CHAPTER

OVER his pipe i n the village ale-house, the labourer says

very positively what Parliament should do about the " f o o t
and mouth disease." A t the farmer's market-table, his master
makes the glasses jingle as, with his fist, he emphasizes the as-
sertion that he did not get half enough compensation for his
slaughtered beasts d u r i n g the cattle-plague. T h e s e are not
hesitating opinions. O n a matter affecting the agricultural
interest, statements are still as dogmatic as they were during
the Anti-Corn-Law agitation, when, in every rural circle, you
heard that the nation would be ruined i f the lightly-taxed for-
eigner was allowed to compete in our markets with the heav-
ily-taxed Englishman : a proposition held to be so self-evident
that disIsent from it implied either stupidity or knavery.
Now, as then, may be daily heard among other classes,
opinions just as decided and just as unwarranted. B y men
called educated, the old plea for extravagant expenditure, that
" i t is good for trade," is still continually urged with full be-
lief in its sufficiency. Scarcely any decrease is observable in
the fallacy that whatever gives employment is beneficial : no
regard being had t o the value f o r ulterior purposes o f that
which the labour produces: no question being asked what
would have resulted had the capital which paid for the labour
taken some other channel and paid f o r some other labour.
Neither criticism nor explanation appreciably modifies these
beliefs. W h e n there is again an opening for them they are
expressed w i t h undiminished confidence. A l o n g with delu-
sions of this k i n d go whole families o f others. P e o p l e who
2
 , c h o s e n design f.
think that the relations between expenditure and production condemnation.
are so simple, naturally assume simplicity in .other relations fective sanitary
among social phenomena. I s there distress somewhere ? ' t h e fevers at
They suppose nothing m o r e i s required t h a n t o subscribe , h e a r d repeated,
money for relieving it. O n the one hand, they never trace ments having sl
the reactive effects which charitable donations work on bank selves the oute.
m e g a ' , on the surplus-capital bankers have to lend, o n the regardless o f tl
productive activity which the capital now abstracted would been the means
have set up, on the number of labourers who would have re- State should pu
ceived wages and w h o now g o without wagesthey do not those who, ever
perceive that certain necessaries o f l i f e have been withheld cross-purposes i
from one man who would have exchanged useful w o r k f o r t-ion, or diploma'
them, and given to another who perhaps persistently evades of justice by tee
working. N o r , on the other hand, do they look beyond the having their co)
immediate mitigation of misery. T h e y deliberately shut their should insure b
eyes to the fact that as fast as they increase the provision for either never kw
those who live without labour, so fast do they increase the Barry had spew
number of those who live without labour ; and t h a t w i t h an Parliament., the
ever-increasing distribution of alms, there comes an ever-in- "the House slio
creasing outcry for more alms. S i m i l a r l y throughout all their picion of partial
political thinking. P r o x i m a t e causes and proximate results And similarly tl
are alone contemplated. T h e r e is. scarcely any consciousness and at meetings.
that the original causes are often numerous and widely differ- State might pro,
ent from the apparent cause; and that beyond each immedi- of hand : that "
ate result there will be multitudinous remote results, most of Government :"
them quite incalculable. a suitable natio]
Minds in which the conceptions of social actions are thus children." A n
rudimentary, are also minds ready to harbour wild hopes of in Prance by M.
benefits to be achieved b y administrative agencies. I n each ing good music,
such m i n d there seems to be the unexpressed postulate that bach.l W e smil
every evil in a society admits of cure; and that the cure lies brated f o r her
within the reach of law. " Why is not there a better inspec- when there was
tion of the mercantile marine ?" asked a correspondent of the Smile? A great
Times the other day : apparently forgetting that within the notions of practit
preceding twelve months the power he invoked had lost two
of its own vessels, and barely saved a third. " U g l y buildings That connexi(
are eyesores, and should not be allowed," urges one who is little understood,
anxious f o r a3sthetic culture. Meanwhile, f r o m t h e agent -which prevail resi
which is to foster good taste, there have come monuments and Phenomena . M i l .
public buildings o f which the less said the better ; and it,s

,)5
 '
Af-

OUR NEED OF I T. 3
)1,0GY.
chosen design for the Law-Courts meets with almost universal
diture and production condemnation. " W h y did those i n authority allow such de-
city in other relations fective sanitary arrangements ? " was everywhere asked, after
distress somewhere? the fevers a t L o r d Londesborough's; and this question you
ed t h a n t o subscribe heard repeated, regardless o f the fact that sanitary arrange-
land, they never trace ments having such results in this and other cases, were them-
>nations work on bank selves the outcome o f appointed sanitary administrations
s have to lend, on the regardless o f the fact that the authorized system had itself
now abstracted would been the means of introducing foul gases into houses.' " T h e
rs who would have re- State should purchase the railways," is confidently asserted by
It wagesthey do not those who, every morning, read of chaos at the Admiralty, or
'e have been withheld cross-purposes i n the dockyards, or wretched army-organiza-
nged useful work for tion, or diplomatic bungling that endangers peace, or frustration
ips persistently evades of justice by technicalities and costs and delays,all without
they look beyond the having their confidence in officialism shaken. " B u i l d i n g Alic ts
deliberately shut their should insure better ventilation in small houses," says one who
ease the provision for either never knew or has forgotten that, after Messrs. R ' d and
do they increase the Barry had spent .C200,000 in failing to ventilate the s of
,ur ; and that with an Parliament, the First Commissioner of Works propo h a t ,
ere comes an ever-in- "the House should get some competent engineer, above sus-
l y throughout all their picion of partiality, to let them see what ought to be done" 4
and proximate results And similarly there are continually cropping out in the press,
cely any consciousness and at meetings, and in conversations, such notions as that the
rous and widely differ- State might provide "cheap capital" by some financial sleight I f

beyond each immedi- of hand; that "there ought to be bread-overseers appointed by

remote results, most of Government :" ' that " i t is the duty of Government to provide
a suitable national asylum for the reception of all illegitimate
social actions are thus children." ' A n d here it is doubtless thought by some, as it is
harbour wild hopes of in France by M. de Li-igevenais, that Government, by supply-
i ye agencies. I n each ing good music, should exclude the bad, such as that of Offen-
pressed postulate that bach.' W e smile o n reading o f that French princess, cele-
and that the cure lies brated f o r h e r innocent wonder that people should starve
there a better inspec- when there was k i simple a remedy. B u t w h y should w e
a correspondent of the smile I A great part of the current political thought evinces
2,-etting that within the notions of practicability not much more rational.
invoked had lost two
bird. " U g l y buildings That connexions among social phenomena should be so
ved," urges one who is little understood, need n o t surprise us i f we note the ideas
while, f r o m t h e agent -which prevail respecting the connexions among much simpler
e come monuments and phenomena. M i n d s l e f t ignorant o f physical causation, are
-4).id the better ; and its

