
placed up to 300 mm at the bottom of the trench.
The sand layer of 1.5-1.75 m is placed over the
boulders. The water from the roof and terrace should
be diverted into the trench. The bricks have to be
laid on the boundary of the trench to avoid falling of Fig. 1.2
earth in the trench. Trench is covered with a grilled

66
 Fig. 1.3
(3) Diverting water from roof and terrace to bore
or well through a pipe
The roof would be cleaned initially. Water
collected from the roof is taken to the bore through
pipe of 4.5" dia. As shown in Fig. 1.3, following
material is required.
(i) pipe of 6" dia., and 4’ length (ii) two reducers
(iii) 4 mesh screen (iv) T pipe, 2 in number and T
cap (v) 4.5" dia. and 4.5’ length
The assembly of pipe filter can be fabricated.
One end of this pipe is connected to the outlet end
of the pipe from the roof. The other end of the pipe
filter through a casing is directed towards the bore.
The first rain water is allowed to drain. The system
can be started operating from the second monsoon.
The graded sand beds incorporated in the pipe act
as filter. Thus there is three- stage filtration.
(4) The earthen bunds are placed at certain
places in the farms and thus water is temporarily
stored
Water is seeped through the soil. The earthen
bund is constructed about 2-3 feet above the ground
with pitching done from inner side, as shown in Fig.
1.4. The bund is constructed necessarily on the sloping
ground.
Fig. 1.4
67
A trench of 2’x 8’ (depth) is prepared at a corner
with pitching of stones on one side and a lining of
PVC sheet. The trench is filled up with the earth for
rest of the year. In monsoon, the trench is filled up
with water before it starts spreading around. Water
is raised with this technique.
(5) Open air rainwater harvesting
In this a number of materials are used to capture
rainfall directly from the skies.
(i) Polythene sheets (3m x 3m size) spread across
in open air devoid of trees to collect direct rainfall.
Water thus collected is cleaner than the roof runoff.
The polythene sheet is mounted on 4 poles and a
hole is made centrally for collection of water. This
technique is an ad-hoc one, which is installed prior
to rain. Lot of water goes waste in heavy rains.
Collection rate is 85-100 l/hr on an average rainfall
day. This method is expensive and weak for wind
resistance.
(ii) Galvanised sheet : A galvanized sheet of 2 m X
1 m is spread in the open air. The sheet is tied from
the two corners in the shape of a boat. The sheet is
mounted on 4 or 6 poles in the open air. This method
is costly and faces rusting problem. The water
collected is limited sufficient for about 2 days for a
family of 7-8 members on average rainy day.
(iii) Akshaydhara System:
(a) First stage involves segregating the small
volume of sanitary toilet waste and subjecting it to
anaerobic bio-digestion and then discharging the liquid
effluent into the city sewer system. This step involves
only minor modification of the already existing civil
work as the drains toilet and non-toilet wastewaters
are already separated in buildings as part of the
normal building construction practice.
(b) The second stage involves construction of
percolation wells in the housing societies for soil-
aquifer treatment of the segregated non-sanitary
wastewater and storm runoff water, to rejuvenate
the shallow ground water system. This would result
in reduction of wastewater to be discharged into the
city sewer system.
(c) The third stage consists of providing separate
plumbing and pumping / recycling system for non-
potable water. This would gradually ease the load of
high quality public drinking water supply system.
(d) In the fourth stage, the existing wastewater
treatment system can be augmented through
construction of infiltration basins and soil-aquifer
treatment of the organic rich liquid waste collected
at the centralized sewage collection point.
(e) In the last stage, the domestic sewerage system
can be linked to city garbage collection system,
wherein segregated recyclable waste is collected by
the dry waste collection network and the wet
biodegradable kitchen waste is disposed off in the
community bioreactor, the output of which being
liquid can be let out either into the city sewer system
or utilized locally for horticulture. With the
commissioning of bioreactors for kitchen waste, the
68
sewer system will help reduce expenditure on
collection / disposal of wet biodegradable waste as
recyclable waste is more hygienic and
environmentally sustainable. The biogas generated
can be used for street lighting. This system is useful
in urban environment because of reduction of the
cost of centralized sewage collection, reduction in
high quality water supply thus ensuring resource
sustainability and involvement of the residents in
maintaining hygienic conditions in city. Fig. 1.5 shows
“Akshaydhara” concept for total water management.
Facilitating urban water harvesting
Following pints need to be undertaken:
• All water bodies in urban areas should be
controlled by one single water authority.
• All building plans must provide for rainwater
harvesting structures before applications are
accepted.
• There should be a ban on permitting rainwater
to be mixed with sewer or septic tanks.
• A central rainwater harvesting fund can be set
Fig. 1.5
up by the union water resources ministry offering
funds on loan-cum-grant basis for the promotion of
rainwater harvesting.
• Rainwater harvesting should be viewed by the
society as a means of provision of water and
prevention of flooding of low-lying urban areas.
• One of the most effective means of encouraging
household and community participation is through
financial instruments such as water tariffs and
property tax assessments.
• Water conservation may be included in the
curriculum of the school
• The Central Govt. should take up and declare
the rain water harvesting as the national program.
• Annual national and state awards should be
announced on recognition of outstanding work in
water conservation.
69
Conclusion
The scarcity of water has gained global
attention. The developing countries due to lack of
expertise, funds, national policies, public awareness
can not do much about this complicated problem.
The efforts are being taken by the NGOs and other
organizations from the micro level. The municipal
offices, town planners of the urban sectors are
changing their outlook positively towards meeting
water scarcity of the future generations. That is a
useful step!
References
(1) NGOs from Sangli (Maharashtra) , Ref. No. 0233-
2322412
(2) “Making water everybody’s business, Practice and
Policy of water harvesting” Edited by Anil Agarwal, Sunita
Narain and Indira Khurana CSE publication.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

12. Water Harvesting : Limitations in Implementation

*Y. Arunakar Reddy

Abstract
Since water harvesting depends on natural rainfall, it is no more reliable than the
weather. Without adequate storage facilities the system will fail in draught years. In locations
with less average annual rainfall, water harvesting will probably never be economically
feasible. Lack of rainfall data in many areas makes it very difficult to properly design a
water harvesting system.
Poorly designed and managed water harvesting systems can cause soil erosion, soil
instability, and local flooding. All catchments require a certain amount of maintenance to
keep them performing properly which may include occasional patches, weed control, cleaning
trash from screens, seal coats, or complete reshaping.
A water harvesting system must withstand weathering and some foot traffic. Some
may require fences. Contamination of the water must be constantly considered. Discolored
or contaminated water will require treatment before it can be used for human consumption.
To day no one water harvesting method or material has proven suitable for all areas,
soils, and climatic conditions. Another problem is the variability in the quality of some
materials, even though they may meet existing manufacturing specifications. This has been
particularly true for artificial rubber sheeting, since some batches have proven very effective
and durable, whereas others, with the same specification, have failed in a short time.
Design of water harvesting system has received less attention than methods or
treatments for increasing runoff from the soil surface. Most design procedures are limited
in application because of constraints mentioned in the above paragraphs.
This paper reviews all the above constraints in implementation of water harvesting
system with examples.

Introduction Ancient History

The origin of the term “water harvesting” is
not known, but it was probably first used by Geddes
of the University of Sidney. He defined water
harvesting as “the collection and storage of any farm
waters, either runoff or creek flow, for irrigation
use.” Several modifications of the definition have
broadened the term to mean “the process of
collecting natural precipitation from prepared
watersheds for beneficial use”.
Although the term “water harvesting” is
relatively new, the practice is ancient. Shanan,
Evenari, and Tadmor excavated runoff farms that
were used over 3,000 yrs ago for several centuries
in what is now the Negev Desert of Israel. This area
was intensively cultivated by an irrigation system
which collected the meager rainfall by clearing large
hillside areas of rocks, smoothing the soil, and
concentrating the runoff by a system of contour

*Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, Swami Ramananda Tirtha Institute of Science & Technology,
Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh. E-mail:arunakar_reddy2001@yahoo.com

70
ditches. The runoff water was used to irrigate a much
smaller lower-lying area. By the time of the Roman
occupation these runoff farms had evolved into
relatively sophisticated systems covering about
300,000 ha (740,000 acres) of the Negev Highlands.
After the Arab conquest, the ancient desert
agriculture in this area slowly disintegrated.
There is evidence that less complicated systems
were used about 700 to 900 yrs ago by the Indians
of the southwestern United States, particularly in
the four corners of Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and
New Mexico.
Recent Development
Collection and storage of runoff from roofs of
houses is a more recent practice that is still used in
some regions of the world. Some of the first
catchments build specifically to collect water were
roof – like structures built in Australia in the early
1930’s using galvanized sheet iron on a wooden
frame. Sheet metal was also used for other
catchments built in Australia at about the same time,
but the metal sections were placed directly on the
soil surface and anchored with spikes.
The development of the most widely used type
of catchment was reported by the Public Works
Department of Western Australia in 1956. These
catchments were called “roaded catchments”
because the soil was graded into a series of parallel
roadways or gently sloping ridges that drained into
the ditches separating them. These ditches carried
the collected water to a storage reservoir by way of
a collection ditch which ran perpendicular to the
roadways. Several thousand acres of these
catchments have been installed in the relatively
uniform topography of Western Australia where soils
often contain significant clay layers which are
exposed and compacted and provide a rather low
infiltrating surface. Most of these catchments have
been used to provide farm water supplies, although
some are used for municipal water supplies.
In the United States water harvesting began
during the 1940’s and early 1950’s when several
small sheet steel and concrete catchments were built
to provide drinking water for livestock and wildlife.
Of considerably more impact was the pioneering
work of Lauritzen in the 1950’s in which plastic and
artificial rubber membranes were evaluated for
constructing catchments and reservoirs. This work
71
served as the basis for installing numerous butyl
rubber catchments and storage bags, including over
300 installations in Hawaii and other pacific islands.
In 1958 and 1959 two ancient farm systems in
Israel were restored to study the hydrology of the
desert catchments and the water harvesting
techniques of the ancient farmers.
In the 1960’s Myers and Cluff in the United
States and Hillel in Israel initiated research programs
to devise methods of waterproofing the soil surface
and using soil as the supporting structure. Myer’s
group developed methods using sprayable asphalt
compounds, plastic and metal films bonded to the
soil, soil compaction and dispersion, and field-
fabricated asphalt fiberglass membranes. Cluff
concentrated on using sodium salts to seal the soil
and on gravel-covered plastic membranes. Hillel
investigated several soil treatments, like crude oil
and water repellants, but worked primarily on soil
smoothing and crusting.
Present Status and Potential
Research on ways to increase runoff by soil
treatments is presently confined to a few U.S.
researchers. Although both Israeli and Australian
researchers are investigating the use of fuel oils and
asphalt on a small scale, their major emphasis is
runoff farming and roaded catchments, respectively.
As yet water harvesting is not accepted as a
competitive method of providing water supplies,
although over 3,000 water harvesting systems have
been installed around the world. Most catchments
are the roaded catchments type and are used in
Western Australia where private farms have supplied
the capital for installation. In the U.S. catchments
have been built almost exclusively on public lands
by government agencies or research organizations.
Despite the rather slow acceptance of water
harvesting to provide water supplies, its potential
for providing economical water is still tremendous.
When water harvesting techniques are used,
available water supplies can be based on
precipitation rather than stream flow or ground
water. This is true for both arid and humid areas.
Hawaii and Jamaica are two areas using water
harvesting techniques developed by researchers in
arid parts of the world. For example, a 0.6-ha
catchment in Manchester, Jamaica, provides more
than 245,000 1/day of water during a year of average
rainfall.
Water harvesting will never be used in some
areas because other water sources are more
economical, or because the annual precipitation is
very low. However, water harvesting can often mean
the difference between life and death, thus making
its economic aspects of minor importance.
Methods of Harvesting
A wide variety of methods and materials have
been used to increase precipitation runoff into
storage facilities. Some materials, like concrete and
sheet metal, can be used in almost any situation.
However, the most economical system for a
particular site can be determined by evaluating
several factors, like soil type and depth, accessibility
to equipment, climatic variables, vegetation, labour
and material costs, and availability of treatment
products. Whatever treatment or method is used,
some maintenance will be required to insure
optimum performance.
For discussion, the methods used to increase
runoff can be divided into four general categories:
vegetation management, land alteration, chemical
treatments, and soil covers.
Vegetation Management : A summary of studies
conducted throughout the world indicates that runoff
can be increased by vegetation management from
areas with precipitation in excess of 280 mm
annually. However, the conversion efficiency for
producing extra water increases as rainfall increases,
at least up to 860 mm/yr; therefore, conversions at
lower rainfall values may not be economical.
Potential water yield increases depend upon the
percent of total precipitation occurring as snowfall,
the type, depth, and slope of the watershed soil, and
the varieties of vegetation with their associated
evapotranspiration rates, which can be managed
considering all other constraints. Besides increasing
water yield, vegetation management on watersheds
can improve wildlife habitat, forage production, and
recreation activity.
Land Alteration : Often the simplest and least
expensive method of water harvesting is to construct
walls or ditches to collect runoff from existing
natural or manmade catchments like large rock
outcrops, highways catchments like large rock
72
outcrops, highways, airports, and parking lots.
Chiarella and beck described a highway catchment
system in Arizona, used for livestock drinking water
that has been used for over 16 yrs with no observed
detrimental effect to livestock. According to Evans,
Woolhiser, and Rauzi, the interstate highway system
in Wyoming would provide 2 ha/km of catchment.
Assuming a 90% catchment efficiency, the water
supply from a 250-mm rainfall zone would be almost
4,700,000 1/km.
For land where rock outcrops or highways are
not available, sometimes a water supply can be
developed by simple land alteration treatments
which increase the runoff from the soil surface. Land
clearing is probably the least expensive treatment,
but the increase in runoff is often negligible, unless
storms are of high intensity of long duration.
Because small precipitation events do not usually
produce sufficient runoff, rather large catchment and
storage facilities must be constructed to insure an
adequate water supply to carry over between the
large runoff events.
Another simple treatment is constructing
contour ditches to collect runoff from hillsides
before it reaches natural channels or infiltrates into
the soil. This was practiced by ancient people who
once lived in what is now Mesa Verde National
Monument in southwestern Colorado.
The “roaded catchments” discussed previously
are a more elaborate method of land alteration. It
has been estimated that over 2,500 of this type of
catchment have been built in Western Australia.
Soil erosion is a potential problem with all of
the land elaborate methods. Hollick suggests that
maximum nonerosive slopes should be used to
increase runoff. However, he indicated that no
universal method exists for predicting the maximum
nonerosive slope, thus each site must be field
evaluated.
Chemical and Physical Soil Treatments : Treating
soil surfaces with materials to prevent water from
soaking into the soil is an intriguing approach to
building efficient and low-cost catchments. Runoff
from bare soil can often be increased by dispersing
its aggregated particles with sodium salts to reduce
permeability. Hillel et al. in Israel, and Myers in
Arizona, were able to increase runoff by treating
cleared and smoothed sandy-loam and clay-loam
soils with sodium carbonate. Both found that
treatment effectiveness was lost in about 1 yr and
erosion was excessive. The same treatment has been
very successful for sealing earthen stock tanks on
some soils where erosion is no problem.
High-rate applications of sodium chloride have
proven considerably more successful on a
Whitehouse loam soil in the Tucson area. Here the
soil was cleared and smoothed and 11,000 kg/ha of
granulated salt was mixed into the upper 5 cm of
soil. The soil was later compacted after a couple of
small rains. Over 50% runoff has been obtained
during the 3 yrs of records, with no deterioration or
salt movement noted.
A silicone water repellant treatment on loamy
sand in Arizona produced 90% runoff during the
first year, but runoff gradually decreased to 60%
after 4 yrs.
Care must be used in designing silicone - and
salt – treated catchments since increased runoff can
cause excessive erosion. Silicone treatments provide
no apparent stability, and stabilizing effects of salt
treatments have been limited to certain sandy loam
soils.
A paraffin wax treatment on a sandy loam soil
has produced 90% runoff on test plots for over 2
years with no visual signs of deterioration. The
molten paraffin penetrates the soil up to 25 mm and
tends to stabilize the soil particles as it solidifies.
However, a 0.2-ha field catchment treated with
paraffin was no longer water repellant or stable after
freezing and thawing with a light snow cover.
Although laboratory tests in a freeze-thaw chamber
confirmed the loss of effectiveness for this soil, two
other operational catchments on sandy soils in
Arizona have survived a winter of freezing and
thawing with no apparent damage. The lower end
of one catchment did erode somewhat when the fine
soil was disturbed during construction. Laboratory
tests indicated that hot summer temperatures may
regenerate the wax treatments after freeze-thaw
damage on some soils. These tests also indicated
that wax treatments were not effective on certain
soils under any climatic conditions; therefore, more
effectively treated with wax.
Several researchers have reported using fuel
oil to reduce infiltration. All of the studies indicated
that initially the oil did reduce infiltration, but
completely deteriorated within to 3 yrs, depending
73
on the soil and the oil used. Rawitz and Hillel found
that retreatment each 2 years improved runoff yield
above initial treatment values.
Soil Covers. – Soil covers are treatments that
can generally be applied to a wide range of soil types,
since they only use the soil as a supporting structure
and do not depend on its properties to provide water
repellency.
Asphalt pavements for water harvesting were
constructed by spraying asphalt compounds on
nonswelling soils. Another, more durable type of
asphalt catchment was made by placing a layer of
fiberglass or polypropylene matting on the surface
and spraying it with asphalt. A seal coat of asphalt
and a protective cover of special paint produced a
very durable and efficient catchment. The matting
serves as a reinforcing fabric, and the asphalt as a
water-proofing agent. The paint extends the period
between maintenance retreatments by protecting the
asphalt from sunlight, and reduces runoff water
discoloration. This type of catchment can be
installed over almost any soil and requires only
minimum surface preparation.
Thin plastic films have been used as ground
covers, but they were easily destroyed by wind and
deteriorated rapidly under exposure to solar
radiation. Cluff developed a unique method of
utilizing plastic’s relatively low cost and high water-
proofing characteristics. He developed equipment
to install plastic film and cover it with a layer of
small gravel. The gravel protects the plastic against
both wind and weathering damage; however, the
gravel also reduces the runoff efficiency by retaining
part of the water which is then lost to evaporation.
These catchments are useful where gravel is
available and a large portion of the annual rainfall
occurs as storms larger than 2.5 mm. A more recent
catchment treatment developed by Cluff is
constructed by spraying soil with a tack of asphalt,
followed immediately by a 4-mail layer of
polyethylene plastic. After the plastic is coated with
an additional asphalt layer, rock chips are added as
a top cover. This catchment can be applied to a wide
range of soil types and yields about 95% of the
rainfall runoff. A similar catchment using standard
roofing paper and procedures, but applied to the soil
surface, has remained in good condition after 6 yrs
and yields about 80% runoff.
Artificial rubber sheeting has probably been
most widely used as a ground cover treatment.
Several rubber catchments have been used for over
20 yrs in the United States, and over 300 additional
rubber catchments or storage units have been
installed in Hawaii and other Pacific islands during
the past 15 yrs. When correctly installed and
maintained, good rubber sheeting is an efficient
catchment material that provides high quality water.
Problems encountered with its use have been
attributed to improper installation, lack of
maintenance, poor quality material, or animal and
damage. Artificial rubber catchments have the
advantage of being rather easily transportable and
simply installed once the site has been prepared.
Corrugated sheet metal, one of the first
catchment materials used for collecting
precipitation, has been used continually through the
years, although high costs have restricted its use.
Some early sheet metal catchments were built above
ground on a roof-like framework. Many catchments
failed when the framework deteriorated or collapsed
under heavy snow loads. Sheet metal catchments
built on the ground have proven very durable and
essentially maintenance free. Their runoff efficiency
is perhaps the highest of any catchment material,
and they have often produced runoff from dew. If
protected from corrosion, sheet metal can be used
on almost any soil type and can provide an
economical source of high quality water under
present economic conditions.
Use of concrete as a catchment material has
been limited, mainly because of its high cost.
Concrete catchments require more maintenance and
have lower runoff efficiency (60 to 80%) then
several other catchment materials. However, when
properly constructed and maintained, concrete
catchments are very durable and will provide years
of service.
Storage of Harvested Water
Where water supplies are limited and water use
rates exceed the supply rate, a means of storing
harvested water becomes an essential part of the
water harvesting systems. The storage generally
means confinement in either excavated pits or ponds,
or tanks. One exception to this type of storage is
direct storage in the soil profile associated with
runoff farming. Even with runoff farming,
conventionally storing water for later controlled
74
release to the crop may be necessary if precipitation
uniformity and/or variability do not meet the crop
requirements.
Storage requirements should be balanced
against the quantity of precipitation for the area and
the reliability of receiving this precipitation. Storage
requirements can be readily estimated by
considering the purpose for which the water will be
used and the use period. The precipitation quantity
and dependability generally are often more’ difficult
to determine due to inadequate precipitation records.
Seepage Control. Dedrick reviewed the three
means of storing harvested water – excavated pits
or ponds, tanks, and bags – and various methods of
controlling seepage losses. Excavated pits or small
ponds are easily constructed in relatively flat areas,
but usually a water barrier must be used to minimize
seepage losses. The type of material used may
depend on the pit site. Dedrick presented a list of
characteristics that should be considered when
selecting a barrier for seepage control: (a) degree of
seepage control expected; (b) resistance to
deterioration by soil microorganisms, atmospheric
elements, wind, and sub grade movement: (c)
resistance to mechanical puncture and vermin attack;
(d) toxicity; (e) installation ease; (f) transportability
to use site; (g) maintenance requirements; and (h)
economics.
Lining materials that have been used, with
varying degrees of success, can be categorized as
(a) earth linings and chemical treatments –
compacted earth, bentonite, chemical additives, and
chemical sealants; (b) membrane and film –
prefabricated asphaltic plank, hot applied asphaltic
membrane, reinforced asphaltic membrane, plastic
film, and synthetic rubber; (c) hard surface linings
– Portland cement concrete, shotcrete, soil-cement,
brick, and stones. The underlined materials have
been the most successfully used in the field and are
discussed further.
Sodium bentonite, fine-textured colloidal clay,
has been used to reduce seepage in coarse-textured
soils. A good sealing bentonite must have a sufficient
amount of exchangeable sodium to disperse the soil
particles. Application rates generally range from 5
to 15 kg/m. Laboratory analysis, like that of
Dirmeyer is recommended as a guide in classifying
the bentonite to be used and in determining
application rate.
 Sodium salts have been the most successful
chemical additives used to control seepage. Sodium
carbonate has been most effective considering
treatment costs and ability to reduce seepage. The
Soil Conservation Service recommends sodium
carbonate application rates of 0.5 to 1.0 kg/m while
Reginato et al. presented an equation for calculating
the amount of use. Retreatment may be required
every 2 to 3 yrs.
Reinforced asphaltic membrane liners consist
of a substrate matting of fiberglass or polypropylene
generally made watertight by using asphalt – either
emulsion or cutback. Linings are fabricated in the
field and shaped like the excavated pit. They can be
used as an exposed liner if properly protected from
mechanical damage. Pit side slopes should not be
steeper than 1:2 (vertical: horizontal). Plant growth
under the liners should be eliminated by using soil
sterilants.
Plastic films of polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
Polyethylene (PE), and chlorinated polyethylene
(CPE) have been successful only when buried.
Thickness of buried plastic film should be 0.02 to
0.03cm depending on the sub grade soil. Side slope
should not exceed 1:3. The earthen pit should be
over-excavated to accommodate the cover material.
The sub grade should be cleared of all sharp objects,
and if too coarse, a fine-textured cushion should be
laid in the pit before installing the film.
Recommended cover thickness varies from 15 to
30 cm with the layer next to the film not coarser
than silty sand. Plastic-lined, rock-filled, excavated
pits can be used and are a variation of the standard,
buried, plastic-lined pond. The main difference is
that the pond is completely filled with rock rather
than just covered with to protect the plastic. Freedom
from vandalism and reduction of evaporation losses
(as much as 90%) are advantages of rock-filled pits
over open storage systems.
Butyl rubber and ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) are synthetic rubber membranes
used as water barriers for harvesting water. All
synthetic rubber membranes can be used as exposed
linings, but they must be adequately protected
against mechanical damage and damage due to
vandalism and burrowing animals. Synthetic rubber
membranes are resistant to weathering processes that
cause failure in other membrane and film materials.
Rubber membranes are fabricated in numerous
75
thicknesses and can be either fabric-supported or
nonsupport. For most excavated pits, 0.08 cm, nylon-
supported liners are adequate. Reservoir side slopes
should be not steeper than 1:2. Information regarding
field installations, recommendations for use, and
physical property requirements are discussed in
several publications.
Vertical-walled tanks have advantages
unattainable with excavated pits including: the ratio
of water volume stored to water surface area is
maximum when the walls are vertical; evaporative
control devices, like floating covers, can be used
more effectively and efficiently; and maintenance
requirements are generally low and repair is easy.
One main disadvantage of vertical-walled tanks is
initial cost; however, on an amortized basis the
yearly cost may be lower than some low-initial-cost
storage systems. Materials successfully used in
constructing tank walls include Portland cement
concrete; plastered concrete and metal. The bottom
of the tanks has been made watertight by using
puddle clay, bentonite, sodium salts, concrete, metal,
and flexible membranes.
Storage bags constructed of butyl-coated nylon
have been placed in excavated pits or basins. These
storage systems are completely closed and both
seepage and evaporation losses are controlled. Their
main disadvantages are susceptibility to mechanical
damage, vandalism, and vermin attack.
Evaporation Control. — Cooley has discussed
evaporation suppression method. Many methods
have been investigated and can be categorized by
energy-reducing treatments (energy involved in the
evaporative process) like (a) changing the water
color, (b) using wind barriers, (c) shading the water
surface, and (d) floating reflective covers. Of the
four energy-reducing categories, floating covers
have been most widely researched and certain
materials seem most promising for use in water
harvesting storage facilities. These include covers
of continuous paraffin wax, polystyrene rafts, and
formed rubber.
The paraffin wax, like that used for canning,
melts at 128 to 130 F and forms a continuous cover
during summer months. The wax can either be
placed on the surface as blocks which will later be
melted by the sun to form a wax layer or melted
with a heater and sprayed or poured on the water.
Polystyrene rafts are constructed of 1.2 X 1.02 cm
sheets of expanded polystyrene, 25mm thick, coated
with emulsified asphalt and covered with a layer of
chips. They are then coupled together using a clamp
made of PVC pipe. An outer frame of 32 – mm
diameter PVC pipes is used as a bumper for the rafts.
Continuous covers of low-density, closed-cell
synthetic rubber sheeting, available as 1.2-m wide
roll stock, have been fabricated for use on water
storage tanks. Covers have been fabricated from 5-
and 6-mm thick material.
All three covers – continuous paraffin wax,
polystyrene rafts, and foamed rubber – reduce
evaporation by 85% to 95%. The cost of water saved
in high evaporation areas compares favorably with
alternate water sources. Wind damage to floating
covers can be a disadvantage. Joining the
polystyrene rafts together helps to minimize the wind
problem, as does maintaining an adequate freeboard
with the foamed rubber. The wax covers have
withstood winds up to 22 m/sec on a small tank with
only 25 mm freeboard.
Summary
Water harvesting is an ancient art used by
farmers in the Negev Desert of Israel over 3,000 yrs
ago where they cleared hillsides to increase rainfall-
runoff and directed the water to cultivated fields in
the valleys. This practice was then essentially
abandoned until the early 1930’s, except for
collecting rainfall from rooftops in some areas.
Although revival of water harvesting techniques
began in the early 1930’s, most activity in both
construction and research did not begin until the late
1950’s. even this research effort and the development
of new materials have not yet produced widespread
use of water harvesting methods to provide water
supplies, although there is still a potential for
economically collecting water in many areas of the
world.
The particular water harvesting method used
to collect precipitation depends on several factors,
including soil type and depth, vegetative cover,
surface roughness and slope, climatic factors, land,
labour, and material costs, water use rate and
distribution, water quality desired, and availability
of materials. All of the commonly used methods fall
into one of four categories — vegetation
management, land alteration, chemical or physical
soil treatments, or soil covers.
76
Vegetation management methods have been
applied to larger areas than the other water
harvesting techniques. Annual precipitation in
excess of 280 mm is generally required to assure
successful vegetation management results, and
potential for increasing runoff yield increases as
annual precipitation increases. Land alteration
methods are especially attractive where impervious
areas already exist (highways, airports, rock
outcrops, etc.), and only collection and storage
facilities are required. Land alteration techniques
are also economically feasible in areas where labor
costs are low and soil conditions are suitable.
Chemical and physical soil treatments, like salts,
silicones, and waxes, have been applied successfully
to certain soils, but more research is required to
delineate the conditions under which each can be
used. Soil covers are not generally restricted by soil
and climatic conditions; however, initial cost of the
system will generally be higher than for the other
methods discussed. Regardless of the material or
method used, erosion protection, routine
maintenance, and protection of the catchment and
storage should be considered.
Water collected from the catchments can be
stored in the soil itself (as in runoff farming) or in
excavated pits or ponds, bags, or tanks. Sophisticated
computer models and practical experience have been
used to provide design standards for constructing
and optimum sizing of catchment areas and storage
facilities.
Water harvesting systems may provide the only
source of water in some areas and can provide a
low energy input, economical water source in many
others. The water obtained from water harvesting
system can be used to increase the productivity of
rangelands of proper management practices are
followed. Although it is very useful in many areas,
water harvesting depends on natural precipitation
and is, therefore, limited to areas where precipitation
is sufficient and variability is not excessive.
References
• American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
“Installation of Flexible Membrane Linings,
“Agricultural Engineers Yearbook, ASAE
Recommendation: ASAE R340, American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich., 1974.
• Baker, James W., “Polypropylene Fiber Mat
and Asphalt Used for Oxidation Pond Linear, “Water
and Wastes Engineering, Vol.7 No. 11, 1970, F-17-
21.
• Burdass, W.J., “Water Harvesting for Livestock
in Western Australia, “Proceedings of the
Water Harvesting Symposium, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western
Region, ARS W-22, Feb., 1975.
• Burgy, R.H., and Papazifiriou, Z.G. “Effects of
Vegetation Management on Slope Stability,
“presented at the January 25, 1971, Water Resources
Center Advisory Council Meeting, held at Los
Angeles, Calif.
• “Catchment Areas for Livestock Water,” Soil
Conservation Service, Wyoming Engineering
Standard, 701-WY, REev. Jan., 1968.
• Chiarella, J.V., and Beck, W.H., “Water
Harvesting Catchments on Indian Lands in the
Southwest,” Proceedings of the Water Harvesting
Symposium, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Western Region,
ARS W-22, Feb., 1975.
• Cluff, C. B., “Water Harvesting Plan for
Livestock of Home,” Progressive Agriculture in
Arizona, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1967.
77
• Cluff, C. B., “Low-Cost Evaporation Control
to Save Precious Stock Water, “Arizona Farmer –
Ranchman, Vol. 51, No. 7, July 1972.
• Cluff, C. B., “Plastic Reinforced Asphalt
Membranes for Precipitation Harvesting and
Seepage Control, “Proceedings of the 11th National
Agricultural Plastics Conference, San Antonio, Tex.,
1973.
• Cluff, C.B., and Dutt, G. R., “Using Salt to
Increase Irrigation Water, “Progressive
Agricultural in Arizona, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1966.
• Dedrick, A. R., “ Rain trap Performance on the
Fishlake National Forest, “ Journal Range
Management, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1973.
• Frasier, G. W., ed., “Concluding Remarks,
“Proceedings of the Water Harvesting Symposium,
U.S Department of Agricultural, Agricultural
Research Service, Western Region, ARS W-22, Feb.,
1975.
• Frasier, Gary W., Myers, Lloyd E., and Griggs,
John R., “Installation of Asphalt – Fiberglass Linings
for Reservoirs and Catchments, “WCL Report 8,
U.S. Department of Agricultural, U.S. Water
Conservation Laboratory, 1970.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

13. Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting for Artificial Recharge to

Ground Water : An Urgent Need of Present Century
* P. K. Singh **Bhaskar Singh **B. K. Tewary

Abstract :
The water has been harvested in India since antiquity. Evidence of this tradition
can be found in ancient texts, inscriptions, local traditions and archaeological remains.
The Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and various Vedic. Buddhist and Jain texts
contain several references to canals. tanks, embankments and wells.
Overexploitation of groundwater resources is increasingly being recognized as a
major problem. Despite being one of the wettest countries of the world, India’s growing
water shortage has reached alarming proportions. Over the last few centuries, a
range of techniques to harvest every possible form of water has been developed.
Technically speaking, water harvesting means capturing the rain where it falls, or
capturing the run-off in one’s own village or town. So, the need of roof top rain water
harvesting has become an urgent demand of the present century.
The amount of water harvested depends on the frequency and intensity of rainfall,
catchments characteristics, water demands and how much runoff occurs & how quickly
or how easy it is for the water to infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to
recharge the aquifers. Moreover, in urban areas, adequate space for surface storage
is not available and water levels are deep enough to accommodate additional rain
water to recharge the aquifers, so the roof top rain water harvesting is ideal solution
to solve the water supply problems.
The present paper focuses in brief about the components of the roof top rain
water harvesting structure, types of recharge structures and the benefits of the system.

