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1. Introduction
2. Forms of energy
3. Energy conversion
4. Energy and power
5. Energy sources
6. Some notes on energy terminology
7. Energy flow
8. Energy units and dimensions
9. Energy losses and efficiency
10. Equivalence and replacement of energy forms
11. Energy balance
12. Process energy requirements and gross energy requirements
13. Examples of calculations of energy conversions
1. Introduction
Energy is involved in all life cycles, and it is essential in agriculture as much as in all
other productive activities. An elementary food chain already shows the need for
energy: crops need energy From solar radiation to grow, harvesting needs energy
from the human body in work, and cooking needs energy from biomass in a fire. The
food, in its turn, provides the human body with energy.
Intensifying food production for higher output per hectare, and any other
advancement in agricultural production, imply additional operations which all require
energy. For instance: land preparation and cultivation, fertilising, irrigation, transport,
and processing of crops. In order to support these operations, tools and equipment
are used, the production of which also requires energy (in sawmills, metallurgical
processes, workshops and factories, etc.).
Major changes in agriculture, like mechanisation and what is called the "green
revolution", imply major changes with respect to energy. Mechanisation means a
change of energy sources, and often a net increase of the use of energy. The green
revolution has provided us with high yield varieties. But these could also be called
low residue varieties (i.e. per unit of crop). And it is exactly the residue which matters
as an energy source for large groups of rural populations.
Other sectors of rural life require energy as well. The provision of shelter, space
heating, water lifting, and the construction of roads, schools and hospitals, are
examples. Furthermore, social life needs energy for lighting, entertainment,
communication, etc. We observe that development often implies additional energy,
and also different forms of energy, like electricity.
Energy is a scarce resource, at least for some groups of people in some places and,
maybe, for the world as a whole. A rational use of energy is then necessary for
economic and environmental reasons. This applies to agriculture as much as to any
other sector of the economy. A key to the rational use of energy is the understanding
of the role of energy. The following sections aim to help understand energy in
agriculture and rural development. It should help communication between agricultural
planners and energy specialists. Anyone familiar with energy concepts should skip
this chapter and read immediately Chapter 2.
2. Forms of energy
Energy can exist in various forms. Examples are:
- Radiation energy: the radiation from the sun contains energy, and also the radiation
from a light or a fire. More solar energy is available when the radiation is more
intense and when it is collected over a larger area. Light is the visible part of
radiation;
- Chemical energy: wood and oil contain energy in a chemical form. The same is true
for all other material that can burn. The content of chemical energy is larger the
larger the heating value (calorific value) of the material is and, of course, the more
material we have. Also animate energy (delivered by bodies of human beings and
animals) is, in essence, chemical energy. Furthermore, batteries contain chemical
energy;
- Potential energy: this is, for example, the energy of a water reservoir at a certain
height. The water has the potential to fall, and therefore contains a certain amount of
energy. More potential energy is available when there is more water and when it is at
a higher height;
- Mechanical energy, or rotational energy, also called shaft power: this is the energy
of a rotating shaft. The amount of energy available depends on the flywheel of the
shaft, i.e.:. on the power which makes the shaft rotate;
- Electrical energy: a dynamo or generator and a battery can deliver electrical energy.
The higher the voltage and the current, the more electrical energy is made available.
Note that sometimes by "energy form" an energy source (cf. section 5), or even a
particular fuel (like oil or coal), is meant.
3. Energy conversion
"Utilising" energy always means converting energy from one form into another. For
instance, in space heating, we utilise energy, that is, we convert chemical energy of
wood into heat. Or, in lift irrigation, a diesel engine converts chemical energy of oil
into mechanical energy for powering the shaft of a pump which, in its turn, converts
shaft power into potential energy of water (i.e. bringing the water to a higher height).