 4 THE STUDY O F SOCIOLOGY.

unlikely to appreciate clearly, if at all, that causation so much feelings. F o r, in th

more subtle and complex, which runs through the actions o f contemplating, then
incorporated men. I n almost every house, servants and those moulded by themsel
;;-0. who employ them, alike believe t h a t a poker leaned up i n -rally possessed by a
front o f the bars, or across them, makes the fire burn ; and rest, of the citizens.
you will be told, very positively, that experience proves the liberately assert Om
efficacy of the devicethe experience being that the poker has ratus can exert pow
It been repeatedly so placed and the fire has repeatedly burned; power proceeding fr
and no comparisons having been made with cases i n which to admit, when cro
the poker was absent, and all other conditions as before. I n -governmental madl
the same circles the old prejudice against sitting down thirteen citizens to cease wo
to dinner still survives : them actually exists among ladies nevertheless, their
who have been at finishing schools of the highest character, some store o f force
and among some gentlemen who pass as intelligent, the con- -there arises the que.
viction t h a t adding or subtracting one f r o m a number o f for us ? there is no.
people who eat together, Nvill affect the fates o f some among not Government pu
them. A n d this state of mind is again displayed at the card- 'proceeds, pay officio
t, table, by the opinion t h a t So-and-so i s always lucky or un- ourselves ; but the
luckythat influences are a t w o r k which, on the average, Government, out ol
determine more good cards t o one person than to another. benefit ?
Clearly, those in whom the consciousness of causation in these Such modes of p,
simple cases is so vague, may be expected to have the wildest with such concepti,
notions o f social causation. W h o e v e r even entertains t h e Just as the perpetl
supposition that a poker put across the fire can make i t burn, arrangement of pa,
proves himself to have neither a qualitative nor a quantitative more energy than li
idea of physical causation ; and if, during his life, his experi- laical schemer is co
ences of material objects and actions have failed to give h i m properly devised an
an idea so accessible and so simple, it is n o t likely that they beneficial State-acti,
have given him ideas of the qualitative and quantitative rela- expects to get out ot
tions of cause and effect holding throughout society. H e n c e , and to evolve from
there is nothing to exclude irrational interpretations and dis-
proportioned hopes. W h e r e other superstitions flourish, polit- But while the pr,
ical superstitions w i l l take root. A consciousness i n which those whose coned],
14, there lives the idea that spilling salt will be followed b y some might be anticipate(
evil, obviously allied as it is to the consciousness of the savage, by scientific cultui
filled with beliefs in omens and charms, gives a home to other social phenomena,
beliefs like those of the savage. I t may not have faith i n the by others. N o w thi,
potency o f medicine-bags and idols, and m a y v e n wonder forces is se.en by mei
how a n y being can reverence a t h i n g shaped with his own all inorganic actions
hands ; and yet it readily entertains subtler forms of the same that even mental cli
,rt
LOGY.
that causation so much
through the actions of
use, servants and those
a poker leaned up i n
es the fire burn ; and
experience proves the
eing that the poker has
las repeatedly burned;
te with eases i n which
iditions as before. I n
,t sitting down thirteen
y exists among ladies
the highest character,
is intelligent, the con-
te from a number o f
fates of some among'
displayed at the card- -proceeds, pay officials to do this;Itislead of leaving us to do i t
always lucky or un-
-hich, on the average,
rson than to another.
is of causation in these
to have the wildest
even entertains t h e
Ire can make i t burn,
tive nor a quantitative
lg his life, his experi-
ve failed to give h i m
s not likely that they
and quantitative rela-
-hout society. Hence,
tterpretations and dis-
rstitions flourish, polit-
msciousness in which
I be followed by some
iousness of the savage, by scientific culture should b r i n g t o the interpretation o f
gives a home to other
- not have faith i n the
ad may 4ven wonder
shaped with his own
,tier foinas of the same
OUR N E E D O F I T. 5
feelings. F o r , in those whose modes of thought we have been
contemplating, there is a tacit supposition that a government
moulded by themselves, has some efficiency beyond that natu-
rally possessed by a certain group of citizens subsidized by the
rest of the citizens. T r u e , if you ask them, they may not de-
liberately assert that a legislative and administrative appa-
ratus can exert power, either mental,or material, beyond the
power proceeding from the nation ifielf. T h e y are compelled
to admit, when cross-examined, t h a t t h e energies moving a-
governmental machine are energies Which would cease were
citizens to cease working and furnishing the supplies. B u t ,
nevertheless, t h e i r projects i m p l y a n unexpressed belief i n
some store o f force t h a t is n o t measured b y taxes. W h e n
there arises the questionWhy does n o t Government do this ..,-/
for us I there i s n o t the accompanying thoughtWhy_does-
not Government put its hands i n our o..ckets, and; wIth the
ourselves ; but the accompanying thought isWhy does not
Government, out of its inexhaustible resources, yield as this
benefit
Such modes of political thinking, then, naturally go along
with such conceptions of physical phenomena as are current.
Just as the perpetual-motion schemer hopes, b y a cunning
arrangement o f parts, t o get f r o m one end o f his machine
more energy than he puts in at the other ; so the ordinary po-
litical schemer is convinced that out of a legislative apparatus,
properly devised and worked with due dexterity, may be had
beneficial State-action without any detrimental reaction. H e
expects to get out of a stupid people the effects of intelligence,
and to evolve from inferior citizens superior conduct.
But while the prevalence of crude political opinions among
those whose conceptions about simple matters are so crude,
might be anticipated, it, is surprising that the class disciplined
social phenomena, methods but little in advance of those used
by others.. N o w that the transformation and equivalence o f
forces is seen by men o f science to hold n o t only throughout
all inorganic actions, but throughout all organic actions ; now
that even mental changes are recognized as the correlatives of
 THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY,
*It$
cerebral changes, which also conform t o this principle ; a n d Herschel, that
now, that there must be admitted the corollary, that al'L a c - velope, within
tions going on i n a society are measured by certain antec4dent dark central 134
energies, which disappear in effecting them, while they klilem- -luminous envel,
selves become actual or potential energies from which :suhse- envelope and o
quent questions arise ; i t is strange that there should no-cit have . penumbra and
arisen the consciousness that these highest phenomena teltre to time received );;-
be studied as lower phenomena have been studiedntrot, o f --that teleologica
course, after the same physical methods, but i n conlow'rmity -)3ho u c l b e h a b i .
with the same principles. A n d yet scientific men rarele,y dis- .-,the appearances
play such a consciousness. I L
which the spot
A mathematician w h o had agreed o r disagreed wit 1;11 the though Sir Join
view of Professor Tait respecting the value of Quaternica-ms for '74)ointing out th;
pursuing researches in Physics, would listen with raiscicd eye- ....persions of the
brows were one w i t h o u t mathematical culture t o exapress a tore and more
decided opinion o n the matter. O r , i f the subject d i tscussed f,;;-light and heat i
was t h e doctrine o f Helmholtz, that hypothetical bei%en of auroral disch
cupying space of two dimensions, might be so condition, step back ; sincc
the axioms of our geometry would prove untrue, the ,.mat generated out o
matician would marvel i f an affirmation o r a negatiolin came - -petually being
from a man who knew no more of the properties of spairce than ..pothesis, follow
is to be gained by daily converse w i t h things around, i a n d no ,..origin, is that tl
more of the principles of reasoning than the course of pusiness its incandescen.
taught him. A n d yet, were we to take members of th e -Mathe- -.progressing a u
matical Society, who, having severally devoted t h e n s e l v e s .-,ap.c1 that surrou
to the laws o f quantitative relations, k n o w that, Fiemple as rphere of metalli,
these are intrinsically, a life's study is required f o r / t h e f u l l the visible phot
comprehension o f themwere we t o ask each o f t h e s e his this case, are th(
opinion o n some p o i n t o f social policy, time readi4ness w i t h 'h3,rpothesis just i
which he answered would seem to i m p l y that i n tyiese cases, -4na.de his diseov,
where the factors of the phenomena are so numery 'cus and so .;:that the solar s:
much involved, a general survey of men and thini,ss gives data ..densed metallic ).
for trustworthy judgments. he endeavoured
Or, to contrast more f u l l y the mode o f reolo'hing a conclu- ,Stm's rotation ca
sion which the man o f science uses i n his cJW11 department., -,view. B u t the a]
with that which he regards as s a t i s f a c t o r yi n the department; Irreco ncilable wi
of politics, let us take a case from a concv-eth science: say, tho i n g cloucts. D o 1
; questionWhat are the solar spots, anid what constitution of position of M. I
the S u n is implied b y them ? 3 f tentative answers to 'Which is wholly
this question there is first Wilson' s, adopted b y Sir William 'Spots are produe