1.0 Introduction : water from the deepest portions of the earth.

Rapid industrial development, urbanization and
increase in agricultural production have led to
freshwater abstraction in many parts of the country
as well as of the world. As the recharging of the
groundwater is not adequate, there is a rapid
decrease in groundwater level in several parts of
the world. In view of increasing demand of water
for various purposes like agricultural, domestic and
industrial etc., as well as unpredictable monsoon
rainfall, a greater emphasis is being laid now-a-days
for re-use of waste water. It has become an urgent
need of this century. Advancement in pumping
technology is extensively used in extracting ground
Thus, the knowledge on the several traditional
water harvesting processes, storage facilities,
practices and their significance to the present day
situations has become necessary in the present
century. It is estimated1 that 8 billion people (globally)
are to be fed by the end of the first quarter of the
21st century. This effort requires utilization of all
water resources intelligently. For this, there is a need
to collect, conserve and use critical water resources
judiciously.
In this context, roof top rainwater harvesting
can become popular technique to improve the
recharge regionally and globally. Moreover, in Urban

* Scientists **Research Intern, Geo-environment Division, Environmental Management Group

Central Mining Research Institute, Barwa Road, Dhanbad, Dhanbad- 826001 (Jharkhand)

78
Areas, adequate space for surface storage is not c) Abandoned Dugwells
available and water levels are deep enough to d) Hand Pumps
accommodate additional rain water to recharge the e) Recharge Wells
aquifers, so roof top rain water harvesting is ideal f) Recharge Shafts
solution to solve the water supply problems. g) Lateral Shafts With Borewells

2.0 Urgency of the Process: a) Storage Tanks :

A comparison of water levels from 1960 to 2001
shows that water levels in major part of country are
steadily declining because of over-exploitation.
During 1960, in Delhi, the ground water level was
by and large within 4 to 5 meters and even in some
parts water logged conditions existed. During 1960-
2001, water levels have declined by 2- 6 m. in most
part of the alluvial areas. Decline of 8-20 m. has
been recorded in south-west district and in south
district the decline has been 8-30 m. Areas
registering significant decline fall mainly in south and
south-west districts and have been identified as
priority areas for taking up artificial recharge to
ground water by roof top rain water harvesting.
Thus, though the concept of roof top rainwater
harvesting is an age old one, but systematic collection
and recharging to ground water is of recent times.
As surface water sources fail to meet the rising
demands of water supply in urban areas, ground
water reserves are being tapped and over-exploited
resulting into decline in ground water levels and
deterioration of ground water quality. This precarious
situation needs to be rectified by immediately
recharging the depleted aquifers.
3.0 Typical Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting
Structure:
A typical roof top rainwater harvesting system
comprises of:
a) roof catchments
b) gutters
c) down pipes
d) rain water/storm water drains
e) filter chamber
f) ground water recharge structures like pit,
trench, tube well or combination of above structures.
4.0 Methods of Groundwater Recharge:
For Rainwater Harvesting System following
structures are required:
a) Recharge Pits
b) Recharge Trenches
for harvesting the roof top rain water, the
storage tanks may be used.
these tanks may be constructed on the surface
as well as under ground by utilizing local material.
the size of tank depends upon availability of
runoff & water demand.
after proper chlorination, the stored water may
be used for drinking purpose.
b) Recharge Pits
recharge pits are constructed for recharging
the shallow aquifers.
these are constructed 1 to 2 m. wide and 2 to 3
m. deep which are back filled with boulders, gravels
& coarse sand.
the size of filter material is generally taken as
below:
coarse sand : 1.5 - 2 mm
gravels : 5 - 10 mm
boulders : 5 - 20 cm
the filter material should be filled in graded
form. boulders at the bottom, gravels in between
& coarse sand at the top so that the silt content that
will come with runoff will be deposited on
the top of the coarse sand layer and can easily be
removed.
if clay layer encountered at shallow depth, it
should be punctured with auger hole and that auger
hole should be refilled with fine gravel of 3 to 6 mm
size.
c) Trenches
these are constructed when the permeable
strata is available at shallow depths.
trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5 m.
deep and 10 to 20 m. long depending upon
availability of water.
these are back filled with filter materials. in
case of clay layer encountered at shallow
depth,
the number of auger holes may be constructed
& back filled with fine gravels.

79
d) Abandoned Dug wells
existing abandoned dug wells may be utilised
as recharge structure after cleaning and desilting
the same.
for removing the silt contents, the runoff water
should pass either through a desilting chamber
or filter chamber.
e) Abandoned Hand pumps
the existing abandoned hand pumps may be
used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers,
if the availability of water is limited.
water should pass through filter media before
diverting it into hand pumps.
f) recharge wells
recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter
are generally constructed for recharging the
deeper aquifers and roof top rain water is diverted
to recharge well for recharge to ground water. The
runoff water may be passed through filter media to
avoid choking of recharge wells.
g) Vertical Recharge shafts
For recharging the shallow aquifers which are
located below clayey surface at a depth of about 10
to 15 m, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and
10 to 15 m. deep are constructed depending upon
availability of runoff. these are back filled with
boulders, gravels & coarse sand. For lesser diameter
shafts, the reverse / direct rotary rigs are used and
larger diameter shafts may be dug manually. In upper
portion of 1 or 2 m depth, the brick masonry work is
carried out for the stability of the structure.
h) Shaft with Recharge well
If the aquifer is available at greater depth say
20 or 30 m, in that case a shallow shaft of 2 to 5 m
diameter and 5 to 6 m deep may be constructed
depending upon availability of runoff. inside the shaft,
a recharge well of 100 to 300 mm diameter is
constructed for recharging the available water to
deeper aquifer. at the bottom of the shaft a filter
media is provided to avoid choking of the recharge
well.
i) Lateral trench with bore wells
For recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers, lateral trench of 1.5 to 3 m. wide & 10 to
80
30 m. long depending upon availability of water with
one or more bore wells may be constructed. the
lateral trench is back filled with boulders, gravels &
coarse sand.
5.0 Benefits of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Structure
a) An ideal solution of water problem in areas
having inadequate water resources.
b) The ground water level will rise.
c) Mitigates the effects of drought.
d) Reduces the runoff which chokes the storm
water drains.
e) Reduces flooding of roads.
f) Quality of water improves.
g) Soil erosion will be reduced.
.
6.0 Design Criteria of Recharge Structures
Recharge structures should be designed based
on availability of space, availability of runoff, depth
to water table & lithology of the area.
Assessment Of Runoff
The runoff should be assessed accurately for
designing the recharge structure and may be
assessed by following formula.
Runoff = Catchment area * Runoff
Coefficient * Rainfall
Runoff Coefficients
Runoff coefficient plays an important role in
assessing the runoff availability and it depends upon
catchment characteristics. General values are
tabulated below which may be utilised for assessing
the runoff availability.
Type of catchment Runoff coefficient
Roof top 0.75 - 0.95
Paved area 0.50 - 0.85
Bare ground 0.10 - 0.20
Green area 0.05 - 0.10
Design Considerations
Three most important components, which
need to be evaluated for designing the rainwater
harvesting structure, are:
1. Hydrogeology of the area including nature and
extent of aquifer, soil cover, topography, depth to or green belts and general built up pattern of the
water levels and chemical quality of ground water area.
2. Area contributing for runoff i.e. how much area 3. Hydrometeorological characters viz. rainfall
and land use pattern, whether industrial, residential duration, general pattern and intensity of rainfall.

Schematic sketch of Rain Water Harvesting in Rural Areas

81
 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting Structure
8.0 Conclusions :
Thus, water has been harvested in India since
antiquity. Evidence of this tradition can be found in
ancient texts, inscriptions, local traditions and
archaeological remains. The Puranas, Mahabharata,
Ramayana and various Vedic. Buddhist and Jain
texts contain several references to canals. tanks,
embankments and wells.
Overexploitation of groundwater resources is
increasingly being recognized as a major problem.
Despite being one of the wettest countries of the
world, India’s growing water shortage has reached
alarming proportions. Over the last few centuries, a
range of techniques to harvest every possible form
of water has been developed. Technically speaking,
water harvesting means capturing the rain where it
falls, or capturing the run-off in one’s own village or
town. Thus, the role of Institution of Engineers
(India), Nagpur Local Centre is worthy in this
direction.
82
References :
a) Nagrajan R. : Water ; Conservation, Use and
Management for Semi-arid Region: Capital
Publishing Company;2006.
b) Athavale, R.N. Water harvesting and
sustainable supply in India, Centre for
Environmental Education and Rawat Publications;
2003
c) Natarajan, P.M., & Kallolikar S. Rain Water
Harvesting New Approaches For Sustainable
Water Resources Development, Sarma Sanitorium
Press; 2004
d) http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/urban/
Howtoharvest.htm
e) h t t p : / / a k a s h - g a n g a - r w h . c o m / RW H /
WaterHarvesting.html
f) http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/
introduction.html
Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology.
Second edition., John Wiley & Sons, New York.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

14. Roof Top Rain Water Harvest- A Long Lasting Solution to

Drive away the Need of Water Tankers
*Mrs. Charu Bhavsar **Pradeep Bhalge

Abstract
Water has been harvested in India since antiquity. Roof top water harvesting
techniques are not new for Indians. Numerous documentary and filed evidences about
the water harvesting techniques used by the ancestors exist in India. For general,
Maharashtra receives a good amount of annual rainfall. But the Government has to
supply drinking water by the water tankers to numerous villages and wadies. Many of
the wadies or tandas are situated in remote places. In such cases drinking water cannot
be supplied to the thirsty people by tankers or by any other means. The water supplied
by the Tankers may not be either pure or sufficient. There is a need to think; ‘Is it
necessary to supply the drinking water by Tankers?’ The answer is ‘not in all the
cases’. Roof top rainwater is the best solution to solve all the problems discussed above.
This paper will illustrate the drinking water needs, computation of the quantity of the
annual rain water from the roof top, methods and type of storages in practice, care to
be taken to maintain the purity of the rain water harvested, and the merits and demerits.

Introduction ponds and tanks in southern India. In Tamil Nadu,

India receives good amount of rainfall. But
the rainfall is highly erratic in nature. It is not evenly
distributed over the entire area and over the period.
India have distinct rainy season. In most part of the
country the annual rainy days varies from 10 to 45.
As soon as the rains are over, water scarcity starts.
The ancestors realize that, harvesting the water in
rainy season will be use full in rest period of the
year. They have developed varies techniques to
harvest the water because they knew that without
harvesting the water life is difficult to survive. There
are evidences that, during Harappan period, there
was very good system of water management as
could be seen in the latest excavation at Dholavira
in Kachch. The people use to manage water
resources considering it as part of the nature, which
is essential for their survival. This could be seen
from the rainwater harvesting structures in the low
rainfall areas of Rajasthan, harvesting springs in
hilly areas and mountainous region and percolation
the ancient people stored rainwater in public placed
separately one for drinking purposes and another
for bathing and other domestic purposes. They also
formed percolation tanks or ponds, for the purpose
of recharging irrigation or domestic wells. They
periodically clean the waterways so as to get clean
water throughout the year. These are instances in
the history that people constructed crude rubble
bunds across river courses either for diversion of
water or for augmenting the ground water.
Unfortunately under the British governance
system the wisdom of the raindrop was lost. The
technological interventions, which got water into
our taps, relied on large-scale water impoundments
in the upper reaches of rivers and pushed the wisdom
of the raindrop into the background. Today the need
of the hour is to go back to the wisdom of ancestors,
rediscover their concepts and adapt them into our
lives.

*Indian Council for water and culture; Aurangabad.

**A.E.II, Water Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra.

83
Traditional rainwater harvesting
Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still
prevalent in rural areas, was done in surface storage
bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple
tanks etc. In urban areas, due to shrinking of open
spaces, rainwater will have to necessarily be
harvested as ground water, Hence harvesting in such
places will depend very much on the nature of the
soil viz., clayey, sandy etc. The below listed are the
various kinds of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods.
KUND OF RAJASTHAN
BAMBU DRIP IN MEGHALAYA
84
Kunds of Thar Desert :
In the sandier tracts, the villagers of the Thar
Desert had evolved an ingenious system of rainwater
harvesting known as kund or kundis. Kund, the local
name given to a covered underground tank, was
developed primarily for tackling drinking water
problems. Usually constructed with local materials
or cement, kund were more prevalent in the western
arid regions of Rajasthan, and in areas where the
limited groundwater available is moderate to highly
saline. Under such conditions, kund provides
convenient, clean and Sweetwater for drinking. The
kund consists of a saucer-shaped catchments area
with a gentle slope towards the centre where a tank
is situated. A wire mesh to prevent the entry of
floating debris, birds and reptiles, usually guard the
openings or inlets for water to go into the tank. The
top is usually covered with a lid from where water
can be drawn out with a bucket. Kund are by and
large circular in shape, with little variation between
the depth and diameter which ranges from 3-4.5 m.
Lime plaster or cement is typically used for the
construction of the tank, since stone as a building
material is not always available and is relatively
more expensive. Either of these materials can be
used to plaster the horizontal and vertical soil
surfaces, although cement ensures a longer life span.
The success of a kund depends on the selection of
the site, particularly its catchments characteristics.
An adequately large catchments area has to be
selected or artificially prepared to produce adequate
runoff to meet the storage requirements of the kund.
Bamboo Method :
In Meghalaya, an ingenious system of tapping
of stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes
to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. About
18-20 liters of water entering the bamboo pipe
system per minute gets transported over several
hundred meters. The tribal farmers of Khasi and
Jaintia hills use the 200-year-old system. The
bamboo drip irrigation system is normally used to
irrigate the betel leaf or black pepper crops. Bamboo
pipes are used to divert perennial springs on the
hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel
sections, made of bamboo, divert and convey water
to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage
into branches, again made and laid out with different
forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the intake
pipe positions also controls the flow of water into
the lateral pipes. Reduced channel sections and
diversion units are used at the last stage of water
application. The last channel section enables the
water to be dropped at the rate of 20-80 drops per
minute near the roots of the plant.
Roof top rainwater harvesting and rainwater
harvesting techniques is not new
The concept of roof top rainwater harvesting
and rainwater harvesting techniques is not new.
Many of us feel that this tool is devised by the
modern society as a tool to drought proofing. This
is not so. Our ancestors had been doing it according
to the means available then. At large, no of places
in India, this art and science has been practiced.
The most beautiful rainwater-harvesting scheme
could be witnessed at Deogiri fort. Water from the
adjacent hillock was transported through an inverted
siphon of twin pipes and the mot around the hilltop
fort was filled. A moat around the hill top fort is
another wonder. Transportation of water though
inverted siphon was a unique feature. The temples
were used as roof top rainwater harvesting devices.
The noteworthy example is of Minakshi temple in
Madurai. If seen carefully it is seen that beautiful
arrangement of collection of roof top rainwater
scheme is made here. The harvested water is stored
in a tank. With the advent of tap water, rainwater
harvesting has lost its importance. As our State is
in a situation where efficient management of water
resources has become a necessity, rainwater
harvesting has come to limelight again. We have to
resort to long-term measures in harvesting the
rainwater due to the growing demand. It is hence
emphasized that rainwater harvesting should
become an integral part of every home, society,
village, city and country.
Back to the tradition
In the previous days peoples were bringing
water from the community well. The water was
drawing from the well with the help of rope and
bucket. Thus there was a limitation of drawing the
water and indirectly there was restriction on the
water use. The methods of domestic utilization were
developed to support the minimum use of water.
For example water for mouthwash was taken in a
pot. The capacity of such pot was around one liter.
85
But taking the mouthwash under a running tap will
require more than 15 to 20 liters of water. A bucket
of 15 to 20 liters was sufficient to take bath before
the advent of tap water, but now a day’s taking bath
under the water tap consumes 50 to 100 liters of
water. In this way, habits of wasteful use of water
are increased in these days. With the advent of the
electric pumps the rate of withdrawal of water from
the well is increased tremendously, resulting in to
depletion of ground water level. Every year the
rains replenish the ground water. But due to
exploitation of more water than the replenish one;
peoples do not get water even for drinking in
summer days. The wells and bore wells runs dry as
soon as the rainy season is over. In such situations
tankers are supplying water. The local leaders put
lot of pressure on the government officials to supply
water tankers. It is observed that nobody worries
about the purity of the water supplied by the tankers.
Drinking the impure water leads to water born
disease. It is said that 80% of the human disease
are due to impure water. The whole family has to
suffer when any member of their family becomes
ill. Especially incase of a family whose livelihoods
is depend upon the labor work, if an adult get ill,
survival of his family comes in danger. All the
problems as said above can be minimized if every
family gets sufficient amount of pure water for
drinking. A time is now came to think that is it
necessary to use heavy cost water supply schemes
everywhere? Is it necessary to supply water by
tankers? This can be achieved by adopting roof top
rain water system. By adoption of the Roof top
rainwater harvesting techniques, there will not be
any need to supply water by tankers. Let us see that
how where and when this technique is useful.
Human water needs : Let us understand our daily
per head water requirement.
Daily water need Maximum Minimum
in liters in liters
Latrine and 25 05
washing mouth
Bath 25 10
Washing cloths 25 10
Food preparation 10 05
and drinking
Other purpose 10 05
Total 95 35
 The minimum water need is 35 liters per day
per person. Thus 175 liters water per day will be
sufficient for a family of five persons. Suppose the
roof top area of the house is 30 sqm; and the average
annual rainfall is 700 mm. Then the roof top
rainwater potential is 21000 liters. If a under ground
tank of size 3m x 3m x 2.5m is constructed. The
storage capacity of the tank will be 22500 liters.
This much water will be sufficient to them for 128
days. That is more than 4 months of the dry summer
days. The construction cost of the tank will be
around Rs.20000/-. With nominal maintenance the
tank will serve for more than 40 to 50 years. Thus
this is a long lasting solution. The annual cost of
the tank will be around Rs.2000/-
Comparison of tankers expenditure with the construction cost of water storage tank
Thus it is seen that the cost of the under
ground storage tank i.e. 20000/-will be recovered
within five years.
Construction of Kund and such type of under
ground storage tanks are practiced in Rajasthan and
Gujarat. With these techniques they have solved the
water problems. They built a water storage tank
under the main Hall of the house. The storage
capacity is ranging from 20000 to 40000 liters. In
summer days when the wells become dry they use
the stored water. The rainwater harvesting system
is found in the house of general publics as well as
in the minister’s house also. It will be interested to
note that an under ground tank was in use in the
house at Porabandar, where Mahatma Gandhi was
born.

Harvesting Water at Home

86
 The rainwater that is harvested is pure with
virtually no impurities and is suitable for all purposes.
After filtration the harvested rainwater can be put
to all uses including drinking and cooking purposes.
The area on which the rainwater falls is the
catchments area. The annual rainwater harvesting
potential of rooftop can be calculated by multiplying
the area and the amount of rainfall that is received
annually.
In rural areas, the roof top harvested rainwater
can be stored or used for recharge of ground water.
This approach requires connecting the outlets pipe
from rooftop to divert the water in to a storage tank
or divert it to either existing well/tube wells/bore
wells or specially designed wells/ structures.
Following table shows the availability of rainwater
through Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting.
drained. 3 to 4 down water pipes seem sufficient
for 30 to 40 square meter roof areas.
Filtration
Before the water enters the down water pipes
Filtration arrangements is must. This can be archived
with following simple methods.
• Put a piece of sponge placed at the inlet of the
down water pipe.
• A PVC bucket with gravel, sand & charcoal is
a good filter before rainwater is stored
• A PVC drum with sponge at the inlet & outlet
is also a filter
• A small two chamber inspection/ filter tank can
also be devised
• A Devas type filter is found to be useful. It is
easy to construct, maintain, and have low cost.

Size of down water pipe
The collection system directs the rainwater
falling over the rooftop, into the filtration system. 75
to 90 mm diameter PVC pipes resistant to UV rays
appear to be the best bet as down water pipes. Of
course, this depends upon the roof area to be
The rainwater dissolves the impurities that are
present on the surface as it flows over the roof area
into the collection system. Therefore it is advisable
to keep the catchments area free of any chemical or
other harmful impurities. At times, it is also advised
that the run-off of the first few minutes of the rain

Water yield available in liters from the annual rainfall, roof top area
Annual Rainfall in mm ..................

(m²) Harvested Roof Top Water in liters

87
be allowed to flow out. This washes away most of
the impurities that may be possibly present on the
surfaces.
Storage
The harvested rain shall be stored in a storage
tank. The tank can be built with locally available
materials and traditional construction techniques.
The storage tank can be constructed underground,
above ground or partially above ground as shown
in the following figures. Use the ground water till
it is available. Use the water stored in the tanks in
dry months.
Depending on the amount of rainwater that needs
to be harvested and the proposed end use of the
harvested rainwaters, an appropriate storage or
recharge system is designed. The simple thumb rule
for that is “build a storage tank of bottom area equal
88
to the one third area of the roof top and the depth of
the tank equal to three times the average annual
rainfall in meter or three meter whichever is less.”
For example there are three rooms in a house of
size 3m x 3m. The total roof area will be 3no x3m x
3m i.e. 27 square meter. Let the house is lies in the
average annual rainfall of 700 mm (0.7meter). Then
for storing the harvested roof top water construct a
under ground tank having the bottom area equal to
one third the roof area i.e. 27/3=9 square meter.
Keep the depth of the tank equal to 3 times the
average annual rainfall i.e. 0.7m x 3=2.1 meter. Thus
the storage capacity of the tank will be 3 x3 x 2.1
=18.9 cubic meter i.e. 18900 liters. And this much
water will be sufficient for three most dry summer
month to a family of five members. And if used very
precisely for drinking and cooking purpose then this
much water will be sufficient for more than six
months. It is interesting to note that in Bikaner area
of Rajasthan the people prefer to give harvested
rain water to an ill person than the tap water. Thus
they have very much faith on the purity of the
harvested and stored rainwater. Since 1986, in 450
school of Rajasthan under ground storage tank are
constructed. The total storage capacity of these
tanks is about 27 million liters. The students and the
staff have drunk the water since its inception and
there have been no complain from their teacher or
parents that they have fallen ill from drinking the
water.
Maintenance
Water harvesting systems require occasional
maintenance, but this can be easily accomplished.
Debris and leaves should be filtered before storing
the water by placing screens over gutters. Debris
screens over gutters should be cleaned periodically
and storage tanks should be drained and cleaned
regularly. Water kept in tanks should be covered to
minimize algae growth and eliminate the potential
for any mosquito breeding.
Ground water recharge-Simple Methods
The water in the premises can be harvested to
recharge the ground water. The recharging will
certainly help to increase the ground water storage.
The design and the location of these recharge
systems is site specific and needs to be evolved as
per the requirements.
When the rainwater falls on the ground, some of it
seeps into the soil but the surplus adversely flows
out as a stream or as run-off. The top soil however,
can hold only a fraction of water that falls on it and
the rest gradually percolates down, depending on
the type of the soil and joins the aquifers that are
groundwater-bearing formation Artificial recharge
is a process of augmenting the underground water
table by artificial infiltration of rain water and
surface run-off.
Techniques of Rain water Harvesting.
• to make more water to percolate down the soil,
percolation pits are made, when there is a paved
pathway and are covered with perforated concrete
slabs wherever necessary. Whenever the depth of
clay soil is more, recharge through percolation pits
with bore is preferable.
89
• Rooftops of houses serve as excellent and
economical form of collection centers for rainwater.
If properly diverted and used for artificial recharge
it will augment the ground water table to a sufficient
extent. The roof is connected to the well through a
filtering arrangement by PVC pipe. A valve system
can be incorporated to flush the initial part of the
rainwater to get rid of impurities collected on the
roof. Rainwater also can be collected and stored in
large sumps to consume directly after necessary
chlorination.
• Bathing and washing water can be routed to
the open ground nearby to percolate down to retain
the soil moisture. The gray water can also be treated
by some water treatment methods like Soil Aquifer
Treatment System (SAT) and further the pretreated
water.
• The ground level near the gate should be raised
to retain as much water as possible inside the
compound. Alternatively, it is recommended to
construct a sloping gutter across the gates and direct
the rushing water towards percolation pit. For
multistoried building, it is better to direct this water
to a recharge well.
• The storm drains inside the premises should
have boundary wall to ensure that the rain water
instead of rushing into the drains and going as waste,
stagnates over the ground for sometime and seeps
into the soil.
• Wherever there is a slope, it is recommended
to construct a dwarf wall to a height if 1 ft, to avoid
run-off as well as to retain the rain water and allow
for slow percolation.
• The run-off water generated in monsoons
within an area can be well utilized for ground water
recharging by diverting it into suitably designed
recharge structures in public parks, splay grounds,
stadiums, airports, stations, temple tanks, etc.
• Storm water drains should be designed in such
a way that two separate segments are made so as to
accommodate water coming from houses and from
roads. The segments on the sides of the roads should
be covered with perforated slabs and should have
percolation pits of depth 20 to 50 ft., depending on
the soil condition, at regular intervals.
• Due to severe depletion of ground water table,
many open wells, bore wells and hand pumps are
getting dried. Instead of discarding these wells, they
can be converted into useful recharge wells. Roof
water and run-off water can be diverted into these
wells after filling the wells with pebbles and river
sand. There should be an effective arrangement for
desalting before diverting the water into these wells.
• It is advisable to have numerous percolation
pits in agriculture lands for gradual percolation and
recharging of aquifer. Construction of small bunds
on slope areas slows down the run-off water and
helps easy percolation. Run-off water can be
diverted into a large well through a Baby well and
filtering tank to avoid silt depositing in the well.
• In open grounds, the topsoil is removed and
filled with river sand. As the river sand is loosely
packed, it allows water to percolate down quickly.
Merits
• It is a low cost long lasting solution supplying
pure water.
• If it is made compulsory to adopt the roof top
rain water harvesting then there will be no need to
supply water by tankers. This will save huge amount
of money. This on other wise can be spent on the
development works. This will also save the diesel
indirectly foreign currency.
• The rainwater harvesting system is very useful
in the remote places and in arid zone.
• It is also useful in high rainfall and well as
low rainfall zones.
• This can be a best solution in the areas having
saline ground water or water containing fluorides.
• It is also useful in case of flood situations as
90
the water sources get polluted due to entry of
floodwater in to them, and other reasons. In such
conditions harvested rainwater will be the only
source of pure water.
• Combination of roof top rainwater harvesting
and rain water harvesting is a long lasting
sustainable solution for the drinking water crises,
and to keep the tankers away.
Demerits
Roof top rain water harvesting system can not
supply water if there is no rain fall over the
catchments or the water is not stored in the storage
tank, in the preceding rainy season.
References
Books
1. Pani Sarvansathi, Pradeep Bhalge
2. Aaj bhee khare hai talab, Anupam Misra
3. Bharatiya Jal Sanskriti Sawarup Ani Vyapti,
Dr. R.S.Morawanchikar
4. Param vaibhavacha tappa ala, Prof.
R.M.Pandav
Papers and Articles
1. Glimpses of Water History of India, Dr. D.M.
More
2. Few Glimpses of Indian water Culture, Dr. R.
S. Morawancikar
3. Sankalan Pauspanyache, Pradeep Bhalge
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

15. Additional Ground Water Storage Potential for Artificial Recharge

in Phreatic Aquifers of Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, India
*Pandith Madhnure **Sunil Kumar Jain

ABSTRACT
Yavatmal district is mainly underlained by varied geological formations consisting of
Penganga Group, Gondwana Group, Deccan Traps and Quaternary sediments. Post monsoon
depth to water level and lithological logs of exploratory wells in shallow aquifers down to
20 m depth have been studied and analysed in detailed. The average tahsil wise depth to
water level varies from 6 to 9 m m bgl and the available porous space for artificial recharge
in unsaturated zone in phreatic aquifers varies from 0.4 to 6 m. The potential of ground
water storage by recharging the phreatic unsaturated zone is estimated to be 951.6 MCM.
The drinking needs of 1,44,200 people during the 4 months of summer season can be met or
additional 1,29,500 hectors of land can be brought under assured irrigation from this
augmented ground water resources. The undue withdrawal of ground water from the deeper
aquifers containing excessive fluoride causing fluorosis can be checked in the area.
KEY WORDS: Shallow aquifer, Storage potential, Depth to water level Yavatmal, Artificial
recharges potential.

