Steel and Iron Industry

Steel - a hard, tough, and corrosion-resistant.

-made from alloying elements such as:
1. Iron- metal from the sky
2. Carbon(0.002%-2.1& by weight)
3. Manganese
4. Phosphorous
5. Sulfur
6. Silicon
7. traces of Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Aluminum
Alloying elements intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel are: Mn, Ni,
Cr, Mo, B, Titanium, Vanadium, and Niobium.

Iron Industry
Raw Materials:
1. Iron ore
-sometimes called ironstone or muck
-soft, grayish-white material
-4th most abundant elements, makes up more
than 5% of earths crust
-largest producers of iron are Australia, Brazil,
and China
-average iron content for ores is 60% to 65%
-98% of mined iron ore is used to make steel
Hot metal: reduced iron ore to molten iron using carbon from coking coal.
 2. Coal
- from Old English term col, which means "mineral of fossilized carbon"
- a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually
occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams
- extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground by
shaft mining, or at ground level by open pit mining extraction

Metamorphic Grade of Coal:

1. Peat - a precursor of coal
-in dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land
and water
- used as a conditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and slowly release water

2. Lignite (brown coal) - lowest rank of coal

- used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation.
Jet-a compact form of lignite
-sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone

3. Sub-bituminous coal- used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation

-an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry

4. Bituminous coal-is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown
- used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities
used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke

5. Steam coal- a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite

-sometimes known as "sea-coal" in the US

6. Anthracite-is a harder, glossy black coal

-used primarily for residential and commercial space heating

7. Graphite-technically the highest rank

-is difficult to ignite and is not commonly used as fuel
-mostly used in pencils and when powdered, as a lubricant.

HISTORY
Anatolia- where a piece of a 4000 years old ironware was excavated. Apparently the iron, which has a
higher nickel content than native iron ores, was obtained from meteorites.
1st millennium BC- highly superior steel was made in India, in a region near Hyderabad steel produced
was sought after by:
1. Europeans, who called it wootz
2. Moors living in Spain- used it for making Toledo blades
3. Arabs- used it in their Damascus swords
th
15 cent BC- iron occurrence on the territory of Slovakia
12th cent BC- iron occurrence in Bohemia
4000 BC ancient people were using Iron.
1400 BC- steel in East Africa
1200 BC- Iron ore was being mixed with burning wood or charcoal and turned into hot masses from
which iron metal could be wrought by repeated hammering.
650 BC- steel was produced in large quantities around Sparta
403-221 BC- Chinese of the Warring States had quenching-hardened steel
400-500 BC- estimated origin of steel technology
326 BC- King Porus presented a steel sword to Emperor Alexander
300 BC- Wootz steel was produced in India
Wootz steel is also known as Damascus steel
-famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge.
- a complicated alloy with iron as its main component
202 BC-220 AD- the Han Dynasty created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron
1st Cent AD- production of a carbon-intermediate steel by the Han Dynasty
5th Cent AD- Chinese adopted the production method of creating Wootz steel
9th cent AD- 100 iron products in total were madeduring the era of the Great Moravian Empire
9th-10th Cent AD- Crucible steel was produced in Merv
Crucible steel is formed by slowly heating and cooling pure Iron and Carbon(in the
form of charcoal) in a crucible
11th cent - production of steel in Song China using two techniques:
1. Berganesque method- produces inferior inhomogeneous steel
2. precursor to modern Bessemer process- uses partial decarbonization via repeated forging
under a cold blast.
15th cent- beginning of blast furnace production by the Germany, France and England
19th cent- rolling mills are opened. The rod iron-mills were the most widespread
1647-first iron works in America called Hammersmith
1783- first rolling mill driven with steam engine was built
1848- first satisfactory rolling mill was built
1855- a patent for applying refining pig iron in converter
1856- creation of Bessemer Process by Sir Henry Bessemer.
Bessemer Process- produced a more pure iron by blasting air through the molten iron
ore reducing the carbon content in the form of carbon dioxide
Speigeleisen is a compound of iron, carbon and manganese
Manganese removes oxygen from molten iron and carbon content
1862- the continuous wire rod mill was patented
1864- operation of the Thomas process
Thomas process- steel production with a higher phosphorus content
1890s- Admiral Robert Peary found that Inuit had been making iron tools from a 30-ton iron meteorite
1901- Carnegie Corporation owned by Andrew Carnegie led the enormous expansion of steel industry in
America
Henry Clay Frick- Carnegies most important partner
- owned mine holdings in Connellsville which made Americas best
coke used in iron and steel making

