Journal of Archaeological Science (1995) 22, 833-840
Llamas and Alpacas: Pre-conquest Breeds and Post-conquest
Hybrids
Jane C. Wheeler*, A. J. F. Russeland Hilary Redden
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, U.K.
(Received 16 August 1994, revised manuscript accepted 30 November 1994)
Comparison of pre-conquest and contemporary Andean llama and alpaca phenotypes suggeststhat a breakdown in
specialized breeding took place after European contact which led to the disappearance of fine fibre producing alpaca
and llama breeds. The causesof this loss ultimately lie in the decimation of native Andean herds and herders during the
Spanish conquest. The heterogeneous characteristics of todays animals can be attributed to extensivehybridization and
a possible genetic bottle neck during the 16th century.
Keyltpo&s: PERU, LLAMA, ALPACA, BREEDS, HYBRIDIZATION,
Introduction
he extant South American Camelidae include
T the wild guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and vicuna
(Vicugna vicugna), as well as the domestic llama
(Lama glama) and alpaca (Lama paces). Separation
between Lama and Vicugna occurred approximately
2 million years ago (Webb, 1974; Stanley, Kadwell &
Wheeler, 1994), with domestic animals first appearing
in the central Andean archaeological record 6000-7000
years ago (Wheeler, 1984, 1986, 1995). At present,
approximately 3,776,793 llamas and 2811,612 alpacas
(Wheeler, 1991) are reared almost exclusively by tra-
ditional Andean herders on marginal high elevation
pastures in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. In
general, llamas are raised for use as pack animals,
while alpacas are bred for fibre production, but selec-
tion is not strictly controlled and hybridization often
occurs.
Both archaeozoological and ethnohistorical sources
document the pivotal role of pastoralism in the
Andean economy prior to European contact. The
origins of this tradition began with domestication of
the alpaca and llama in the high elevation (>3800 m
above sea level) central Andean puna ecosystem of
Peru 6000-7000 years ago (Wheeler, Pires Ferreira and
Kaulicke, 1976; Wing, 1977, 1986; Wheeler, 1984,
1986). By 3800 years BP, evidence of camelid herding is
found in the lower elevation inter-Andean valleys of
Peru (Shimada, 1985; Wing, 1986), in northern Chile
(Hesse, 1982a,b; Dransart, 1991a,b) and northwestern
Argentina (Yaccobaccio & Madero, 1992). Along the
Pacific coast of Peru this practice is first documented
some 1600 years ago (Pozorski, 1979; Shimada &
*Present address: Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, San Macros
University, Apartado 5137, Lima 3, Peru.
833
0305-4403/95/060833+08 $12.00/O
0 1995 Academic Press Limited
FIBRE, MUMMIFICATION
Shimada, 1985, 1987), at the same time that llama
remains first appear in Ecuador (Wing, 1986; Stahl,
1988; Miller & Gill, 1990). Approximately 700 years
later, both alpacas and llamas were being raised on the
south coast of Peru (Wheeler, Russel & Stanley, 1992;
Wheeler, in press a, b) and llamas were found in the
cloud forest along the eastern slope of the Andes
(Wheeler, 1991). Based primarily on the study of
osteological remains recovered during archaeological
excavations, the above reports provide no information
on physical appearance of the domestic alpacas and
llamas. Textile remains found at sites in the Atacama
desert of northern Chile record the appearance of
black fibre from presumably domestic animals around
3000 years ago (Dransart, 1991a), while the earliest
known (but certainly not the oldest) use of camelid
fibre in Peruvian weaving comes from fabrics preserved
at coastal sites dated approximately 2500-700 BP
(Novoa & Wheeler, 1984). In northwestern Argentina,
llama fibre cordage has been dated to 1450 BP
(Reigadas, 1992). However, it is only with the recent
discovery of 900-1000 year old naturally desiccated
llama and alpaca mummies as reported here, that
information on the physical appearance of precontact
animals has become available.
Early Spanish observers commented on the import-
ance of camelid pastoralism in the Andes, but generally
failed to distinguish between llamas and alpacas in
their records. These animals were viewed as the key to
human survival in the harsh puna environment, while
providing goods and services crucial to the Inca
economy (Murra, 1965, 1975, 1978; Brotherston,
1989). Llama pack trains linked the provinces of the
expansive Inca empire, and camelid fibre textiles served
both ritual and utilitarian functions. The State main-
tained vast herds which supplied pack llamas for the
0 1995 Academic Press Limited
834 J. C. Wheeler et al.