1. INTRODUCTION 79009’ E Longitude (Maharashtra State Gazetteer,

Ground water is basically a renewable
resource, but the volume of water actually stored
may vary greatly from place to place depending on
physiography, climate, hydrogeology and rate of
ground water withdrawal used for various purposes.
The ground water development has to be optimised
considering the demand and supply factors. Under
utilization of available resources is not desirable as
it deprives the economic development of the human
beings. On the other hand overexploitation of
ground water leads to depletions of water resources
and scarcity in future. Available ground water
resources and potential for its augmentation needs
to be assessed scientifically and understood
holistically for planning the water resources
management. This study has been done for Yavatmal
district on scientific lines as follows.
2. LOCATION
The Yavatmal district lies between 19026’
N to 20042’ N Latitude and between 77018’ E to
1974) and covers an area of 13584 km2, which is
4.41% of the Maharashtra state (Socio Economic
Review, 2003-04). It is one of the economically
backward district of Vidarbha regions of the state.
As per the 2001 census the district has got a
population of 24,58,271 with a density of 181/ km2
(Census of India, 2001). Location of the area is given
in Fig 1.
3. HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SETUP
3.1 Physiography and Climate
Physiographically the area is mostly
undulatory dissected plateau with isolated hills
excluding the eastern part of the district, which is
plain. The district is well drained by the rivers
Penganga, Wardha and their tributaries namely Pus,
Bembla, Aran, Arunavati, Waghadi, Khuni,
Vaidharbha and Nirguda.
The climate of the district is characterized
by hot summer and general dryness except during

* Scientist “B”, **Scientist “D” 2Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, Civil lines, Nagpur –440001
For correspondence (email: Pandith_m@rediffmail.com or sunilkumar_jain@ rediffmail.com)

91
the SW monsoon. The normal annual rainfall varies
from about 850 to 1150 mm and it increases from
NW to SE direction in the district. The temperature
varies from minimum of 15.1 0C in winter and
maximum of 41.80C in summer.
3.2 Geology
Archaean rocks from the basement and are
covered by Penganga and Vindhyan group of rocks.
The Gondwana group of rocks overlays these rocks.
Deccan trap is spread all over the area. Finally the
action of atmosphere eroded the Deccan traps in
parts, exposing the other older formations at surface.
The thickness of these formations therefore varies
from place to place and thus hydrogeology of the
area is influenced accordingly (Deshmukh, 1994).
The contact between Penganga Group of
rocks and Deccan traps is marked by unconformity.
The contact between Gondwana and Deccan trap is
mostly undulatory. The eastern part of the district
is traversed by numerous faults; therefore rocks of
different groups are met at different altitude in the
area owing to differential subsidence or upheaval
events. The lithological geometry of the phreatic
aquifers is generated exclusively based on the
exploratory drilling at 51 wells is given in Table 1
and plotted in Fig 2.
3.3 Hydrogeology
The Deccan traps are the predominant water
bearing formations with variations in hydro
geological properties over horizontal and vertical
space. It is followed by Gondwana formations
having sandstone and shales sequence. The
Penganga and Quaternary alluvium aquifers are
spread in limited areas but have significant role
wherever they are found. Archaean aquifers are
limited and have less significance in the area.
3.3.1 Phreatic Aquifers: Phreatic aquifers are most
productive and occur at shallow depth, which are
developed by dug wells up to 20 m depth. Ground
water occurs in the weathered zone, fractures in
Archaean rocks, Penganga formations, Vindhyan
formation and Gondwana formations and weathered
zone, fractures and vesicular part in the basaltic
formations.
A comprehensive depiction of depth to
water level is made by using the data of the 317
92
dug wells for the year 2005 (CGWB, 2006). The
depth to water level in the phreatic aquifers varies
between to 1.80 mbgl to 16.80 mbgl during the pre
monsoon season and between 0.30 m bgl to 15.15
mbgl during the post monsoon season in the district.
The tahsil wise average depth to water level in the
area during post monsoon season of the year 2005
varies from 6 m bgl to 9 mbgl with an average of
6.96 m bgl. Deep water levels are observed in Wani,
Kelapur and Ghatanji tahsils. Hydrogeological map
of the district along with depth to water level
(November, 2005) is given in Fig 1.
4. GROUND WATER RESOURCES
The CGWB and GSDA estimated the
ground water resources of the district based on
Ground Water Estimation (GEC) Methodology
1997. The net annual available ground water
resources are 1278.34 MCM and the ground water
draft is 314.35 MCM. Overall the stage of ground
water development is 24.6 % in the district (GSDA
& CGWB, 2005). The tahsil wise ground water
resources of the district are given in Table 2.
Ground water development scenario varies
in the district, while eastern part consisting of Wani,
Maregaon, Kelapur, Ghatanji and Jhari Jamni tahsils
are the least developed tashils from ground water
resources point of view having less than 15% of
the development. The Ralegaon, Yavatmal,
Babulgaon, Kalamb and Arni are the next developed
tahsils with the stage of development between 15
to 25%. There is better ground water development
in Darwah, Ner, Digras, Pusad and Umarkhed tashils
where the stage of ground water development is 25
to 40%. Maximum development of ground water is
45% and is observed in Mahagaon tahsil. As per
the GEC norms all the tahsils and 64 watersheds
falls in safe category.
5. SCOPE OF GROUND WATER
AUGMENTATION THROUGH ARTIFICIAL
RECHARGE
The ground water development scenario of
the district is favorable for further ground water
development in years to come. However, as the
development of ground water resources proceeds
with increasing ground water withdrawal, the
depletion of water table will accelerate resulting into
drying or deepening of existing wells. There are
many pockets in the district where water levels have
deepened and also certain areas lack adequate
natural replenishment. Therefore, artificial recharge
measures would be required simultaneously so as
to augment the ground water resources of the area.
There is a need for assessing the scope and extent
of artificial recharge potential available at present
in the area so as to make a comprehensive
management plans for the district. The artificial
recharge potential has been assessed accordingly
on the scientific pattern and methodology in this
study.
6. IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL AREAS
FOR ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE (PHREATIC
AQUIFER)
The base map of Yavatmal district on 1:
250,000 scale is prepared by demarcating district,
tahsils boundary and major drainage. The
lithological logs of the phreatic aquifers down to
the depth of 20 meters below ground level (m bgl)
are compiled and plotted on the base map (Fig. 2),
as the area is developed by dug wells up to 20 m
depth. Data of 51 exploratory wells drilled by
CGWB is specifically analyzed in detail for the
phreatic part although their depth ranges from 17
m bgl to 470 m bgl. This is superimposed on the
base map so as to account for storage potential of
different strata more precisely. The aquifer geometry
is also reflected from this data source. The depth to
water level data of post monsoon season for the year
2005 is used to assess the unsaturated space
availability in phreatic zone. These are
superimposed and transferred on the base map to
generate a comprehensive map (Fig. 2).
Based on the above-mentioned information,
the tahsilwise potential for artificial recharge to
ground water is worked out. The summarized results
of lithology, depths to water levels are given in
Table 3.
The disposition of impervious layers below
the ground water surface has decisive role to
facilitate or to retard the recharge from rainfall or
storage tanks. A perusal of the Table 3 indicates that
the depth of impervious formation varies from 0.
75 m bgl (Darwah tahsil) to 5.6 m bgl (Digras &
Arni tahsil).The unsaturated thickness of porous
zone availability varies from 0.4 m (Digras and Arni
93
tahsil) to 6 m (Kelapur tahsil) with an average of
3.16 m. It is found that only some percentage of
total thickness of the unsaturated zone is porous and
the remaining is non porous for ground water
storage. The percentage varies from 7% (Digras &
Arni tahsil) to 67% (Kelapur tahsil) with an average
of 48%. The area having maximum thickness of
porous strata in unsaturated zone is most potential
for ground water recharge through artificial
measures.
The artificial recharge is targeted to raise
the depth to water level up to 3 m bgl so as to avoid
the danger of water logging. The column 7 of Table
3 is worked out by subtracting column 5 from
column 4 of Table 3 or the actual top impervious
layer or 3 m whichever is more.
7. STORAGE POTENTIAL OF
UNSATURATED PHREATIC AQUIFERS
The volume of water for recharging the
unsaturated (dry) zone of phreatic aquifers is
estimated by multiplying the tahsilwise area with
the available unsaturated thickness and the average
specific yield of the particular strata. Thus, the total
storage potential of phreatic unsaturated aquifer
varies from 9.04 MCM in Digras & Arni tahsils to
142.56 MCM in Wani tahsil. The total potential of
ground water resources augmented through artificial
recharge is estimated in the district is 951.61 MCM.
The tahsilwise details of estimated sub surface
storage potential of phreatic aquifers through
artificial recharge to ground water are given Table
4.
8. GROUND WATER AVAILABILITY VIS A
VIS AUGMENTATION POTENTIAL
The ground water resources of the district
are 1278.34 MCM and possibility of further ground
water augmentation is 951.61 MCM or the actual
non-commuted surplus runoff. Thus, the overall
ground water resources can be made available is
2230 MCM (Table 4) depending up on the available
surplus water. However, there are variations in the
tahsilwise scenario of ground water availability and
augmentation potential.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The additional storage potential of the
phreatic aquifers may be harnessed appropriately
considering the drinking water scarcity and irrigation
needs of the area. It will generate many fold benefits
to ameliorate the suffering of underprivileged regions
and economic upliftment of the local populations.
The recommendations follow.
1. Efforts may be made to utilise the maximum
volume of water from the available potential of
951.6 MCM or the actual non-commuted surplus
runoff, which will cater the drinking needs of rural
people even during the 4 summer months.
2. The existing rural ground water supply
schemes will be strengthened by ground water
augmentation measures.
3. Alternately, the additional irrigation
potential can be generated from 951.61 MCM to
the extent of 1,29,500 hectors considering the crop
requirement of 0.65 m prevailing in the area. Both
these requirement may also be managed by suitable
appropriation of the augmented resources.
4. Stress on ground water withdrawals from
deeper aquifers will be reduced which shall be used
in exigency and emergency for the future water
needs.
5. Parts of the district is affected by high
fluoride concentration in ground water resources
and therefore the utilization of water from phreatic
aquifers will minimize the fluorosis in the endemic
areas as deeper aquifers are discharging fluoride rich
ground waters.
6. Appropriate recharge schemes best suited
in the area may be identified on the basis of local
and site-specific surveys and terrain conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Shri Dinesh Prakash,
Regional Director CGWB; CR, Nagpur for
providing necessary guidelines and valuable
suggestions in carrying out the studies. Auther
expresses their sincere thanks to Shri P.K.Parchure,
Sc “D” for his constructive comments valuable
94
suggestions and encouragement while preparing the
paper. Sincere thanks are due to S/Sh. Bhushan
Lamsoge, Binoy Ranjan, D.N.Mandal, B.N.Warke,
S.K.Bhatnagar, scientists, CGWB, CR who have
collected the valuable data from the district.
REFERENCES
1. Census of India (2001): District census,
Yavatmal (Un published).
2. CGWB (2006): Report on Groundwater
management studies in parts of Yavatmal district,
Maharashtra. Un published Central Ground Water
Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government
of India report for A.A.P.; 2005-06.
3. Deshmukh A.B. (1994): Ground water
resources and development potential of Yavatmal
district, Maharashtra. Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India,
report no 629/DIS. p. 62.
4. GSDA and CGWB (2005): Dynamic
ground water resources of Maharashtra as on March
2004. Groundwater Surveys and Development
Agency, Govt of Maharashtra and Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, p.332.
5. GSI (2001): District resource map of
Yavatmal district, Maharashtra. Geological Survey
of India.
6. Maharashtra State Gazetteers (1974):
Gazetteers of India, Maharashtra state, Yeotmal
district, Second Edition (Revised), p. 872.
7. Socio Economic Review and District
Statistical Abstract (2003-04): Yavatmal District,
Maharashtra.
Subramanian P.R. (1998): Ground water exploration
in Maharashtra State and Union Territory of Dadra
and Nagar Haveli. Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India.
p. 294.
Fig. 1

Fig. 2

95
Table 1: Lithology of shallow aquifers based on the results of exploratory drilling in Yavatmal district

96
contd....
 Table 1: Lithology of shallow aquifers based on the results of exploratory drilling in Yavatmal district

97
TS=Tope Soil, C=Clay, VB=Vesicular Basalt, WVB= Weathered Vesicular Basalt, FVB= Fractured Vesicular Basalt,
WFVB= Weathered Fractured Vesicular Basalt, MB= Massive Basalt, WMB= Weathered Massive Basalt,
FMB=Fractured Massive Basalt, WFMB= Weathered Fractured Massive Basalt, SS=Sandstone, SHS= Shale &
Sandstone
Table 2: Ground water resources of the district as on March 2005 (After GEC-97)

98
 Table 3: Summarized results of the lithology, depth to water level of the phreatic aquifers in the area

99
 Table 4: Estimated sub surface storage potential of phreatic aquifer through
Artificial Recharge to ground water in Yavatmal district, Maharashtra (Post monsoon season 2005).

100
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

16. Appropriate Technique of Rainwater Management to Enhance Soil

Moisture and Higher Productivity of Rainfed Bt Cotton
*Jagvir Singh *D. Blaise *M.R.K. Rao *B. M. Khadi *N.R. Tandulkar

ABSTRACT
In Central part of India, 70 % of arable land is rainfed without assured irrigation and
cotton occupy major area of 60 lakh ha under rainfed in 2005. Rainfed cotton production
per unit ha is very low as compared to irrigated cotton. Higher production can be achieved
if soil moisture conservation technique is to be adopted during growing season of Bt cotton.
Sowing of Bt and non Bt cotton hybrids was done on flat system. Two different land
configuration systems viz. ridges and furrow and flat bed system were compared in rainfed
Bt hybrids at different fertilizer levels in Vertisols. Significant higher yield of seed cotton
was received by adopting ridges and furrow method over flat bed system. An additional
yield of 550 to 600 Kg/ha was obtained by utilizing run-off rain water in cotton field.
Biomass accumulation and number of bolls in Bt hybrids by moisture conservation technique
was higher compared to flat bed system in medium deep soil. The technique of soil moisture
conservation through ridges and furrow was found superior over flat bed system in terms of
increasing in moisture content by 4-5% and NUE during peak boll development stage when
rainfall is scanty. Foliar application of Zn and B (@ 0.5%) improved fibre quality of Bt
hybrids marginally. Higher dose of fertilizer was found non significant. Higher yield was
observed in medium spacing (90x45cm) as compared to recommended spacing (90x60cm)
adopted in medium deep soils.

INTRODUCTION period as increase productivity of rainfed agro eco-

Bt cotton is available in India only in the form
of hirsutum hybrids and now occupying an area of
33% to the total area of cotton while in Maharashtra
it is about 80% area in Bt cotton. Production in the
rainfed land is a very difficult task due to uncertainty
and uneven distribution of rainfall. Hybrid cotton is
a long duration crop requires more water and
nutrients as compared to soybean or sorghum. It also
has capacity to tolerant excess water conditions for
4-5 days or dry conditions for 20 to 25 days. Higher
production of cotton can be achieved at assured
rainfall of 650 to 700 mm with proper distribution
of rainfall during growing season. Rain water
harvesting through tanks, ponds and reservoirs,
though an age old practice but use of harvested rain
water for supplementary irrigation in the stress
regions (Venkateswarlu, 1981). Inspite of water
harvesting on watershed, an appropriate technique
to conserve soil moisture through management of
run-off water during scanty rainfall and active
growth period of cotton has been successfully
developed for conventional hybrids at CICR,
Nagpur. The efforts have been made for
maximization of transgenic Bt cotton production
through run-off water management during scanty
rainfall under rainfed conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Field trials on Bt cotton was laid out at Central
Institute for Cotton Research, farm, Nagpur during
2001-06, to achieve higher production through run-
off water management by making a ridges and

*Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur – 440 010

101
furrows when rainfall recedes during September
month. Two field trials on Mahyco Bt cotton viz.
MECH 184, 162 & 12 with different fertilizers levels
75, 100 & 125% RDF and different spacing
(90x60cm, 90x45cm in medium deep soil and
90x60cm & 60x60cm in shallow soil) were
evaluated for two years during 2001-03. Second field
experiment on bunny Bts viz. NCS 913 and NCS
138 with non Bt bunny was conducted in medium
deep soil with different fertilizers levels coupled
with flat bed and ridges & furrows systems. Sowing
of cotton was done in the last week of June on flat
bed system. Fertilizer dose of NPK 90:45:45(F1),
100:60:80(F2) and 150: 80:100 (F3) to all hybrids
were given as per recommended practices. Only one
spray of sucking pests was given to all hybrids and
2 sprays of insecticides for controlling bollworms
were given in non Bt only. Cotton was picked thrice
in Bt and twice in non-Bt. Rainfall distribution and
temperature data during the crop season from 25
June to 31 December is presented in table 1.
RESULTS AND DISSCUTION
Effect of rainfall distribution on growth of
cotton :
Rainfall data for the year 2002 and 2005 was
interpreted in the paper where soil moisture content
of surface soil was measured at 80, 95 and 110 days
after sowing (DAS). Total rainfall during the crop
season was 1018, 651 and 1012 mm in 2003, 2004
and 2005, respectively. In 2002, there was a good
distribution (32 rainy days) of rainfall of 661 mm
during active growth period upto first fortnight of
September and there after very few amount of
rainfall was received. Ridges and furrows ware made
on third September, 2002 which has saved run-off
rain-water of first week of September. After second
week of September there was a scanty rainfall of 30
mm. In 2005, precipitation during the active growth
period of cotton i.e. from 25 June to 15 August was
673 mm and for the period from 16 August to 30
September, it was 370 mm. Rainfall distribution was
uneven at initial growth period of cotton. Ridges
and furrows were made across the slope on 22
August, 2005 when rainfall recedes. In the first
fortnight of September, there was heavy rainfall of
280 mm resulting in large proportion of run-off
water. If ridges and furrows made before the rainfall
of September it could have been better to save run-
102
off water and enhance soil moisture. Thus run-off
water was saved by above mentioned technique. It
enhanced the soil moisture and nutrient utilization
in cotton. Rainfall of 80 mm received in the middle
of October had beneficial effects in conservation of
soil moisture through ridges and furrows system.
Soil conditions effect on yield and yield
attributing characters :
Biomass accumulation at maturity stage (110
DAS) in Bt cotton was significantly lower than
conventional hybrids. Higher Harvest index (%) was
observed in Bt cotton because Bt cotton had higher
bolls as compared to leaves. Higher seed cotton yield
and number of bolls in Bt was recorded in medium
deep soil as compared to shallow soil. No yield
difference was observed in shallow soil by applying
higher dose of fertilizer (125% RDF) while in
medium deep soil, higher dose of fertilizer gave
higher yield as compared to RDF but no significant
increase in yield was recorded due to higher dose of
fertilizer. Hence, the recommended dose of fertilizer
to hybrid cotton Bt or conventional hybrid was
sufficient for getting optimum seed cotton yield.
Fibre quality of Bt cotton was also improved when
Bt was grown in medium deep soils.
Spacing effect on yield and conservation of soil
moisture :
In shallow soils medium spacing (90x45 cm
or 60x60 cm) for hybrid cotton was found superior
over higher spacing viz. 90x60 cm or 90x75 cm.
sowing of cotton rows across the slope was also a
good to protect soil erosion and run-off rainwater.
At maturity stage there was higher soil moisture by
3-4% in lower spacing as compared to higher
spacing in shallow soils resulted in higher nutrient
utilization by cotton and higher seed cotton yield.
In spacing trial with Bt hybrids viz. NCS 138 and
NCS 913, data indicated that higher seed cotton yield
of 25q/ha in Bt cotton was obtained at medium
spacing (90cm x 45cm) as compared to 21q/ha in
lower spacing (90cm x 30cm) and 22.5q/ha in
recommended spacing (90cm x 60cm), it might be
due to protection of soil erosion and run-off rain
water. Additional yield in medium spacing system
may also be attributed by more plant population per
unit area.
Effect of soil moisture conservation technique:
Significant higher yield of seed cotton was
obtained at ridges & furrows system over flat bed
system. Both the Bt hybrids gave an additional yield
of about 600 kg by utilizing run-off water through
land configuration as ridges & furrows system over
flat bed system. Higher seed cotton was recorded in
both the Bt hybrids as compared to non-Bt Bunny.
No significant difference in yield was observed due
to higher dose of fertilizers. However, the increase
in yield by 20-25% at ridges and furrows system
was noticed at higher dose of fertilizer.
CONCLUSION
Therefore, to make this technique a viable and
successful one in rainfed Agro-ecoregions, ridges
and furrows are to be made across the slope and
when rainfall recedes and demand of water is more
for development of bolls in cotton. The maximum
conservation of run-off of scanty rainwater and its
prudent utilization practice is worth for
maximization of cotton production under rainfed
condition.
REFERENCE :
Venkateshwarlu J. (1981). Maximization of crop
production in dry lands. J. Soil Cons. 9: 124-40.

Table 1 : Rainfall (mm) distribution pattern during crop season

Period Rainfall No. of rainy days Max Temp. (Mean)

Year-2002
25 Jun to 15 Sept 661 32 330 C
(Jun-3, Jul-3, Aug-19, Sept-7) (June- 36, Jul -34, Aug- 30, Sept- 32)
16 Sept to 30 Sept 7 2 320 C
1 Oct to 15 Oct 13 1 340C
Year-2005
25 Jun to 15 Sept 437 33 340C
(Jun-38, Jul-30, Aug-31,Sept-31)
16 Sept to 30 Sept 315 16 320C
1 Oct to 15 Oct - - 320C

Table-2 : Effect of fertilizer levels at different run-off water management

on Seed cotton yield (q/ha)

Hybrids Seed cotton yield F1:90:45:45 F2-100:60:80

Flat Bed Ridge & Flat Bed Ridge & Flat Bed Ridge &
furrows furrows furrows
Bt NCS 138 17.28 22.06 15.95 21.62 16.6 23.31
Bt NCS 913 15.99 21.72 15.91 20.55 16.06 20.88
Non Bt (Bunny) 9.34 12.06 9.03 12.08 9.65 12

103
Table -3 Surface soil moisture content of different DAS in 2002
Growth Shallow soil Medium soil
period Flat bed Ridg.& Furr. Flat bed Ridg.& Furr.
At 100% RDF treatment
80 DAS 20 24.5 22 27
95 DAS 16 20 20 24.5
110 DAS 10.5 12.5 11 13.5
At 125% RDF
80 DAS 20 24 22 26
95 DAS 15 18.5 19.5 24
110 DAS 9.5 12 10.5 11.5
Ridg.& furr.-Ridges & Furrows

NCS 138 NCS 913 Bunny non-Bt

30
26.52

24 .69 24.3 24.42

25 24.94
22.88
2 1. 8 6 2 1. 9 6
2 1. 5 2
Seed cotton yield (q/ha)

20.8
20

14 . 9 6
15 14 . 0 8 13 . 9 5 13 . 7 1
12 . 4 3

10

0
90x30 90x45 90x60 100:60:80 150:80:100
Spacing x Fertilizer

Fig 2: Effect of Spacing and Fertilizers on Bt cotton yield

104
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur
17. Rain Water Harvesting – An ultimate need in 21st Century
Er. L. K.Bisoyi
Introduction :
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) refers to
collection of rain falling on earth surfaces for
beneficial uses before it drains away as run-off. The
concept of RWH has a long history. Evidences
indicate domestic RWH having been used in the
Middle East for about 3000 years and in other parts
of Asia for at least 2000 years. Collection and
storages of rainwater in earthen tanks for domestic
and agricultural uses is very common in India since
historical times. The traditional knowledge and
practice of RWH has largely been abandoned in
many parts of India after the implementation of dam
and irrigation projects However, since the early 90s,
there has been a renewed interest in RWH projects
in India and elsewhere. Rainwater harvesting can
be done at individual household level and at
community level in both urban as well as rural areas.
At household level, harvesting can be done through
roof catchments, and at community level through
ground catchments. Depending on the quantity,
location and the intended use, harvested rainwater,
it can be utilized immediately or after storage. Other
than as a water supply, RWH can be practiced with
the objectives of flood control and soil erosion
control. The total water resources, comprising
surface water (1953 bcm) and ground water (423
bcm) are not uniformly distributed, in the sense,
roughly 67 percent of the resources are reported to
be available in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial basins
covering 33 percent of the geographical area of the
country as against 33 percent of the potential in the
hard rock regions occupying 67 per cent of the
geographical area.
Components of RWH System :
A RWH system has three components
The catchments;
*FIE (India), ME (PH) (Committee Member, Env. Engg. divisionI.E (India), Orisssa state centre Bhubaneswar)
Address : Plot no-759, Jayadev Vihar, Bhubaneswar (Orissa)
105
The collection system; and
The utilization system.
Factors : The following factors are to be taken into
consideration for RWH practices
Location and topography of the area – Whether
plane or hilly area, rain fed, desert, steep slope,
drought prone, flood prone, rural and urban area.
Rain fall pattern – Whether rain fall is
distributed uniformly through out the year or
intermittent.
Intensity of rain fall- It varies from 100mm in
western Rajsthan to 11,000 mm in Cherapunji
(Meghalaya).
Soil Characteristics- Whether the soil is
permeable or impermeable to facilitate recharge of
aquifers.
Catchments area – Whether barren land, Forest
area, Agricultural land, Ice caps and desert area.
Water Resources at a Glance (India) : Out of
100% water what we have.
97% as sea water, such a huge water source is
of no use to us unless we treat it with highly
expensive methods like Reverse osmosis or
evaporation etc… However water which we get by
such techniques is not affordable by every
individual.
2% water is in the form of ice and glaciers and
is also not of any immediate use to us.
1% water is in the form of rivers, lakes, ground
water etc. Which is the only source, readily available
to whole world to satisfy their needs.
This is represented in Fig-1. Now lets narrow
down our focus to our country. Out of 1% available
potable water source globally, only 4% is available
in India. As compared to the world population, 17%
population live in India. Because of this situation there
is a tremendous crisis on our Water demand and supply arrangements.
Water resources
Available water in BCM Losses in BCM Unutilized water that can be harnessed in BCM
From all natural – Evaporation – 700 Remaining available water ………………1100
Sources — 4000 Flow on ground – 700 Out of which
Flow to sea – 1500 Ground water recharge – 430
Present utilizable surface water – 370
Unutilized water that can be harness – 300
Per - capita availability of land/water in India :
Year 1950 2000 2050 (prob.) —
Availability of land – ha/capita 0.28 0.1 0.07 —
Year 1947 1998 2005 2025 (prob.)
Availability water in Cum/yr. capita 6 2.2 1.6 0.5
Projected water consumption :In BCM
Irrigation Domestic Manufacturing Power Total
1997-98 560 30 30 9 629
2020 BAU 640 56 57 28 781
2020 BCS 602 51 57 27 737
(Source – Water resources division, planning commission Govt. of India)

Harvesting potential(India) :
Potential of Water Harvesting to meet India’s Drinking Water Needs
Assumptions
Population: 1050 million
Average annual rainfall: 1,100mm
Land area for which land-use records are available: 304 million hectares
Average household water requirement nationwide: 100 litres/day/person
Annual water Water collection efficiency Land requirement % of India’s land
requirements (% of rainfall collected)
38,325 billion litres 100% 3.50 million hectares 1.15%
38,325 billion litres 50% 7.00 million hectares 2.30%

Issues : A number of issues may affect the widespread adoption of RWH systems in India. Such as:
Economics and Technology – Research and design needs to improve the cost-effectiveness of RWH, like:
Economically optimizing the size of system components
Minimizing the quantity or quality of materials needed to create any given volume of water storage.
Developing new designs for tanks, guttering and catchments
Developing measuring instruments to assist RWH system management
Establishing the environmental and economic benefits of reducing extraction of domestic water from
distant point sources.
Water Quality and Health : the impact of RWH on health such as :
The likely causes of low RW quality (physical, chemical, biological) and assessing its impact on health

106
 Actual RW quality as a function of user
behaviors, system design and environmental
conditions
Devising new techniques for reducing turbidity
and pathogens, and improving the taste
Understanding the links between RWH and the
prevalence of disease vectors like mosquitoes and
identifying cost-effective and sustainable vector
control measures.
Water Policies, Regulations and Attitudes that
affect taking-up of RWH projects on wider scales,
including:
Current policies, priorities, rules and concerns
of key stakeholders
RWH popularization and dissemination
techniques.
The optimal role of RWH alongside other water
supplies in different regions of the country.
Challenges / Strategies in 21st Century –
Challenges and Strategies for water in 21st
century are as given below.
Challenges
Ground water depletion
Water quality deterioration
Low water use efficiency
Expensive new water sources
Resource degradation
Water and health
Massive subsidies and distorted incentives
Development of new water sources
107
Strategies
Rainwater harvesting
Comprehensive water policy reform and
demand management
Secure water rights
User management of irrigation systems.
Reformed price incentives
Appropriate technology
Environment protection
Tradable water rights
International co-operation
Need and Advantages of RWH : The need and
advantages of RWH are as enumerated below
Choice between Storage and Artificial
Recharge of Rain Water (Fig. 2, 3 & 4) The
decision whether to store or recharge water depends
on the rainfall pattern of a particular region. For
example, in places like Kerala and Mizoram, rain
falls throughout the year, barring a few dry periods.
In such places, one can depend on a small domestic-
sized water tank for storing rainwater, since the
period between two spells of rain is short. On the
other hand, in dry areas like Delhi, Rajasthan and
Gujarat, the total annual rainfall occurs only during 3
to 4 months of monsoon. The water collected during
the monsoon has to be stored throughout the year;
which means that huge volumes of storage
containers would have to be provided. In Delhi, it is
more feasible to use rainwater to recharge ground
water aquifers than for storage.
Rainwater Harvesting Practices(Fig.5-10) :
There are two main practices of rainwater
harvesting:
Storage rainwater on surface for future use. It
is a traditional practice and structures used are under
ground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc.
Recharges of ground water: is a new concepts
of rain water harvesting and the structures generally
used are:
Pits – recharge pits are constructed for
recharging the shallow aquifers.
Trenches – These are constructed when the
permeable strata is available at shallow depths.
Dug wells – drainpipes to a filtration tank, from
which it flows in to the dug well, divert rainwater
108
that is collected on the rooftop of the building
Hand pumps – The existing hand pump may
be used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers,
if the availability of water is limited.
Recharge wells – recharges wells are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper aquifer and
water is passed through filter media to avoid choking
of recharge wells.
Recharge shafts – for recharging the shallow
aquifers, which are, located below clayey surface.
Lateral shafts with bore wells- for recharging
the upper as well as lengths. Deeper aquifers lateral
shafts of 1.5 to 2-mt width and 10 to 30mt.
Spreading techniques- when permeable strata
start from top then this technique is used. Water is
spread in streams/nalas by making check dams,
cement plugs, gabion structures or a percolation
pond may be constructed.
Is there Water Shortage ?
Every village in India can meet its own water needs: Land area needed per village in different states of
India to capture enough rainwater to meet drinking and cooking water needs