this principle ;: and
iollary, that al4 ac-
\- certain anthce.dent
a, while they ,hem-
from which :subse-
n-e should n o t have
t phenomena [tire to
en studiedntot, o f
but i n confo'rmity
ific men rare3ty dis-
t
disagreed wit,h the
3 of Quaterniems for
'en with raised eye-
ulture t o express a
le subject discussed
othetical
3so condition'
untrue, the ,m a t ic-
or a negation came
,perties of spaice than
,ngs around, and no
he course of pusiness
!mbers of th e Mathe-
devoted themselves
now that, siimple as
-equired f o r t h e f u l l
;k each o f these his
, t h e reedit ness w i t h
that i n tliese eases,
so numerous and so
and thiniss gives data
of rea111ing a conclu-
his CJWn department,
ry/lia the department
It'ete science: say, the
[ what constitution o f
tentative answers to
opted b y Sir William
'
OUR N E E D O F I T. 7
Herschel, that the visible surface of the Sun is a luminous en-
velope, within which there are cloudy envelopes covering a
dark central body ; and that when, by some disturbance, the
luminous envelope is broken through, portions of the cloudy
envelope and o f the dark central body, become visible as the
penumbra and umbra respectively. T h i s hypothesis, at one
time received with favour mainly because it seemed to permit
that teleological interpretation which required that the Sun
should be habitable, accounted tolerably well f o r certain o f
the appearancesmore especially the appearance of concavity
which the spots have when near the l i m b o f the Sun. B u t
though Sir John Herschel supported his father's hypothesis,
pointing out that cyclonic action would account for local dis-
persions of the photosphere, there has o f late years become
more and more ma Rifest the fatal objection that the genesis of
light and heat remained unexplained, and that no supposition
of auroral discharges d i d more than remove the difficulty a
step back ; since, unless l i g h t and heat could be perpetually
generated out of nothing, there must be a store of force per-
petually being expended i n producing them. A counter-hy-
pothesis, following naturally from the hypothesis of nebular
origin, is that the mass of the Sun must be incandescent ; that
its incandescence has been produced, and is maintained, by
progressing aggregation o f its once widely-diffused matter ;
and that surrounding its molten surface there is an atmos-
phere of metallic gases continually rising, condensing to form
the visible photosphere, and thence precipitating. W h a t , i n
this case, are the solar spots ? K i r c h h o f f , proceeding upon the
hypothesis just indicated, which had been set forth before he
made his discoveries by the aid of the spectroscope, contended
that the solar spots are simply clouds, formed o f these con-
densed metallic gases, so large as to be relatively opaque ; and
he endeavoured t o account for t h e i r changing forms as the
Sun's rotation carries them away, in correspondence with this
view. B u t the appearances as known to astronomers, are quite
irreconcilable with the belief t h a t the spots are simply drift-
ing clouds. D o these appearances, then, conform to the sup-
position o f M . Faye, t h a t the photosphere encloses matter
which i s w h o l l y gaseous and non-luminous; a n d t h a t the
spots are produced when occasional up-rushes f r o m t h e in-
 8 THE STUDY O F SOCIOLOGY.

tenor burst through the photosphere t T h i s supposition, while potheses, h e

i t may be held to account for certain traits of the spots, and to until further (
be justified b y the observed fact that there are up-rushes o f gruities. Che,
gas, presents difficulties n o t readily disposed of. I t does n o t sion drawn, he
; explain the manifest rotation of many spots; nor, indeed, does aly remains In
i t seem really to account for that darkness which constitutes out a l l possib:
them spots ; since a non-luminous gaseous nucleus would be variety of (lat.:
permeable by light from the remoter side of the photosphere, caused b y idi,
and hence holes through the near side o f t h e photosphere astronomical o
would not look dark. T h e r e is, however, another hypothesis all astronomic
which more nearly reconciles the facts. A s s u m i n g the incan- important, he
descent molten surface, the ascending metallic gases, and the his nervous ac
formation of a photosphere at that outer limit where the gases f a i n change o
condense ; accepting the suggestion of Sir John Herschel, so for the "persol
amply supported by evidence, that zones north and south o f charge varies,
4
the Sun's equator are subject t o violent cyclones ; this h y - n i n e t y metres
1111 pothesis is, that i f a cyclone occurs within the atmosphere of than in winter
metallic gases between t h e molten surface and t h e photo- ing it with th(
eff sphere, its vortex will become a region o f rarefaction, of re- preciably diffei
frigeration, a n d therefore o f precipitation. T h e r e w i l l b e of this error
formed i n i t a dense cloud extending far down towards the account
body of the Sun, and obstructing the greater part of the l i g h t S u p p o s e no
radiating from below. H e r e we have an adequate cause for r i n g all possiblt
the formation o f an opaque vaporous massa cause which 'of error, we p
also accounts for the frequently observed vortical mot f o r Proposed instit
the greater blackness of the central part of the umbra t h e : a very decided
formation o f a penumbra by the drawing-in o f the adjacent ateedful, proce<
photosphere ; for the elongation of the luminous masses form- has happened i
ing the photosphere, a n d the turning o f their longer axes an institution (
towards the centre o f the spot ; and f o r the occasional drift- thought neelift,
ing o f them over the spot towards its centre. S t i l l , there is
the difficulty that vortical motion is b y no means always ob- Is not
'kinrethoughtl age
servable; and i t remains t o be considered whether its non- far institutions
visibility in many cases is reconcilable w i t h the hypothesis. have justified
A t present none o f the interpretations can be regarded as thought need
established. S e e , then, the rigour of the inquiry. H e r e Itondhuaeptpile, y i wt
are sundry suppositions which the man o f science severally
-tests by observations and necessary inferences. I n this, as i n twill arise. A n d
other eases, he rejects such as unquestionably disagree with be the indi
unquestionable truths. C o n t i n u a l l y excluding untenable hy- AranizationhoN
'Position, while
le spots, and to
e up-rushes of
r. I t does not
,r, indeed, does
ich constitutes
'lens would be
e photosphere,
3photosphere
hoer hypothesis
ing the incan-
gases, and the
here the gases
Herschel, so
and south o f
ales; this hy-
ttmosphere of
d the photo-
faction, of re-
'here w i l l b e
a towards the
of the l i g h t
',tate cause for
cause which
I m o t a t for
'nbra the
the adjacent
masses form-
- longer axes
asional drift-
Still, there is
is always oh-
tiler its non-
e hypothesis.
, regarded as
iquiry. H e r e
'nee severally
In this, as i n
disagree w i t h
untenable hy-