"Generating" energy also means converting energy from one form into another. We
can say that a diesel engine generates energy, which means that the engine converts
chemical energy of oil into mechanical energy. Also, a wind turbine generates energy,
which means it converts kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy. And a
solar photovoltaic cell generates energy by converting radiation energy into
electricity.
The generation of energy, in fact, deals with a source of energy, whereas the
utilisation of energy serves an end-use of energy. In between, the energy can flow
through a number of conversion steps. The words "generation" and "utilisation" are a
little confusing because, in fact, no energy can be created or destroyed. All we can
do is transform or convert energy from one form into another. In generating energy,
we make energy available from a source, by converting it into another form. In
utilising energy, we also convert energy, often from some intermediate form into a
useful form. In all conversions, we find that part of the energy is lost. This does not
mean that it is destroyed, but rather that it is lost for our purposes, through
dissipation in the form of heat or otherwise (cf. figure 1).
Energy conversions can take place from any one form of energy into almost any
other form of energy. (Some conversions have no practical value.) Which conversion
is desired depends on our purposes. For instance, for power generation, we convert
potential energy from hydro resources into mechanical energy, whereas, in water
pumping for lift irrigation, we do the reverse. And, with photovoltaic cells, we convert
radiation energy into electricity, whereas with light bulbs we do the reverse.
The same principle applies to all other energy conversions, whether for energy
generation or for energy utilisation. This implies that we characterise energy
resources in units of energy (the amount of energy they contain), and energy
conversion devices in units of power (the amount of power they can produce or
consume).
A closer look at the list of forms of energy in section 2 reveals that some of them
have actually been described in terms of power (radiation, kinetic, mechanical and
electrical energy). They become energy quantities when we specify the time period
during which the power is delivered, and multiply the power by this time period. Also
in section 2, the quantities of chemical, potential and thermal energy become power
quantities when we divide them by a time period during which the energy quantity is
being converted.
5. Energy sources
Energy sources partly correspond to the energy forms of section 2, but not entirely.
The following energy sources can be relevant for rural areas.
- Dung from animals, and human excreta. The energy is converted through direct
combustion or through anaerobic digestion.
- Animate energy. This is the energy which can be delivered by human beings and
animals by doing work.
- Solar radiation, i.e. energy from the sun. We distinguish between direct beam
radiation and diffuse (reflected) radiation. Direct radiation is only collected when the
collector faces the sun. Diffuse radiation is less intense, but comes from all
directions, and is also present on a cloudy day. Solar energy can be converted
through thermal solar devices (generating heat) or through photovoltaic cells
(generating electricity). Direct beam solar devices (whether thermal or photovoltaic)
would need a tracking mechanism to have the device continuously facing the sun.
- Hydro resources, i.e. energy from water reservoirs and streams. We distinguish
between: lakes with storage dams, natural heads (waterfalls), weirs, and run-of-river
systems. Hydro energy can be converted by waterwheels or hydro turbines.
- Wind energy, i.e. energy from wind. Wind machines can be designed either for
electricity generating or for water lifting (for irrigation and drinking water).
- Fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas. Unlike the previous energy sources, the
fossil energy sources are non-renewable.
- Geothermal energy, that is, the energy contained in the form of heat in the earth. A
distinction is made between tectonic plates (in volcanic areas) and geopressed
reservoirs (could be anywhere). Geothermal energy is, strictly speaking, non-
renewable, but the amount of heat in the earth is so large that for practical reasons
geothermal energy is generally ranked with the renewables. Geothermal energy can
only be tapped at places where high earth temperatures come close to the earth's
surface.
This list only contains primary energy sources. These are the energy sources which
are present in our natural environment. Secondary energy sources, like batteries, are
not included here.
We observe that the primary energy sources are not the ultimate sources of energy.
For instance, animate energy comes from biomass, whereas biomass energy
ultimately comes from the sun. Apart from geothermal and nuclear energy, all our so-
called primary energy sources have ultimately got their energy from the sun!
Section 10 will discuss methods for comparing the energy content of energy sources.