Note : Calculation based on the assumption that average village population in different meteorological
sub-divisions is the same as that of the state.
Source : India Meterological Department for normal rainfall data and based on Census of India data for
1981, 1991 & 2001

International Initiatives :
In U.S. RWH practice in individual and small groups of Texas University through 3 cascade ponds to
support aquatic life for biology laboratory fed by harvested rain water.
In Mexico due to artificial recharge of aquifer 50% reduction cost of pumping of ground water achieved.
In South Africa in 25 million hector one non-native weed consumed almost 7% more of country’s run

109
off and it was replaced by indigenous plants to save
water remarkably.
With active participation of NGO’s, World Bank
and Denmark Govt. a special type of grass planted
in Denmark in slopes which reduced 70% rainwater
run off and even strong roots of these grass
penetrated hard rock and improved infiltration.
Major initiatives(India) :
Recommending schemes which will ensure
availability of minimum 25 kiloliters of water per year
for each citizen in the country.
Water harvesting must be made mandatory for
the buildings. Necessary legal provisions may be
made in this regard.
Appropriate legal provisions for making
recycling of water mandatory in all buildings
particularly larger hotels and industries where large
amount of water is consumed are to be taken out.
Since sustainability of the drinking water
source is of paramount importance for smooth
functioning of rural water supply, 25 per cent out of
20 per cent of the allocation under Accelerated Rural
Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) has been
earmarked exclusively for water harvesting schemes
to make implementation of such schemes mandatory.
Similarly, 25 percent out of the allocation under
Prime Minister’s Gramodaya Yojana has also been
earmarked for funding schemes under submission
on sustainability.
MP’s are to be requested to utilize Local Area
Development Fund in their respective constituencies
to take up water harvesting scheme.
Besides feasibility studies alone with
consultancy services for preparation of pilot projects
on rainwater harvestings in select states have already
been taken.
Further, preparation of user friendly atlas type
of document on traditional water harvesting
structures in various parts of the country has been
initiated for popularizing the concept of water
harvesting amongst all concerned including the
community.
Conclusion : Rain harvesting is emerging as a viable
long term strategy to tackle the increase pressure on
fresh water resources of our country. In addition to
water harvesting, water recycling is essential for
large consumers such as hotels, public Institutions
110
and industries. The recycled water must be used for
all usages including agricultural needs, except for
drinking. This will reduce the per capital requirement
of water to nearly 25% of the present consumption
and enable larger number of population to get
adequate potable water and for sanitation.
Community managed in situ water harvesting
interventions on watershed basis can better the
quality of life of people be ensuring access to safe
drinking water and increased productivity of natural
resources. Unless some crucial measures are not
taken in time then by 2025 India will be highly water
stressed.. In view of this Rain water-harvesting
system is the only alternative, which can provide
good quality of water. Harvested rainwater if
recharged in to the ground then problem of depletion
of under ground water can be sorted out very easily.
It has become very necessary to form certain
regulations and laws for the effective utilization of
available water source as well rain water harvesting
systems implementations so that our coming future
will be secured at least on Water front. Financial
incentives also can be devised to over come the
constraints.
Selected Reading
• Agarawal, A etall – State Indias environment – Centre
for science and Environment New Delhi. 2001 edition
• Agarawal, A etall – Making water every body business
– Practice and policy or water harvesting - do -
• Bisoyi L.K. – Rain water harvesting and Artificial
recharge – An innovative approach for crisis management
and sustainable development – An experiences of New
Delhi- 21st National convention of Env. Engineers, 11-12
Nov. 2005, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
• Concepts and practices for rain water harvesting –
CPCB-MOEF-10/2001, New Delhi.
• Kalam A.P.J- Integrated water mission - do –
• Kulkarni M.K. – Rain water harvesting – Definite tool
to win over water scarcity – Integrated water and waste
water management for sustainable urban development –
Modern trends I.E(India), Pune Local Centre – 10-11
March-06.
• Nimbal F. – Rain water harvesting – Yojana – 6/05
New Delhi
• Rain water harvesting – Need of the Millennium-
I.E.(India), Tamil Nadu State Center. Jointly with HUDCO
and Anna University- 12/2000.
• Sahoo. N. – Water harvesting in water sheds. – Vigyan
Diganta – 12/05, Bhubaneswar.
• Yadupatty M.R. etall- Rain water harvesting – A case
study of in a College campus at Myosore – Hydrology
journal, quarterly – IAH – ISSN-0971-569X-vol-28- no-
3-4 Sept.2005.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

18. Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Systems – Our Field Experiences

DHAN Foundation

SYNOPSIS
Traditional rainwater harvesting systems comprise mainly tanks, ponds and Ooranis
(drinking water ponds). Considering the erratic rainfall obtaining in our country, they have
been constructed by our ancestors over the past centuries, to capture the monsoon rains
and store them for later use when required. During the past few decades they are getting
degraded and even extinct due to various reasons, which has resulted in alarming water
scarcity, over exploitation of ground water and environmental hazards. DHAN Foundation’s
study, approach and efforts made to renovate these small scale water bodies with community
participation are described. The achievements and experiences of these efforts are explained,
with particular reference to the role of these renovated water bodies in augmenting storage
capacity, stabilizing tankfed & rainfed agriculture, increasing crop production and most
importantly improving the groundwater potential through recharge. In conclusion,
formulation of a massive programme of tank renovation & its implementation with some
priority criteria, and only through the user groups is recommended.

INTRODUCTION turns into flood inundating vast tracts of land and

Rainwater harvesting is undertaken mainly to
capture the run off from the seasonal rains and store
it for use in times of need. The storage is made on
the ground surface or underground, depending upon
the topography of the land, the types of surface and
sub surface soils and the underground geological
formations. Storage cisterns, check dams, farm
ponds, percolation ponds, Ooranis (drinking water
ponds), irrigation tanks and reservoirs comprise the
surface storage systems, Rain water stored in the
soil profile upto its field capacity, sub surface dams
constructed in deep sandy beds across rivers and
streams, sumps, dug wells, filter point wells, tube
wells and aquifers constitute the underground
storage systems. The source of supply for all these
storages is the rainfall which is highly variable.
The rainwater which is not harvested and
stored, mostly runs off the land surface and gets
wasted without proper use. Where the rains are
intense and continuous over some days, the run off
damages life and property. When the rainfall is
scanty, part of it gets lost by interception by tree
canopy, evaporation and run off leaving very little
of it for storage and future use. Although water is
renewable, it is a finite commodity. Therefore
rainwater harvesting and storage becomes
imperative in either case, for effective use by people,
livestock and nature.
While in the urban areas rainwater harvesting
is practiced for drinking, domestic, gardening, and
ground water recharge purposes, in rural areas it is
undertaken more extensively for irrigation, dryland
agriculture, horticulture, ground water recharge,
domestic, livestock, inland fisheries, duck rearing
and for multifarious other similar purposes. Each
form of storage has its specific merits and uses,
although from the efficiency point of view,
underground storage is the best as evaporation and
other losses are eliminated.

18, Pillaiyar Koil Street, S.S.Colony, Madurai – 625010, Tamilnadu

111
Table 1 : Merits, demerits & uses of different forms of rainwater harvesting and storage
DHAN FOUNDATION’S APPROACH TO
RAINWATER HARVESTING IN RURAL
AREAS
DHAN Foundation is a grassroots development
organisation working mainly in rural areas with a
focus on water resources development and their local
management. More specifically, it has been
concentrating on the restoration of small scale water
resources like minor irrigation tanks and watershed
development, and the revival of local initiatives like
the maintenance and management of the water
112
resources as a means to increase productivity of tank
fed and rainfed agriculture. These rainwater
harvesting structures of one form or the other, benefit
predominantly the large number of livestock, small
and marginal farmers and the rural folk who have
no access to large and medium reservoirs. The
organisation comprises highly motivated, well
qualified and/or experienced professionals, who live
in and work from the villages, with a deep concern
for poverty alleviation through developmental
activities, and build people to become self reliant.
STUDY
In order to gain a good understanding of the
traditional rainwater harvesting systems like tanks
and ponds DHAN Foundation first took up detailed
study of the location, design and construction
features, the water management practices and the
maintenance of the systems. It found that those rain
water harvesting structures were ideally located,
ingenious but simple in design, constructed with
locally available materials and maintained by the
local communities. However due to various reasons,
the foremost among them being the decline of
community management, these rainwater harvesting
structures have been steadily getting dilapidated and
in some cases even extinct. The government taking
control of the water bodies during the colonial rule
has triggered the decline of community management
of them. Massive groundwater programmes like the
construction of dug wells and tube wells,
aggressively promoted by government organisations
and banking institutions with inducements in the
form of liberal loans and subsidies, technological
innovations like electrical pumpsets, provision of
subsidised and in many cases free supply of
electricity to agriculturists for lifting water from the
wells - all these had contributed to the neglect of
the tanks.
This neglect has set in motion, other intrusions
like encroachments, weed infestation and
sedimentation of feeder channels and tank beds,
erosion of earthen embankments of tanks, loss of
sluice shutters, leaky sluices and damaged surplus
weirs, all of which have further compounded the
degradation process of the water bodies. Instead of
repairing or restoring the water resources through
community action, the people began looking upto
the government to undertake the works. The
government’s attention was focussed more on
construction of massive dams and large scale
irrigation facilities across the country, terming them
as the new temples of modern India. It perhaps felt
that these small scale water bodies are too small to
provide any spectacular benefit and too scattered to
have an effective impact on the people, to initiate
any activity for their restoration. For a country which
at the time of independence was in a hurry to catch
up with the rest of the world and where millions of
people had to be literally hauled up above the poverty
line, this was considered to be the way out. But
113
successive governments failed or did not care
enough to study and revive the old methods of water
harvesting, which would have once again made the
rural communities self reliant with regard to
irrigation and drinking water. Inspite of the large
number of large and small dams constructed across
many rivers in the country, irrigation facilities are
still woefully inadequate and people continue to
depend upon erratic rainfall conditions. In a country
where many regions are arid, semi arid or prone to
monsoon floods, this dependence has proved costly.
Where the rainfall is unseasonal, in excess or
inadequate, the price paid is heavy in terms of
destroyed crops, mounting debts and uprooted
human lives. The most cost effective way by which
the water resources can hence forth be developed,
at least in Tamilnadu and the adjacent peninsular
states, is by rehabilitating the thousands of
traditional irrigation tanks which are centuries old
and which are still functioning well where the local
community is cohesive and enlightened, instead of
investing in new structures and systems. Further
there are no more hydrologically appropriate sites
available for forming new tank systems. After the
detailed study and analysis of the reasons for the
decline of the small scale water resources, DHAN
Foundation has ventured to restore these tanks to
their original design standard and performance
efficiency; and more importantly, to undertake the
programme by organising the concerned people,
enlisting their active participation, building their
capacity and making them contribute a part of the
cost of restoration and thus become stakeholders and
then facilitating them to implement the rehabilitation
works. These processes would ensure proper timely
maintenance and management of the water resources
and make them sustainable over the years, so that
the future generations would continue to enjoy the
benefits derived. History confirms that a community
is the best protector of its own resources.
ACHIEVEMENTS
During the past thirteen years DHAN
Foundation has undertaken rehabilitation works of
more than 750 minor irrigation tanks and Ooranis
with people’s participation, in the five districts of
Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Theni, Tiruvallur and
Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu; in two districts of
Chittoor and Nalgonda in Andhra Pradesh and in
Tumkur district of Karnataka. Besides, it has also
undertaken sixty tankbased watershed development
works with people’s participation and contribution
in Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar,
Tuticorin and Chittoor districts. Twenty five
community wells were also constructed in Madurai,
Ramanathapuram and Tiruvallur districts. The funds
to carry out these works came mainly from the
District Rural Development Agencies (DRDA),
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) and Sir Ratan Tata Trust (SRTT) while
the International funding agencies like the Ford
Foundation and NOVIB, met the overhead charges
of DHAN Foundation. While the funding agencies
came forward with 100 percent of the cost of works
as grant, DHAN Foundation availed only 75 percent
of the works cost, and successfully mobilised the
remaining 25 percent from the beneficiaries, right
from the initiation of this programme in early 1992.
We are happy to find that since 1997, the government
also has changed their financing policy from 100
percent grant to 75 percent and insists on 25 percent
people’s contribution and full participation in many
of their development programmes.
DHAN Foundation organised about 950 water
users (WUAs) and watershed development
associations with 60,000 members in order to enable
them to carry out the development works mentioned
above and to manage them thereafter. It also
organised tank farmers’ federations at the Panchayat
Union and district levels to guide and assist the
WUAs in their work, ensure the quality of work,
mobilise funds towards people’s contribution and
liaise with funding agencies for speedy disbursement
of funds. While the members of the general bodies
of the various associations were the actual water
users, in the selection of office bearers of the
Executive Councils of these associations DHAN
Foundation focussed their attention and assisted the
members to make the right choice with great care. It
was these people’s organisation which did the
planning, implementation, quality control and
systematic accounting of the works, DHAN
Foundation providing only the required technical
and managerial support to them. DHAN also held
several discussions at the tank and village levels to
motivate the people and organise them, assisted them
in drafting byelaws and registering the associations
114
and federations to provide credibility to them. DHAN
organised several exposure visits to the people to
other areas where the tank rehabilitation works were
undertaken, for them to see and share the experience
of their counterparts in those areas. Several training
programmes were conducted to the members of the
Associations, Executive Councils and Federations,
on leadership, organising people, construction
technology, improved water management and crop
production techniques, accounting procedures and
the like, to build their capacity, motivation and
confidence. All these efforts paid dividends to
DHAN workers who could build a good rapport with
the villagers and instill confidence in them. During
the initial years, with DHAN workers living in the
villages and the nearest small towns, it took about
six to nine months to form one association. Presentily
with the experience gained over the years it takes
only a month or two to do this. The process adopted
to form WUAs has also been refined and improved
so that the farmers’ federations themselves organize
new WUAs and undertake the activities that DHAN
has been carrying out, in order to upscale the
programme in a big way in the future. It is this effort
that makes people committed to their roles and
responsibilities which we believe would result in
sustained community management of the water
resources.
EXPERIENCES
DHAN Foundation itself gained considerable
experience in these thirteen years of its involvement
in small scale water resources development. In its
pilot (first) phase of three years, the focus of work
was on rehabilitation of tank irrigation systems,
wherein the emphasis was on restoring the tank
structures like tank storage capacity, bunds, sluice
outlets, and surplus weirs to their original design
standard. This effort has resulted in greater
acquisition and increased storage of rain water over
longer periods. Additional storage capacity ranged
from 100 to 200 percent. In the second phase of three
years, the emphasis was on regeneration of farmers’
management in addition to rehabilitation. This effort
resulted in communities’ participation with active
involvement, reduced wastage and equitable
distribution of water among the users. This was made
possible by the users regulating the water use
through their local management. During the third
phase, tankfed agriculture was the focus beside
rehabilitation and farmers’ management. This effort
resulted in provision of appropriate inputs at the right
time, improved water management and increased
crop production ranging from 30 to 100%. And in
the fourth phase sustainability of the rehabilitated
tank systems in given importance by organising
Micro Finance Groups & facilitating them to
periodically maintain and manage those traditional
small scale water resources. This has resulted in
greater cohesion among the user groups and their
concern to maintain and manage the tank systems
with their own initiative and ensure the sustainability
and thus become self reliant.
Similarly, from taking up isolated tanks for
renovation, the planning and implementation was
made taking a cascade of tanks as a unit, so as to
capture and store the entire run off flowing down
the micro watershed. The feeder channel cleaning
and restructuring (removal of wild growth of
vegetation and desilting) and removal of
encroachments formed an important component of
tank rehabilitation. This work was found to be the
most cost effective component for augmenting tank
storage, next to provision of plug and rod shutters
to sluice outlets for preventing leakage and
conserving the harvested rain water. The philosophy
has been “a drop saved is equal to a drop added to
storage”. Another component of work added to tank
renovation was the provision of silt traps on the front
side of sluice opening to prevent the choking up the
vent way (pipe or barrel). Tree planting on the
foreshore of tank bed in the belt of land bound by
the FTL contour of the tank upto the government
boundary has been introduced, to provide additional
income to the people through usufructs and to
minimise silt accretion into the tank waterspread.
Incidentally tree planting also serves to identify the
encroachments if any and to remove them promptly.
Yet another innovation made is provision of dead
storage within the tank bed to hold water in a selected
pocket to facilitate aquaculture, to serve the drinking
water needs of livestock and/ or to provide life
irrigation to withering crops in times of water
scarcity. The community wells sunk in the tank
complex get much of their recharge from the tank
itself and from the water applied for the crops raised
in the tank command and provide supplemental or
life irrigation to the crops after the tank gets emptied.
115
This has been a boon to the small and marginal land
holders who could not have their own individual
wells to practice conjunctive use.
All these water conservation measures are
introduced either on the initiative or with the consent
of the users of the water resource and in accordance
with their priorities. When the people get involved
intensely in every activity of tank rehabilitation
planning, decision making and implementation, they
take good care to prevent wastage, preserve the
stored water, and distribute it equitably among
themselves. They maintain the structures themselves
with their own funds mobilised for the purpose. In
times of disaster like a tank bund getting breached
due to unprecedented rains, the people themselves
undertake breach closing and bund strengthening
work collectively, when every able bodied villager
joins in the team work. This attitudinal change
occurs mainly through each member of the WUA
finding strength and confidence in unity. This is the
most important and gratifying experience that has
happened.
TANKS AS RECHARGE STRUCTURES
Although the primary use of tanks is irrigation,
they contribute as much as 40 percent of their storage
to augment groundwater resources through recharge.
According to a study report by the National
Geophysical Research Institute (ICAR), Hyderabad,
measurements carried out in about 20 river basins
well distributed over the various climatic and
geomorphic zones in India, 5 to 10 percent of the
seasonal rainfall is contributed as annual recharge
in the peninsular hard rock regions, whereas in
alluvial areas, about 15 to 20 percent of the rainfall
contributes to groundwater. The Central Ground
Water Board in its manual on “Groundwater
resources of India (1995)” accounted nearly 30 to
40 percent of applied irrigation water as seepage
return from irrigated fields and field channels.
Irrigated fields also contribute to augmentation of
groundwater resources. The average infiltration rate
from paddy fields is reported to be generally higher
than that from tanks. The paddy field infiltration
ratio (that is, the ratio between the water infiltrated
underground to water applied) varied between 55
and 88 percent. Paddy fields can be used as ground
water recharge basins by harvesting the rainfall
effectively. Water spreading as a recharge method
is practiced on an increasing scale all over the world
in areas where the aquifer is shallow. Our experience
of the effectiveness of rehabilitated irrigation tanks
& Ooranis as groundwater recharge structures in
Theni and Ramanathapuram districts is that there is
a perceptible rise in the water table ranging from 4
to 6 metres (m). Before restoration of the tanks, the
water table in the wells was between 30 to 45 m
below ground level. After the desilting of the feeder
channel & tank bed, the tanks filled up in the next
rains and within a few weeks the water table in 169
dug wells situated close to Silamalai tank in Theni
district rose by 5 to 6 m. In the wells situated in the
zone of influence of Kurinjiappagoundan tank in
Theni district, the water table in twenty out of fifty
wells rose by five metres from 40 to 35 m below
ground level, while in the remaining thirty wells the
rise ranged from 2 to 4 metres. In the next year, the
water table rose still further, with many dried wells
getting rejuvenated and providing adequate water
supply for irrigated crops. The area under well
irrigation in this region has expanded by 50 to 100
percent and ground water became a dependable
source of supply. A new well 22 m deep excavated
downstream of a renovated tank has 9 m depth of
storage & provides drinking water for the entire
village of Silamalai. In most of the wells under the
renovated tanks, people no more resort to deepening
of the wells, which they were doing earlier, as they
have adequate supply.
Similarly in Ramanathapuram district after the
reclamation of Ooranis, the water stored in them is
available for drinking purposes almost round the
year as against hardly 3 to 4 months’ availability
earlier, as the storage capacity is increased three to
four times by deepening the Ooranis. Besides, the
quality of water in the surrounding wells has also
improved as confirmed by tests carried out in water
testing laboratory as well as by the local villagers.
Above all, the womenfolk are saved from the
drudgery of fetching water from distant places and
the time spent for the purpose. Since the Oorani
reclamation works also have been carried out with
people’s contribution of 25 to 30 percent and their
participation, the beneficiaries take good care to
preserve them from pollution and use the Oorani
water without wastage.
116
OTHER BENEFITS
In quite a few tanks renovated in the rural areas
of Madurai district, inland fish culture has been
introduced in tank water which fetches the water
users a sizable income ranging from ten to fifty
thousand rupees a year per tank, depending upon
the period of tank storage and the efforts taken by
the local people to raise fish. Usufructs from trees
planted on the tank bunds and in tank beds have
generated additional income upto Rs 75000/- over
a six year period to the water user group.
In some tanks and Ooranis desilted under the
tank rehabilitation programme, the excavated tank
silt was applied to their agricultural lands, thereby
improving the texture and fertility status of the soils.
CONCLUSIONS
The Institute of Remote Sensing (IRS) Anna
University has prepared micro watershed maps
Panchayat Union wise, delineating therein the
revenue village boundaries; and identifying
favourable areas for ground water recharge using
remote sensing and GIS. We therefore suggest that
the tanks situated in such favourable tracts may be
taken up for rehabilitation on a priority basis, so
that the people of those regions will get the benefits
of tankfed agriculture and groundwater recharge as
well and also augment the storage of the existing
wells in the concerned tank commands.
We also strongly recommend that a ten year
plan for the period from 2006 to 2016 be prepared
to rehabilitate all the existing tanks and ooranis;
initiate tankbased watershed programme in all the
districts of Tamilnadu to include farm ponds,
drainage line treatment and tree planting on a
massive scale. We believe that this effort will
strengthen people’s participation and provide lasting
benefits to the rural communities through tankfed
agriculture and groundwater recharge.
All existing encroachments in the water bodies
may be summarily evicted and future encroachments
be strictly prohibited in order to preserve these gifts
of our forefathers and can be passed on to our future
generations to go along Nature’s path. Here it will
be appropriate to conclude this paper with a
quotation from Gandhiji. “The greatness of a nation
and its moral progress can be judged by the way
people treat the environment”.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

19. Importance of Rain Water Harvesting in Current Senario

*S. R. Asati **Abhijit Deshpande

Abstract
In the last few decades, rapid growth in urbanization and industrialization trends,
and dependence on ground water for domestic and agricultural purposes by rural community
altogether have resulted in to exploitation of ground water without much focus on its recharge.
Thus there is urgent need to search suitable methods to replenish the cause. In this context
rainwater harvesting has been the crucial factor for sustaining the fast depleting surface
and sub surface water resources. Rainwater harvesting is the traditional technique has
been in use in hilly areas such as Forts and desert areas such as Rajasthan to conserve the
water in the dry periods. Ground water is the main source and being exploited since the
days of Mahabharata. The current paper focuses on the per capita water availability, critical
ground water deficit problems in India and the various water harvesting techniques suitable
for the Indian conditions. Each and every belt now faces the problem of depletion of ground
water. This is the time to collect the people so as to solve the problem collectively, traditionally,
economically, qualitatively so as to fulfill the minimum demand for the long time. Government
policies and economic incentives have also determined how and how much of India’s water
can be used.

Introduction is stored in inland water bodies both natural (lakes

The unequal distribution of water resources
over the time and geographic area and its constant
exploitation, especially the ground water resources
has arisen the severe ground water problems mainly
due to its large dependence on ground water by the
rapid growth in urban, rural and industrial
establishments. This has resulted in decrease in
ground water levels without much focus on its
recharge and has thus necessitated the development
of water harvesting systems. Government policies
and economic incentives have also determined how
and how much of India’s water can be used. The
following discusses some of the major
characteristics of water in India: where it comes
from, where it goes and how it is currently being
managed.
A portion of the total precipitation of the total
water is absorbed by the soil and is stored in
underground aquifers. A much smaller percentage
and ponds) and man-made (tanks and reservoirs).
India receives a total precipitation of 4000 cu.km of
fresh water in the form of rain and snowfall out of
which only1869 cu.km is available as annual surface
runoff and only an estimated 1122 cu.km can be
exploited due to topographic constraints and
distribution effects.
Groundwater represents one of the most
important water sources in India and accounts for
over 400 cu.km of the annual utilizable resource in
the country. Due to the highly variable nature of the
climate, groundwater has become a popular
alternative for irrigation and domestic water use
across India. Reliance on groundwater resources is
particularly strong where dry season surface water
levels are low or where wet season flows are too
disruptive to be easily tapped. In addition to being
accessible, groundwater quality is generally
excellent in most areas and presents a relatively safe

*Lecturer-Selection Grade **Lecturer

Deptt. of Civil Engg., MIET, Gondia- 441 614 (M.S)

