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PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT 10
INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS 21
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 35
CONCEPTS OF DESIGN 57
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
For the most part, UA are of composite construction. This means that
multiple types of materials are used. For example, the fuselage may be
carbon fiber reinforced plywood and the wings may be cut from foam and
overlaid with carbon fiber. Ultimately the design will attempt to use
materials that will provide the strongest properties while remaining light
enough to maximize the payload capability.
Within the larger sized UA, the configuration of the space available to carry
the payload is important. Increasingly, over the last several years, more
diverse collections systems have been incorporated onto UA. The ability to
easily reconfigure the payload space to accommodate these various form
factors is desirable.
Autopilot
The autopilot is essentially the brain of the UA. After reception of the uplink
commands through the antenna and receiver, the control computer in the autopilot
processes and distributes the commands to the respective components aboard the
UA. For redundancy purposes, the autopilot may incorporate several computers that
may process independent information such as flight control and mission control. It
may also assume control of the aircraft and execute a pre-programmed series of
maneuvers if communication with the ground station is lost.
Electrical System
The electrical system may consist of batteries, some form of engine driven generator,
relays, and switches. The electrical system may be divided into segments known as
busses, which power essential and nonessential equipment. In the event of an engine
failure, resulting in a loss of power generation, the autopilot may incorporate logic to
switch off the non-essential busses, thus reducing the load on the emergency or back-
up batteries. An example of non-essential equipment may be the payload. Essential
components would be the flight control servos. In addition, the electrical system may
be designed to provide redundancy to critical components in the event of damage or
failures.
Flight Sensors
The flight sensors consist of the instruments that measure UA attitude, altitude, speed
and heading. Many UA incorporate solid state circuits and accelerometers referenced
to GPS position to measure these values.
Propulsion System
The propulsion system consists of the propeller, engine and all associated
components.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Payload
The payload may consist of one large item or several smaller items
transported by the UA.
Stability of the payload. Payloads and the containers that hold them
must ensure that the loads do not shift during flight. This can cause loss of
aircraft if the autopilot cannot compensate quickly enough.
UAS data link is usually discussed in terms of uplink and downlink. The forward (up)
link controls the activities of the platform itself and the payload hardware. This
command and control link requires a sufficient degree of security to ensure that only
authorized agents have access to the control mechanisms of the platform. The return
(down) link transmits critical data from the platform payload to the warfighter or
analyst on the ground or in the air. System health and status information must also be
delivered to the ground control station or UAV operator without compromise.
Data link systems are designed as either line of sight (LOS) or beyond line of sight
(BLOS).
LOS - As implied, LOS data links are limited primarily by the curvature of the
earth, but also by local obstructions. Transmitter output power and antenna
sensitivity also contribute to the limitations of LOS systems. Most UAS that
are <25kg/55lbs primarily use LOS data links.
BLOS - BLOS data link systems overcome the limitations of LOS data links
through the use of satellites. The satellite acts as a repeater, receiving the
transmitted signal and sending it back to the receiver on Earth.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Spectrum Usage
Radio frequency is a term that refers to alternating current (AC) having
characteristics such that, if the current is input to an antenna, an electromagnetic
(EM) field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or
communications. These frequencies cover a significant portion of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum, extending from kilohertz (kHz) the lowest
allocated wireless communications frequency (it's within the range of human
hearing), to thousands of gigahertz(GHz).
With respect to RF, there are two basic forms used in UAS data links: analog and
digital.
The inception of many GCS can be traced to the engineering efforts of the
individual UAS manufacturers. The GCS was a tool simply used to
manipulate and test the platform from the perspective of the design
engineer. As such, standardization of displays and architecture, across
multiple UAS has not existed until recently.
The GCS of a UAS is the collection of equipment and structure to house the
equipment (aircraft mounted or other) required to control the specific
platform. The individual subsystems of the GCS will be discussed later in this
module.
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Ground Support Equipment
Larger UAS (>55lbs) typically require specific support equipment to sustain
operations.