PRODUCTS:
I. Classification of Steel

A. Carbon steel - amounts to more than 90% of all manufactured steels

-has varying amount of Carbon and not more than 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si and 0.60% Cu.
Uses: machines, automobile bodies, buildings, ship hulls, bedsprings and bobby pins

Types of Carbon steel

1. Low Carbon steel -contains less than 0.10% C with up to 0.4% Mn

-largest category is flat-rolled products usually in cold-rolled and annealed
 condition
Uses: automobile body panels, tin plate, and wire products

2. Medium Carbon steel-contains 0.30- 0.60 % C and 0.60-1.65% Mn.

-increasing Carbon and Manganese content to 0.5% allows medium carbon steel
to be used even in quenched and tempered condition
Uses: shafts, axles, gears, crankshafts, couplings, and forgings. Steels with 0.40-0.60% C
are used for rails, railway wheels and rail axles.

3. High Carbon steel-contains 0.60- 1.00% Carbon with 0.30-0.90% Mn.

Uses: spring materials and high strength wires.

4. Ultrahigh carbon steel - experimental alloys containing 1.25-2.0% Carbon.

- thermomechanically processed producing microstructure of ultrafine,
equiaxed grains of spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid carbide particles

B. High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)

- newest of the five chief families of steels.
-contains small amounts of expensive alloying elements thus costs less
Properties:
1. stronger than carbon steels of the same weight
2. better mechanical properties
3. greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion
4. tough
5.formable
6. weldable

Categories of High Strength Low Alloy Steel

1. Weathering Steel -contains small amount of Cu and P for improved atmospheric

corrosion resistance and solid-solution strengthening
Uses: outdoor sculptures, exterior facades, and bridges

2. Micro-alloyed Ferrite-Pearlite Steel - has small amount (less than 0.10%) of

Niobium, Vanadium and/or Titanium.
Niobium, Vanadium and Titanium are strong carbide or carbonitride forming elements used
for (1)precipitation strengthening; (2) grain refinement; (3) temperature control
Pearlite- two-phased layered structure composed of alternating layers of alpha-ferrite
(88 wt%) and cementite (12 wt%) that occurs in some steels and cast irons.

3. As-rolled Pearlitic Steel -carbon-manganese steels with other alloying elements to

enhance strength, toughness, formability, and weldability.

4. Acicular Ferrite (low-carbon bainite) steels- less than 0.05% Carbon

-has high yield strength (can withstand 690 MPa), weldability,
formability, and good toughness

5. Dual Phase Steel-has a microstructure of martensite dispersed in a ferric matrix

-provides good combination of ductility and high tensile strength
Martensite -a hard and very brittle solid solution of carbon in iron that is the main
constituent of hardened steel.
 6. Inclusion Shape-controlled Steel-is a small, dispersed, almost spherical globules
-provides improved ductility and through thickness toughness by small
addition of calcium, zirconium , or titanium

C. Stainless Steels
- contains chromium, nickel, and other alloying elements that keep them bright and rust
resistant
Uses:
(1) decorative purposes
(2) pipes and tanks of petroleum refineries
(3) jet planes and space capsule
(4) surgical instrument- can withstand the action of body fluids
(5) kitchen utensils- does not taint the food and can be easily cleaned

Four Major Types of Stainless Steels

1. Austenitic Stainless Steel- most used type of stainless steel

- an alloy of Nickel and Manganese- makes the structure fully austenitic
Properties:
(1) promotes ductility
(2) non-magnetic property
(3) good weldability
(4) wide range of service temperature
Uses: housewares, containers, industrial piping and vessels, architectural facades, and
constructional structures

2. Ferritic Stainless Steel- better corrosion resistant than mild steel

Uses: automotive exhaust applications, structural application (12%), and 17% to
housewares, boilers, washing machines, and indoor architecture

3. Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic)Stainless Steel-has 50% ferritic & 50% austenitic structure

-is a layered structure with high strength
Austenitic- a solid solution in iron of caron and somtimes other solutes that
occurs as a constituent of steel under certain condition

Uses: tank applications, pulp and paper industry, oil and gas industry, in desalination.
Concrete and High strength duplex are applicable in harsh service environment with
warm, humid and saline air and sea spray.