117
source of drinking water for Indians in rural and urban
centers.
The presence and availability of groundwater
varies greatly with changes in topography,
subsurface geology and the prevailing climate in the
region. In some areas, groundwater exists in deep
aquifers while in others the water is stored near the
surface. The location of the aquifer also affects its
recharge rate and its susceptibility to pollution and
overuse.
Water Harvesting Systems
Water harvesting structures have been designed
to help capture and store rainwater during the
monsoon season and serve as a source of drinking
and irrigation water during the rest of the year. In
India, tanks, ponds and reservoirs cover a total of 5
million hectares, the majority of which lies in the
southern portion of the country (MOWR, 2001).
Although they do not make a significant contribution
to the total freshwater water resource in India, water
harvesting systems do have a strong impact in terms
of drinking water and irrigation provision on a local
scale.
Many of the water harvesting structures used
in India are based on ancient models, mainly due to
the potential of these systems to supply freshwater
adequate to all areas and sectors and therefore highly
adapted to the prevailing climatic and hydrologic
conditions of the area. However, since colonial
times, these systems have been increasingly
abandoned and neglected in favor of large dam and
canal irrigation projects. So far, these ‘modern’
structures have been successful in providing water
to portions of rural and urban India, yet high
economic, social and environmental costs have
reduced their overall benefit. As a result,
development and civil society organizations have
been advocating the return to local water harvesting
systems for domestic and irrigation purposes. As
awareness and public opinion continue to grow,
water-harvesting systems will become increasingly
more important source of water in India.
In the past several decades, industrial
production has increased in India owing to an
increasingly open economy and greater emphasis
on industrial development and international trade.
Water consumption for this sector has consequently
risen and will continue growing at a rate of 4.2%
118
per year (World Bank, 1999). According to the World
Bank, demand for industrial, energy production and
other uses will rise from 67 billion m3 to 228 billion
Demand from the domestic sector has remained low
and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater
withdrawals in India (World Resources Institute,
2000). Domestic water use will increase as the
population continues to grow and access to water is
improved. Recent data from the World Bank
indicates that demand over the next twenty years
will double from 25 billion m3 to 52 billion m3. Only
85% of the urban and 79% of the rural population
has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have
access to adequate sanitation facilities (World
Resources Institute, 2000). The central government
made a commitment to improve access to water in
rural and urban areas in the National Water Policy
adopted in 1987. The original goal of providing
water to 100% of all citizens of India by 1991 had
to be revised and now stands at 90% access to urban
and 85% access to rural areas, respectively. Drinking
water and sanitation nevertheless remain high
priorities on the government agenda.
Groundwater Depletion : facts and figures
Following findings focuses on the critical
scenario of ground water depletion :
As per the findings in 1955 the availability of
fresh water in India was 5277 cum while in 2001 it
has depleted to 1820 cum.
Out of 650 BCM around 231 BCM water is
pumped from ground water.
Around 575 liters of ground water per capita
per day is in demand, of which only 46 liters is used
for domestic and industrial purposes while the rest
is consumed for irrigation.
The ground water is depleting at the rate of 2
to 3 mts.per year.
Finally Meherana in Gujarat and Coimbatore
in Tamil Nadu have lost their entire ground water
resources.
The state wise ground water deficit (cu.km/
year) in India is depicted in following Table
 dropped 25-30 m. in a decade. The major utilization
State Deficit (cu.km/ year)
is for agriculture in Tamil Nadu, which has caused
Rajasthan 32.6 the water table to drop close to 30 meters in a decade.
Maharashtra 22.0 • While it is estimated that Delhi will run out of
Gujarat 16.0 groundwater by 2015 at current rates. In Ludhiana
district of Punjab, the water table is dropping nearly
Haryana 14.2
1 m annually; water tables are dropping by under
Karnataka 12.7 one to several meters per year in much of northern
Punjab 4.0 India’s Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Other 2.8 • The position of most of the villages in India is
Total 104.3 more pathetic where the major dependence of water
supply for the domestic and irrigation purposes is
the dependence on ground water
Forth-coming Problems
• India’s irrigation water came from less than 30
• In the Indus basin as a whole, groundwater
% groundwater in 1951 but over 40 % in 1980.
pumping is estimated to exceed recharge by 50%.
• India’s potential surface water resource = 700-
• India is one of the leading countries in total
800 cu.km / year.
irrigated area and the third-largest grain producer,
• India’s potential utilizable ground-water
the number of shallow tube wells used to draw
resource = 350 cu.km / year.
groundwater was 3000 in 1960, and 6 million in
• India’s rainfall = 110 cm / year. Ave. surface
1990.
flow = 1800 cu.km / year. Inflow from neighboring
• Water Constraints on Irrigation : The eventual
countries accounts for 200-cu.km / year of this 1800.
lack of water for irrigation could cut India’s grain
Storage capacity (mid-1970s) = 160 cu.km. India’s
production by 25%. 25% of India’s grain harvest
water utilization = 250 cu.km / year (1974). 100
could be in jeopardy.
cu.km of this was from storage; 150 from rivers and
• Pumped underground water is double the rate
streams. Irrigation accounted for 240-cu.km / year
of aquifer recharge from rainfall.
of this utilization. (95 cu.km were used in 1951)
Estimated surface water utilization in 2000 = 500
Following are the critical ground water deficit
cu.km / year, including 420 cu.km / year for
problems observed in various states of India
irrigation.
The ground water availability and the projected
• Of 1.33 million km2 of land being cropped,
deficit in India are shown in Fig.-1. It can be seen
240,000 km2 are irrigated, but only 50% of this has
from the figure that since 1951 the per capita water
an assured supply of water. 90,000 dug wells, 30,000
availability has rapidly decreased almost three times
shallow tube wells, and 9500 deep wells have been
in fifty years in the year 2001, while the future
installed in the past 15 years. The limited water
projected availability is expected to be 1140 cu.m
supply encourages inadequate leaching of land and
which is almost twice less than observed in 2001.
a resultant increase in soil salinity. Indian per-capita
However, this would much depend on increase/
water supplies fell by roughly half during 1955-90.
decrease in pumping and our earnestness to
• Sugarcane growers in the state of Maharashtra
implement the water harvesting methods.
take 50% of available irrigation water supplies, even
Presented below are the ground water deficit
though they occupy only 10% of cropped land.
problems observed in the various states of India: -
• Water shortages plagued 17,000 villages in the
• India’s use of ground water in 1973-74 was
northern Indian state of Uttar- Pradesh in the 1960s.
120-130 cu.km / year (80% for irrigation).
By 1985 that figure had risen to 70,000. Similarly,
• 65% of Haryana in India sits over salty
in Madhya-Pradesh, more than 36,400 villages
groundwater.
lacked sufficient water in 1980; in 1985 the number
• In southern India, groundwater levels are
totaled more than 64,500. In the western state of
falling 2.5-3 m/ years and between 1946-86; the
Gujarat, the number of villages short of water tripled
water table in parts of Karnataka dropped 40 m while
between 1979 and 1986, from 3,840 to 12,250 and
in the state of Tamil Nadu, ground-water levels have
119
over-pumping by irrigators caused saltwater to invade
the aquifer.
Why Rain Water Harvesting
Unavailability and inadequacy of surface water
and to meet our demands, we have to depend on
ground water.
Due to rapid urbanization and concrete
covering over the land the infiltration of rainwater
into the sub-soil has decreased drastically and
recharging of ground water has diminished.
Over-exploitation of ground water resource has
resulted in decline in water levels.
To avoid the situation of temporary floods or
stagnation of water in urban areas even for a short
duration of rainfall.
To enhance availability of ground water at a
specific place and time.
To arrest saline water intrusion.
Improvement of the water quality, conservation
and augmentation of the ground water aquifers.
Sustaining the moisture content in the subsoil
so as to minimize the cracks during dry periods.
To improve the vegetation cover.
To raise the water levels in dug wells and bore
wells that are drying up.
Different methods of Roof Top Rain water
Harvesting.
There are two main techniques of rainwater
harvesting
a) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.
b) Recharge to ground water.
Rain Water Harvesting Techniques
Different methods of Roof Top Rain water Harvesting
Bore wells
Deserted Open Wells
Recharge wells
shafts
Recharge
pits
120
Following are the structures generally used for
the rainwater harvesting
1. Recharge Pits: Recharge pits are constructed
for recharging the shallow aquifers. These are
constructed 1 – 2 m. wide and 2 - -3 m. deep which
are backfilled with boulders, gravels and coarse
sand.
2. Recharge Trench: These are constructed when
the permeable strata are available at shallow depths.
Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5 m. deep
and 10 to 20 m long depending upon the availability
of water. These are backfilled with filter materials.
3. Open wells: Existing open wells may be
utilized as recharge structures and water should pass
through filter media before putting it into open well.
4. Hand Pumps: The existing hand pumps may
be used for recharging the shallow / deep aquifers,
if the availability of water is limited. Water should
pass through filter before diverting it into hand
pumps.
5. Recharge Wells: Recharge wells of 100 to 300
mm. Diameter are generally constructed for
recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed
through filter media to avoid choking of recharge
wells.
6. Recharge Shafts: For recharging the shallow
aquifers, which are located below clayey surface,
recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15
m. deep are constructed and back filled with
boulders, gravels and coarse sand.
7. Lateral shafts with bore wells: For recharging
the upper as well as deeper aquifers lateral shafts of
1.5 to 2 m. wide and 10 to 30 m. long depending
Hand
Pumps
Recharge Recharge
trenches wells
upon availability of water with one or two bore wells
are constructed. The lateral shaft is back filled with
boulders, gravels and coarse sand.
8. Deserted wells: Recharge water is guided
through a canvas pipe of 100 mm diameter to the
bottom of well or below the water level to avoid
scouring.
Ideal Conditions for Rain Water Harvesting and
Artificial Recharge to Ground Water
• Most suitable for the urban areas where
adequate space for surface storage is not available.
• Water level is deep enough (greater than 8m.)
an adequate surface storage is available.
• Permeable strata is available at shallow /
moderate depth.
• Where adequate quantity of surface water is
available for recharge to ground water.
• Where there is possibility of intrusion of saline
water especially in coastal areas.
• Where the evaporation rate is very high from
surface water bodies.
• Where the ground water quality is bad.
Conclusion and suggestions
The current paper discusses the ground water
availability, deficit and its future prediction for India.
Also, importance and various harvesting techniques
have been discussed. Thus in the current scenario
of severe water crises implementation of rain water
harvesting technique can be helpful in solving
following problems :
• An ideal solution to water problems in areas
having inadequate water resources.
The ground water level will rise.
• Mitigates the effects of drought and achieves
drought proofing.
• Rainwater harvesting can reduce storm
drainage load and flooding in city streets.
• Flooding of roads is reduced.
• Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from
organic matter and soft in nature, so can be utilized
for drinking purposes.
• Soil erosion will be reduced.
• Saving of energy per well for lifting of ground
water – a one-meter rise in water level saves about
0.4 kwh of electricity.
121
• The structures required for rainwater harvesting
are simple and economical. Also suit in any
environment.
• Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply
buffer for use in times of emergency or breakdown
of the public water supply system.
References
• Artificial Recharge in India, A Publication of National
Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad.
• Asati S.R., “A case study on Rooftop rainwater
Harvesting,” Proceedings in National Conference and
sustainable Development, L.A.D. and Smt.R.P.College for
women, Nagpur dated 16-17 Dec.2005.
• Asati S.R., and Sharma N.S.”Roof top Rainwater
Harvesting: A case study,”proceedings in 38th Annual
Convention of I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur (Rajasthan), 06-
08 Jan2006.
• Ashtankar T, Kelkar P and Nanoti M, ., “Rainwater
Harvesting in Urban Areas- A Review ,” proceedings in
38th Annual Convention of I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur
(Rajasthan), 06-08 Jan2006.
• C.G.W.B., Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground
water, March 1994, Technical Series M.No-3.
• Dainik Bhaskar-News Paper, 28th June 2004.
• Development of Monomolecular Film to Act as
Evaporation Retardant and Prevent Water from
Evaporating from large Water Bodies Economically”,
Project No. ID/17/95 sponsored by Ministry of Water
Resources, Govt. of India.
• Husiman L. & Olsthoorn T.N., “Artificial Groundwater
Recharge”, Pitman Advanced Publishing Program.
• IWWA proceeding of 33rd Annual Convention Theme,
“Water for New Millennium”.
• Mahajan G., “Ground Water Recharge”, Ashish
Publishing House, New Delhi.
• Pingle S.S. “Water Harvesting- The Need of the Hour,”
Proceedings in National Conference and sustainable
Development, L.A.D. and Smt.R.P.College for women,
Nagpur dated 16-17 Dec.2005.
• National Drinking Water Mission, “Water Harvesting
System Reference manual”.
• Rainwater Harvesting, A Publication of national
Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
• Todd D. K., “Ground Water Hydrology”, John Wiley
& sons
• Trivedi S.H and Bhavnani H. V., “Artificial Ground
Water Recharge through Roof top Rainwater Harvesting:
A case study,” proceedings in 38th Annual Convention of
I.W.W.A. hold at Jaipur (Rajasthan), 06-08 Jan2006.
122
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

20. Rain Water Harvesting : A Viable Solution To Conserve Water

*Rishab Mahajan **Prof. Shakti Kumar ***Dr. R. K. KhitoIiya

Abstract :
The problem of water shortage in arid and semi-arid regions is one due to low rainfall
and uneven distribution through out the season, which makes rain fed agriculture a risky
enterprise. Rain water harvesting for dry-land agriculture is a traditional water management
technology to ease future water scarcity in many arid and semi-arid regions of world. The
paper discusses the use of water harvesting as an effective tool for water management. The
various forms of water harvesting have been elucidated. The common goal of all forms is to
secure water supply for annual crops, pastures, trees and animals in dry areas without tapping
groundwater or river-water sources. As the appropriate choice of technique depends on the
amount of rainfall and its distribution, land topography, soil type and soil depth and local
socio-economic factors, these systems tend to be very site specific. The water harvesting methods
applied strongly depend on local conditions and include such widely differing practices as
bunding, pitting, micro catchments water harvesting, flood water and ground water harvesting.

Introduction 1. Basic Concept

Rain water harvesting is defined as the
collection of runoff and its use for the irrigation of
crops, pastures and trees, and for livestock
consumption. As long as mankind has inhabited
semi-arid areas and cultivated agricultural crops, it
has practiced some kind of water harvesting. Based
on “natural water harvesting” the use, of the
waters of ephemeral streams was already the basis
of livelihood in the arid and semi-arid areas many
thousands of years ago, allowing the establishment
of cities in the desert .The European expansion,
especially the technological development since
1850, lead to a steady increase in area under
“classical” irrigation techniques with preference to
large schemes. The classical sources of irrigation
water are often at the break of overuse and therefore
untapped sources of (irrigation) water have to be
sought for increasing agricultural productivity and
providing sustained economic base. Water
harvesting for dry-land agriculture is a traditional
water management technology to ease future water
scarcity in many arid and semi-arid regions of world.
1.1 General concept
Water harvesting is applied in arid and semi-
arid regions where rainfall is either not sufficient to
sustain good crop and pasture growth or where, due
to the erratic nature of precipitation, the risk of crop
failure is very high. Water harvesting can
significantly increase plant production in drought
prone areas by concentrating the rainfall/runoff in
parts of the total area. The intermittent character of
rainfall and runoff and the ephemerality of
floodwater flow requires some kind of storage. There
might be some kind of interim storage in tanks,
cisterns or reservoirs or soil itself serves as a
reservoir for a certain period of time.
Water harvesting is based on the utilization of
surface runoff; therefore it requires runoff producing
and runoff receiving areas. In most cases, with the
exception of floodwater harvesting from far away
catchments, water harvesting utilizes the rainfall
from the same location or region. It do not include
its conveyance over long distances or its use after
enriching the groundwater reservoir. Water

*Pre-final Year **Professor ***Professor & Head, Post Graduate Environmental Engineering Department
Deptt. of Civil Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh – 160 012

123
harvesting projects are generally local and small scale
projects.
1.2 Necessities
The main goals of water harvesting are:
1. Restoring the productivity of land which suffers
from inadequate rainfall.
2. Increasing yields of rain fed farming
3. Minimizing the risk in drought prone areas
4. Combating desertification by tree cultivation
5. Supplying drinking water for animals.
2 Techniques of Rain Water Harvesting
The various rain water harvesting techniques
can be broadly classified into following six
categories.
1. Rooftop water harvesting
2. Water harvesting for animal consumption
3. Inter-row water harvesting
4. Microcatchment water harvesting
5. Medium-sized catchment water harvesting
6. Large catchment water harvesting.
Fig. 1 : Annual precipitation ranges for different forms
of water harvesting in summer rainfall areas
Fig. 2 : Roof top rain water harvesting
124
2.1 Roof top water harvesting
Rain “harvested” from the roofs of buildings
including greenhouses is, in many locations, a very
valuable resource being used mainly for drinking
and domestic purposes. Fig. 2 shows a typical roof
top harvesting system.
The various types of roof top rain water
harvesting are as follows :
2.1.1 Component System
This system enables custom building from
separate components giving great flexibility
enabling the system to be adapted for many
situations regardless of location of storage tank
realative to building.
2.1.2 Module System
This type of system differs in that they do not
replenish the storage tank with main water. Instead
there is an integral main water cistern which the
pump draws from when there is insufficient water
in storage tank.
2.1.3 Hybrid System
Hybrid system comprises a module unit with
an additional submersible pump located in
underground storage tank.
2.2 Water harvesting for animal consumption
Ancient dwellers harvested rain water for
human and animal consumption by redirecting the
water running down hill slopes into cisterns.
Presently, this tradition is still practiced in many
regions, but where the means are available, surfaces
used for rainwater collection are usually either
physically compacted, chemically treated or covered
to increase runoff volume:
(i) Clay soils are well suited for compaction. The
surfaces are shaped, smoothened and then
compacted e.g. by tractor and rubber-tired rollers.
(ii) Sodium salts, wax, latexes, asphalt, bitumen,
fiberglass and silicones can be used as sealants on
soils which do not swell with moisture (Frasier
1994). Plots treated with sun-melted granulated
paraffin-wax yielded about 90 percent of the rainfall
as runoff, compared to 30 percent from untreated
plots.
(iii) Concrete, plastic sheeting, butyl rubber and
metal foil can also be used to cover the soil for
rainwater harvesting. Gravel may protect the
underlying membrane against radiation and wind
damage.
The runoff water is collected in lined or unlined
pits down the slope of the catchment area (Fig. 2),
Fig 3. Rainwater harvesting system
for animal consumption
2.3 Inter-row water harvesting
Inter-row water harvesting is applied either on
flat land or on gentle slopes of up to 5 % having soil
at least 1 m deep. The annual rainfall should not be
less than 200 mm/year. On flat terrain (0-1 %
inclination) bunds are constructed, compacted and,
under higher-input conditions, treated with
chemicals to increase runoff. The aridity of the
location determines the catchment to cropping ratio
(CCR), which varies from 1:1 to 5:1 (Fig. 3).
On sloping land (1 - 20% inclination) these
systems are called “contour ridges” (USA) or
Fig. 4. Various forms of flat-land inter-row water
harvesting increasing CCR/aridity of location.
125
“Matuta” (East Africa). The ridges of about 0.40 m
height are built 2 to 20 m apart, depending on slope,
soil surface treatment, general CCR and type of crop
to be grown. The catchment area should be weeded
and compacted; the crops are either grown in the
furrow, along the upper side of the bund or on top
of the bund. On sloping land, this system is
recommended only for areas with a known regular
rainfall pattern; very high rainfall intensities may
cause breakages of the bunds. Crops cultivated in
row water harvesting systems are maize, beans,
millet, rice or (in the USA) grapes and olives (Pacey
and Cullis 1986, Finkel and Finkel 1986, Tobby
1994). The preparation of the land for inter-row
water harvesting can be fully mechanized.
2.4 Microcatchment systems
Microcatchment water harvesting (MC-WH)
is a method of collecting surface runoff from a small
catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an
adjacent infiltration basin. This infiltration basin
may be planted with a single tree, bush or with
annual crop.
Fig 4. Illustrates a microcatchment system. The
water collected from different parts of the catchment
area in stored as shown in the figure.
Fig 5 : Negarin type Microcathment system
The system shown in the Fig was given by Ben-
Ashler [1] and has the following parameters.
1. Catchment Area = 3 - 250 sq. m
2. Cropping Area= 1 - 10 sq. m
3. Catchment: Cropping Ratio = 3: 1 -25:1
4. Precipitation =150- 600 mm/a
5. Slope = 1 - 20%
2.5 Medium-sized catchment water harvesting
Water harvesting from medium-sized
catchments (1,000 m2 - 200 ha) is also known as
“water harvesting from long slopes”, as “macro-
catchment water harvesting” or as “harvesting from
external catchment systems”.
The various characteristics of this type of
system are
1. A CCR of 10:1 to 100:1; the catchment being
located outside the arable areas.
2. The predominance of turbulent runoff and
channel flow of the catchment water in comparison
with sheet or rill flow of micro catchments.
3. The partial area contribution phenomenon
which is not relevant for micro catchments.
4. The catchment area may have an inclination
of 5 to 50 %; the cropping area is either terraced or
located in flat terrain.
Fig. 6 shows a hillside conduit type system
which is adopted in areas having a precipitation of
100-600 m.
Fig 6. Hill Type Conduit System
2.5 Large catchment water harvesting
Large catchment water harvesting comprises
systems with catchments being many square
kilometers in size, from which runoff water flows
through a major wadi (bed of an ephemeral stream),
necessitating more complex structures of dams and
distribution networks.
Two types are mainly distinguished:
1. Floodwater harvesting within the stream bed.
2. Floodwater diversion.
2.5.1 Floodwater harvesting within the stream
bed
Floodwater harvesting within the stream bed”
means blocking the water flow to inundate the valley
bottom of the entire flood plain, to force the water
to infiltrate and use the wetted area for crop
production or pasture improvement.
126
2.5.2 Floodwater diversion
Floodwater diversion means forcing the wadi
water to leave its natural course and conveying it to
nearby areas suitable for arable cropping.
Floodwater diversion techniques were already
applied several thousand years ago.
Fig. 7 : Flood Diversion Technique
3. PARAMETERS FOR IDENTIFICATION
OF SUITABLE RAIN AREAS.
The selection of suitable areas and techniques
for rain water harvesting is of utmost importance to
derive the maximum benefits from the scheme.
The most important parameters to be
considered in identifying areas suitable for rain and
floodwater harvesting are as follows:
3.1 Rainfall
The knowledge of rainfall characteristics
(intensity and distribution) for a given area is one
of the pre-requisites for designing a water harvesting
system. The availability of rainfall data series in
space and time and rainfall distribution are important
for rainfall-runoff process and also for determination
of available soil moisture. A threshold rainfall events
(e.g. of 5 mm/event) is used in many rainfall runoff
models as a start value for runoff to occur. The
intensity of rainfall is a good indicator of which
rainfall is likely to produce runoff. Useful rainfall
factors for the design of a rain- or floodwater
harvesting system include:
(1) Number of days in which the rain exceeds the
threshold rainfall of the catchment, on a weekly or
monthly basis.
(2) Probability and occurrence (in years) for the
mean monthly rainfall.
(3) Probability and reoccurrence for the minimum
and maximum monthly rainfall.
(4) Frequency distribution of storms of different
specific intensities.
3.2 Land use or vegetation cover
Vegetation is an infiltration rates which
consequently decrease the volume of runoff.
Vegetation density can be characterized by the size
of the area covered under vegetation. There is a high
degree of congruence between density of vegetation
and suitability of the soil to be used for cropping.
3.3 Topography and terrain profile
The land form along with slope gradient and
relief intensity is other parameters to determine the
type of water harvesting. The terrain analysis can
be used for determination of the length of slope, a
parameter regarded of very high importance for the
suitability of an area for macro-catchments water
harvesting. With a given inclination, the runoff
volume increases with the length of slope. The slope
length can be used to determine the suitability for
macro or micro- or mixed water harvesting systems
decision making.
3.4 Soil type & soil depth
The suitability of a certain area either as
catchments or as cropping area in water harvesting
depend strongly on its soils characteristics viz.
(1) Surface structure; which influence the rainfall-
runoff process
(2) The infiltration and percolation rate; which
determine water movement into the soil and within
the soil matrix, and
(3) The soil depth incl. soil texture; which
determines the quantity of water which can be stored
in the soil.
e) Hydrology and water resources
The hydrological processes relevant to water
harvesting practices are those involved in the
production, flow and storage other important
parameter that affects the surface runoff. Various
studies have shown that an increase in the vegetation
density results in a corresponding increase in
interception losses, retention and of runoff from
127
rainfall within a particular project area. The rain
falling on a particular catchment area can be
effective (as direct runoff) or ineffective (as
evaporation, deep percolation). The quantity of
rainfall which produces runoff is a good indicator
of the suitability of the area for water harvesting.
3.5 Socio-economic & infrastructure
conditions
The socio-economic conditions of a region
being considered for any water harvesting scheme
are very important for planning, designing and
implementation. The chances for success are much
greater if resource users and community groups are
involved from early planning stage onwards. The
farming systems of the community, the financial
capabilities of the average farmer, the cultural
behaviour together with religious belief of the
people, attitude of farmers towards the introduction
of new farming methods, the farmers knowledge
about irrigated agriculture, land tenure and property
rights and the role of women and minorities in the
communities are crucial issues.
3.6 Environmental and ecological impacts
Dry area ecosystems are generally fragile and
have a limited capacity to adjust to change [3]. If
the use of natural resources (land and water), is
suddenly changed by water harvesting, the
environmental consequences are often far greater
than foreseen. Consideration should be given to the
possible effect on natural wetlands as on other water
users, both in terms of water quality and quantity.
New water harvesting systems may intercept runoff
at the upstream part of the catchment, thus depriving
potential down stream users of their share of the
resources. Water harvesting technology should be
seen as one component of a regional water
management improvement project. Components of
such integrated plans should be the improvement of
agronomic practices, including the use of good plant
material, plant protection measures and soil fertility
management.
4. Conclusions
Substantial amounts of rainfall in semi-arid
areas are lost (e.g. by evaporation from soil
surfaces), which could be utilized for agricultural
production. This could be achieved through water
harvesting. Rainwater Harvesting have the potential
to increase the productivity of arable and grazing
land by increasing the yields and by reducing the
risk of crop failure. They also facilitate re- or
afforestation, fruit tree planting or agroforestry. With
regard to tree establishment, rainwater and
floodwater harvesting can contribute to the fight
against desertification. Most of these techniques are
relatively cheap and can therefore be a viable
alternative where irrigation water from other sources
is not readily available or too costly. Unlike pumping
water, water harvesting saves energy and
maintenance costs. Using harvested rainwater helps
in decreasing the use of other valuable water sources
like groundwater. Remote sensing and Geographical
Information Systems can help in the determination
of areas suitable for water harvesting. The decision
making process concerning the best method
128
applicable in particular environmental and geo-
physical conditions depends on kind of crop to be
grown and prevalent socio-economic and cultural
factors.
References
1. Ben-Asher, J. (1988). A Review of Water
Harvesting in Israel. World Bank Working Paper 2.
WorldBank Sub-Saharan Water Harvesting Study,
p. 47-69.
2. Boers, T. M. and Ben-Asher, J. (1982). A
review of rainwater harvesting. Agric. Water
Management.
3. Oweis, T., A. Hachum, and J. Kijne. 1999.
Water harvesting and supplementary irrigation for
improved water use efficiency in dry areas.
4. Prinz, D., S. Wolfer.1999. Traditional
techniques of Water Management.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

21. Technology to Effectively Utilize Rain and River Water through

Advanced Ground Water Recharging Technique without Interlinking
of Rivers
*Chetan Hari Sharma

Abstract
The technology to effectively utilize rain and river water through advanced ground
water recharging technique is a system which club together nearly every engineering aspect
related to it and utilizes them in the best possible way to serve the humanity.
It channelizes the floodwater and the water, which would otherwise mix with the sea,
as a ground water reserve, so that it can be made available, to the whole country during
non-monsoon months. As the pure water free from all impurities is stored under-ground
therefore a very huge percentage of water, which would have been evaporated if it had been
stored on the surface, can be saved.
In addition to all these capabilities the technology proves to be the gods blessing by
generating electricity, through pollution free hydroelectric power plant in between the journey
of this harnessed water from the surface location to under-ground aquifers, extracting all
the additional energy which the water initially possess due to its potential head.

1. INTRODUCTION necessary so as to obtain from this servant, as many

Water is an excellent resource of nature, and it
can be made to serve various functions. Properly
planned use of water may nourish our farms and
forests, may run our turbines for generation of hydro-
electric power, may help in preparing modern
medicines for cure of various ailments and diseases,
may help in beautifying our surroundings and
environments, etc. Besides, fulfilling the basic
necessities of life, properly harnessed and developed
water can enable us to lead an effluent and a
luxurious life. It is in fact, an amazing fluid and can
lead to an overall prosperity of a nation and that of
the entire community as a whole. But, if not properly
harnessed or planned, the same useful servant may
become wild or an enemy in the form of severe
storms, floods, hurricanes, etc bringing disasters,
devastations and catastrophes.
Proper planning is, therefore, absolutely
benefits as possible, with minimum expenditure.
Hence, the proposed proposal in this paper had been
invented by me considering all the aspects of the
behavior of water resource and present engineering
capabilities which ensures that the proposal is the
best one, and any other possible alternative will not
be better then the proposed one.
The purpose of the plan to effectively utilize
rain and river water through advanced ground water
recharging technique is to :
[a] Reduce the extent of annual flooding at the
flood prone areas, mainly of the Ganga and
Brahmaputra Basin.
[b] Solve the ground water related problems, such
as ground water depletion, pollution and quality
deterioration, through rechargement of large amount
of pure water, which would otherwise get wasted.
[c] Boost agricultural productivity, as ground

Krishna Mandir, Cement Road, Sadar, Gandhi Chowk, Nagpur - 440 001 India
Email: chetan hari Sharma@indiatimes.com