Generators
Ground vehicles used to transport the UAS
Specialized tools
Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) containment and dispensing systems
PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT
Fuselage
Wings
Empennage
Powerplant
Rotors
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Fuselage
The body of the aircraft is called the Fuselage. This shape provides the space
for all of the components the aircraft.
Chord Line: The theoretical line running from the leading edge of the wing to
the trailing edge. The chord line is frequently used in calculating the efficiency
of an airfoil.
The design challenge is to design a wing with a high lift coefficient so that the
wing area is as small as possible, while take-off / landing speeds are as low as
possible. Relatively short wings make the aircraft easier to taxi, especially when
operating in an off-airport environment with obstructions, and requires less
space for hangaring, while being easier to build, and stronger (less weight and
wing span to support).
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Empennage
The main purpose of the empennage is to give stability to the aircraft.
Also called a tail assembly, the empennage includes static and dynamic control
surfaces.
Elevators, rudders and vertical stabilizers are dynamic control surfaces (highlighted in
color on the image to the right)
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Rotor Blades
Multirotors use counterrotating rotors for lift and directional control. A
quadcopter uses two clockwise and two counter-clockwise propellers.
Propellers are classified by length and pitch. For example, 94.7 propellers are
9 inch long and has a pitch of 4.7.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Flight Control Surfaces and their Axis
A properly designed UA is stable and easily controlled during normal
maneuvering.
Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation
through the Center of Gravity (C.G.)
The types of stability a UA exhibits also relates to the three axes of rotation.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Helicopter Flight Control Surfaces
Rotorcraft require a different method of control than airplanes and are much
harder to master for teleoperation.
Hybrid control surfaces reduce the need for additional servos by combing
different primary controls:
The UAs motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side
to side. The motion about the UAs longitudinal axis is roll.
Ailerons must be sized correctly to make sure the aircraft is controllable. Ailerons
can be made more effective by increasing their surface area or moving them
farther away from the centerline of the aircraft.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Elevator Flight Control Surface (Lateral Axis/Pitch)
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Deflecting the
trailing edge of the elevator surface up (up elevator) pitches
the nose of the UA up.
The rudder controls movement of the UAs about its vertical axis. This motion
is called yaw.
Like other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a moveable surface hinged
to a fixed surface, in this case to the vertical stabilizer, or fin
Yaw control is increased with a larger rudder or increased distance behind the
vertical axis. In some cases, it might be more efficient to use two separate
rudders instead of one large one.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS
Introduction - Aerodynamics is the study of forces and resulting
motion of objects through the air. In order to understand
aerodynamics, an understanding of the physical properties of the
atmosphere and certain laws of physics are required. This module will
discuss these principles and laws
Thrust, lift, weight and drag are forces that act upon all Unmanned
Aircraft (UA) in flight. Understanding how these forces work and
knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight
controls is essential to flight. This module discusses the aerodynamics
of flight- how design, weight, load factors, and gravity affect a UA
during flight maneuvers.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Aerodynamic Forces
The four forces acting upon a UA are:
Thrust
Lift
Weight (Gravity)
Drag
Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them
with the use of power and flight controls is essential to flight.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Thrust
The forward force produced by the Powerplant/propeller or rotor that sets
a UA in motion. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general
rule, in fixed wing UAS, it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
airframe.
Thrust:
Induced by:
Lift is the upward force created by the wings moving through the air that
sustains a UA in flight.
Wing size
Wing shape
There are two basic types: parasite drag and induced drag. The first is called
parasitic because it in no way functions to aid flight, while the second,
induced drag, is a result of an airfoil developing lift.
Drag:
Acts rearward
Opposes thrust
Parasitic
Induced
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Density Altitude (Air Density), Temperature and Humidity
An increase in altitude, temperature, or humidity results in a corresponding
decrease in air density. These changes contribute to the resulting decrease in
lift and thrust being created by the power plant and lifting surface.