4. Martensitic Stainless Steel- contains 11-13% Chromium

-strong and hard with moderate corrosion resistance
Uses: turbine blades and knives

D. Tool Steels
-contain tungsten, molybdenum and other elements that give them extra strength, hardness, and
resistance to wear
Tungsten(W)- a hard metal that is used to make the thin wire in lightbulbs and to harden
other metals(such as steel)
Molybdenum(Mo)- resemmbles tungsten and chromium, used for strenghtening and
hardening of steel
 Uses: fabricated into tools, parts of power-driven machinery

Types of Tool Steels

1. High Speed Tool Steels -includes molybdenum and tungsten alloys
-can maintain hardness in temperature as high as 540C
Uses: end mills, drills, lathe tools, planar tools, punches, reamers, routers, taps, saws

2. Hot-work Tool Steels - includes all chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum alloys
Uses: forging, heading, piercing, trim, extrusion, and hot-shear and punching tables

3. Cold work Tool Steels -includes all high-chromium, medium-alloy, air-hardening

alloys, water hardening alloys, and oil-hardening alloys.
Uses: stamping dies, draw dies, burnishing tools, coining tools, and shear blades

4. Shock resistant Tool Steels - among the toughest of tool steel

Uses: screw driver blades, shear blades, chisels, knockout pins, punches

5. Mold Steels -includes all low carbon and one medium carbon tool steel
Uses: compression and injection molds for plastics, and die-casting dies

6. Special-Purpose Tool Steels-relatively tough and easily machinable

-includes all low-alloy tool steels

Uses: arbors, punches, taps, wrenches, drills, and brake-forming dies

7. Water Hardening Tool Steels-do not retain hardness well at elevated temperature
- includes all water hardening tool steels
-high resistance to surface wear
Uses: blanking dies, files, drills, taps, countersinks, reamers, jewelry dies

E. Alloy Steels
- contains vanadium, molybdenum and larger amounts of Mn, Si, and Cu
Uses: automobile gears and axles, roller skates, and carving knives

RAW MATERIALS:
1. Pig Iron
Classification of pig iron:
1. Grey pig iron-produced when the pig-iron is cooled slowly and the carbon settles out
as graphite
-has more than 2.0% Silicon and less than 0.2% Manganese
-used as cast iron

2. White pig iron- produced when the pig-iron is cooled rapidly and the dissolved
carbon forms iron carbide
-has more than 4% Manganese and less than 0.5% Silicon
-used in steel production

2. Coal and Coke

-a contraction of coal and cake
-discovered by the Englishman
Abraham Darby
-are porous lumps when heated
in the absence of air.
-have low sulfur and phosphorous
contents.

Coking Process: Coals are recovered from the mines through blasting. The coal is loaded into
coke ovens of the coke battery and is heated to 1000-1100C in the abscence of oxygen to drive
off the volatile compounds (pyrolysis) for 12-36 hours which results in a hard porous material-
coke. Once pushed out of the vessel the hot coke is then quenched with either water or air to cool
it before storage or is transferred directly to the blast furnace for use in iron making. Coking coal
is converted to coke by driving off impurities to leave almost pure carbon.

Uses: Coal-solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion

Carborized coal-primary reducing agent of iron ore made by
Carborization-heating in the absence of oxygen at high temperatures

3. Flux
-from Latin fluxus meaning flow
-a chemical cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent.
Purpose: Combines with SiO2 which is oxidized to form a basic fluid slag.

Slag (CaSiO3): absorbs and retains sulfur and phosphorus from the hot metal.
-rich in phosphorus and calcium
- it is excellent soil conditioner and liming material.

Two primary fluxes: Lime (95+% CaO) and dolomite (58% CaO, 39% MgO)
-obtained by calcination of CaCO 3 and MgCO:
CaCO3 ----> CO2 + CaO
MgCO3 -----> CO2 + MgO

Two types of lime

1. Soft burned -dissolves quickly in a cup of water liberating heat
-form slag more quickly than hard-burned
-critical for effective sulfur and phosphorus removal
2. Hard burned- retains original shape

A. Limestone- produced from convertion of heated iron ore mixed with coke
-used at the open hearth furnaces in the conversion of iron into steel and in
making steel.