,
 , a - a L i t t a t a d i a t i t t M

10 T H E STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY.

how far i t w i l l prevent the spontaneous growth o f agencies

having like ends. I do not mean that none of these questions sociolpgical (
are recognized as questions to be asked ; but I mean that no .daily press l i
attempts are made after a scientific manner t o get together studying p
materials f o r answering them. T r u e , some data have been ...fraction due
gathered from newspapers, periodicals, foreign correspondence, _tases, thougl
books o f travel ; and there have been read sundry histories, well underst(
which, besides copious accounts o f royal misdemeanours, con- controlling c
tain minute details o f every military campaign, and careful the waves an
disentanglings o f diplomatic trickeries. A n d on information and the cons
thus acquired a confident opinion is based. M o s t remarkable may be readi
of all, however, is the fact that no allowance is made for the inorganic sul
personal equation. I n political observations and judgments, ,required to
the qualities o f the individual, natural and acquired, are b y 'illnother, and
far the most important factors. T h e bias o f education, the 'interactions c,
bias of class-relationships, the bias of nationality, the political ,-.4pated ; but w
bias the theological biasthese, added t o the constitutional iving beings
sympathies and antipathies, have much more influence in de- 464 results xv1
termining beliefs o n social questions t h a n has t h e small ,Ikio connected
amount of evidence collected. Ye t , though in his search after truth, there is
a physical truth, the man of science allows f o r minute errors Tql;dies are act
of perception due t o his own nature, he makes n o allowance 'jrtg our north.
for the enormous errors which his own nature variously mod- uing the wi
ified and distorted b y his conditions o f life, is sure t o intro- mong socioli
duce into his perceptions of political truth. H e r e , where cor- 41dinous, and
rection f o r the personal equation is all-essential, i t does n o t litany, and so
occur t o h i m t h a t there is a n y personal equation t o b e ";the a:ctuality
allowed for. ,haves paradON
Aecome boil in
This immense incongruity between the attitude i n which roduees an ol
the most disciplined minds approach other orders o f natural ,,phurous acid
phenomena, and the attitude in which they approach the phe- tinguish as Mu]
nomena presented b y societies, w i l l be best illustrated b y a Which causes s
series of antitheses thus: always such rt
The material media through which we see things, always
more or less falsify the facts: making, for example, the appar- in the hebeacceliepfsta,
ent direction of a star slightly different from its real direction, .raarkable whei.
and sometimes, as when a fish is seen in the water, the appar- human nature
ent place is so far from the real place, that great misconcep- ently the most
tion results unless large allowance is made for refraction ; but t results freq,
thinks impracti,
OGY.
OUR NEED O F I T.
growth o f agencies
,ne of these questions sociological observations are n o t thus falsified : through the
but I mean that no daily press l i g h t come - i t h o u t a n y bending of its rays, and
nner to get together in studying past ages e a s y to make allowance for the re-
,me data have been fraction due to the Ins i e medium. T h e motions o f
eign correspondence, gases, though they conform t o mechanical laws which are
ad sundry histories, well understood, are nevertheless so involved, that the art of
tnisdemeanours, controlling currents of air in a house is not yet mastered; b u t
anpaign, and careful the waves and currents o f feeling running through a society,
And on information and the cernsequent directions and amounts of social activities,
d. M o s t remarkable may be readily known beforehand. T h o u g h molecules of
:nice is made for the inorganic substances are very simple, yet prolonged study is
ons and judgments, required t o understand t h e i r modes o f behaviour t o one
nd acquired, are b y another, and even the most instructed frequently meet with
Is o f education, the interactions of them producing consequences they never antic-
onality, the political ipated; but where the interacting bodies are not molecules but
o the constitutional living beings o f highly-complex natures, i t is easy to foresee-,---,-
tore influence in de- all results which will arise. P h y s i c a l phenomen% are
han has the small so connected t h a t between seeming probability a n d actual
-II in his search after truth, there is apt to be a wide difference, even where but two
,rs for minute errors bodies are acting : instance the natural supposition that dur-
makes no allowance ing our northern summer the Earth is nearer to the Sun than
tture variously mod- during the winter, which is just the reverse o f the fact; b u t
ife, is sure to intro- among sociological phenomena, where the bodies are so multi-
!. H e r e , where cor- tudinous, and the forces b y which they act on one another so
ssential, i t does not many, and so multiform, and so variable, the probability and
nal equation t o be the actuality w i l l of course correspond. M a t t e r often be-
haves paradoxically, as when t w o cold liquids added together
become boiling hot, or as when the mixing of two clear liquids
te attitude i n which produces an opaque mud, or as when water immersed in sul-
er orders o f natural phurous acid freezes on a h o t i r o n plate; but what we dis-
,y approach the phe- tinguish as Mind, especially when massed together in the way
)est illustrated by a which causes social action, evolves n o paradoxical results
always such results come from i t as seem likely to come.
e see things, always The acceptance of contradictions like these, tacitly implied
t example, the appar- in the beliefs o f the scientifically cultivated, is the more re-
om its real direction, markable when we consider how abundant are the proofs that
the water, the appal'- human nature is difficult to manipulate ; that methods appar-
tat great misconcep- ently the most rational disappoint expectation ; and that the
'e for refraction; but best results frequently arise from courses which common sense
thinks unpractical. E v e n individual human nature shows us

4
 12 T H E STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY.