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Effects of Altitude
As we move upward through the atmosphere, the weight of the air above becomes
less and less. Under standard conditions at sea level, a column of air that has a
footprint of one square inch would weigh 14.7 pounds. That same column of air at
18,000 feet is approximately 7.4 pounds, almost 50 percent less than the sea level
column.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Temperature
This concept is best described by the Kinetic Theory of Gases. This theory
states that a body of gas is composed of identical molecules which behave
like minute elastic spheres spaced relatively far apart and continuously in
motion.
Because of the Kinetic Theory, warm air also rises. Heat causes the air
molecules to spread apart, becoming less dense and lighter than the
surrounding air. As air cools, the molecules pack together more closely,
becoming denser and heavier than warm air and therefore it descends
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Effects of Pressure, Temperature and Humidity on Density
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed,
a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume. Conversely, when
pressure on a given volume of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a
greater space. At a lower pressure, the original volume of air contains a
smaller mass of air. The density is decreased because density is directly
proportional to pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the density is doubled; if
the pressure is lowered, the density is lowered. This statement is true only at
a constant temperature.
Because of airs compressibility, flight conditions will vary depending upon the
altitude. This is due to the air density. More molecules for a given volume of
air will generate greater lift with less thrust. Fewer molecules for a given
volume of air will require greater thrust to generate the same lift. Air density
decreases with an increase in altitude.
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Temperature/Density
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor
contained in the atmosphere, and is expressed as a percentage of the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold. This amount varies with
temperature. Warm air holds more water vapor, while colder air holds less.
Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has a relative humidity of zero
percent, while saturated air, which cannot hold any more water vapor, has a
relative humidity of 100 percent.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Pressure Altitude (PA)
In the standard atmosphere, sea level pressure is 29.92 inches Hg and is used as the
Standard Datum Plane (SDP). Pressure altitude is the height above or below this SDP.
Example: If an aircraft were at an airfield located at sea level, and standard atmospheric
conditions prevailed, the altimeter was set to 29.92, the altimeter would indicate 0 feet.
As atmospheric pressure changes from standard, the SDP may be below, at, or above
actual sea level.
There are several ways to determine or calculate what the pressure altitude is at any
location.
The first and easiest method is to set the barometric pressure of a sensitive altimeter to
29.92. The altitude indicated on the face of the altimeter is pressure altitude.
The second method is to calculate it as follows: subtract the current barometric pressure
setting from standard setting (29.92) and either add or subtract this number depending on
whether it is a positive or negative number, to/from field elevation.
Example: standard atmosphere 29.92 minus current atmosphere 29.98 equals -.06. This
represents -60 feet. At an airfield with a surveyed altitude of 1200 feet, the pressure
altitude would be 1140 feet (1200-60).
The third method is through the use of a chart typically found with the rest of the
performance charts for your UA/aircraft. An example of this type chart is to the right.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Density Altitude
Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High
density altitude refers to thin air (the molecules are spread out) while low
density altitude refers to dense air (the molecules are tightly packed).
The conditions that result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low
atmospheric pressures, high temperatures, high humidity, or some combination
of these factors.
Since density varies directly with pressure (the higher the pressure, the more the
molecules are compressed, or. denser), and inversely with temperature (the
higher the temperature, the more the molecules spread apart, or. less dense), a
given pressure altitude may exist for a wide range of temperatures by allowing
the density to vary. However, a known density occurs for any one temperature
and pressure altitude. Regardless of the actual altitude at which the UA/aircraft
is operating, it will perform as though it were operating at an altitude equal to
the existing density altitude. The density of air has significant effects on the
UA/aircrafts performance.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Introduction
The theories defining lift have historically been the adaptation over the past few
centuries of basic physical laws. The fundamental physical laws governing the forces
acting upon an aircraft in flight were adopted from postulated theories developed
before any human successfully flew an aircraft.
Sir Isaac Newton, formulated the law of universal gravitation and also described the
three basic laws of motion.