B. Dolomite--is the flux employed in the blast furnaces

-found in deposits of a sedimentary rock called dolostone
-named from French mineralogist Deodat de Dolomieu
-used as a sintering agent in iron ore pelletization and as a flux agent in steel
making.

Two types of Dolomite

 1. CaMg(CO3)2 -true chemically uniform dolomite
2. Dolomitic limestone-irregular mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates.

4. Recycled Steel
-is a key input needed for all steelmaking process routes
-about 80% of post-consumer steel is recycled
Sources:
1. excess material in steel facilities
2. foundries (home scrap)
3. downstream production processes(industrial scrap)
4. discarded products (obsolete scrap)

Other Metals used in Steel making in Smaller Amount

A. In all or most steel
Manganese: for Desulpherising (sulfur causes steel to crack) and alloying
Silicon: used to de-oxidize steel

B. In some steel
Nickel: Anti-corrosion (8-10%).
Chromium (content of 18%): resistance to corrosion, temperature and wear Zinc:
used to galvanize steel (enhances corrosion resistance)
Tin: brings protective coating to steel (in food and drink cans)

C. Minor alloying elements

Molybdenum: resistance to heat, corrosion
: brings weld ability to steel
Vanadium: brings extreme hardness to steel
Tungsten: brings extreme hardness to steel

MANUFACTURING PROCEDURE

A. Production of Molten Iron

i. Blasting- ores are blasted into pieces with dynamite
ii. Sintering- powdered iron ore (fines) are fused into larger pieces

iii. Blast furnace- heats iron ore, coke and small quantities
of fluxes (such as CaO to collect impurities) and preheated
air to 1200C.
Air causes the coke to burn, producing CO which
reacts with the iron ore, as well as heat to melt the iron.
iv. Molten iron and slag are drained off

B. Production of Steel
Iron from the blast furnace contains 5% Carbon and is too
brittle. Most of this carbon must be removed along with
small portions of other elements (P, Si, Aluminumto) to
give the resultant material its strength and flexibility.

Methods of Production
 1. Electric Furnace
-produces steel of highly specialized nature, such as stainless steel and the extremely hard
and wear-resistant tool steel.

2. Bessemer Converter
-employed in the Bessemer Process, after its developer Henry Bessemer.
- an egg shaped container made of steel and lined with fire brick, silica rock and clay.

Molten iron is poured into the converters a stream of air is blown in through the tuyeres.
The oxygen burns the silicon and manganese from the iron, and then turns the carbon to
CO. The carbon monoxide exits the vessel which burns to carbon dioxide upon contact
to outside air. The blown iron is poured into a ladle for delivery to an open hearth
furnace.
Time required for blowing :
2 minutes- removes silicon,
9-12 minutes- to complete decarbonization

3. Open Hearth Furnace (also known as Siemens-Martin process)

-a rectangular brick structure held by steel binders
-capable of withstanding the terrific heat
-under the supervision of a melter

The furnace reduces the amount of volatile matter present in

the coal from 44% to 9% . The liquid metal lies on the hearth
and is exposed to an open flame which ignites as it issues
from a port chamber at one end of the furnace, and sweep
across the hearth to be exhausted through the similar
chamber at the other end. Combustion air is pulled through
the checkers where it is preheated, ignition takes place as it
issues from the port chamber, and the hot gases pass through
the furnace and out through the checkers on the other side.

CaO- used as flux in the open hearth furnaces.

Hearth- a concave or saucer-shaped receptacle made of high grade refractory brick
Melter- a workman who has had years of experience in steel making
-can tell almost by visual examination whether a heat of steel is progressing properly

STEEL PROCESSING
A. Charging the Furnace
Materials: steel scrap, iron, burned or raw limestone, mill-scale and iron ore. Small
amounts of other metals may be charged, into the furnace or added to the steel as it is being
poured from the furnace, as required to make steel of specified characteristics.