these startling anomalies. A man of leisure is the man natu- which should lea;
rally fixed upon i f something has to be done ; but your man of debts o f honour, f.
leisure cannot find time, and the man most likely to do what legal penalty, are
is wanted, is the man who is already busy. T h a t the boy who legally enforced;
studies longest will learn most, and that a man w i l l become pencil memoranda
wise in proportion as he reads much, are propositions w h i c h guarantee the sale
look true b u t are quite untrue ; as teachers are now-a-days are safer than thes
finding out in the one case, and as Hobbes long ago found out registered in signe.
in the other. H o w obvious it appears that when minds go de- Multitudes of (
ranged, there is n o remedy but replacing the weak internal in other directions
control by a strong external control. Y e t the "non-restraint of conduct which,.
system" has had f a r more success than the system of strait- And if, going bey.
waistcoats. 4Dr. Batty Tuke, a physician o f much experience observe what has L
in treating the insane, has lately testified that the desire to es- earlier generation,
cape is great- when locks and keys are used, but almo workings-out of he
pears when they are disused: the policy o f nnloc o o r s aasume when mak
has had 95 per cent. of success and 5 per cent. of failure.' A n d the experiences of
in filtrther evidence o f the mischief often done b y measures please their gods,
supposed to be curative, here is Dr: liaudsley-,- also.an author- through the muse
ity on such questions,-speaking of--"asylum-made lunatics.Again,istn
w
fm
p
rh
a
cle
o
ilbe through the palms
over hundreds of 1.
effectual in proportion as the punishment is severe ? Y e t the thought it possible
great amelioration in our penal code, initiated by Romilly, has lug might be as in
not been followed b y increased criminality but b y decreased tute to be executed
criminality ; and the testimonies of those who have had most the money ? O r , t
experienceMaconochie in Norfolk Island, Dickson i n West- lug ourselvesWI
ern Australia, Obermier i n Germany, Montesinos i n Spain priestly intercessio
unite to show that in proportion as the criminal is left to suffer into the hands of
no other penalty than that of maintaining himself under such in the law of mort;
restraints only as are needful for social safety, the reformation consecrated as graN
is great: exceeding, indeed, all anticipation. F r e n c h school- robber-kings and b.
masters, never questioning the belief that boys can be made to generation after ge;
behave well only by rigid discipline and spies to aid in carry- hardships and dan;
ing i t out, are astonished o n visiting England t o f i n d h o w of the reputed bin
much better boys behave when they are less governed : n a y turn the left cheek
moreamong English boys themselves, Dr. Arnold has shown again, would have
that more trust is followed b y improved conduct. S i m i l a r l y same teacher disclai
with the anomalies of incorporated human nature. W e habit- instrumentalities,
ually assume that only by legal restraints are men to be kept would by and by be
from aggressing on their neighbours ; and yet there are facts of Europe ? S u c h
 OUR NEED O F I T.
13
leisure is the man natu-
-which should lead us t o qualify our assumption. So-called
, done; but your man of
debts o f honour, for the non-payment o f which there is no
most likely to do what
legal penalty, are held more sacred t h a n debts that can be
asy. T h a t the boy who
legally enforced ; a n d on the Stock-Exchange, where o n l y
liat a man w i l l become
pencil memoranda in the respective note-books of two brokers
are propositions which
guarantee the sale and purchase of many thousands, contracts
'achers are now-a-days
are safer than those which, in the outside world, are formally
,bes long ago found out registered in signed and sealed parchments.
that when minds go de-
Multitudes o f cases m i g h t be accumulated showing how,
ing the weak internal
in other directions, men's thoughts and feelings produce kinds
Yet the "non-restraint
of conduct which, a priori, would be judged very improbable.
in the system of strait-
And if, going beyond our own society and our own time, we
n of much experience
observe what has happened among other races, and among the
d that the desire to es-
earlier generations o f our own race, we meet, at every step,
tsed, but almo
workings-out of human nature utterly unlike those which we
:cy o f unlock o a r s
assume when making political forecasts. W h o , generalizing
cent, of failure. A n d .
the experiences o f his daily life, would suppose that men, to
'ten done b y in
please their gods, would swing f o r hours from hooks drawn
dsley, also an author-
through the muscles o f their backs, o r l e t their nails grow
ylum-made lunatics."
through the palms of their clenched hands, or roll over and
Ion o f crime w i l l be
over hundreds of miles to visit a shrine ? W h o would have
it is severe ? Y e t the
thought it possible that a public sentiment and a private feel-
Listed by Romilly, has
ing might be as in China, where a criminal can b u y a substi-
dity but by decreased
tute to be executed in his stead : the substitute's family having
who have had most
the money ? O r , to take historical cases more nearly concern-
ad, Dickson i n West-
ing ourselvesWho foresaw that the beliefs in purgatory and
tontesinos in Spain--
priestly intercession would cause one-half of England to lapse
iminal is left to suffer
into the hands o f the Church ? or who foresaw that a defect
g himself under such
in the law of mortmain would lead to bequests of large estates
Ifety, the reformation
consecrated as graveyards ? W h o could have imagined that
,ion. F r e n c h school-
robber-kings and bandit-barons, with vassals to match, would,
boys can be made to
generation after generation, have traversed all Europe through
spies to aid in carry-
hardships and dangers to risk their lives in getting possession
:ngland t o find h o w
of the reputed burial place o f one whose injunction was to
less governed : nay
turn the l e f t cheek when the r i g h t was smitten ? O r who,
)r. Arnold has shown
again, would have anticipated that when, i n Jerusalem, this
conduct. S i m i l a r l y
same teacher disclaimed political aims, and repudiated political
n nature. W e habit-
instrumentalities, t h e professed successors o f h i s disciples
3are men to be kept
_would by and by become rulers dominating over all the kings
d yet there are facts
of Europe ? S u c h a result could be as l i t t l e foreseen as i t
 --4111111111111111

14 T H E STUDY O F SOCIOLOGY.

could be foreseen that an instrument of torture used by the And what th

Jews w o u l d g i v e t h e ground-plans t o Christian temples no less of the int
throughout Europe ; and as little as it could be forese9n that its actions. Y o u
the process of this torture, recounted i n Christian narratives, the currants, beca
might come t o be mistaken f o r a Christian institution, as it imperfect. A der
was by the Malay chief who, being expostulated with f o r cru- cause t o the bu:
cifying some rebels, replied that he was following "the Eng- Rhine several y(
lish practice," which he read in "their sacred books."' chants at Cette,
Look where we will at the genesis of social phenomena, we there happened
shall similarly find t h a t w h i l e the particular ends contem- Abyssinia, an inc;
plated and arranged for have commonly not been more than autumn holiday ;
temporarily attained i f attained a t all, the changes actually try to extend the
brought about have arisen from causes of which the very ex- sults here a party
istence was unknown. of friends. I f fr(
home, yo m d th
How, indeed, can any man, and how more especially can influen o o in'
any man o f scientific culture, t h i n k that special results o f Your h 3 T j o f bus
special political acts can be calculated, when he contemplates its of the commu:
the incalculable complexity of the influences under which each one knows how.
individual, and a f o r t i o r i each society, develops, lives, and - W h i c h do not sui
decays ? T h e multiplicity o f the factors is illustrated even rangements you n
in the material composition of a man's body. E v e r y one who as you can get,
watches closely the course of things, must have observed that everybody a d o p t
at a single meal he may take i n bread made from Russian and y o u h a v e t
wheat, beef from Scotland, potatoes f r o m the midland coun- t;* trouble for pleasul
ties, sugar from the Mauritius, salt from Cheshire, pepper.from :are ready mould
Jamaica, curry-powder from India, wine from France or Ger- ,;,:ity is very decid,
many, currants f r o m Greece, oranges f r o m Spain, as well as ! Strong f o r i t . I \
various spices a n d condiments f r o m other places; and if he the coming-of-age
considers whence came the draught o f water be swallows, throughout life.
tracing it back from the reservoir through the stream and the , direct reference to
brook and the rill, to the separate rain-drops which fell wide , solution end the
apart, and these again to the eddying vapours which had been season determine
mingling and parting i n endless ways as they drifted over the -affect the making (
Atlantic, he sees that this single mouthful of water contains from co-existing in
1 been working thro
molecules which, a l i t t l e t i m e ago, were dispersed over hun-
dreds of square miles of ocean swell. S i m i l a r l y tracing back comes still more e,
the history of each solid he has eaten, he finds that his body is in England do not
made up of elements which have lately come from a l l parts seek through thous
of the Earth's surface. Ask why in Englan
3