In 1852, a German physicist and chemist, Heinrich Gustav Magnus made experimental
studies of the aerodynamic forces on spinning spheres and cylinders. (The effect had
already been mentioned by Newton in 1672) These experiments led to the discovery of
the Magnus Effect, which helps explain the theory of lift.
The venturi tube has an air inlet that narrows to a throat (constricted point) and an
outlet section that increases in diameter toward the rear. The diameter of the
outlet is the same as that of the inlet. At the throat, the airflow speeds up and the
pressure decreases; at the outlet, the airflow slows and the pressure increases.
Since air is recognized as a body and it is accepted that it must follow the above
laws, one can begin to see how and why an airplane wing develops lift. As the wing
moves through the air, the flow of air across the curved top surface increases in
velocity creating a low-pressure area. This pressure difference results in an
upwards lift force.
The principle also makes it possible for sail-powered craft to travel faster than the
wind that propels them (if friction can be sufficiently reduced). If the wind passing
in front of the sail is fast enough to experience a significant reduction in pressure,
the sail is pulled forward, in addition to being pushed from behind.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Magnus Effect
Flow of air against a non-rotating cylinder - If air flows against a cylinder
that is not rotating, the flow of air above and below the cylinder is
identical and the forces are the same.
A rotating cylinder in a motionless fluid - If a cylinder is rotated and
observed from the side while immersed in a fluid, the rotation of the
cylinder affects the fluid surrounding the cylinder. The flow around the
rotating cylinder differs from the flow around a stationary cylinder due to
resistance caused by two factors: viscosity and friction.
Viscosity - This is the property of a fluid or semi-fluid that causes
it to resist flowing. High-viscosity fluids resist flow; low-viscosity
fluids flow easily.
Friction - This is the resistance one surface or object encounters
when moving over another and exists between a fluid and the
surface over which it flows.
A rotating cylinder in a moving fluid - If a cylinder rotates in a fluid that is
also moving, the result is a higher circulatory flow in the direction of the
rotating cylinder.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
The Magnus Effect is applied to an airfoil in the following ways:
The highest differences of velocity are 90 from the relative motion between
the cylinder and the airflow. Additionally, a stagnation point exists where
the air stream impacts on the front of the airfoils surface and splits; some
air goes over and some under. When viewed from the side, an upwash is
created ahead of the airfoil and downwash at the rear.
The highest velocity of air flow is at the top of the airfoil with the lowest
velocity at the bottom. This concept can be readily applied to a wing or
other lifting surface, because there is a difference of velocity above and
below the wing. The result is a higher pressure at the bottom of the wing
and a lower pressure on the top of the wing. This low-pressure area
produces an upward force known as the Magnus Effect.
To summarize the Magnus effect, an airfoil with a positive Angle of Attack (AOA)
develops low pressure air circulation above the upper surface of the wing/rotor.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Angle of Attack/Stall (AOA)
AOA is the acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of
the relative wind. A UA stall results from a rapid decrease in lift caused by the
separation of airflow from the wings surface brought on by exceeding the critical
AOA.
A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed. As long as the airfoils lift (L in
the figure to the right) is less than the aircraft weight (W in the figure to the
right) the aircraft will stall.
Stalls are one of the most misunderstood areas of aerodynamics because drone
pilots often believe an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls. In a stall, the wing
does not totally stop producing lift. Rather, it cannot generate adequate lift to
sustain level flight.
Critical AOA
Stall
Decrease in Lift
Critical AOA exceeded
Lift not sufficient to counter weight (L<W)
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Dissymmetry of Lift
Unique to rotary wing aircraft is a phenomenon known as dissymmetry of lift.
This is the difference of lift created by the advancing and retreating sections
of the rotor disk.
The differential that results from the relative wind (i.e., the airflow over the
rotor disk) caused early helicopters to be uncontrollable. In traditional
rotocraft, technological solutions, such as articulated rotor blades and hinged
flapping masts, are used to counteract this condition.