-Limestone and Dolomite are first calcined and subjected to heat from gas flame to be well
burned.
Mill-scale: a chemical combination of oxygen and metallic material formed on hot steel and
loosened and washed away when slabs are reheated and passed through the mills.

B. Regulation of Heat and Chemical composition of Steel

 -samples are withdrawn from the metal, cooled, and studied to determine the stage of
advancement of the refining process
-according to the specifications of the steel being produced
-non-essential substances in the steel are withdrawn from the hearth in the form of slag
and it is removed by tapping

C. Production of Ingot: Tapping and Teeming

-the inner surface of the steel is coated with a graphite
wash which acts as a lubricant,
Graphite: lessens the difficulty of removing the mold
: gives the ingot a smooth clean surface
Tapping: steel with a temperature of2850-3050F is
allowed to flow into brick-lined steel ladles after the
removal of dolomite at the rear of the furnace
Teeming of Heat: steel is poured from the outlet at the
bottom of the ladle into the molds
Ingot molds facilitates removal of the steel when solidified
Bottle Top mold- enclosed mold with an opening-shaped
centerlike the neck of a bottle

D. Shaping

Four principal methods

1. Rolling-passing hot steel between ponderous steel rolls whih knead and elongate it
to the desired shapes and proportions
2. Drawing-steel is forced through dies of various shapes, whose openings are smaller
than the cross section of the steel
-elongates the metal and brings it to the proper shape and diameter of cross
section
ex: wires
3. Casting/Molding- pouring molten steel into forms hollowed to the shape of the
desired product and allows the metal to harden
ex: brake shoes for railroad cars, blocks for automobile and marine engines,
4. Forging-steel is heated until it becomes relatively soft, and then heavy hammers are
used to beat it into shape
ex: horseshoe, heavy axles used on railroad locomotives and cars

SOAKING PITS
-a heating chamber fired with the coke oven into which
the ingots are placed for reheating at 2050-2300F.
Soaking: molds are stripped off and the ingots are
placed in a covered pit for 2-6 hours then
heated to an even temperature.

E. Rolling
-Ingots will undergo different kinds of mills depending
of the required sizes, dimensions, and applications of
the steel to be manufactured.
Uneven distribution of hot molds before rolling causes slabs, blooms and billets.
 1. Blooming Mills-ingots are removed from the soaking pits then placed in a rail
mounted car which transports them lengthwise to the approach table of the
blooming mill
-also called slabbing mill
-an ingot is turned several times by steel fingers during rolling to
assure even reduction and to avoid the development of concave sides and cracks
within the metal

2. Plate Mill -slabs from the blooming mill are reheated to approximately 2300F and
are discharged over a ramp then into the railroad cars to be carried back to the
open hearth stock storage yard for subsequent charging into the open hearth.
-composed of two units tandem a 110-inch, three high mill and a 140-
inch, four-high reversing mill.
Plates are heavy, flat panels which are utilized in fabricating ships hulls, railroad cars
and locomotives, heavy duty tanks

3. Billet Mill-located near some blooming mills to break down further the blooms
which come from the blooming mills before the material is sent to the smaller
finishing mill

4. Structural Mill- ingots are rolled directly into structural shapes on rolling mills,

5. Rail Mill -takes an ingot or a bloom through a series of rolls that are grooved and
formed to shape the rail

6. Bar Mill- encompasses a wide variety of steel products and shapes.

7. Wire and Wire Rod Mill- the billet is rolled down into a round section called rod
and into a coil form. This material is then drawn and formed into wire.
Billet- a semi-finished section of bar steel

8. Seamless Pipe Mill- semifinished bloom is rolled into a round, solid section.It is
then heated and its center pierced, so that a hollow is formed without a seam
Uses: oil-well drilling and casing

F. Cooling
Cambering Machine- bows each hot rail into a slight arc then cooled to 1600F until it
reaches 725F.
Factors affecting cooling rate of rails:
1. thickness of the head
2. thickness of the web
3. flange of a rail

SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR CERTAIN STEEL PRODUCTS:

A. Annealing-relieves stresses and restores pliability before drafting to finished sizes.

1. Furnace Annealing-coils of wire are placed in a furnace and heated to a
predetermined temperature for a period of time to assure uniformity and then
cooled slowly
2. Lead Annealing
 B. Galvanizing- employed in the finishing of sheet steel used for roofing and siding to resist
corrosion and effects of weathering