orture used by the
ilhristian temples
be foreseen t h a t
tristian narratives,
institution, as it
tated with f o r cru-
"lowing " the Eng-
ed books."'
dal phenomena, we
ular ends contem-
ot been more than
3changes actually
which the very ex-
lore especially can
special results o
ten he contempla
under which eac
,levelops, lives, and
- is illustrated even
ly. E v e r y one who
have observed that
made from Russian
I the midland coun-
heshire, pepper.from
.rom France or Ger-
qn Spain, as well as
er places ; and i f he
water he swallows,
h the stream and the
rops which fell wide
ours which had been
they drifted over the
_ f r o m co-existing influences we turn to influences t h a t have
ful of water contains
dispersed over hun-'
milarly tracing back--
finds that his body is
come from a l l parts
OUR N E E D O F I T. 15
And w h a t thus holds o f the substance of the body, holds
no less of the influences, physical and moral, which modify
its actions. Y o u break your tooth with a small pebble among
the currants, because the industrial organization in Zante is so
imperfect. A derangement of your digestion goes back for its
cause t o t h e b u n g l i n g management i n a vineyard o n t h e
Rhine several years ago ; o r to the dishonesty o f t h e mer-
chants at Cette, where imitation wines are produced. Because
there happened a squabble between a consul and a k i n g in
Abyssinia, an increased income-tax obliges you to abridge your
autumn holiday ; o r because slave-owners i n North America
try to extend the "peculiar institution" further west, there re-
sults here a party dissension which perhaps entails on you loss
of friends. I f f r o m these remote causes you turn to causes at
home, you find that your doings are controlled by a plexus of
influences too involved t o be traced beyond its first meshes.
Your hours of business are pre-determined by the general hab-
its of the community, which have been slowly established no
one knows how. Y o u r meals have t o be taken at intervals
which do n o t suit your health ; but under existing social ar-
rangements you must submit. S u c h intercourse with friends
as y o u can get, i s a t hours a n d under regulations w h i c h
everybody adopts, b u t f o r w h i c h nobody i s responsible;
and y o u h a v e t o y i e l d t o a ceremonial w h i c h substitutes
trouble for pleasure. Y o u r opinions, politieAl and religious,
are ready moulded f o r 3-;eou; a n d unless y o u r individual-
ity is v e r y decided, your social surroundings will prove too
strong f o r i t . N a y , e v e n such a n insignificant e v e n t as
the coming-of-ago o f grouse affects your goings and comings
throughout life. F o r has not the dissolution o f Parliament
direct reference to the n t h of August ? and does not the dis-
solution end the London season ? and does n o t the London
season determine the times for business and relaxation., and so
affect the making of arrangements throughout the year ? I f
been working through past time, the same general truth be-
comes still more conspicuous. A s k how it happens that men
in England do not work every seventh day, and you have to
seek through thousands of past years to find the initial cause.
Ask why in England, and still more i n Scotland, there is not
3
al
 pr-

16 THE STUDY O F SOCIOLOGY.

only a cessation f r o m work, which t h e creed interdicts, b u t the consumptic

also a cessation f r o m amusement, which i t does not interdict ; depends in part
and for an explanation you must go back to successive waves ries. I f , as hap.
of ascetic fanaticism i n generations l o n g dead. A n d wh a t rises in price b.,
thus holds o f religious ideas and usages, holds of all others, comes into !nor
political and social. E v e n the industrial activities are often checked. W o o .
permanently turned o u t of their normal directions b y social And, besides at(
states that passed away many ages ago : witness what has hap- the competition
pened throughout the East, or in Italy, where towns and vil- ently change.
lages are still perched on hills and eminences chosen f o r de- no means. The;
A fensive purposes in turbulent times, and where the lives of the views of buyers
inhabitants are now made laborious b y having daily to carry than approximz.
themselves and all the necessaries of life from a low level to a widely. Wa v e s
high level. fact, rise and fat
The extreme complexity o f social actions, and the tran- tending, every n
scendent difficulty which hence arises of counting on special is among men at
results, will be still better seen i f we enumerate the factors hesitating until s
which determine one simple phenomenon, as the price o f a way, like a flock
commodity,say, cotton. A manufacturer of calicoes has to in human naturA
11 decide whether he w i l l increase his stock o f r a w material a t buyer takes into
its current price. B e f o r e doing this, he must ascertain, as well have made opin
as he can, the following data :Whether the stocks of calico pending influen,
in the hands of manufacturers and wholesalers at home, are end o f the matt
large or small ; whether by recent prices retailers %Ivo been things. H e has
led to lay in stocks or not ; whether the colonial and foreign conditions of thc
1
markets are glutted o r otherwise ; and what is now, and is the money mark
likely to be, the production of calico by foreign manufacturers. every cornmodit
1
gij I Having formed some idea of the probable demand for calico, See, then, the en,
he has to ask what other manufacturers have done, and are rnine so simple a
doing, as buyers o f cottonwhether they have been waiting Pound in cotton s
I for the price to fall, or have been buying i n anticipation of a I f the genesis
1'
rise. F r o m cotton-brokers' circulars he has to judge what is like this, where th
I; the state of speculation at Liverpoolwhether the stocks there but very soon dis
1 are large o r small, and whether many or few cargoes are on produced somethi:
their way. T h e stocks and prices at New Orleans, and at other creasing agency,
cotton-ports throughout the world, have also to be taken note a society as a who
of ; a n d then there come questions respecting forthcoming each institlition s4.
crops i n t h e Southern States, i n India, i n Egypt, and else- of the society and
where. H e r e are sufficiently-numerous factors, but these are tiply and ramify.
by no means all. T h e consumption o f calico, and therefore each institution so.
 OUR NEED OF I T. 1 7