As the air stream strikes the relatively flat lower surface of a wing or
rotor blade when inclined at a small angle to its direction of motion, the
air is forced to rebound downward, causing an upward reaction in
positive lift. An airfoil is shaped to cause an action on the air, and forces
air downward, which provides an equal reaction from the air, forcing
the airfoil upward. At the same time, the air stream striking the upper
curved section of the leading edge is deflected upward. If an airfoil is
constructed in such form that it causes a lift force greater than the
weight of the UA/aircraft, the aircraft will fly.
If all the lift required were obtained merely from the deflection of air by
the lower surface of the airfoil, an UA/aircraft would only need a flat
wing like a kite. However, the balance of the lift needed to support the
UA/aircraft comes from the flow of air above the airfoil. Herein lies the
key to flight. Applying Bernoullis Principle of Pressure, the increase in
the speed of the air across the top of an airfoil produces a drop in
pressure. This lowered pressure is a component of total lift. The
pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of an airfoil
alone does not account for the total lift force produced.
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Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (CG), or center of mass, is the point at which the entire
weight of the UAS is concentrated. If supported at this point, the UAS would
remain in equilibrium (balanced) in any position. The CG is the intersection of
the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes.
The point where the wings and fuselage are level (as measured by a laser/bubble
level) and parallel to the floor is the CG. This method will yield the lateral and
longitudinal CG locations. The vertical CG will normally have to be calculated or
determined graphically.
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Stability
Stability is the inherent quality of an UA/aircraft to correct for conditions that
may disturb its equilibrium, and to return to or to continue on the original
flight path. It is primarily a UA/aircraft design characteristic. If a UA/aircraft
is to fly straight and steady along any arbitrary flight path, the forces acting
on it must be in static equilibrium (When disturbed, it has a tendency to
return to its previous position or attitude). The reaction of any body when its
equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as stability. The two types of stability
are static and dynamic. Stability in an UA/aircraft affects two areas
significantly:
Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability refers to the UA/aircraft response over time when
disturbed from a given pitch attitude, roll attitude, or yaw attitude.
Lift Effects
The primary surface to control longitudinal stability is the elevator. In addition, longitudinal stability is greatly affected by the relationship
between the center of gravity (CG) and the center of lift. The combined (wing and horizontal tail) center of lift must be aft of the CG.
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The closer the two centers are, the more maneuverable, but less stable the aircraft
becomes. This range of locations is known as the Static Margin. The Center of Lift
(aerodynamic center) on a low speed, symmetric aircraft wing is approximately 25% of
the mean (average) chord length measured aft of the leading edge of the wing.
Now that the locations of both the CG and the Center of Lift are known, the distance
between the two points, divided by the chord length, is the Static Margin.
Typical values range from 5% to 40%. As previously mentioned, the smaller the SM, the
less stable and more maneuverable the vehicle will be. However, in order to maintain
stability, the horizontal tail will play a much larger role. This may mean it must be larger
and may create more drag.
Thrust Effects
Longitudinal stability is also affected by the engine. In some configurations, the increase
in power will create additional airflow over the wings creating more lift. The location of
the CG in the vertical axis may also contribute to stability. As depicted in the diagram,
the relationship between the thrust line and the CG may cause pitching motions. Unless
properly accounted for, these influences may cause the aircraft to become unstable.
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Lateral Stability (Rolling)
Stability about the UA/aircrafts longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose
of the UA/aircraft to its tail, is called lateral stability. This helps to stabilize the
lateral or rolling effect when one wing gets lower than the wing on the
opposite side of the aircraft. Properly sized ailerons aid in controlling all aspects
of lateral stability.
There are five main design factors that make an UA/aircraft laterally stable:
Positive directional stability is ensured by having more fuselage side surface aft of
the CG than ahead of it. To provide additional positive stability to that provided by
the fuselage, a vertical fin is added. The fin acts similar to the feather on an arrow
in maintaining straight flight. Like the weather vane and the arrow, the farther aft
this fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the UA/aircrafts directional
stability.