129
water irrigation’s contribution to agricultural
productivity is some 45% higher then that made by
the surface irrigation in India.
[d] Prevent seawater intrusion in the costal area
aquifers, which is mostly caused because of ground
water over exploitation.
[e] Provide water for drought prone areas, and the
regions where ground water level is depleting due
to over exploitation.
[f] Generate additional hydroelectric power,
approximately 50% more then the present country’s
hydroelectric power capacity.
[g] Harness maximum possible amount of 1500
BCM of floodwater, 700 BCM of water which
presently gets evaporated and 300 BCM of balance
water, which presently remains unutilized.
2. PRESENT HYDROLOGICAL SCENARIO
The rapid growth in the demand of fresh water
driven by growth in the global population and of
the economies has lead to this natural resources
becoming scarce in many parts of the world. As a
result, the ratio between the number of the people
and the available water resource is worsening day
by day. By 2020, the global population is projected
to touch 7.9 billion, which is 50 percent longer than
that in 1990. Because of this rapid growing
population the world may see more then six fold
increase in the number of people living in the
condition of water stress from 470 million today to
3 billion in 2025.
In the global picture, India is identified as a
country where water scarcity is expected to grow
considerably in the coming decades further drought
conditions resulting from climatic variability cause
considerable human suffering in many parts of the
country in the form of scarcity of water for both
satisfaction of domestic needs and for crop
protection.
Unlike the precipitation patterns in the
temperate regions of the world, precipitation in India
is characterized by acute variation in both space and
time. In our country 80 percent of the annual run off
is limited to brief monsoon period generally less than
100 days. In total, country receives about 4000 BCM
of water as precipitation annually out of which 700
BCM are lost in evaporation and another 700 BCM
are lost during the flow on the ground. Also, the
large part of the water namely 1500 BCM flows into
130
the sea due to the floods, thus, the remaining available
water is only 1100 BCM out of this ground water
recharge accounts for 430 BCM per year and the
present utilized surface water is 370 BCM the
balance unutilized water which can be harnessed is
300 BCM.
A large part of the precipitation on the country
is received in the Himalayan Catchments of the
Ganga- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM) basis. The
distribution of precipitation over the India is
predominately governed by the monsoon as a result
of which the north eastern water of the country
receives substantially large precipitation in
comparison with the north western, western and
southern parts for example, the eastern part of GBM
basin Cherrapunji receives an annual precipitation
of about 11,000mm while Ajmer just outside the
western boundary of the GBM basin may receive
only 200 mm of annual rainfall.
3. INDIA’S GROUND WATER SOCIO-
ECOLOGY
The groundwater socio-ecology of India has
been at the heart of their agrarian boom; and this
socio-ecology is under siege. Much concern about
the problems of groundwater depletion, pollution
and quality deterioration is fueled by worries about
their environmental consequences. These are indeed
serious; however, equally serious are their
consequences for the sustenance of agrarian
economies and millions of rural livelihoods that are
precariously dependent upon groundwater irrigation.
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and China account for
the bulk of the world’s groundwater use in
agriculture. Indeed, while much public investment
has been devoted to the creation of surface irrigation,
the reality of India is that the bulk of its agrarian
growth in recent decades has been energized by a
rapid rise in groundwater irrigation through small
pumps and wells financed mostly through private
farmer investments. A new analysis of Indian
agriculture suggests that based on an Indian data set
offering the tentative macro-level test, groundwater
irrigation may contribute more to Indian agricultural
growth than even surface irrigation development.
The model results support the hypothesis that
groundwater irrigation contributes nearly 50 % more
to rural wealth creation than surface irrigation; for
a 1,000 ha increase in the area under groundwater
irrigation increases a district’s average agricultural
productivity by Rs 23/ha, whereas adding 1,000 ha
to surface water irrigated area increases it only by
Rs 16/ha. Table below provides an alternative mode
of comparing Agricultural Productivity and Ground
Water Irrigation in India. In the ‘average’ district
with 102,730 ha under groundwater and 79,230 ha
under surface irrigation, Rs 2,363/ha of the average
productivity, of Rs 10,460 is contributed by
groundwater irrigation, while only Rs 1,258 is
explained by surface irrigation.
Table -1 :
Comparison of Agricultural Productivity and
Ground Water Irrigation in India
All in all, the analysis of Indian data explores
that in the recent decades, of the agricultural
productivity of a ‘representative’ (or typical) hectare,
the portion contributed by groundwater irrigation is
very nearly twice that contributed by surface
irrigation. It also shows that groundwater
131
development has tended to be more ‘democratic’; it
has responded more to people’s needs and demand
rather than to hydrological opportunity; it is linked
more to population density than to the occurrence
of the resource. Finally, groundwater has proven
more amenable to poverty targeting than have large
surface irrigation systems; governments can design
pump subsidies or build public tube wells, but not
large canal systems, exclusively for the poorer
segments. That’s why groundwater economy of India
is the backbone of its increasingly productive
agriculture and rural livelihood systems.
Throughout India, however, regions that have
sustainable groundwater balances are shrinking day
by day. Three problems dominate groundwater use:
depletion due to overdraft; water logging and
salinization due mostly to inadequate drainage and
insufficient conjunctive use; and pollution due to
agricultural, industrial and other human activity.
Groundwater depletion has major environmental
consequences; but it has important economic
consequences too. Declining water tables raise the
energy and capital costs of accessing groundwater
to prohibitive levels; in such regions, like North
Gujarat, entire agrarian economies face serious
threat of extinction from the decline of groundwater
socio-ecologies. Water quality and health problems
- such as very high fluoride and arsenic contents -
have similarly immiserizing social impacts in India.
Unlike India countries like the US and Australia, the
presence of a small number of large users and low
population density creates uniquely favorable
conditions for some institutional approaches to
work; but these break down in India, with its high
population density and multitude of tiny users. For
instance, a stringent groundwater law that is
enforced in Australia would come unstuck in India
because of prohibitive enforcement costs. Europe
has a high population density; but it is much more
comfortable than India in its overall water balance.
Moreover, ground water is a little Importance in
south East Asia, which has abundant surface water.
Therefore, it is obligatory that like surface
water, the groundwater resource too needs to be
planned and managed for maximum basin-level
efficiency.
4. FLOOD AND DROUGHT SITUATION
The vast variation both in space and time in
the availability of water in different region of the
country has created what is normally referred to as
food drought flood syndrome with some area
suffering from flood damages and other facing acute
water shortage, flood and drought affects vast area
of country transcending state boundaries. As per
record after independence 70 droughts occurred in
country. Land over 80% of our country goes under
drought if there is a short fall of 5% rain in monsoon.
Jodhpur, Banner, Charu district of Rajasthan is
drought hited for 31 out of 38 years. Floods normally
affects, 8 major rivers valleys spread over 40 million
hectare of area in the entire country affecting nearly
260 million people, similarly the drought affect 86
million people who are spread in 14 states covering
a total 116 districts. This flood comes from the 1500
BCM of water every year flowing during the
monsoon season. If we have to prevent the damage
due to the flood and reduce the severity of drought,
we have to harness this 1500 BCM of water and
distribute it to the drought-affected areas. If we
succeed in doing this, we will save Rs. 150 billion
per annum which is spend on drought relief and
Rs.300 billion per annum which is spend on flood
relief by our country. The question that arises is how
to harness the floodwater? And how to regulate the
out flow of floodwater so that it does not go into sea
and it is converted as useful water for the mankind.
The answer is, through the project for technology
132
to effectively utilized rain and river water through
advanced ground water recharging technique, which
emanates to bring a permanent solution to the
negative impacts or drought and floods. Such a
desire must be considered without question, worthy
of applause because satisfaction of domestic water
needs should be considered as a human right and be
given the top priority.
4. ABOUT MY TECHNOLOGY
My proposal envisages the withdrawal of
flowing water through the river with the help of river
intake structure. It is necessary to construct such
river intakes because when water is withdrawn
through a conduit, from a river independently, and
as such the entrance of the conduit is not an integral
part of the dam or any other related structure than
an intake structure is used for safe withdrawal of
water from the river over a predetermined range of
pool levels and thus to protect the conduit from being
damaged, trash, debris, waves, etc. The most suitable
intake structures for this technology are: -
[a] Wet intake tower
[b] Dry intake tower
However, the dry intake towers are useful and
beneficial in the sense that water can be withdrawn
from any selected level of the river by opening the
port at that level. Since, the rain is uniformly
distributed over the entire basin therefore the run
off goes on increasing while making its way towards
sea. Hence, these river intakes can be installed at
such spacing that the withdrawal of water through
these intake maintains the desired level of flow
throughout the river.
The water coming out from the conduit is send
to the water purification plant to improve the quality
of the water, in such plants water is passed through
number of treatments so that the water coming out
of the plant when consumed for domestic purposes
it would not result in any health hazard. The quality
of water can be defined and estimated by studying its
1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Turbidity,
colour, taste, odour and specific conductivity of
water.
2. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Total
solids and suspended solids PH value of water,
hardness of water, sodium content of water.
3. BACTERIAL AND MICROSCOPIC
CHARACTERISTICS : Aerobic bacteria, faultative
bacteria, plankton (algae), protozoa, etc.
It is necessary to purify water because through
this technology I had planned to preserve this water
in the ground water aquifer’s, so that whenever and
wherever required this water can be extracted with
the help of pumps for domestic and other uses. Also,
in the process of natural ground water recharging,
the water while percolating below the ground surface
passes through the voids of the rocks, and join water
table, which makes it automatically purified along
its passage. But, in this artificial recharging
technique water is directly passed to the underground
location. Hence it most be purified first.
Depending upon the capacity of water
purification plants water may be supplied to a single
plant from the number of river intake structure via,
conduit pipe or water may be supplied to the plant
from a single river intake structure. The water
released from the purification plant is impounded
by a reservoir having a dam constructed over it. The
construction of such reservoir may hand out in many
ways.
[a] Store a portion of the flood flows in such a
way as to play down the flood peaks at the areas to
be protected downstream.
[b] To prevent difficulties to carry out the
operation, during high flows.
[c] Fulfill the demand of hydroelectric power plant.
[d] Direct water supply to the city, etc.
FIG : MODIFIED HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
133
The reservoir is further connected to the
waterways, which acts as a passage through which
the water is carried from the storage reservoir to the
powerhouse where electricity is generated, utilizing
the power of water. The water has two_forms of
energy while flowing through the penstock, kinetic
and potential. The kinetic depends upon the mass
of water flowing and its velocity, while the forms of
energy while flowing through the penstock, kinetic
and potential. The kinetic depends upon the mass
of water flowing and its velocity, while the potential
energy exists as a result of difference in the water
level between the two points, which is known as
“head” the hydraulic turbine convent kinetic and
potential energies possessed by the water into
mechanical power. The hydraulic turbine is thus a
prime mover which when coupled to a generator
produces electric power.
Since, in this technology our aim is to prevent floods
and deliver maximum possible mass of water
underground to enhance the ground water level,
therefore there is no limitation, in the amount of
water to be used. Hence, we are provided with the
ample mass of water with us, which can produce
very high kinetic energy. Also since we have to
transmit water under ground therefore high heads
can be attained resulting in tremendous amount of
power generation.
 As such, it is a matter of concern that 59 years
after independence, more than fifty percent of all
rural house hold in India do not have electricity and
use kerosene for lighting. Even for those rural areas,
which are electrified, there is a tremendous shortage
of power supply. Thus it is not uncommon for those
areas to have 10-15 hours of black outs every day.
There is a short fall of about 20,000 MW of
electricity in the country and we require about
1,40,000 MW of additional capacity by 2010. This
project will give a major contribution to overcome
such energy crisis; it will be helpful to meet out
energy demands, by a 40-45% contribution in
national power grids through, hydroelectric
generation by 35,000-40,000 MW.
The water coming out from the draft tube of
the hydroelectric power plant is discharged to the
artificial underground reservoirs. Such reservoirs are
created because of varying amount of valid spaces
in the bedrocks where ground water accumulates.
The rocks below the earth’s surface is the bedrock
consisting of many types of rocks, such as sand
stones, granite, and limestone. Bed rocks can also
become broken and fractured, creating spaces that
can be fill with water. And some bedrock, such as
limestone, is dissolved by water, which results in
large cavities that fill with water.
In many places, considering vertical cross-
section of the earth the rock is laid down in layers
especially in areas of sedimentary rocks. Some layers
have rocks that are more porous than others, and
here water moves more freely in the horizontal
manner through the earth deep, in the bedrock there
are rock layers made of dense material such as
granite or materials that water has a hard time
penetration, such as clay. These layers may be
underneath the porous rock layers and thus, act as a
confining layer to retard the vertical movement of
water. Since, it is more difficult for the water to go
any deeper it tends to pool in the porous layers and
flow in more horizontal direction across the aquifer
towards regions having there aquifer with low water
level. In this way the aquifer in which the water is
stored shall itself be act as the distribution system
for carrying water from one place to another with
or without any minor modification in its flow pattern
and so such necessity of constructing pipelines or
canals (as required in the project of interlinking of
rivers) is completely eliminated, therefore cost due
134
to huge distribution network and the large area of
land which would be utilized in constructing such
canals is saved. Therefore through my technology
of artificial ground water storage the following
benefits can be obtained.
[a] The present ground water decline rate is as high
as 1.5 meters per year in some parts, has not only
destroyed many wells but also resulted increased
cost from water pumping, this problem can be
rectified only through my technique.
[b] Since, in India some 60% of total agricultural
water comes from the ground water, which accounts
of over half of total irrigated area, increase in the
water table can give new boost to agricultural
growth.
[c] This type of ground water management
requires no or sometimes very minor modification
in the aquifer to distribute the water to the drought
affected regions such as Rajasthan and Gujarat
which are under havoc and misery.
[d] The water lost in evaporation from an
underground reservoir of this technology is much
less than the water lost from a surface reservoir.
[e] My technology will prove to be more amenable
to poverty targeting than have large surface irrigation
system, since government can design pump subsidies
or build public tube wells but not large canal system
exclusively for the poorer segments.
[f] The ground water development as tented to be
more democratic; it can respond more to people’s
needs and demand rather than hydrological
opportunity; it is linked more to population density
than to occurrence of the resource.
[g] More than 65% of India’s total ground water
is affected by excessive fluoride content, resulting
in fluorine related diseases, excess fluoride in
drinking water also causes bone related problems
and ground water of West Bengal has high arsenic
content, this has become a major water quality and
health issue effecting huge areas of population,
through this technology such problems can be solved
by keeping the concentration of fluoride, arsenic and
other chemicals get diluted and much purer water
can be made available.
[h] The sea water intrusion on India’s coasts,
specially Gujarat’s Savrashtra region, Tamil Nadu’s
Minjur aquifer, coastal areas of Indus basin is
threatening the ecology of important wet lands,
including Mangrove forests of over 1,30,000 ha,
ground water over-exploitation is the main cause of
these sea-water intrusion. The raising of water table
by this artificial recharging method may help in
building pressure barriers to prevent seawater
intrusion in the coastal areas.
[i] No space is required to build such reservoir.
In another form of such type of project, the
reservoir can be constructed directly across the river.
The water from the reservoir is extracted and send
to water purification plant and this water after the
purification is send to another reservoir which is
further connected to the same system of
hydroelectric power plant and ground water aquifer
as discussed above.
In such types of construction there is no need
to build river intake structure and are suitable for
implementation in the region where there is high
probability of sudden rise in the run off due to very
heavy precipitation. As, in the previous method we
where sending the water at the water purification
plant with the help of conduit and then transmitting
this purified plant would do not be able to manage
their operation due to devastating floods, as they
could not work above their capacity. This could
result in little higher flood peaks, all these problems
can be avoided by building a reservoir fitted with
dam over it, directly over the river. The water from
the reservoir is extracted according to the capacity
of water purification plant and the requirement of
hydel power plant and then after purification is send
to a closed large tank from where it can be supplied
to the power plant and so on.
5. MOST SUITABLE LOCATIONS
India is blessed with the wonderful gift by the
nature in the form of Himalayan Mountain in the
north, which plays a very significant role in
providing the supplies of water the human societies
needs. The Himalayas is the source of many large
rivers like Yangtse, Irrawadi, Yarlung, Tsangpo,
Brahmaputra, Ganga, Indus, Amu Darya, etc. Indeed
the Himalayas can be called the water tower of Asia
the amount of water that India receives because of
such geographical conditions is capable to satisfy
its presents and future water needs comfortably if
harassed effectively. Indeed, it is true that nature
had given us the solution of each and every problem,
now it is the duty, of we engineers and scientists to
135
explore the ways through which the available
resources can be utilized in the best possible manner
to fulfill our needs. In total India has as many as 12
major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8
million hectare (mha) of the major rivers; the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the biggest with the
catchments area of about 110 mha which is more
than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major
rivers in the country. The other major rivers with
catchment area more then 10 mha are Indus (32.1
mha), Godavari (31.3mha), Krishna (25.9mha), and
Mahanadi (14.2mha). The catchment area of
medium rivers is about 25 mha and Subernarekha
with 1.9mha catchment area is the largest river
among the medium rivers in the country. About 40
percent of utilizable surface water resources are
presently in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system.
The distribution of water resources potential in the
country shows that as against the national per capita
annual availability of water as 2,208 cubic meters,
the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak
is as high as 16,589 cubic metres while it is low as
360 cubic meters in Sabarmati Basin. Brahmaputra
and Barak basin with 7.3 percent of geographical
area 4.2 % of population of the country has 31% of
the annual water resources per capita annual
availability for rest of the country excluding
Brahmaputra and Barak basin works out to about
1,583 cubic meters. Any situation of availability of
less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita is considered
by international agencies as scarcity condition
Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and
West flowing rivers are some of the basins which
fall into this category.
The technology to effectively utilize rain and
river water through advanced ground water
recharging technique can be implemented at the
locations where, per capita annual availability of
water is much greater than national per capita annual
availability of water. At present, most of these
locations are selected for the project of interlinking
of Indian rivers. In this project 36 main dams had
been planned to be constructed and hydropower of
34000 MW is estimated to be generated. At all the
30 locations where surplus river water is planned to
be supplied to the rivers with low flow rate, my
project can be implemented and instead of supplying
such water to other rivers, the complete water can
be stored in the ground water aquifer.
6. VARIOUS PROPOSALS FOR
INTERLINKING OF RIVERS
6.1 PENINSULAR RIVERS DEVELOPMENT
It is planned by national water development
agency to direct about 19 KM3 of surplus flow of
Mahanadi River to the Godavari system and to
further transfer 38 KM 3 from Godavari and its
tributaries to the Krishna river downwards South.
Another part of this proposal is to divert a part of
the surplus water of West flowing rivers of Kerala
to the East and generate hydropower. The third
segment envisages construction, storage to interlink
small rivers flowing along the West coast north of
Mumbai and South of Tapi. The fourth part
envisages interlinking of the Ken and the Chambal.
The proposal of peninsular river development
provides additional surface water in irrigation
benefits of 13 mha and generation of 4000 MW of
power. The addition, about the 3mha area could be
irrigated with ground water.
6.2 HIMALAYAN RIVER DEVELOPMENT
Out of the total water resource of the GBM
basin of about l000 maft, less than 10% there of is
being consumptively used at present. It is estimated
that by providing large storage floods can be
moderated providing substantial benefits of flood
control in the downstream regions. About 600KM3
of storage is required to fully harness the water
resources of the GBM basin, but through interlinking
process only 215KM3 of storage could be provided
in India, Nepal and Bhutan on the GBM system.
It is proposed to divert the water from
Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Subernarekha to River
Mahanadi by five river links and then to the southern
rivers. The second segment consists of interlinking
tributaries of Ganga, as another part of the proposal
is to Interlink Sharda, Yamuna, and Sabarmati River
by canals.
If the regional view is taken, India can get
additional irrigation of 22 mha after fully meeting
the needs of water in the other three countries.
Besides, this hydropower generation of about
30000MW is possible.
7. BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY TO
EFFECTIVELY UTILISE RAIN AND RIVER
WATER THROUGH ADVANCED GROUND
136
WATER RECHARGING TECHNIQUE OVER
INTERLINKING PROJECT :
[a] The project of interlinking of rivers sounds
good but involves a massive expenditure of about
Rs. 5,60,000 crores, for a developing country like
India if such a large amount is saved then it can be
used for development in other areas, where as my
project’s cost would be negligible in front of it since
cost of construction of large canals are eliminated.
[b] For the construction of canals nearly 4.5 lakh
people will be displayed from there homes,
farmlands and offices and a large cost will be
involved in there rehabilitation for the interlinking
project, while such cost is not involve in my project.
[c] Though, through this project water would be
supplied to the rivers having low run off, but it would
be of no use, because with the addition of sewage
water and the water from the industrial waste the
new water system will not remain fit for drinking
and other domestic purposes for much time, but in
my technology water can be extracted from any
where, any time with the help of tube wells and can
be consumed for domestic purposes, since it is
completely purified.
[d] Whenever it will become necessary to use the
water through flow channel of the linked rivers, for
the domestic needs it must be purified first, the
purification cost of this water would be
comparatively higher then what would be required
in my project, since after flowing over a large
distances, a huge percentage of impurities will mix
with this water.
[e] The major drought affected areas of India are
Rajasthan and Gujarat, where there is extreme need
to supply water as soon as possible, the interlinking
project must have been planned to transmit most of
the surplus flow to those regions, to prove itself
beneficial to mankind, but no major steps are to be
taken considering this aspects, while through my
project sufficient water can be supplied to the ground
water aquifer of each and every regions where
ground water level is depleting.
[f] India manages to loose more quantity of water
then, what it needs to satisfy its annual domestic
needs through evaporation. The interlinking involves
construction of 30 links extending up to 10,880 KM
occupying about 3.42 million KM 2 of the
geographical area, through this project such a large
amount of additional water surface area would be
exposed to atmosphere making evaporation of water
a predominating problem. Indeed, it is a very
wasteful way of supplying domestic water needs.
While, evaporation looses are completely absent in
my project.
[g] Since, whole of the water even after interlink
will ultimately merge into the sea; all the efforts
utilized for digging such large holes to form canals
and the large money employed in this project of
interlinking will get ruined. Where as, through my
project every single drop of water, which is
harnessed and send underground can be utilized
efficiently.
[h] The period of implementation for the gigantic
project of interlinking of rivers as given by Supreme
Court order, is mere 12 years. But experts say that
interlinking of rivers is highly complex process with
huge backward and forward and inter-sectoral
linkages that may be accomplished incrementally
over to next 50-100 years. Where as, since my
project is free from all such complexities, it can be
implemented at much less time.
[i] Interlinking project would not be cost effective
option for domestic water security in Drought-Prone
areas as it tries to supply domestic water through
collection at far away points and distribution through
long canals or existing river bed, with the help of
heavy pumping machineries. However, it is quite
clear that both financial cost and the amount of water
lost, my technology would be much effective.
[j] Ground water gets distributed equally in the
regions where water level gets depleted therefore
harnessing of water through my technique will not
give birth to conflicts isolated to water which could
result due to interlinking of rivers.
[k] The submergence of forests due to interlinking
project may lead to serious implications in terms of
bio-diversity loss; there are no such problems with
my project.
8. CONCLUSION
The technology to effectively utilize rain and
river water through advanced ground water
recharging technique is a project that would provide
137
us with uncountable benefits. It is capable of solving
all the water related problems not only through India
but also from the whole world and in addition to
this it would produce a large capacity of pollution
free hydro electricity. I had tried to explain its every
aspects briefly in this paper.
As such, for a country like India, where one
part is soaked in water, while other parts fears the
problems of drought. This type of mega project is
required in order to have uniform distribution of
water. Our country with world’s second largest
population and ever growing demand of food and
water, my project is required. On the other hand the
ambitious plan of inter basin transfer; as per the
experience of other countries argumentation of water
is a very wasteful and costly option. This project
will have a large social, environmental ramification.
Heavy pumping machinery required continuous
energy supply. It is very difficulty to give constant
power supply in the period of energy crisis. So it
will be impossible to cover stage pumping. Also,
remarkable change in eco-system will affect human
and animal life. At last, a major part of this precious
and scarce water resource will get wasted, unutilized
due to evaporation and mixing into the sea.
The project of interlinking of rivers is like a
few lines drawn on the map of country and I am
confident that it will remain the same even after
implementation, with very less benefits then what
can be achieved through my technology of artificial
ground water recharging. I request the government,
engineers, scientists and citizens of India to please
take each and every point, which I had, mention in
my paper, with little seriousness. As the project of
interlinking of rivers may not effect most of us
directly, and a few, of us will be displaced. However,
everyone living in the country will be affected by
the long-term consequences of the project.
I hope that my project of technology effectively
utilized rain and river water through advance ground
water recharging technique would be appreciated
by each and every community in India ad well as
abroad with open mind and open heart as it is an
essential requirement for the prosperity of the nation.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

22. Rainwater Harvesting and Northeast India : A Simple and

Cheapest Method
*Shukla Acharjee **Mangesh G. Waghmare

ABSTRACT
The present drought like situation in the lower Assam Brahmaputra Valley compelled
the people residing here to change their mindset that Northeast India won’t experience
drought. More than five lakhs farmers were affected by the unusual drought this year. Until
recent past the valley was considered to be the most vulnerably affected by flood twice a
year. However, due to global climatic change and other such factors now this region is also
experiencing drought like situation. Therefore, it is high time that people should wake up
and culture their mind to face any such situation in near future and use the resources
judiciously and learn the concept of sustainable development to preserve the natural resource
available to them for future generation. Here the authors have designed a simple model and
the cheapest method of rainwater harvesting keeping in mind the amount of precipitation,
topography, soil, depth, vegetation, cost of construction, storage and distribution system
for the poor people of northeast India. As rainfall is the main source of surface water and
its conservation is essential, therefore rainwater harvesting is one of the most promising
techniques for collection of excess runoff. In this northeastern part, bamboo is considered
the green gold. From storage to groundwater recharge in the present model bamboo has
been used which is easily available here. This technique of rainwater harvesting would be
very cheap for the farmers in particular and the masses in general living in the hilly regions
as well as in the plains of northeast India.
KEYWORDS : Rainwater harvesting, sustainable development, ground water recharge,
bamboo.

Corresponding Author: suklageo@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION only fraction of water. Huge quantity of rainwater

Water is a key for sustainable watershed
development and of all the natural resources; water
plays a very vital role in lives of human beings.
Presence and absence of water clearly determines
the culture and growth of community and a healthy
economy. Rain is the only natural source of fresh
water in India. Over all the percentage of recharging
of ground aquifers is 5-20% of total rain. It also
depends on terrain, topsoil condition, sub- surface
formation & rainfall pattern etc. Topsoil can hold
finds its way ultimately to sea through streams
without much contribution to aquifer system.
Hence, the only alternative is to harvest &
conserve this precious gift of the nature by
scientifically designed Rain Water Harvesting
structure. Ground water is the water stored in sub–
surface level in soil or rock formation of earth. It is
observed that the dense forest cover is reducing for
last few decades. And hence, capacity of the soil to
hold water is also reduced. In addition to this, heavy

*Department of Applied Geology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh-786006, Assam, India

**B.E (Civil), X83/14, Godrej Colony, Vikroli (E), Mumbai-400079, India

138
extraction of ground water is leading to an imbalance valley is 213 cm while the in the northeastern foothill
in ground water reserves, as the withdrawal of water belt is 414 cm. The basin as a whole has the average
is more than recharging of water. This is leading to annual rainfall of 230 cm with a variability of 15-
depletion of ground water resources resulting in 20 percent. The Himalayan sector receives 500 cm
increasing depth of ground water table from surface. of rainfall per year, the lower ranges receiving more
Though, according to recent studies by Assam State than the higher area (Goswami, 1985). The principal
Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) after rocks of Meghalaya plateau are granite and gneisses.
the current dry spell says that it have not affected At the foot of hills are found beds of conglomerates.
much the ground water table but in future chances In between these two ranges lies the narrow
are there of major depletion of ground water table. Brahmaputra valley, which is alluvial in origin and
However, time to time the scientists are giving consists of sand, sandstones, pebbles, clay and
warnings to the people that ground water table is sometimes a mixture of sand and clay with
going down every passing year in the northeastern decomposed vegetable matter. The fragile rocks of
cities because of high extraction of ground water. Arunachal Pradesh are prone to severe erosion.
Several urban settlements of the different states of
northeastern region are already facing a severe
scarcity of potable water. In this backdrop, rainwater
harvesting appears to be the only solution that could
provide some reprieve during the scorching summer.
The principle itself is very simple-collecting
rainwater during wet season and using it in times of
need. Another part of the collected water could be
used to recharge the aquifers and restore the water
level.

THE STUDY AREA

The North Eastern Region of India comprising
the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Nagaland, is a huge
sprawling landmass made up of extensive countless
hills and mountainous terrain that rises in the north
to snow-capped heights of the Himalaya, and is the
playground of the mighty river Brahmaputra
regarded as one of the largest rivers of the world
and its tributaries (Fig:1). The climate of the region
may be called Humid Mesothermal Brahmaputra
type or ‘Cwb’ type according to Mr. W. Koppen. It
is humid sub-tropical, and high rainfall and high
humidity are the main features thereof. The number
of rainy days may sometimes equal three weeks in a
month (Table:1). The climate influences soil types.
The soils of the region are alluvium derived and are
classified into old alluvial and forest soil. Soil
profiles representing major soil orders are Entisol,
Inceptisol, and Alfisol. The region also encounters
the presence of poorly drenched soils. In addition,
the mineralogy of soils, which includes sand, silt
and clay mineralogy, is also equally important. The
average annual rainfall in the lower Brahmaputra Fig: 1. North eastern Region :The study area

139
 Table 1 : Annual Rainfall and Rainy days
State
Assam
Arunachal Pradesh
Manipur, Mizoram & Nagaland
Meghalaya
WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING ?
PROBLEMS WITH GROUND WATER
1) The current precious reserves of ground water
are vanishing rapidly due to heavy extraction of
ground water, which is more than recharge. Hence,
ground water is reducing in quantity.
2) The other important factors for degrading the
quality of ground water are heavy industrialization
and contamination of surface & subsurface water
with highly toxic pollutants. Already 21 districts of
Assam have reported arsenic contamination of
ground water, while five of the districts have
reported fluoride contamination.
3) Unfortunately, we do not have system for
protecting water from contamination to stop or
reduce the contamination, even to treat these ground
water reserves.
Considering all the above conditions and
problems of ground water, there must be some
solution for it. It is our duty to find out some definite
strategy on for solving the same; since we only have
created the problem. Rainwater harvesting is the
best, economic and feasible solution for water crisis
in comparison with other technologies, which are
very costly.
BAMBOO-THE GREEN GOLD AND
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Bamboo, a fast growing, versatile woody grass
is found across the country. It is an economic
resource having immense potential for improving
the quality of life of rural and urban communities
with environment regeneration qualities like carbon
sequestering. Bamboo provides raw material for
large industries like paper and pulp as well as for
cottage and handicrafts industry (Fig. 2). Some
bamboo species can grow one metre in a day.
140
Rainfall & rainy days in a year
2262.95 mm with 144 rainy days
3000 mm with 200 rainy days
1927 mm
2050 mm with 200 rainy days
Fig. 2 : Bamboo the Green Gold of
North East India
SUBSYSTEM COMPONENTS OF
RAINWATER HARVESTING
A rainwater harvesting system consists of the
following subsystems: catchment area (roof),
conveyance system (guttering, downspouts, first
flush and piping), filtration, storage and distribution.
Catchment Subsystem : For domestic rainwater
harvesting, the most common surface for collection
of water is the roof of the dwelling. Many other
surfaces can be used. Most dwellings, however, have
a roof. Rainwater harvesting can be done with any
roofing material if it is for non-drinking use only.
For potable use of rainwater, the best roof materials
are metal, clay, cementitious and thatch (from a
variety of organic materials), provide a surface
adequate for high quality water collection. In
Northeast India, locally available grass thatched roof
is very popular.
Conveyance Subsystem : Guttering is used to
transport rainwater from the roof to the storage
vessel. Guttering comes in a wide variety of shapes
and forms, ranging from the factory made PVC type
to home made guttering using bamboo (Fig:6) or
folded metal sheet. Guttering is usually fixed to the
building or bamboo hut just below the roof and it
catches the water as it falls from the roof. Some
common gutter shapes and fixing methods are shown
in fig.3.
Guttering could be installed on one grass roof
that had been constructed with a plastic membrane
beneath it – this helps to prevent UV degradation of
the plastic. The grass could be loosely thatched and
found locally. The plastic sheet guttering that was
installed is shown in Fig: 3. It should be designed to
capture all the water falling on the thatch and passing
through to the plastic sheet. It should be fixed using
two long poles, one suspended below the eaves and
one on top of the thatch. It can also be designed to
be demountable from the upper surface, such that it
can be ‘put away’ under the eaves when there is no
rain. Again, this helps prevent degradation due to
sunlight.
Fig. 3 : Bamboo hut & Plastic sheet guttering and the
designs of Gutters & Fixings
141
First Flush System : Debris, dirt, dust and droppings
will collect on the roof of a building or other collection
area. When the first rains arrive, this unwanted
matter will be washed into the tank. This will cause
contamination of the water and the quality will be
reduced. Many DRWH (Domestic Rain Water
Harvesting) systems therefore incorporate a system
for diverting this ‘first flush’ water so that it does
not enter the tank. There are a number of simple
systems that are commonly used and also a number
of other, slightly more complex, arrangements. The
simpler ideas are based on a manually operated
arrangement whereby the inlet pipe is moved away
from the tank inlet and then replaced again once the
initial first flush has been diverted. This method has
obvious drawbacks in that there has to be a person
present who will remember to move the pipe. Here
we have designed the storage tank with a sand filter
fitted on the lid of the tank itself so that when the
water is diverted to the tank pipe it would filter the
water first then goes inside the tank (Fig: 5).
Filtration System : Again, there are wide varieties
of systems available for treating water before, during
and after storage. The level of sophistication also
varies, from extremely high-tech to very
rudimentary. The sand-charcoal-stone filter is often
used for filtering rainwater entering a tank. This type
of filter is only suitable, however, where the inflow
is low to moderate, and will soon overflow if the
inflow exceeds the rate at which the water can
percolate through the sand. Settling tanks and
partitions can be used to remove silt and other
suspended solids from the water. Many systems
found in the field rely simply on a piece of cloth or
fine mosquito mesh to act as the filter (and to prevent
mosquitoes entering the tank).
Storage Subsystem : In larger prospective of storage
system we can say; Natural storage system i.e.
recharging ground water aquifers & another is man
made that is storage tanks. They can be made of
various locally available materials, in various sizes
& shape. In addition, their cost varies according to
that.
DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY FOR
NORTH EAST
Average annual rainfall was calculated from
the rainfall data collected from Indian
Meteorological Department. For other related data,
standard literature and methods have been followed.
Methodology for rainwater harvesting are: for
potable water - simply to collect water from the roof
to a storage tank or to collect water from roof to
recharge bore well, open well, hand pump etc. For
groundwater recharge abandoned well, abandoned
or running bore well, hand pump, recharge pit,
recharge trench or recharge well could be used. To
prevent surface runoff percolation ponds, check
dams, sub-surface dyke, recharge pit, recharge trench
could be constructed. The low-cost water tank to
store rain water could be made of bamboo and plastic
film. Villagers in North East use a large bamboo
basket shaped like a silo, for storing grain. If this
silo is internally lined with a good grade polythene
film, it can be used as a water tank. The bamboo
should be made non-biodegradable by soaking it in
a solution containing 450g of sodium dichromate,
300g of copper sulphate and 150g of boric acid
dissolved in 10litres of water. Such treated bamboo
has an outside life of between 10 and 20 years.
The distance between adjacent bamboo poles
Fig. 4 : Low Cost Bamboo Tank to Store Rain Water
should be about 50 – 60 cm. The plinth can have a
diameter of up to 5 or 6m, but the height of the
bamboo palisade should not exceed 120cm because
the pressure exerted by the water column on the side
walls is determined by the column height. Using the
bamboo poles as a skeleton, the entire structure could
be woven like wickerwork, using chemically treated
bamboo strips. One can use it to collect run-off water
from the roof, or one can even allow the rain to fall
directly into the tank. Once the tank is full its top
must be covered by another film of plastic, which
keeps the water clean and prevents evaporation. Both
sunlight and nutrients are needed for algae to grow.
142
To prevent algae infestation, the tanks must be kept
closed without exposure to sunlight. Therefore,
direct collection of rainwater is not safe for potable
use. The cost of a tank having a capacity of 1500
litres is Rs.1000. If a larger tank is required, one
could make a plinth of cement and stones having
the desired diameter, and by using chemically treated
bamboo poles, a palisade of bamboo is erected along
the periphery of the plinth, like a fencing (Fig:4). A
tank having a diameter and a height of 1.2m can
store 23,000 litres of water, which ensures a daily
supply of 60 – 80 litres of clean drinking water
throughout the year. The cost of such a tank comes
to about Rs.10,000. For ground water - recharge pits
are with size varying from 1.5 – 3.0 meter wide and
2.0 – 3.0 meter deep could be constructed. It should
be lined with brick / stone with openings (weep -
holes) at regular intervals. Top area of pit must be
covered with grill.
The recharge point allows percolation and
SLOW SAND FILTER FOR
FILTERATION OF RAINWATER
OVER FLOW
OUTLET
1200
DRAINOUT
VALVE
OUTLET
5000
BAMBOO WATER TANK OF
CAPACITY 23000 lit
Fig. 5 : Simple design for rainwater harvesting, design
for low cost percolation pit for
ground water recharge and the design of
bamboo tank with a capacity of 23,000 lt. for
plain and hilly areas of North-Eastern India.