Traditional energy is often contrasted with non-traditional energy, and also with new
energy. However, what is considered as traditional depends on what one is used to.
In industrialised societies which are used to fossil fuels, renewable energies like
biomass and animate energy are often called traditional. At the same time, engineers
working on "new" energies like wind or solar energy often consider fossil fuels as
traditional. Apparently, what people call traditional are the forms they are
actually notused to.
New and renewable energy sources are often put together. They exclude fossil and
nuclear energy.
7. Energy flow
As we have seen, generating and utilising energy means converting energy from one
form into another. Often, intermediate steps are Implied. The energy flows through a
number of forms, as well as conversion steps, between the source and the end-use.
The costs increase accordingly. We distinguish between primary, secondary, final and
useful energy.
An example is an energy flow which is related to charcoal. Here, the primary energy
form is wood. The wood is converted into charcoal in a charcoal kiln. Charcoal is the
secondary form of energy, and it is transported to the consumer. What the consumer
buys at the market place is charcoal, and this is called final energy. The consumer
eventually converts the charcoal into heat for cooking. The heat is the useful energy.
Another example of an energy flow is: primary energy in the form of a hydro
resource, secondary energy in the form of electricity at the hydro power station, final
energy in the form of electricity at a saw mill, and useful energy in the form of shaft
power for sawing.
Primary energy is the energy as it is available in the natural environment, i.e. the
primary source of energy.
Note that useful energy is almost invariably either in the form of heat or in the form of
shaft power. For a few end-uses (e.g. communication equipment), electricity is the
form of useful energy.
Note that in some cases the primary energy is at the same time the secondary, and
even the final energy (c.f. wood gathered for cooking purposes, or animate power for
pulling).
Furthermore, the breakdown of energy flows is relevant for surveys and statistics. We
may not simply add primary energy with, say, final energy! (cf. section 10.)
The unit of energy in this unit system is joule (J), and the unit of power is watt (W).
These and many other units can be derived from the basic SI units. The relationship
between some derived SI units and the basic SI units is represented in Table 2.
In some countries, or in a particular context, other units than SI units are also used.
They can be converted into SI units, which are more convenient for calculations. The
conversion of some non-SI units into SI units is given in Table 3, for energy and for
power.
The powers of ten are often abbreviated by writing prefixes before the unit. For
instance, the symbol G stands for giga, which means 10 to the power 9, i.e. a billion.
One billion W is then written as 1 GW (one giga Watt). Common prefixes are given in
Table 4.
Table 4. SI prefixes
Now we have Introduced units for measuring energy, we can make quantitative
comparisons and calculations. The following results give us some feeling of
magnitudes of energy, as represented in different energy forms.
- radiation from the sun on the roof of a house (of ca. 40 m) in 2.5 s
- energy released in burning 3.5 g coal or 2.9 g petrol; or the energy stored in 1/4
slice of bread
- a large object (1,000 kg) at a height of 10 m
The efficiency of an energy converter is now defined as the quantity of energy in the
desired form (the output energy) divided by the quantity of energy put in for
conversion (the input energy). The efficiency is usually expressed by the Greek
letter .
Hence:
When thermal energy is Involved either as the input or as an intermediate form, the
efficiency is generally low.
Table 6
A very high system efficiency can be obtained when heat losses from one converter
are utilised as energy inputs in another. We call this waste heat utilisation. It is
applicable, for instance, in agro-processing where heat from Industrial converters is
utilised for drying of products. Cogeneration is another example, i.e. the utilisation of
"waste" heat from electricity production, for purposes of process heat in Industry.
(**) Note that the energy equivalent of wood can vary a factor 3 depending on the
moisture content of the wood.
However, what we can achieve with an amount of energy depends very much on how
the energy is utilised, that is, on the efficiencies of the energy converters applied.