If a UA/aircraft is flying in a straight line, and a sideward gust of air gives the
UA/aircraft a slight rotation about its vertical axis (i.e., the right), the motion is
retarded and stopped by the fin because while the UA/aircraft is rotating to the
right, the air is striking the left side of the fin at an angle. This causes pressure on
the left side of the fin, which resists the turning motion and slows down the
UA/aircrafts yaw.
Power changes and aileron deflections will also induce additional yaw and must be
properly managed.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Airspeed change and straight-and-level as required
All of the principal components of flight performance involve steady-state flight
conditions and equilibrium of the UA. For the UA to remain in steady, level flight,
equilibrium must be obtained by lift equal to the UA weight and power plant thrust
equal to the UA drag.
Thus, the UA drag and weight defines the Thrust required to maintain steady, level flight.
For all practical purposes, the airspeed will remain constant in straight-and-level flight
with a constant power setting. Significant changes in airspeed will, of course, require
considerable changes in pitch attitude and pitch trim to maintain altitude.
These required changes are especially evident in low-speed or hovering flight when
performed by rotorcraft.
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Load Factors While Turning
Newtons First Law of Motion, the Law of Inertia, states that an object at rest
or moving in a straight line remains at rest or continues to move in a straight
line until acted on by some other force. A UA/aircraft, like any moving object,
requires a sideward force to make it turn. In a normal turn, this force is
supplied by banking the UA/aircraft so that lift is exerted inward, as well as
upward. The force of lift during a turn is separated into two components at
right angles to each other. One component, which acts vertically and opposite
to the weight (gravity), is called the ver cal component of li . The other,
which acts horizontally toward the center of the turn, is called the horizontal
component of lift, or centripetal force. The horizontal component of lift is the
force that pulls the UA/aircraft from a straight flight path to make it turn.
There are three factors associated with turning that a pilot should be familiar
with.
Additional lift is required while turning to maintain constant altitude
Radius and Rate of Turn depend on speed and angle of bank
Stall speed increases as bank angle increases
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Establishing and Maintaining Altitude
No discussion of climbs (increase in altitude) and descents (decrease in
altitude) would be complete without touching on the question of what
controls altitude and what controls airspeed. The UA pilot must understand
the effects of both power and pitch (elevator control), working together
during different conditions of flight. At any pitch attitude, the amount of
power used will determine whether the UA will climb, descend, or remain
level at that attitude.
Through a range of altitudes from very slightly nose-low to about 30o nose-
up, a typical light UA can be made to climb, descend, or maintain altitude
depending on the power used. In about the lower third of this range, the UA
will descend at idle power without stalling. As pitch altitude is increased,
however, increased engine power will be required to prevent a stall. Even
more power will be required to maintain altitude, and even more for a
climb. Typically, at a pitch altitude approaching 30o nose-up, all available
power will provide only enough thrust to maintain altitude. A slight increase
in the steepness of climb or a slight decrease in power will produce a descent.
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Basic Aerodynamic Climb
The wings lift in a steady state normal climb is the same as it is in a steady
level flight at the same airspeed. During the transition from straight-and-level
flight to a climb, a change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first
applied. Raising the UAs nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases
the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the UA
climbing.
Since the lift during the bank is divided into vertical and horizontal
components, the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the
UA/aircrafts weight is reduced. Consequently, the UA/aircraft loses altitude
unless additional lift is created. This is done by increasing the Angle of Attack
(AOA) until the vertical component of lift is again equal to the weight.
Since the vertical component of lift decreases as the bank angle increases,
the AOA must be progressively increased to produce sufficient vertical lift to
support the UA/aircrafts weight. An important fact for pilots to remember
when making constant altitude turns is that the vertical component of lift
must be equal to the weight to maintain altitude.