I interdicts, but the consumption of cotton, and therefore the price of cotton,
es not interdict depends in part on the supplies and prices of other textile fab-
nccessive waves rics. I f , as happened during the American Civil Wa r, calico
ad. A n d what rises in price because its raw material becomes scarce, linen
Ids of all others, comes i n t o more general use, and so a further rise in price is
ivities are often checked. W o o l l e n fabrics, also, may to some extent compete.
,ctions b y social And, besides the competition caused by relative prices, there is
ss what has hap- the competition caused by fashion, which may or may not pres-
e towns and vil- ently change. S u r e l y the factors are now all enumerated ? B y
i chosen for de- no means. T h e r e is the estimation of mercantile opinion. T h e
the lives of the views of buyers and sellers respecting future prices, never more
g daily to carry than approximations to the truth, often diverge from i t very
a low level to a widely. Wa v e s of opinion, now in excess now in defect of the
fact, rise and fall daily, and larger ones weekly and monthly,
and the tran- tending, every now and then, to run into mania or panic ; for it
ating on special is among men of business as among other men, that they stand
rate the factors hesitating until some one sets the example, and then rush all one
i the price o f a way, like a flock of sheep after a leader. These characteristics
calicoes has to in human nature, leading to these perturbations, the far-seeing
raw material a t buyer takes into account-Ljudging how far existing influences
Lscertain, as well have made opinion deviate from the truth, and h o w far im-
stocks of calico pending influences are likely to do it. N o r has he got to the
trs at home, are end o f t h e matter even when b e has considered a l l these
tilers h p e been things. H e has s t i l l to ask what are the general mercantile
lial and foreign conditions of the country, and what the immediate future of
t is now, and is the money market will be; since the course of speculation i n
manufacturers. every commodity must be affected b y the rate o f discount
mand for calico, See, then, the enormous complication o f causes which deter-
ve done, and are mine so simple a thing as the rise or f a l l o f a farthing per
Lye been waiting pound in cotton some months hence!
anticipation of a I f the genesis of social phenomena is so involved in cases
to judge what is like this, where the effect produced has no concrete persistence
r the stocks there but very soon dissipates, judge what it must be where there is
A, cargoes are on produced something which continues thereafter to be an in-
tans, and at other creasing agency, capable o f self-propagation. N o t only has
, to be taken note a society as a whole a power of growth and development, but
ing forthcoming each instita ; #e 0 t up in i t has the likedraws to itself units
Egypt, and else- of the societ n d nutriment for them, and tends ever to mul-
ors, but these are tiply and ramify. I n d e e d , the instinct of self-preservation i n
co, and therefore each institution soon becomes dominant over everything else;
 ..-1"1111_1111111ININONIMINEll

d
:

F .
18 THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY.
1!
and maintains it when it performs some quite other function
to professional k m
than that intended, or no function at all. See, for instance, Professional k n o w i
what has come of the "Society of Jesus," Loyola set u p ; o r .fessional knowleclg
see what grew out of the company of traders who o t a foot-
ern physician is no
4 ing on the coast of Hindostan.
be blood-letting ?
given ? or shall me!
To such considerations as these, set down to show the in-
the previous questi
consistency of those who think that prevision of social phenom-
a wholesome reginn
ena is possible without much study, though much s t u d y is it happens that i n
needed for prevision of other phenomena, it will doubtless be
vated, there is the
replied that time does not allow of systematic inquiry. F r o m impulse.
the scientific, as from the unscientific, there will come the plea
I s it not possibb
that, i n h i s capacity o f citizen, each man has to actmust
Supposed necessity f
vote, and must decide before he votesmust conclude to the
excuse for drawing (!
best of his ability on such information as he has.
comitant of clack!)
In this plea there is some truth, mingled with a good deal
Biology so in Socio
more that looks like truth. I t is a product of t h a t "must-do-
more critical coniii
/ something" impulse which is the origin of much mischief,
elusions on scientli
individual and social. A n amiable anxiety to undo or neutral- Creasing doubt abou!
ize an evil, often prompts to rash courses, as you may see in fear of the mischief
1. / t h e hurry with which one who has fallen is snatched up b y able that what i n
those a t hand ; just as though there were danger i n lettink though convenient)',
him lie, which there is not, and no danger i n incautiously be found to have it
raising him, which there is. A l w a y s you End among people - t h e r e not very I
in proportion as they are ignorant, a belief in specifies, and a this, the consciousm
great confidence in pressing the adoption of them. H a s some ful is to maintain t
one a pain in the side, or in the chest, or in the bowels ? Then, actions have fair pl
before any careful inquiry as to its probable cause, there comes bated from increase(
an urgent recommendation o f a never-failing remedy, joined this plea for prompt
probably with the remark that if it does no good it can do no elaeek this tendency
harm. There still prevails in the average mind a large amount titat may do good ant!
of the fetishistic conception clearly shown by a butler to some of Sociology, scientii;
friends of mine, who, having been found to drain the half- mate causes to remot(
emptied medicine-bottles, explained that he thought it a pity to secondary and tert
good physic should be wasted, and that what benefited h i s fuse, w i l l dissipate
master would benefit him. B u t as fast as crude conceptions admit of radical cur(
of diseases and remedial measures grow up into Pathology and among the units of a
Therapeutics, we find increasing caution, along with increas- them will prevent that
ing proof that evil is often done instead o f good. T h i s con- bad results. I t is pox-
trast is traceable not only as we pass from popular ignorance resnits ; i t is possible 1
IOLOGY
me quite other function
It all. See, for instance,
,sus," Loyola set up ; o r
f traders who. t a foot-
set down to show the in-
-evision of social phenom-
-, though much study is
lena, it will doubtless be
stematic inquiry. F r o m
there will come the plea
h man has to actmust
smust conclude to the
rn as he has.
tlingled with a good deal
roduct of t h a t "must-do-
origin of much mischief,
i-ixiety to undo or neutral-
ourses, as you may see in
fallen is snatched up b y
-e were danger i n letting
o danger i n incautiously
,-s you find among people
a belief in specifics, and a
ption of them. H a s some
t, or in the bowels ? Then,
,robable cause, there comes
-ver-failing remedy, joined
does no good it can do n o
-erage mind a large amount
shown by a butler to some
a found to drain the half-
d that he thought it a pity
id that what benefited his,
-; fast as crude conceptions
grow up into Pathology and
aution, along with increas-
instead of good. T h i s con-
ass from popular ignorance
OUR NEED O F I T. 19
to professional knowledge, but as we pass f r o m t h e smaller
professional knowledge o f early times t o t h e greater pro-
fessional knowledge of our own. T h e question with the mod-
ern physician is not as with the ancientshall the treatment
be blood-letting / s h a l l cathartics, o r s h a l l diaphoretics be
given ? o r shall mercurials be administered ? B u t there rises
the previous questionshall there be any treatment beyond
a wholesome regimen ? A n d even amongeXisting physicians
it happens t h a t i n proportion as the judgment is most culti-
vated, there is the least yielding to the " must-do-something "
impulse.
Is it n o t possible, thenis i t n o t even probable, that this
supposed necessity for immediate action, which is put in as an
excuse for drawing quick conclusions from few data, is the con-
comitant of deficient knowledge I I s it not probable that as in
Biology so in Sociology, the accumulation of more facts, the
more critical comparison o f them, and the drawing o f con-
clusions on scientific methods, w i l l be accompanied b y in-
creasing doubt about the benefits to be secured, and increasing
fear of the mischiefs which may be worked ? I s it not prob-
able t h a t w h a t i n t h e individual organism i s improperly,
though conveniently, called the vis medicatrix naturce, may
be found t o have its analogue i n the social organism ? and
will there not very likely come along with the recognition of
this, the consciousness that i n both cases the one thing need-
ful is to maintain the conditions under which t h e natural
actions have f a i r play ? S u c h a consciousness, to be antici-
pated front increased knowledge, w i l l diminish the force of
this plea for prompt decision after little inquiry ; since it will
check this tendency to t h i n k o f a remedial measure as one
that may do good and cannot do harm. N a y more, the study
of Sociology, scientifically carried o n b y tracing back proxi-
mate causes to remote .ones, and tracing down primary effects
to secondary and tertiary effects w h i c h multiply as they dif-
fuse, w i l l dissipate t h e c u r r e n t i l l u s i o n t h a t social e v i l s
admit o f radical cures. G i v e n an average defect of nature
among the units of a society, and n o skilful manipulation of
them will prevent that defect from producing its equivalent of
bad results. I t is possible to change the form o f these bad
results ; i t is possible to change the places at which they are
 ,
My. f-,.7
.-eo,