Efficiencies can vary enormously for different converters, as we have seen in Section
9. The energy equivalent is then of limited use to us. In practice, when comparing
sources of energy, we are more interested in the replacement value of the energy
form. The latter Indicates how much of that energy form is required to do the same
job (i.e. serve the same use) as another energy form or fuel. Again, as a reference,
coal is sometimes used. The replacement value of an energy form is, then again,
expressed in tee. However, this value will be different from the equivalent value of
that energy form.
energy form or fuel unit coal replacement ratio (kg coal per unit)
dung cake kg 0.30
vegetable waste kg 0.60
firewood kg 0.70 - 0.95
soft coke kg 1.50
charcoal kg 1.80
kerosire (lamp) 1 2.10
kerosine (stove) 1 5.20 - 7.00
electricity kWh 0.70
(The coal replacement ratio is the number of kg of coal which is required to
effectively replace 1 unit of the energy form or fuel, under certain assumptions.)
Good examples of coal replacement are a kerosine lamp and a kerosine stove. The
coal equivalent of kerosine was 1.47, which means that the heating value of 1 kg
kerosine equals that of 1.47 kg coal. However, the coal replacement ratio for a
kerosine lamp is 2.10, which means that 2.10 kg coal would be required to get as
much light as from 1 kg kerosine. And the coal replacement ratio of a kerosine stove
is around 6, which means that 6 kg coal is required to get as much heat in a pot as
from 1 kg kerosine.
In Section 7, it was mentioned that the breakdown of energy flows is relevant for
surveys and statistics. This is illustrated by the previous discussion of energy
equivalence and energy replacement. We can add the primary energy resources of a
particular region by adding the energy equivalences of all the various primary energy
resources available. This will give us a rather theoretical figure, as it does not say
what can be done with this amount of energy. We can also add, say, the consumption
of final energy for a particular sector in a region, and work this out in a coal
replacement value. Or we can consider, say, the amount of useful energy for
particular end-uses, and express this in an oil (or coal) replacement value. For
working out the replacement values, we should know the conversion methods and
their efficiencies which are involved in the energy flow.
Sources are the local (or national) primary energy sources, like coal, hydro, biomass,
animate, etc.
Imports are energy sources which come from outside the region (or country).
Variations of stock are reductions of stocks (like of forests, coal, etc.), and storage.
An energy balance usually refers to a year, and can be made for consecutive years
to show time variations.
Energy balances have to be built up from surveys of what is actually going on. This
requires energy resource surveys, and energy consumption surveys, as well as more
technical energy audits. Section 12 goes into some aspects of energy auditing.
Energy balances provide overviews, which serve as tools for analysing current and
projected energy positions. The overviews can he useful for purposes of resource
management, or for indicating options in energy saving, or for policies of energy
redistribution, etc. However, care must be taken not to single out energy from other
economic goods. That means that an energy balance should not be taken as our
ultimate guide for action. Energy data are to be translated into economic terms, for a
further analysis of options for action. And, of course, socio-cultural and environmental
aspects are equally important.
1. The direct energy input in the production process and related transport
requirements is considered.
2. The same as 1., but, in addition, the energy embodied in the materials (e.g.
fertiliser) for the production process and related transport is considered.
3. The same as 2., but, in addition, the energy required by the machines to produce
these materials is considered'.
4. The same as 3., but, in addition, the energy required by the machine Cools is
considered. Etc....
GER = Gross Energy Requirement is the total amount of energy required for a
product.
This includes the energy Co produce fertiliser, grow the grass, feed the cows,
process the milk in the dairy, and energy for transport.
PER = Process Energy Requirement is the energy required for processing the
product.
Generally, when the PER can be lowered, as a result the GER will also be lowered.
However, this will not always be the case, and it can also be the reverse. For
instance, energy economies of scale can sometimes be achieved at farm level, at the
expense of energy requiring investments in Infrastructure or transport facilities.