C. Continuous Pickling- removes the scale that forms on the surface during heating and rolling
through chemical action.

STEEL TEST
1. Physical Analysis
A. Tensile Test-a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure
-also known as tension testing
Properties directly measured:
1. ultimate tensile strength- maximum stress required for a material to rupture and break.
2. maximum elongation- maximum stress required for a material to rupture and break.
3. reduction in area- reduction in cross-sectional area of the test piece after tensile
fracture expressed as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area

B. Hardness Test -tests the ability of steel to resist being permanently deformed when a
load is applied
- measured with the depth or area of indentation. The smaller the
indentation the higher is the hardness.

Types of hardness tests methods:

1. Brinell -determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified diameter

under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the diameter of
the indentation left after the test.

2. Rockwell-It measures the depth of remaining penetration made by a hardened steel

ball or a diamond cone.
3. Vickers- similar to the Brinell method, but it uses a diamond penetrator in the shape
of a pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136

4. Knoop-a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter with apical angles of 130

and 17230 is pressed against the material.

5. Shore hardness test-in terms of elasticity of the material

C. Bend Test-helps in determining ductility of the steel

-a function of the angle of bend and inside diameter to which the specimen is
bent, and of the cross-section of the specimen.
 Affecting factors of Bend Test:
1. location and orientation of test specimen
2. chemical composition
3. tensile properties
4. hardness
5. type
6. quality of the steel

D. Impact Test -determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during

fracture.
Absorbed energy- is a measure of a given material's notch toughness and acts as
a tool to study temperature-dependent ductile brittle transition.

E. Flattening Test- conducted to check the section by subjecting it to extreme

compression stress.
-If the test piece withstands the specified compression stress without
cracking, it is determined to be acceptable.

F. Flaring/Drift Test-flaring the end of the pipe to a diameter 1.2 times the outside
diameter

G. Cupping Test-reveals the cupping qualities of metal sheets and strips

2. Chemical Analysis
-Bulk chemical analyses on metals and materials are available using the following
techniques:
a. Optical Emission Spectroscopy
b. Combustion (LECO) for C & S
c. Atomic Absorption
d. Surface analyses are available by SEM/EDS.
e. Phase identification is available by X-ray Diffraction.

REFERENCES:
Green, John. The manufacture of steel. BHP NZ Steel. Glenbrook, New Zealand.
Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowlegde. Iron and steel Industry. (V. 10, pp. 241-245).
Microsoft Encarta encyclopedia 2009 DVD
Wiebel, Arthur V. Steel Making at Birmingham, Alabama (1954). Tennessee Coal & Iron
Division. United States Corporation
http://02RawMaterialsSecurity_SAIL.pdf
http://47858288.pdf
http://coal-for-making-steel.pdf
http://me.aut.ac.ir/staff/solidmechanics/alizadeh/Erichsen%20Cupping%20Test.htm
http://metals.about.com/od/properties/a/Steel-History.htm
http://science.jrank.org/pages/6483/Steel-Raw-materials.html#ixzz2KvJdhnEC
http://steel.org/ais/recyclestl.htm
http://www.acts-int.com/steeltesting.html
http://www.apmtesting.com/tesing-services/materials-tested/metal-testing
http://www.astm.org/Standards/E350/htm
http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm
http://www.dienamics.com.au/blog/history-steel/
http://www.eprints.instlindia.org/1545/waste.html
http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/science/steel.htm
http://www.hz.cz/en/history-of-steelmaking
64http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Stainless-Steel.html#ixzz2L7Y0bh7N
http://www.materials.co.uk/chem.htm
http://www.oecd.org/sti/industryandglobalisatiom/steelmaking-raw-materials.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/49535002/Manufacturing-of-Steel
http://www.tcreng.com/services/tensile-bend-compression-flaring-flattening.shtml
http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-steel/
http://www.worldsteel.org
http://www.worldsteel.org/media-centre/key-facts.html
http://www.worldsteel.org/dms/internetDocumentList/fact-sheets/Fact-sheetRaw-
materials2011/document/Fact%20sheetRaw%20materials2011.pdf
http://www.interstahl.com/en/info-about-steel-a-iron/pig-iron-production.html