Fig. 6 : Bamboo pipes to transfer water from the stored
rainwater tank for ground water recharge
recharges the groundwater. Recharge points could
be of various dimensions, depending upon
physiographic and hydro geological conditions.
Important considerations for successful rainwater
harvesting are:
(i) location of recharge points,
(ii) hydrological properties responsible for
recharging the aquifers, and
(iii) Social responsibilities of the people.
The location of the recharge point especially
in the crystalline terrain should have a weathered
material with sufficient porosity to hold substantial
quantities of water and also fractures for storage of
water. Porosity, which generates the hydrological
properties, must be identified using groundwater
exploration techniques (well inventory, landscape
indicators, topographical features, geological set-up,
structural controls, drainage conditions and geo-
Table - 2 : Showing availability of rainwater in Thousand litres
143
electrical investigations). Therefore, the recharge
points should be selected only after identifying
permeable zone. If there is no permeable zone, the
groundwater cannot move from one place to other
and the water would come up through the recharge
point and reach the surface. On the other hand, the
ingress of water through the permeable zone should
be checked, as the water reduces the shear and
compressive strengths of the material of the
foundation. It should be always kept in mind that
Rainwater harvesting is a social responsibility
involving the whole community.
Tank size – ideal tank size vs. affordability
Tank sizing techniques usually only consider
the optimum size for a tank based on the rainfall
available, the size of the catchment area (Table:2),
and the demand on the system. Little consideration
is usually given to the affordability of the tank. It is
assumed that the person will be looking at capturing
all the water from the roof or enough to meet all
their demand.
In many cases, the person may not be able to
afford a tank suitable for catching the optimum
amount of water. In such cases, the tank size is
determined by the tank cost and so, in this case, we
need to maximize capacity for a given (low) cost.
Below, in Table: 3 we have classified domestic tank
sizes into three distinct groups – small, medium and
large scale.
Affordability is a strong function of tank size
Table 3 : Tank scale classification
Scale of Description
domestic
tanks
Small-scale Any tank or jar up to seven days storage
or up to 1000 litres
Medium A tank up to several weeks storage or
between 1000 and 20,000 litres storage
Large Any tank with several months of
storage or above 20,000 litres storage
capacity
and tank design. The smaller the tank the cheaper it
will be and the cheaper the construction materials
and labour costs, the cheaper the tank will be. For
increased affordability we are therefore looking at
small-scale, locally produced RWH systems that use
local materials like bamboo. Local manufacture and
use of local skills are design issues. Affordability is
a function of a number of socio-economic factors
and is decided at the household level. Moreover,
we know economies of scale show the cost per litre
dropping as tank size increases. In addition, factory
made tanks are generally more expensive than
locally manufactured tanks.
Value of water
As with many other goods, water has a
declining value with quantity. The first litre per day
is worth more than the tenth. By examining the
limited data available that relates household
consumption per day to the effective unit cost of
Fig. 7 : Showing value vs quantity and cost vs volume
144
water (i.e. cost per litre), we might construct a curve
such as shown in Fig: 7. Each socio-economic group
would have its own curve.
The cost line on Fig: 7 is horizontal, which
reasonably represents the situation where water is
fetched, each successive litre requiring the same
input of labour. Such a line does not fairly represent
harvested roof water, where the effective cost
general rises with daily consumption despite the
economies of scale in tank construction. A typical
cost vs volume characteristic for Rain Water
Harvesting supply is shown in Fig 7.
Sometimes we find examples of water purchase
and use them to infer the value of water. Richer
house holds, or those experiencing illness, may pay
for water to be brought to the house. More usually,
we have to infer costs indirectly through conversion
of fetching distance/height into time and then time
into money. Such costs, like the value of water
discussed above, will be lower for poorer households
than for richer ones.
Some careful steps to be taken before
implementation of rain water harvesting projects
• Convenient first flush device must be integrated.
• a good fitting, light-proof cover will prevent debris,
animals or humans from entering the tank and
prevent light from causing algae growth
• water quality can enhanced by putting water into
the tank and taking it out of the tank at the correct
location – low-level tank entry and floating off-takes
are devices designed to aid this approach
• good sanitary conditions around a tank will prevent
disease being spread
• water extraction should be such that the water is
not contaminated while being drawn
Poorly managed water harvesting systems may
cause soil erosion and soil instability. Therefore,
water-harvesting catchments require maintenance to
keep them in good condition.
CONCLUSIONS
The forest covers are decreasing. Hence, water
and soil hold by roots, plants are degraded. And, it
is affecting hydrological cycle badly. This is
resulting in tremendous increase in depth of ground
water level. It is high time to implement rainwater-
harvesting projects in northeastern part of India.
These technologies are simple to install and operate.
Local people can be easily trained to implement such
technologies, and construction materials are also
readily available. It is convenient in the sense that it
provides water at the point of consumption, and
family members have full control of their own
systems, which greatly reduces operation and
maintenance problems. Although regional or other
local factors can modify the local climatic
conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of
water supply for both the rural and poor.
The feasibility of rainwater harvesting in a
particular locality is highly dependent upon the
amount and intensity of rainfall. Other variables,
such as catchment area and type of catchment
surface, usually can be adjusted according to
household needs. As rainfall is usually unevenly
distributed throughout the year, rainwater collection
methods can serve as only supplementary sources
of household water. Rainwater harvesting appears
to be one of the most promising alternatives for
supplying freshwater in the face of increasing water
scarcity and escalating demand in the urban as well
as in the rural areas. The pressures on rural water
supplies, greater environmental impacts associated
with new projects, and increased opposition from
NGOs to the development of new surface water
sources, as well as deteriorating water quality in
surface reservoirs already constructed, constrain the
ability of communities to meet the demand for
freshwater from traditional sources, and present an
opportunity for augmentation of water supplies using
this technology. May be with every rural and urban
household participation in their unique small scale
rainwater harvesting projects replenishes the
145
groundwater reserves because it is the only present
state-of-art to replenishes the ground water table
which would enable our dug wells and bore wells
to yield in a sustained manner. A sustainable human
community should use its resources without
endangering the survival of future generations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledges thanks to
Prof. J.N.Sarma, Dept. of Applied Geology,
Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam for his
valuable suggestion. Thanks to our friend Negul
Devan K.R. (B.E) for timely help.
REFERENCES
C-3 Report by IIT Delhi, July 2000, Water quality in domestic
roof water harvesting systems (DRWH) & Bamboo reinforced
concrete construction
Gould, J.E. 1992. Rainwater Catchment Systems for Household
Water Supply, Environmental Sanitation Reviews, No. 32,
ENSIC, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok.
Gould, J.E. and H.J. McPherson 1987. Bacteriological Quality
of Rainwater in Roof and Groundwater Catchment Systems in
Botswana, Water International, 12:135-138.
Nissen-Petersen, E. 1982. Rain Catchment and Water Supply
in Rural Africa: A Manual. Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd., London.
Pacey, A. and A. Cullis 1989. Rainwater Harvesting: The
Collection of Rainfall and Runoff in Rural Areas, WBC Print
Ltd., London.
Rao, N.S, “Important considerations for the success of rainwater
harvesting” Hydrogeology Laboratory, Department of Geology,
Andhra University,
Rees, D.G, Nyakaana, S & Thomas, T.H, 2000, Development
Technology Unit ,School of Engineering, University of Warwick,
Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Research Programme “VERY-
LOW-COST ROOFWATER HARVESTING IN EAST
AFRICA” (Based on a Feasibility Study performed in the Great
Lakes Region during May – July 2000) by Working Paper No.
55, pp. 8,9, 22,23,30,31.
Schiller, E.J. and B. G. Latham 1987. A Comparison of
Commonly Used Hydrologic Design Methods for Rainwater
Collectors, Water Resources Development, 3.
Singh, V.P, Sharma, N & Ojha, C.S.P 2004, Ed. The
Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources, Vol. 47, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, London.
Singh, R.V. 2003, Ed. Watershed Planning and Management,
Yash Publishing House, Bikaner-334003, India.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1982. Rain
and Storm water Harvesting in Rural Areas, Tycooly
International Publishing Ltd., Dublin.
Wall, B.H. and R.L. McCown 1989. Designing Roof Catchment
Water Supply Systems Using Water Budgeting Methods, Water
Resources Development, 5:11-18.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

23. Rain Water Harvesting

*Shri S. K. Sinha

ABSTRACT
A precious source of water availability has become scarce, hence the need for
conservation. The development of water resources in the country is at cross roads. This
sustainability of water resources has been endangered by vagaries of rainfall and unplanned
development. An optimum development can be achieved by the conjuctive use of surface and
ground waters.
Rain water Harvesting is the concept, which includes a holistic approach to develop,
augments, protect and conserve water resources. This concept is to be envisaged and practice
in order to ensure the sustainability of ongoing groundwater development for multiple uses
and to provide scope for further development of growing demand/population. To maintain
the ground water resources indefinitely, a hydrologic equilibrium must exist between all water
entering and leaving the water basin of the earth. Rain water Harvesting i.e Artificial Recharge
of the ground water resources is the most commonly adopted and cost effective method of
replenishing the ground water reserves.
The Rain Water Harvesting are based on the different technique. The methods
suggested for Rain Water Harvesting is water spreading, recharge through pils, trenches,
wells, shafts and directly run off water into the existing wells. The choice/selection of any
particular method is governed by local hydrogeological, soil condition etc and ultimate use.
Rain water Harvesting needs to be implemented to avoid the paucity of water resources
for present/future demands. Since the nature has showered enough potential to recharge our
existing water bodies and also to conserve/preserve the waters for future needs/requirements.

1.0. INTRODUCTION population. To maintain the ground water resources

A precious source of water availability has
become scarce, hence the need for conservation. The
development of water resources in the country is at
cross roads. This sustainability of water resources
has been endangered by vagaries of rainfall and
unplanned development. An optimum development
can be achieved by the conjuctive use of surface
and ground waters.
Rain water Harvesting is the concept, which
includes a holistic approach to develop, augment,
protect and conserve water resources. This concept
is to be envisaged and practice in order to ensure
the sustainability of ongoing groundwater
development for multiple uses and to provide scope
for further development of growing demand/
indefinitely, a hydrologic equilibrium must exist
between all water entering and leaving the water
basin of the earth. Rain Water Harvesting i.e
Artificial Recharge of the ground water resources is
the most commonly adopted and cost effective
method of replenishing the ground water reserves.
Army cantonments to a large scale depend on
supply of water from civil bodies. And since the
entire country is in high water stress situation, the
total available water resources for various use sectors
have decreased drastically. This has resulted in
meager an erratic water supply to cantt thereby
encouraging exploitation of ground and surface
water available within the cantt by the MES. With a
view to conserve the already depleting reservoirs,

*SE, ME, MIE, PG (PMIR), DIRECTOR (LIAISON), HQ EAC IAF, C/O 99 APO

146
judicious management of water in each cantt shall
be undertaken. In this paper the various
technological aspect of Rain Water Harvesting has
been described with basic theory and with real
ground conditions.
2.0 AIM
The aim of the Rain Water Harvesting by virtue
of suitable techniques/methods to conserve the
already depleting reservoirs. Therefore, the local
units/area/body are impressed upon to under take
these feasible technique/methods through simple but
lucid description, provide small budgetary estimates
with time frame in which this can be achieved.
Therefore, our aim is to improve the existing ground
surface water through efficient rainwater harvesting
management.
3.0 MANAGEMENT
It is the technical methods, which manage the
existing surface, and ground water potential of the
catchments or water shed areas. So as to develop,
augment and conserve them. Judicious harvesting
management is most inevitable to the followings:-
3.1 Arrest ground water decline, improve ground
water levels and availability.
3.2 Beneficiate water quality in acquirers.
3.3 Arrest seawater ingress.
3.4 Conserve surface water run off during
monsoons.
3.5 Enhance availability of ground water at the
specific place and time.
3.6 Reduce power consumption.
3.7 Consume unused wastewater.
3.8 Conserve energy.
3.9 Save environment from degradation.
4.0 ADVANTAGE OF RAIN WATER
HARVESTING
4.1 Enhanced sustainability of water supply
projects and structures;
4.2 Improved well yields and reduced pumping lifts
and cost;
4.3 Improved water quality through dilution
especially fluoride, nitrate and salinity. This is
achieved with filtration and percolation.
4.4 Conservation of water lost to run off and
evaporation.
147
4.4 Reduces flood hazard and soil erosion.
4.5 Treated urban effluent can be recharge and
quality beneficiated by re-circulation through the
aquifers.
5.0 SUGGESTED METHODS /
TECHNIQUES
Methods for local unit / area / body can be
implemented in diverse hydro geological and varied
climatic set-ups. Number of methods are available
to achieve the sustainability of water through rain
water Harvesting. The best method among the
available methods depends on hydrology, available
of source of water, available of land and
physiography of the areas. The methods/techniques
are broadly categorized are as under :
5.1 RECHARGE ON SURFACE
This includes the following :-
5.1.1 Loading.
5.1.2 Basins or percolation tanks.
5.1.3 Stream augmentation.
5.1.4 Ditch and furrow.
5.1.5 Over irrigation.
5.1.6 Revival of village pond concept.
5.1.7 Recharge of secondary treated urban liquid
effluents in identified aquifers.
5.2 DIRECT RECHARGE IN SUB
SURFACE AQUIFERS
This includes the following :- Injection wells
are recharge well. In this the recharging in watershed
is carried out by directing discharge of rainwater
through a settling sump to the underground waterbed.
These wells can be used both as percolation wells
and recharge wells. The advantages of direct
injection of rooftop run off water in the wells are :-
5.2.1 Harvesting from roof rain water.
5.2.2 Relatively high rate of recharge.
5.2.3 Utilisation of ground water during non rainy
days.
5.3 OPEN WELL RECHARGE
Direct recharge of the aquifer through open
wells will be an easier and in expensive process in
the shallow aquifer region. The rooftop run off water
can be directed in to the open wells through pipes
and settling pit to avoid possible turbidity.
5.4 RECHARGE PITS AND SHAFTS
TRENCHES
5.4.1 Recharge pits. Pits are dug depending upon
available rooftop water from the buildings and are
located inside the premise and away from foundation
or concrete structures so as to have its sitting over
pervious soil for better and faster absorption. The
pits are preferably located near the precinct and
thereafter filled with permeable material like
pebbles, gravel and sand for better percolation and
improved water quality through dilution during
percolation.
5.4.2 Recharge shaft. Where the contour and
topology of a large area permit flow in unidirectional
and having step slopes, the shafts are dug. The
average depth of 10 to 15 meters with width of 1
meter and length of 2 meters at places depending
upon amount of water available from catchments.
These are terminated above the aquifer level. The
shafts are usually cased with PVC casing to prevent
contamination and collapse. These are back filled
with pervious soils, which facilities faster and
efficient percolation and mitigates bio and chemical
pollutions after filtration through the soil.
5.5 BORE HOLE FLOODING
5.6 NATURAL OPENINGS AND CAVITY
FILLINGS
Normally the topology of cantt is such that
these openings are limited.
5.7 COMBINATION OF SURFACE AND
SUB SURFACE
5.7.1 Following are the techniques usually
adopted Basin/percolation tanks with pits/shaft or
wells are constructed to collect subsurface and
surface water.
5.7.2 Water treatment : In this technique the
affluent/sewage/sullage is collected in a pit,
filtered and then supplied to required place
through gravity well or deep trenches in slope.
5.8 In this method induce recharge from surface
water source is utilised for improving ground water
potential. Another practice is to have aquifer
modification.
5.9 GROUND WATER RECHARGE OF
148
EXISTING WELLS
Ground water recharge of existing bore wells
is one of the method of modifying the hydrological
cycle and thereby providing ground water in excess
of that available by natural processes. It is
accomplished by augmenting the natural infiltration
of precipitation or surface water in to underground
formations by some method of construction, by
providing or spreading of water or by artificially
changing the natural conditions.
6.0 INDICATION OF DEPLETING WATER
YIELD
It has been observed from the post
performances of the bore wells/shallow wells/open
wells that the over exploitation has gradually
diminished their yields. This was ascertain / evident
from the observation and are as under.
6.1 Poor quality of water, occasionally muddy.
6.2 Frequent lowering of submersible pump in
order to keep the later submerged.
6.3 Water output varying and found in spurts.
6.4 More draw out than natural recharge by rains
etc. Bore wells being run continuously for hours
without permitting recharge.
6.5 Sealing of natural recharge areas in and around
bore wells with impervious
side well, streets, parking lots and buildings. This
diverts ground water flow
direction and prevent recharge.
6.6 In real ground situation, sub surface water is
diverted due to troughs and
mounds, other Geological, Topological conditions.
The above factors have caused overdraft from
the bore wells and must be recharged
immediately as the yield from these bore wells have
been helping us to reduce dependence
on outside agency for the deficient supply of water
especially during peak summer when
the catchments go dry and reduce available water.
The wells which are near surface water bodies
(such as ponds, Golf course, Dairy form and play
grounds) continuing to give good yields and
harvesting is naturally carried out.
7.0 COMPUTATION AND TOTAL
POTENTIAL OF RECHARGE
The potential through bore well harvesting will
depend upon how big catchments is diverted for
percolation near bore wells, through trench/pit/shaft.
The exact quantity is difficult to assess.
7.1 RECHARGE
Exact computation of sub surface inflow and
infiltration (Water entering the soil at the surface is
called infiltration) need comprehensive geological
investigation. The recharge of bore wells can be
carried out through water shed approach while dried
up dug well can be used directly for storing water of
surround catchment.
The rainwater harvesting to increase the water
table should be graded so as to prevent the
accumulation or retention of surface water within a
radius of 15 meters from the bore well.
An expensive proposition is not viable for
Military stations where water quality can be
improved with silt filtering pit alone. Hence it is
being considered only at those locations to augment
for potable water. The shallow wells were rainwater
from surrounding catchments can be directed inside
through silt filtering unit above as the water is soft
and does not get surface impurities.
To have economical and viable harvesting of
rainwater in the water source, an area of approx
5,000 to 10,000 Sq m around bore well should be
made ground water collection. The area should
commence 15 meters away from bore well.
METHOD
The water is led from the roof to the storage
tank through a series of gutters and pipes.
Conventional gutters are normally used, but for
economy they can be made with “V” shaped lengths
of tin sheet hang under the roof edge from wire or
lengths of rigid PVC pipe at along the length and
clamped to the edge of the roof. Rigid PVC pipes
are considered as they are cheaper easier to maintain
and will reduce contamination.
8.0 DESIGN OF TRENCHES AND PITS
8.1 TRENCHES
Average rainfall = 780 mm
Available for harvesting = 390 mm (50% of
average)
To be harvested in the water = 39 mm 10% available
economically harvesting
Economic width & Depth of trench = 1.5 M depth
& 0.5 M Width
For 1000 M2 roof top available water
= 1000 X 0.039 M3 = 39 M3
Assuming 90 days rainfall per
= 39M3 per rain fall rainfall average water

Total water collection/recharge per bore well 90 = 433 litter per day of rain
Average rainfall (Say) = 780 mm PVC rigid pipe for 40mm can carry water to
Available for harvesting = 390 mm the required place.
(@ 50%) after evaporation To harvest 10% of above
= 39 mm (0.039 M) 8.2 SIZE OF PIT
Total water recharge for = 10,000 x 0.039 M Average Rains yield = 3.05 M3 per shower
10,000 Sq M = 3,90,000 Liters Taking 100% extra for proper storage and
This water is available in one year (90 days of percolation without contamination by surface water.
rains) per bore well assuming unpaved area around
bore well. Size of pit = 6 Cu M
Taking 2 M Dia Pit Depth
7.2 ROOFS HARVESTING of pit (L) = 6X4
The collection and storage of rain from rooftop pX 4
run off has been practiced by man since ancient
times. This may be particularly useful for domestic = 6
use in the residential, messes and offices. The p
collection of rain water from paved or GI corrugated
roofs and court yards of houses is done either in = 1.91M
storage tank or in ground water reservoir. Say 1.9 M depth
Such pit can be easily & economically dug

149
without encountering hard rock with mechanical Method 5.1 for Recharge on surface are most
excavator if required. suitable for water harvest.
Size of Pit = 6 Cum (Dia – 2.0M, Depth – 1.9M)
15% of sand = 0.15 X 6 Cum 10.0 PREFERABLE LOCATIONS TO DO IT
20% of 20 mm = 0.20 X 6 Cum aggregate 10.1 Cantt/Military Stations/Areas can be
50% of 40 mm = 0.50 X 6 Cum aggregate subdivided into smaller catchments /
water shed and maintained under local units. These
9.0 EXPLOITATION AND HARNESSING watersheds can be.
TOTAL POTENTIAL OF WATER 10.1.1 Ranges.
HARVESTING 10.1.2 Training areas
Considering a defence land / area available for 10.1.3 Play fields
water shed is 9000 acres. 10.1.4 Open spaces and parks
These above areas are normally situated at
Area / land = 9000 acres different locations in Defence establishment.
1 acres = 4047 SQM Therefore method for smaller catchments area is
Total SQM land = 36423000 SQM more suitable and viable. The methods for smaller
Average rainfalls (Say) = 780 mm (0.780M) catchments area are as under.
Available for recharge after evaporation from soil
& water surface (evaporation & percolation losses) 10.2 METHODS FOR SMALLER AREA
= 390 mm (0.390 M) HARVESTING
Total potential = 0.39 X 36423000 M3 Assuming the followings
= 14.20 Millions KL Range Area = 500 Acres
Training area (10 Pockets) = 1000 Acres (Total)
This indicates that the total potential of water Play fields (5 Pockets) = 50 Acres (Total)
harvest in one rainy season if exploited is sufficient Open Spaces (40 Pockets) = 200 Acres (Total)
to meet the requirement to the maximum/ full extent.
This potential can be tapped from rooftop (most 10.2.1 Check Dams :
efficient use), road top (difficult to tap due to faulty Ranges can be utilised for creating check dams
slopes, berms and economics) and from water shed at low laying area and storing water. The check dam
(catchment) through soils other than paved and roof may be ailed with cheaper option to prevent fall of
top. human being and animals.

9.1 METHODS The range area = 500 Acres

Artificial charge of water source can be
managed and developed by planned extractions of
ground and surface water during periods of low
precipitation while subsequent replenishment can be
made during periods of surplus surface supply. Such
a coordinated operation of surface and ground water
supplies is possible if there is sufficient ground water
storage to meet the requirements for regulation of
local water supplies and if the aquifers possesses
sufficient transmissibility to permit the movement
of recharged water to the area of extraction. The
recharged storage constructed under watershed
approach should be devoid of losses due to
evaporation and quality deterioration due to
pollution (which will make it useless for any
application).
= 2023500 (1 Acre = 4047 SQM)
SQM
With 390 MM of rainfall available for harvesting.
Total water available from rains
= 2023500 x 0.39 Cu M
= 789165 Cu M
To harness 10% of this water check dams of
sizes 30m x 1mx1m may be constructed in natural
slope directions 3 CHECK DAMS will be
economically viable to cover the area.
10.2.2 STAGGERED CONTOUR TRENCHES
(SCT) / PERCOLATION TRENCHES (PT)
The training areas can be utilised for creating
staggered contour trenches (SCT) and percolation
trenches (PT). In general, the training areas are

150
scattered in defence established
The training area is 1000 acres (Say) in
Military/Cantt Station/Areas. Considering there are
10 Nos of pockets for training in various units.
Total water potential in 100 acres
= 100 (Acres) x 4047 SqM
= 100 x 4047 x 0.39 M3
= 157833 M3
The staggered contour trenches (SCT) of
dimension 3.0M x 1.0M x 1.0M (For average 20000
M3 of water potential area) can be created. These
are to be created at the end of slope and properly
protected to prevent accidental of human/others.
The No of SCT
= Nos of Pockets x Water Potential in M3
20000
= 10 x 157833 = 78.92
20000
= 79 Nos
Therefore, in each pocket 7 or 8 Nos of SCT
may be created.
Percolation Trenches (PT) may be dug away
from the training tools and located at fenced places.
Percolation trench may be located at the down
stream. The trench may be size 1m x 1m and all
along the low stream at least 50 M and filled with
impervious materials locally available and not
specified provided for their purpose. Total trench
length on four sides 50m (10) location = 500 RM
of 1m x 1m.
10.2.3 PLAYFIELDS, OPEN SPEACES AND
PARKS
The play fields, open space and parks areas can
be effectively utilised for rain water harvesting.
Play fields : Considering 5 pockets with total 50
acres of play field in Defence Establishment have a
total water potential of 86808 CUM. A lot of care
has to be taken to create water-harvesting structures
since play fields are common places for play
activities, leisure walk and other activities. The play
fields have natural slope duly leveled. This water
151
from all sides can be collected and allowed to drain
away from sports fields to a location where storage
can be made. Trenches dug should be covered with
manhole cover arrangements.
Average play field in Cantt Area
= 10 Acres for each pocket.
Total water potential from rain
= 10 x 4047 x 0.39 M3
= 15783M3
To harvest 10% of it, trenches may be dug all
round of size 0.5m x 0.5 m with manhole cover. The
trench size is sufficient to carry per day rains water.
Which is received in 90 to 100 days of rainfalls.
The above proposal is however very expensive
but will fetch a great deal of water.
Total trench length
= 1000 RM for on average 10 acres field.
Total excavation Per site = 1000 x 0.5 x 0.5
= 250 CuM
For 5 play field site = 250 x 5 CuM
= 1250 CuM
Manhole cover of 1 m x 0.6 m each = 1000 No x 5
= 50000 Nos for sites
OPEN SPACES AND PARKS : At these places
creation of ponds, tanks and shaft storage at deep
low lying can be considered.
Total open spaces at 40 pockets in station =200 Acres
Average Area = 05 acres
Water potential = 7891 CUM
Trenches of size 0.5 x 0.5 m can be dug to carry
rainwater to the storage spaces created in the form
of tank/ponds. These structures may be properly
fenced and treated with bleaching powder
periodically approx 50 RM of trench 0.5 x 0.5 M to
carry water to 40 different storage can be considered.
Cu M of trench = 50 x 40 x 0.5 x 0.5
= 500 CUM
Pond size can be 10 m dia at 40 locations with
average 1 m depth properly fenced on all sides.
Note : The capacity of ponds created is of much smaller
size than the water potential available for harvesting.
This is kept to keep economic viability of these structures
in the available space without hampering training/play
activities. The depth has been kept as 1 M maximum so
that if required the same can be achieved through troops
labour.
11.0 DRAWINGS Fig – 1, Composite Plan.
The drawings showing composite plan for Fig - 2 ,Plan of Recharging.
recharging structure, design details of Ferro cement Fig – 3.1, Typical Drawing Details.
storage tank capacity 12000 Ltr, plan for recharging Fig – 3.2, Typical Roof Top Harvesting
structure, design and details of recharging structure, Fig – 3.3, Design of Storage Tank and ilters.
typical drawing details of roof water harvesting Fig - 3.4, Type of Percolation
structure, roof top rain water harvesting structure Fig – 4 and Details of Recharge Structure
and design of pits for rain water harvesting are Fig – 5 Design of Pit
attached as For understanding and execution of works.