For instance, for management at the farm level, it is the PER which matters, and so
the first level of analysis is the relevant one.
For regional policy makers, however, level 2 is relevant when regional materials and
resources are involved. Furthermore, the linkages between the agricultural sector
and other sectors will be a concern. For instance, large scale biogas digesters can be
an energy efficient option for agro-processing plants, but they may compete with
alternative utilisation of the inputs (e.g. dung for poor peoples' household fuel).
For national policy makers, level 2 or 3 may be relevant. For instance, the
establishment of plants for energy intensive goods can be attractive when cheap
energy is available (e.g. fertilizer production).
The analyses of PER and GER provide data for energy balances. However, these
data do not give information on the forms of energy, or time variations (seasonality) in
the energy flows, etc. Such information has to be added, as required.
PER and GER are part of what is often called energy auditing. This is the monitoring
of energy use in productive systems. The analogue in consumption systems is
energy end-use analysis. In subsistence agriculture, productive and consumption
systems are intertwined, and the two approaches have to be combined in energy
surveys.
A man doing no or very little physical work needs about 2,000 kcal (or less) of energy
in his daily food. The body converts this energy almost entirely into heat.
Hence
We see that a human body doing no work is equivalent to a heat source of about 100
W - the equivalent of a good bulb.
It was said that two teaspoons of diesel oil are equivalent to the work done by a man
in a day. Can that be correct?
Assume that the power which can be delivered by a man in a day's work is 60 W (cf.
example 13.3), and that he can do that for 4 hours per day. So, per day, he delivers:
Note: the power of ca. 60 W delivered by doing work is on top of the 100 W produced
by the body as heat (cf. example 13.1). The additional power requires additional kcal
in the food!
Note: the power delivered by a man can be compared with the power which can be
delivered by an oxen, which is:
We see that the figures (1) and (2) are approximately the same. So - the comparison
was correct!
13.3 How can we check that a human body can deliver 60 W during a few hours per
day?
The actual value could be measured, and it will vary a lot, depending on many
factors. One way of checking the order of magnitude is the following.
Mountaineers know that a man can climb about 300 metres per hour. Assume that
his weight is 75 kg. The gravitational force he is counteracting is then:
75 x 9.8 Newton = 750 N The energy delivered by the man in an hour is:
An oxen can deliver typically 0.8 hp. With Table 3 on the conversion of non-SI units,
we see that this equals about 740 x 0.8 = 600 W. The amount of energy delivered in
one year by this oxen can be calculated if we know how many hours the oxen works
in a year. Assume this is 4 hours a day during 300 days, i.e. 1,200 hours per year.
One hour is 3,600 s.
Thus, 4 oxen would deliver about 10 J in one year. From Table 3 it is seen that this
equals roughly the amount of energy in one ton of (wet) wood.
13.5 Do we really need more energy under the pot than in the pot?
We have seen that a person needs in his food ca. 2,000 kcal per day (cf. example
13.1). This is 8.4 MJ/day for one person. We assume that the food mainly consists of
crop products, i.e. biomass.
Dry biomass, whether edible or not, has an energy content of typically 18 MJ/kg.
We can compare this amount with the amount of biomass required as fuel by a
household. From surveys, we know that a typical household fuel need for cooking
purposes is 500 kg/year of dry biomass per person. Hence
This means that roughly 3 times more energy is required under the pot than in the
pot!
A consumer in a town centre is charged Rs 0.75 per kWh for his electricity from the
national grid. In a rural area, a consumer has a lamp connected to the local micro
hydro unit at a cost of Rs 1 per day. Which consumer pays more for his electricity?
Assume that the lamp in the village consumes a power of 40 W and Chat It is
switched on for an average of 4 hours per day. This implies an energy consumption
of:
We see that the villager pays about 8 times more for his electricity than the consumer
in the town.
References
The examples and data in the basic energy concepts are from the International
Courses on Rural Energy Planning at Twente University.