Since the drag of the airfoil is directly proportional to its AOA, induced drag
increases as the lift is increased. This, in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in
proportion to the angle of bank. A small angle of bank results in a small
reduction in airspeed while a large angle of bank results in a large reduction
in airspeed. Additional thrust (power) must be applied to prevent a
reduction in airspeed in level turns. The required amount of additional thrust
is proportional to the angle of bank
If the UA were in a bank it would be apparent that lift did not act directly opposite to the
weight, rather it now acts in the direction of the bank.
When the UA banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward.
Because some of the lift is used to turn the UA, lift must be increased to increase the
component that offsets weight in order to maintain level flight. This increase in lift
causes an increase in induced drag. Thrust must be increased to maintain airspeed.
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Basic Aerodynamic Descent
A UA may descend either by reduction in thrust or by a reduction in the angle of attack.
When reducing thrust, lift is decreased. With weight now being greater than lift, the UA begins to descend.
When reducing the pitch and therefore the AOA the resulting decrease in lift will also cause a descent.
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CONCEPTS OF DESIGN
Overview
1. Mission of the UA what do I want it to do?
2. Design constraints what limitations are imposed on my design
Size
Weight
Powerplant/type
Takeoff/landing requirements
3. Once the design constraints are known, then you can work through to
determine the critical factors
4. Now an iterative process begins to balance the four forces while achieving
the mission
5. Iterative process is always influenced by inherently dependent variables
Stability
Controllability
Maneuverability
Maintainability
Reliability
Serviceability
Operability
6. Once design begins to take shape, it will need to be tested at various
phases, always keeping in mind the ultimate mission. Tradeoffs will need to
be made between various limitations of the design. For instance, a bigger
engine will make it fly faster, but it weighs more. The more weight will need
a larger wing. The larger wing produces more drag so it might end up flying
slower. There is an optimal balance between mission and physics. It is your
job to find that harmony.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Determining Wing Area Configuration and Design
Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the wings length to its chord line.
Chord Line: The theoretical line running from the leading edge of
the wing to the trailing edge.
The numbering system for these airfoils is defined by: NACA MPXX
A NACA 4418 airfoil that has a chord of 20 inches also has a camber of 4
inches at 6 inches along the chord line
A Clark Y airfoil that has a chord of 20 inches also has a camber of 2.2
inches at 6 inches along the chord line
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Determining Wing Area
Tapered Wing Area:
The lighter the wing loading, the slower the aircraft can take-off, fly and land. It will
have a better climb.
For multi-wing aircraft, divide the overall weight of the aircraft by the total wing
area for all wings.
For a 55lb aircraft, the wing area should be between 3600 square inches (232 dm2)
and 1300 square inches (84 dm2) for best wing loading (10 and 30 kg/m2)
Rotor Disc Loading: Disc Load = Helicopter Weight (kg) / (* Blade Length m2)
For a 55lb aircraft, the combined rotor disc should be between 32 and 44
diameter for best rotor loading (24 and 48 kg/m2)
For larger multirotors that carry payloads, large propellers and low-kv motors tend
to work better. These have higher relative rotational momentum, and will more
easily maintain the aircrafts stability.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Determining Thrust
Short Takeoff and Landing Required Thrust Per Motor
Choose a power system that can provide a pitch speed of about 2 to 3 times the stall speed and a 2/3 thrust to weight ratio. This means that a
55lb aircraft needs 36lbs of thrust for a single pusher, or 18lbs for twin pushers.
This means that a 55lb aircraft needs 27.5lbs thrust for each motor for quad rotors, or 18.33lbs for hexacopters.
Power Requirements
This operating profile needs 75-100 watts/pound, which equates to 4125 to 5500 watts.
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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide
Calculations (Imperial)
( )
Wing Area (Square Feet)
( )
Wing Loading (Ounces per square feet) ( )
( )
Pitch Speed (Propellers)
Power in (Watts)
Shaft Power Out (Watts)
( )
Shaft Horsepower