COMPOSITE PLAN FOR RECHARGE STRUCTURE NO.1

Fig – 1 : Composite Plan

152
 Plan for Recharge Structure No.1

Inlet Pipe
3.0 m
6” dia pipe

3.0 m

Plan for Recharge Structure No.2

Inlet Pipe
3.0 m
6” dia pipe

3.0 m

Fig - 2 : Plan of Recharging

153
 TYPICAL DRAWING DETAILS
ROOF WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURE

Fig – 3.1 : Typical Drawing Details

154
TYPICAL ROOF TOP RAINWATER DESIGN DETAILS OF FERRO CEMENT
HARVESTING SYSTEM STORAGE TANK 12,000 Liters capacity

FILTERS USED FOR FILTERING

RAIN WATER

Fig – 3.2 Typical Roof Top Harvesting Fig – 3.3 Design of Storage Tank and ilters

155
Fig - 3.4 : Type of Percolation

156
Fig – 4 : Details of Recharge Structure

157
 Fig – 5 : Design of Pit
12.0 CONTAMINATION
Medical Authorities of civil area/SHO for
Military station may object to open harvesting of
water, since the harvesting surfaces being exposed
through out the year and are subject to contamination
by dust, insects and birds and those at ground level
are also liable to be contaminated by animals and
humans. The following precautionary measures are
recommended:- Location from Contamination
source Recommended distance of harvesting
structure such as pit, trenches etc. from source of
contamination.
Building sewer 15 M
Septic tanks Disposal filed 15 M
Seepage pit 30 M
Swimming pool 45 M
If any bore well or shallow well is to be charged
with water, which is at a distance less than above,
should permit deeper trenches with silt-setting
chamber following by silt-filtering pit. The bore
158
well water may contain faecal strap-to-coccid and
should be used only for conservancy unless
otherwise tested.
12.1 The trenches/pit so dug should be properly
fenced and kept clean. The first flush of
the new rains should be run to waste.
12.2 The storage tanks below ground should be fully
enclosed to prevent evaporation.
12.3 All aperatures shall be screened to prevent the
access to mosquitoes, rodents, lizards
and other life etc.
13.0 CONCLUSION
Rain Water Harvesting needs to be
implemented in defence area/other places in order
that the on going actives are not hampered due to
paucity of water resources. Nature has showered
enough potential to recharge our existing water
bodies and also to store water for years to come and
to meet the present/future demands.
 National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur

24. Review of Rain Water Harvesting in India

*R. M. Dhoble **Dr. A. G. Bhole

INTRODUCTION 70 % of population is rural and agriculture related.

We have greatly hampered the natural ground
water recharge by drawnif excessive water and
covering / paving up all the available open land.
Rainwater harvesting is merely “putting back
rainwater into the soil or in underground or above
ground tank so that we can draw it whenever we
need it”. Less than 1% of world‘s water is available
in the form of river, pond and lake for human use.
Out of total rainfall in India, run off is about 85 %,
percolation is about 7%, evaporation is about 5%
and human use is about is about 3%. Urbanization
and increase in population in the recent decades
have contaminated water bodies, thus making them
unfit for drinking and use. This is coupled with
man’s growing needs and excessive tapping of
groundwater through numerous bore wells and tube
wells, which has depleted water table to great extent.
Rain Water harvesting (RWH) will to some extend
help to meet the increased demand. It has been
estimated that the amount of rainwater that falls on
the terrace of the houses can take care of the water
requirement of an average family of four members
for one year.
RWH is a technology used for collecting and
storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or
rock catchments using simple techniques such as
underground check dams.
RWH has gained tremendous interest among
academicians, institutions and layman in the past
few years. Roof top harvesting has a clearer
definition as water collected from rooftop chiefly
for domestic consumption. Rain Water Harvesting
is a low cost solution to solve water crises.
Need of RWH :
In India there are 600000 villages and almost
The rainfall pattern in India is highly irregular in
space and time. Most of it is concentrated during
just a few months of year and that too, in a few
regions. Rainfall occurs about 70 % in about four
months. So, even in a year of normal rainfall, some
parts of a country face several droughts. RWH
system benefits in many ways in rural and urban
areas such as it develop improvements in infiltration
and reduction in runoff, improvement in
groundwater quality, reduces strain on specially
village Panchayat / Municipal/Municipal
corporation water supply, improvement in
groundwater level and Yields etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages :
Advantages:
1) It gives high agriculture returns.
2) It is a potential solution to problems of rural
poverty and unemployments, resulting in an overall
improvement in the nation’s economy.
3) Local people can be easily trained to
implement such technology and construction
methods. RWH is a convenient in the sense that it
provides water at the point of consumption, which
greatly reduces the operation and maintenance
problem.
4) It is sustainable due to decentralization and
community participation.
Disadvantages :
This system mainly depends upon the limited
supply and uncertainty of rainfall. Adoption of this
technology requires a bottom up approach rather
than top to bottom. This makes this system less
attractive to some government agencies. If old roof
is used as the catchment area, if it is under tree

*Sr. Lecturer,Civil Engg.Dept., G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur.

**Retired Prof.Civil Engg.Dept., V.N.I.T. Nagpur

159
branches, if the building relies on wood heat, or if
the air is too polluted, then there may be possibility
of contamination of rain water.
COMPONENTS OF RWH SYSTEM
It consists of various stages, transporting
rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration and
storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. The common
components of RWH system consists of three stages
A) CATCHMENTS : The catchments of RWH
system, the surfaces which directly receive the
rainfall and provide water for system. It can be paved
area like a terrace or courtyard of building or an
unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. R.C.C.,
galvanized iron or corrugated sheets can also be used
for R.W.H. Following Fig. shows elements of rain
water system.
As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the
amount and quality of rainwater collected depends
upon the area of catchment, intensity of rainfall and
type of roofing materials. Galvanized corrugated
iron, asbestos cement sheets and slate and tiles can
collect reasonably pure water from the rooftops.
Although thatched roof tiled with bamboo gutter,
laid in proper slopes can produced almost the same
amount of runoff less expensively (Gould, 1992).
Because of possible health hazards, bamboo roofs
are least suitable and roofs with metallic paints or
other coating are not recommended as they may
impart taste or colour to the collected water. To avoid
entry of dust, leaves and bird dropping, the roof
catchment should be cleaned regularly.
Source – A water-harvesting manual for Urban area
Fig. 1
Course mesh – It should be provided at the roof to
prevent the passage of derbies. It should be provided
at the bottom of parapet wall as shown in figure
160
and on the mouth of inlet of drained pipe, mesh of
850 micron screen or coarse mesh 10mm x10mm
should be provided to prevent the entry of derbies
as shown in Fig No 2. The inlet of drained pipe
should be provided on the sloping side of the roof.
Source: A water Harvesting manual for urban area
Course mesh on roof top (Fig 2.0)
Gutter : Channels are provided all around the edge
of sloping roof to collect and transport rainwater to
the storage tank. It semicircular or rectangular and
could be made using
• Locally available materials such as plain
galvanized iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to
the required shapes.
• Semicircular gutter of PVC material can be
readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two
equal semi- circular channels.
• Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
The size of gutter should be accurate to flow water
during highest intensity of rainfall and it is advisable
to make them 10 to 15 % over size. Gutter need to
be supported so they do not sag or fall off when
loaded with water. The way, in which the gutters
are fixed depending upon the construction of houses
having wider eaves, some method of attachment to
the rafter is necessary.
Conduit : Theses are the pipelines or drains that
carry rainwater from the catchments or rooftop area
to the harvesting system called as down conduct
can be of any materials that are commonly available.
The following Table No 1.0 gives ideas about the
diameter of pipe required for draining out rainfall
based on rainfall intensity and roof area. The down-
pipe should be atleast 100 mm diameter with 850-
micron wire screen at the inlet to prevent dry leaves
and derbies from entering into pipe.
 Table No 1.0 Size of rainwater pipe for roof drainage

Diameter Average rate of rainfall in mm/hour

of pipe
(mm)
50 75 100 125 150 200
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.0 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0
150 - - - - 83.6 62.7

mm/ h – milliliter per hour Source – National Building Code.

First flushing - First flushing device is the valve rainwater, is generally made up of PVC or other
that insures that runoff from the first spell of the inert substance to avoid corrosion of pipe due to
rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. the pH of rainwater can be low.
This needs to be done since the first spell of rain
carries a relatively large amount of pollutants from
air and the catchments surface. There are several
possible choices to collect clean water for the
storage tanks. The most common is the down- pipe
flap. With this flap it is possible to direct the first
flush of water flow through the down pipe, while
Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
later rainfall is diverted to the storage tank. When it manual for urban areas
starts to rain, the flap is left in closed position, First flushing arrangement
directing water to the down-pipe, and later, opened Fig. No 3
when relatively clean water can be collected
(Refer Fig. No 3). A great disadvantage of using B)FILTER : The filter is used to remove suspended
this type conveyance control system is necessarily pollutants from rainwater collected over the roof. A
to observe the runoff quality and manually operate filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media
the flap. An alternative approach would be to such as fiber, course sand and gravel layer, to remove
automate the opening of the flap. the debris and dirt from water from before it enters
A funnel shaped insert is integrated in to the the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can
down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of the be added for additional filtration.
funnel is not direct contact with the sides of down- (Refer fig. No. 4)
pipe, and a small gap exist between the down-pipe
walls and the funnel. When the rain starts, the
volume of water passing down the pipe is very small
and the contaminated water runs down the pipe,
around the funnel and discharged directly to the
recharged structure if available or over the ground.
When the rainfall continues the volume of water Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
increases and the clean and fresh water carried to Sand filter
the storage tank. The pipe used for collection of Fig. No 4

161
a) Sand Filter: Sand filter s have commonly available
sand as a filter media. Sand filters are easy and
inexpensive to construct. These filters can be
employed for treatment of water to effectively
remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. In
simple sand filter that can be constructed
domestically, the top layer comprises course sand
followed by 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by
another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulder.
(Refer fig. No. 5)
c) Filter for large roof top: This system was
designed by R. Jaykumar. When the rainwater is
harvested in a large rooftop area, the filtering should
be accumulating the excess flow. A system is
designed with three concentric circular chambers
in which the outer chamber is filled with sand, the
middle one with course sand and inner most layer
with pebbles. In this way the area of filtration is
increased for sand, in relation to the course
aggregate and pebbles.
In this system the rainwater reaches to the
center core and is collected in the sump where it is
treated with few tablets of chlorine for consumption.
Jayakumar (A builder by profession) (Refer fig.
No. 7)

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas

Sand Filter
Fig. No. 5

b) Dewas Filter : Most residents in Dewas in

Madhya Pradesh, have wells in their houses.
Formerly all that wells would do was exact
groundwater but then, the district administrative of
Dewas initiated the ground water recharge scheme.
The rooftop water was collected and allowed to pass
through fitter system called Dewas filter designedby
Mohan Rao, District collector of Dewas. The water
thus filtered is put into the small service tube well.
The filter consist of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
140 mm diameter and 1.2 m. long there are three
chambers .the first purification chamber has pebbles
varying between 2-6 mm and second chamber has
slightly larger pebbles between 6-12 mm and third
chamber has largest 12-20mm pebbles. There is
mesh at the outflow side through which clean water Source – Jayakumar Rain Water Harvest Manual P- 21
flow out after passing through three chambers. Jayakumar Filter
(Refer fig. No. 6) Fig. No. 7

d) Varun: S. Viswanath developed a filter named

‘Varun’ for purifying rainwater. According to him,
from a decently clean roof ‘Varun’ can handled
50mm/hour intensity of rainfall from 50 sq. m. of a
roof area. This means the product is relatively
standardized. Varun is made from 90-liter high
density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is
tumbuer and holes are punched in it. This is the first
Dewas Filter sieve, which keeps out larger leaves, twinges etc.
Fig No. 6 rainwater coming out sieve then passes through the

162
three layers of sponge and 150 mm of thick layer of Various recharge structures are possible. Some
course sand. Presence of sponge makes the cleaning of which promote the percolation of water through
process very easy. Remove the first layer of sponge soil strata at shallow depth (recharge trenches,
and soak/ clean it in bucket of water. The sand needs permeable pavement) where other conduct water
no cleaning at all. to greater depths from where it joins the
groundwater e.g. recharge well. At many locations,
e) Horizontal Roughing filter : The introduction existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be
of horizontal filter and slow sand filter to treat modified as recharged structures, eliminating the
surface water has made safe drinking water available need to construct any structure a fresh.
in coastal pocket of Orrisa. The major components
are as follows. Methods and Techniques :
Filter channel: 1.0m2 in cross section and 8m.in Rooftop rain water Through :
length laid across the tank embankment, the filter a) Recharge Pit : The recharge pit is generally
channel consist of three uniform compartments, first 1.5to 3.0 m wide and 2.0m to 3.0 m deep.
pocket with broken bricks, second with course sand The excavated pit is lined with a brick/stone
followed by fine sand in third compartment. The walls with weep holes at regular intervals.
horizontal roughing filter usually consist of filter The top area of the pit can be covered with
material like gravel and course sand that perforated cover. (Refer Fig. No 9)
successively decreases in size from 25 mm to
4mm.(Refer Fig. No 8). The bulk of solids in the
incoming water is separated by this course sand. At
every outlet and inlet of channel, fine graded mesh
is implanted to prevent the entry of finer materials
into the sump. The length of channel varies
accordingly to the nature of the site selected for
sump. The HRF acts as a physical filter and is
applied to retain the solid matter. Slow sand filter is
a primary biological filter, used to kill microbes in
the water. Both filter types area generally stable,
making full use of the natural purification process
of harvested surface water and do not require
chemicals.
Source- Centre of Science for Villages
Recharge pit
Fig. No. 9

b) Percolation Pit : Percolation pit is a easiest and

most effective means of harvesting rainwater are
generally not more than 60cm x 60cm x 60 cm pits
filled with pebbles or bricks jelly and river sand
covered with perforated concrete slab whenever
necessary. (Refer Fig. No 10)

Horizontal Roughing filter

Fig No. 8

C) RECHARGED STRUCTURES : Rainwater

may be charged into ground water aquifer through
Filter material
any structure like dug well, bore well, recharge
in a soakaway
trenches and recharge pit.

163
 Source- Centre of Science for Village
Soak pit (Fig No10)
Source – TWAD Board
Percolation Pit
Fig No. 11
A percolation / absorption pit is a hand bore
made in the soil with the help of an augur and filled
up with pebbles and river sand on top. The depth of
these pits will be anywhere between 4 and 8 meters
depending on the nature of the soil. If the soil is
clayey, the pit has to be dug to a depth till a
reasonably sandy stratum is reached. The diameter
of these pits will be 25 cm (10 inches). A square /
circular collection chamber with silt arrester is
provided at the top. Constructed in the open space
at required intervals.
Size “ 1m x 1m x 1.5m (depth)
Filled with broken bricks / pebbles
Suitable for sandy sub - soil area
One unit for 30 m2 area (approx.) (Refer Fig.No.11)
c) PERCOLATION PIT WITH BORE
METHOD
A borehole to be drilled at the bottom of the
percolation pit. Bore hole size should150 - 300 mm
dia. with 10 -15 ft depth (approx.)filled with broken
bricks and suitable for clay area.
164
Source – TWAD Board
Percolation pit with bore hole
Fig. No. 12
In areas where the soil is likely to be clayey
upto say 15ft. and more, it is advisable to go in for
a percolation well upto 10ft. or 15ft. and a hand
bore pit within this well upto a depth of 10ft. to
15ft. from its bottom. A PVC pipe of 6in. diameter
is inserted into the bore for the entire length. (Refer
Fig. No 12)
Note :
1. Above structures are meant for area with small
catchment like individual houses.
2. RCC slab cover is optional.
3. Top (1') portion may be filled with sand.
d) Recharged Trenches : A recharge trench is a
continuous trench excavated in the ground and
refilled with porous material like boulder, pebbles
or bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1.0 m
wide and 1.0m to 1.5 m deep and length should in
the range of 13-16 meter, which helps for good
percolation. The length of recharge trench is decided
as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge
trench should be periodically cleaned of
accumulated derbies to maintain the intake capacity
in term of recharge rate; recharge trenches are
relatively less effective since soil strata at a depth
of about 1.5 m is less permeable. For recharging
through the recharging trenches fewer precautions
have to be taken to maintain the quality of runoff.
Runoff from both paved and unpaved can be tapped.
e) Recharging of service tube well: In this case
the rooftop runoff is not directly fed into the service
tube well, to avoid the chances of contamination of filled with layer materials. In order to facilate speedy
groundwater. Instead, rainwater is collected in a recharged, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals
recharged well, which is a temporary storage tank in a trench. In design part there is no need of
(located near the service tub well) with a borehole, incorporating the influence of filler materials. (Refer
which is shallower than water table depth. This Fig. No 13)
borehole has to be provided with a casing pipe to
prevent the caving in of soil, if strata are loose. A
filter chamber comparing of sand, gravel and
boulder is provided to arrest impurities.

f) Recharge of dug well and abandoned dug

well: in alluvial and hard rock areas, there are
thousands of wells which have either gone dry or
whose water level has declined considerably. These
can be recharged directly from roof top runoff.
Rainwater that is collected on the roof top of the
building is diverted by drainpipe to a settlement or
filtration tank from which it flows into the recharge
well (bore well or dug well) if the tube well is used
as for recharging, then the causing outer pipe) should
be preferably slotted or performed pipe so that more Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
area is available for the to percolate. Developing a Recharged Trough
bore well would increases its recharge capacity Fig. No 13
(developing is the process where water or air is
h) Modified Injection Well: In this method water
forced into well under pressure to loosen the soil
is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to
strata surrounding the bore to make it more
percolate through filter bed, which comprises sand
permeable)
and gravel. The modified injection well is generally
a borehole 500 mm diameter, which is drilled to the
1) If dug well used as a recharge then the well
desired depth depending upon the geological
lining should have opening (weep holes) at regular
condition, permeably 2-3.0 m below water table.
interval to allow seepage of water through the sides.
Inside this hole a slotted pipe of 200 mm diameter
Dug well should be covered to prevent mosquitoes
is inserted. The annular space between the borehole
breeding and entry of leaves and derbies. The bottom
and pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a
of recharged well should be desilted annually to
compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the
maintain the intake capacity.
suspended solid from entering the recharge tube
Providing the following elements in the system can
well, a filter mechanism is provided at top. (Refer
ensure the quality of water entering the recharge
Fig. No 14)
wells.
1) Filter mesh at entrance point of roof
catchments
2) Settlement chamber
3) Filter bed.

g) Recharged Trough: To collect the runoff from

the paved and unpaved areas draining out of a
compound, recharged troughs are commonly placed
at the entrance of residential / industrial complex.
These structures are similar to the recharged trench Modified injection well
except for the fact that the excavated portion is not Fig. No 14

165
i) For Rural Area : (Rooftop Rain water
harvesting) In rural areas most of the houses are
having Mangalore tiles roof. In this gutters are
provided along the periphery of the roof and get
collected in a small tank as shown in fig. No 15.
Rooftop Rain water harvesting (on Mangalore
Rooftop Rain water harvesting
Fig. No 15
In this fig. the roof is covered with plastic
which is used to collect maximum amount of
rainwater from roof
j) RWH through Continuous Contour
Trenching: construction of trench on slope contour
to detain water and sediments transported by water
gravity down slope generally constructed by light
equipments. These are also called as contour trench
or contour furrows, lined with geotextile and filled
with rock or placed in the form of erosion resisting
structures. (Refer Fig. No 16)
. irrigated about 100 acres of land during the drought
RWH through Continuous Contour Trenching
Fig No 16
166
k) RWH through Percolation Tank: This
method percolation tanks are constructed to store
the rain water which helps in various purpose such
as improvement in ground water table, increasing
crop production, increasing the prosperity of the
country etc. (Refer Fig. No 17)
Percolation Tank
Fig No 17
l) RWH Through Check Dam: In this small
barrier built across the direction of water flow on
shallow river or stream for the rain water harvesting
purpose. The small dam retains excess water flow
during monsoon rains in small catchment area
behind structure which helps in various ways.
Example : In Mahudi village, Dist.Dahod in
Gujarat. Population of this village was 600. In 1992,
the villagers constructed the first check dam on the
seasonal river Machhan, with the help of
N.M.Sadguru water and Development Foundation
( NMSWDF), a Dahod based NGO. In 2002 the
villagers have constructed a pipeline system to bring
drinking water on tap from the wells near check
dam. Villagers also control the use of water through
the local village institutions called lift irrigation
committee. Due to the construction of check dam,
the agriculture yield also increased, today formers
season. Refer Fig 18.
Check Dam at Mahudi village, Dist.Dahod in Gujrat
 Check Dam
Fig No. 18
m) Open well Recharging by Soak Pit Method
(Centre Of Science For Villages) :In this, it is
mentioned that construct the slope for surrounded
ground of well in such a way that total runoff should
reached toward the well. Construct pits of size 5feet
wide and 6.0 feet deep to the both sides of well by
leaving 5.0 feet on both sides of well as shown in
figure. The length of the pit should be slightly less
than the half the perimeter of the well. The slope of
the bottom of pit should be provided in opposite
direction of well. By leaving the space of 6 inches
above the bottom of pit, provide PVC pipe of 4
inches diameter from which water directly flow in
to the well through the pits. Fill the pits with stones
of size 12inch to 18 inches. While filling care is
taken that the gap should remain in between the
stones so that rainwater should pass through it. The
bigger size of stones should be placed at bottom of
pit and reduces the size gradually towards the top
of pits. Place the course-graded sand above the top
layer of stone. After completing, cover the pit with
polyethylene (plastic) and cover the soil, which is
excavated from the pit. During this, provide space
in to polyethylene for entering the runoff water into
the infiltration pits. Runoff water after passing
through the filtration pits reaches to the well, which
increases the level of water in the well. Refer Fig.
No 19.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION:
The most important components which needs
to be evaluated for designing rain water structures
are
167
Source _Centre Of Science For Village
Open well Recharging by Soak Pit Method s
Fig No. 19
1) Hydrogeology of the area including nature and
extent of aquifer, soil cover, topography, depth of
water table and chemical quality of ground water.
2) Area contributing for runoff i.e. how much area
and land use pattern, whether residential or garden
belt and general built up pattern area.
3) Hydro metrological characteristics viz rainfall
duration, intensity of rainfall and general pattern.
Quantity of water harvested:
The amount of water harvested depend up on
1) The frequency and intensity of rainfall 2)
Catchments characteristics
3) Water demand
Water Harvesting Potential = (Catchments area in
Sq. m) X (collection efficiency) X (rainfall in mm)
The collection efficiency accounts for the facts
that all the rainwater falling over the area can not
be effectively harvested, because of evaporation,
spillage etc. general values are tabulated below (
Refer Table No 2 & 3) which are generally used for
assessing the potential.
Table No 2
No. Type of catchments Collection efficiency
1 Roof Top 0.75-0.95
2 Paved area 0.5-0.85
3 Bare land 0.1-0.2
4 Green area 0.05-0.1
Runoff coefficients for various catchment surfaces
 Table No 3 cooking and drinking purpose is 10 liter/ cap/ day
For family of six person = 60 liters.
Type of Catchment Coefficients
For 245 days = 245 X 60
Roof Catchments = 14700 liters.
-Tiles 0.8-0.9 As per the factor of safety the tank should be
- Corrugated metal sheets 0.7- 0.9 built 20 % larger than the requirement i.e. 17640
Ground surface coverings
liters. This tank meets the basic water requirement
for a family of six members for dry period. By fixing
-Concrete 0.6-0.8
the height of the tank, the diameter can be calculated.
- Brick pavement 0.5- 0.6
Untreated ground catchments Legislation of RWH.
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 0.0-0.3 Kerala: The Kerala Municipality Building Rules,
1999 was amended by a notification dated January
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5
12, 2004 issued by the Government of Kerala to
Untreated ground catchments include rainwater harvesting structures in new
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 1.0-0.3 construction.
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5 109. A Rooftop rainwater harvesting
agreements.1) Unless otherwise stipulated
Source : Pacey, Arnold and Cullis, Adrian 1989, Rainwater
Harvesting: The collection of rainfall and runoff in rural
specifically in a town planning scheme, workable
areas, Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
roof top rainwater harvesting arrangements shall be
provided as in integral part of all new building
Example : constructs for the following occupancies, namely
Area of terrace = 150 sq.m. i) Group A1 — Residential (with floor area of
Height of Rainfall = 500 mm (0.5m) 100 m2 or more and plot area 200 m2 or more)
Volume of rainfall = 150 x 0.5 ii) Group A2 — Special Residential.
= 7.5 m3 = 75000 Lit. iii) Group B — Educational.
Assuming that 70 – 80 % of the total rainfall is iv) Group C — Medical / Hospital.
effectively harvested v) Group D – Assembly
Volume of water harvested = 75000 X 0.7 vi) Group E – Office / Business.
= 52500 liters. vii) Group G1 and Group G2 industrial (Only for
Generally water required for drinking, cooking is workshop, assembly plant, laboratories, dry-
10 liter / capita/day cleaning plant, diaries food processing unit and any
Suppose the family of six people other occupancies noticed by the government from
Total quantity of water required / family = 10 x 6 time to time).Provided that the floor area to be
= 60 liters. constructed shall be the total floor area in all floors:
For a year = 365 x 60 provided further that, the rainwater harvesting
= 21900 liters. arrangement is not mandatory for thatched roofed
The water required for family for drinking and building.
cooking purpose is less than the rain water harvested 2) The components of workable rooftop rain
i.e. harvested water is double than the water required water harvesting arrangements as stipulated in sub-
for main purpose. rule (1) above, shall include
i) Roof catchments area
Design of Storage tank ii) Roof gutters
Tank capacity : Tank capacity is based on dry iii) Down pipe and first flush pipe arrangement
period i.e. the period between the two consecutive iv) Filter unit
rainy seasons. Suppose monsoon is for four months v) Storage tank with provision of drawing water
i.e. 120 days , then the dry days are 245. and spillover
We know that quantity of water required for 3) The minimum capacity of storage tank as
stipulated in sub- rule (2) (v) of the roof top

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harvesting arrangement shall be at the rate given
below
Group A1 25 liters/ m2
Group A2 25 liters/ m2
Group B 50 liters/ m2
Group C 50 liters/ m2
Group D 50 liters/ m2
Group E 50 liters/ m2
Group F Nil
Group G1 and G2 50 liters/ m2
Group H 25 liters/ m2
Group I Nil
New Delhi :Since June 2001, the Ministry of Urban
affairs and Poverty Alleviation has made rainwater-
harvesting mandatory in all new buildings with a
roof area of more than 100 sq m and in all plots
with an area of more than 1000 sq m, that are being
developed. The Central Ground Water Authority
(CGWA) has made rainwater harvesting mandatory
in all institutions and residential colonies in notified
areas (South and southwest Delhi and adjoining
areas like Faridabad, Gurgaon and Ghaziabad). This
is also applicable to all the buildings in notified areas
that have tubewells. The deadline for this was for
March 31, 2002.
Indore (Madhya Pradesh): Rainwater harvesting
has been made mandatory in all new buildings with
an area of 250 sq m or more. A rebate of 6 per cent
on property tax has been offered as an incentive for
implementing rainwater-harvesting systems.
Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh): Rainwater harvesting has
been made mandatory in all new buildings with an
area of 1000 sq m or more.
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh): Rainwater
harvesting has been made mandatory in all new
buildings with an area of 300 sq m or more. Tentative
for enforcing this deadline was June 2001.
Tamil Nadu: Through an ordinance titled Thailand
Muncipal Laws ordinance, 2003, dated July 19,
2003, the government of Tamil Nadu has made
rainwater harvesting mandatory for all the buildings,
both public and private, in the state. The deadline
169
to construct rainwater harvesting structures is
August 31, 2003. The ordinance cautions, “Where
the rain water harvesting structure is not provided
as required, the Commissioner or any person
authorized by him in this behalf may, after giving
notice to the owner or occupier of the building, cause
rain water harvesting structure to be provided in such
building and recover the cost of such provision along
with the incidental expense thereof in the same
manner as property tax”. It also warns the citizens
on disconnection of water supply connection
provided rainwater-harvesting structures are not
provided.
Haryana: Haryana Urban Development Authority
(HUDA) has made rainwater-harvesting mandatory
in all new buildings irrespective of roof area. In the
notified areas in Gurgaon town and the adjoining
industrial areas all the institutions and residential
colonies have been asked to adopt water harvesting
by the CGWA. This is also applicable to all the
buildings in notified areas having a tubewell,
deadline was for March 31, 2002. The CGWA has
also banned drilling of tubewells in notified areas.
Rajasthan: The state government has made
rainwater harvesting mandatory for all public and
establishments and all properties in plot covering
more than 500 sq m in urban areas.
Mumbai:The state government has made rainwater-
harvesting mandatory for all buildings that are being
constructed on plots that are more than 1,000 sq m
in size. The deadline set for this was October 2002.
Gujarat: The state roads and buildings department
has made rainwater harvesting mandatory for all
government buildings.
Status of RWH in Nagpur District for the year
of 2005-2006
(Mahatma Jotiba Fule Jal Bhomi Sandharan
Abhiyan)(Refer Table No. 4)
References :
1) Centre for Science and Environment ( CSE)
2) National building code.
3) A water-harvesting manual for urban area.
4) S. Vishwanath. Domestic Rainwater harvesting.
Some application in Banglore, India
5) Centre of science for villages ( www.csvtech.org)
 Table No 4
No. Well Well Roof top rain Roof top rain
recharging recharging water harvesting water harvesting
(Target) (Achieved) (Target) (Achieved)
1 Nagpur 150 32 150 117
2 Kamthi 125 58 125 128
3 Hingna 150 39 150 200
4 Kalmeshwar 150 150
5 Katol 150 176 150 310
6 Narkhed 150 150
7 Sawaner 150 70 150 58
8 Parshivni 125 125
9 Ramtek 150 48 150 59
10 Mouda 125 20 125 27
11 Kuhi 125 0 125 06
12 Umared 125 14 125 44
13 Bhivapur 125 125
TOTAL 1800 457 1800 949

Target of RWH in Nagpur District for the year of 2006-2007

( Mahatma Jotiba Fule Jal Bhomi Sandharan Abhiyan)
(Refer Table No5)

No. Well recharging Roof top rain Roof top rain

(Target) water harvesting water harvesting
(Target) (Target)
Government buildings
1 Nagpur 150 150 100
2 Kamthi 125 125 100
3 Hingna 150 150 150
4 Kalmeshwar 150 150 100
5 Katol 150 150 150
6 Narkhed 150 150 100
7 Sawaner 150 150 100
8 Parshivni 125 125 100
9 Ramtek 150 150 150
10 Mouda 125 125 100
11 Kuhi 125 125 100
12 Umared 125 125 100
13 Bhivapur 125 125 150
TOTAL 1800 1800 1500

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