20 THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY.

have been extin
manifested ; b u t i t is n o t possible to get r i d o f them. T h e
has had its corn
belief that faulty character can so organize itself socially, as to
miseries here an
get out of itself a conduct which is not proportionately faulty,
misery that is col
is an utterly-baseless belief. Y o u may alter the incidence of
When it is th'
the mischief, but the amount of i t must inevitably be borne
best only re-distr
somewhere. V e r y generally i t is simply t h r u s t o u t of one
whether re-distri
form into another ; as when, in Austria, improvident marriages
will be seen tha
; being prevented, there come more numerous illegitimate chil-
sufficient There
dren; o r as when, to mitigate the misery of foundlings, hos-
as scientific men
pitals are provided f o r them, and there is an increase in the
nomena, the me
number of infants abandoned ; or as when, to insure the sta-
other classes, the
bility of houses, a Building Act prescribes a structure which,
than in other clz.L
it making small houses unremunerative, prevents due multipli-
to be taken witho
1'1 cation o f them, and so causes overcrowding ; o r as when a
Lodging-House A c t forbids this overcrowding, and vagrants
Still there wir
have to sleep under the Adelphi-arches, o r i n the Parks, or
litical conduct
even, for warmth's sake, on the dung-heaps in mews. W h e r e
adapt our nteasu:
the evil does not, as i n cases like these, reappear i n another
deterred b y renic
place or form, it is necessarily felt i n the shape of a diffused
scientific judgmet
privation. F o r suppose that b y some official instrumentality
1If recorded, and tho
you actually suppress an evil, instead of thrusting it from one
well as doubtful
,;t1I spot into anothersuppose you thus successfully deal with a
demands upon ou
number of u c l i evils b y a number of such instrumentalities;
orate study as see,
do you t h i n k these evils have disappeared absolutely ? T o
selves by commot
1 see that they have not, you have b u t to taskWhence comes
And then, bell]
the official apparatus ? W h a t defrays the cost of working it ?
this answer, there
W h o supplies the necessaries of life to its members through all
guidance of the ki
their gradations of rank ? T h e r e is no other source b u t the
amount of inquiQ
labour of peasants and artizans. W h e n , as i n France, the ad-
order among soci:
ministrative agencies occupy some 600,000 men, who are taken
'social science. T
from industrial pursuits, and, with their families, supported in chap
more than average comfort, i t becomes clear enough t h a t
heavy extra work is entailed on the producing classes. T h e
already-tired labourer has t o t o i l a n additional hour ; h i s
wife has to help i n the fields as w e l l a s t o suckle her i n -
fant ; h i s children a r e s t i l l m o r e scantily fed t h a n t h e y
would otherwise b e ; a n d beyond a decreased share o f re-
turns from increased labour, there is a diminished time and
energy for such small enjoyments as the life, pitiable at the
best, permits. H o w , then, can i t be supposed that the evils

rid of them. T h e
itself socially, as to
portionately faulty,
.er the incidence of
inevitably be borne
- thrust out of one
orovident marriages
,us illegitimate chil-
of foundlings, hos-
s an increase in the
,n, to insure the sta-
s a structure which,
events due multipli-
ding ; or as when a
wding, and vagrants
or i n the Parks, or
ps in mews. W h e r e
reappear i n another
e shape of a diffused
!icial instrumentality
thrusting it from one
cessfully deal with a
ell instrumentalities;
tred absolutely ? T o
) askWhence comes
le cost of working it ?
; members through all
other source but the
as in France, the ad-
)0 men, who are taken
families, supported in
es clear enough that
oducing classes. T h e
additional hour ; h i s
as to suckle her i n -
antily fed than they
lecreased share of re-
diminished time and.
he life, pitiable at the
ipposed that the evils
1
OUR NEED O F 1T. 21
have been extinguished o r escaped I T h e repressive action
has had its corresponding reaction ; and instead o f intenser
miseries here a n d there, o r n o w and then, y o u have got a
misery that is constant and universal.
-When it is thus seen that the evils are not removed, but at
best only re-distributed, and that the question i n any ease is
whether re-distribution, even i f practicable, i s desirable; i t
will be seen t h a t the " must-do-something" plea is quite in-
sufficient T h e r e is ample reason to believe that in proportion
as scientific m e n carry into this most-involved class of phe-
nomena, the methods they have successfully adopted w i t h
other classes, they w i l l perceive that, even less i n this class
than in other classes, are conclusions to be drawn and action
to be taken without prolonged and critical investigation.
Still there will recur the same plea under other forms. " P o -
litical conduct must be matter of compromise." " W e must
adapt our measures t o immediate exigencies, and cannot be
deterred b y remote oonsiderations." " T h e data for forming
scientific judgments are not to be had : most of them are un-
recorded, and those which are recorded are difficult to find as
well as doubtful when found." " L i f e i s too short, and the
demands upon our energies too great, to permit any such elab-
orate study as seems required. W e must, therefore, guide our-
selves by common sense as best we may."
And then, behind the more scientifically-minded who give
this answer, there are those who hold, tacitly or overtly, that
guidance of the kind indicated is not possible, even after any
amount of inquiry. T h e y do not believe in any ascertainable
order among social phenomenathere is no such t h i n g as a
social science. T h i s proposition we w i l l discuss i n the next
chapter.