Table 1. El Yaral alpacas and llamas (specinterr nwnber, ses and age irr nrontlrs): fibre diameter in rnicrorm, by satuple sire. n.s. =no sample

Alpacas Llamas

119d 317$ 314s 2283 2436 2733 2488 2378 2318 247d
Site -24m 9 m <lSm 21 m <lSm >9m 69 111 25-9 m 3m

2: 16.0
17.2 17.7
17.9 23.0
21.5 21.7
22.7 18.2
19.7 21.2
22.3 22.0
21.4 23.4
28.4 20.4
27.2 31.9
29.6
A4 17.1 17.5 21.2 22.1 19.5 20.7 24.1 21.9 19.7 29.3

A: 19.1
17.7 17.5
18.8 24.0
23.0 24.5
25.6 25.1
23.9 21.8
22.1 21.6
n.s. 23.5
23.2 22.4
22.8 3;:;,
B3 17.0 16.5 27.6 26.2 ns. 20.4 22.5 25.9 22.4 34.3
B4 17.2 19.5 22.7 24.0 I%8 225 21.6 24.4 26.5
B5 IS.6 ns. 21.4 23.6 n.s. 23.4 23.9 21.7 3:; 39.6
B6 19.3 IS.8 21.0 26.3 n.s. 24.5 20.6 21.0 23.4 30.5

:i 29.5
30.1 21.3
20.5 44.2
36.6 29.8
26.7 n.s. 28.5
43.9 45.4
25.7 30.1
n.s. 30.8
ns. ns.

royal armies and alpaca fibre for textile production,
while shrine herds produced high quality animals of
pure colour required for ritual sacrifice. Responsibility
for these animals rested with hereditary specialists, the
llama camayoc. Communal and individually owned
herds also existed.
Within a century of the Spanish conquest of Cuzco
in 1532, administrative and taxation records document
the precipitous decline and virtual disappearance of
previously extensive herds throughout the Andes. It is
estimated that up to 90% of all llamas and alpacas
disappeared during this short period (Flores Ochoa,
1977, 1982) together with approximately 80% of the
human population (Wachtel, 1977), leading to the
economic and social disintegration of native society.
Although considerable research has been devoted to
the disastrous effects of these events upon Andean
peoples, the impact of such catastrophic mortality
upon camelid genetic diversity and breeding practices
has yet to be fully explored.
The recent discovery of 26 perfectly preserved, natu-
rally desiccated alpaca and llama mummies at the
pre-Inca Late Intermediate (AD 950-l 350) Chiribaya
culture site of El Yaral (Rice, 1993) provides a first
ever view of naturally preserved pre-conquest animals.
Located in the extremely arid coastal desert of south-
ern Peru (17Ol south latitude, 71OO west longitude),
the site lies 50 km inland at an elevation of 1000 m
above sea level. Covering approximately 12.3 ha, and
containing more than 330 elongated residential ter-
races, El Yaral rises 120 m up the barren hillside at the
extreme south-western end of the Moquegua valley. It
overlooks a natural corral, 6 ha in extent, which is
enclosed by sand covered hills and watered by the
Osmore river. Extensive river bottom agricultural land
lies immediately to the north of the site. The El Yaral
structures were built of cane walls with wooden sup-
port posts for cane mat roofs, and subdivided by rows
of vertical canes into from two to eight rooms which
were used for storage, cooking, chicha (a fermented
beverage) preparation, sleeping and ritual activities.
Compacted floors of fine gravel, sand and clay covered
offerings of guinea-pigs, coca leaves, thread wrapped
sticks, turquoise and marine shell beads, small silver
plaques, feathers, fish, maize and burnt charcoal, as
well as sacrificial alpacas and llamas. These animals
had been killed by a massive blow between the ears and
rapidly interred. The sand in which they were buried
and the extreme aridity of the climate produced
exceptionally well preserved specimens (Figure 1).
Contemporary llamas and alpacas are classified on
the basis of fibre characteristics and physical appear-
ance. Following the traditionally used Ouechua classi-
fication (Flores Ochoa, 1986), recognized llama
phenotypes include the hairy, coarse, sparsely fibred
ccara; the coarse, more densely fibred clzaku; and
animals with an intermediate fibre type. Most alpacas
exhibit dense, crimped huacaya fleeces, but a small
number ( - 10%) are distinguished by long, wavy suri
fibre. Intermediate alpaca fleece types also exist but are
not a recognized phenotype. Virtually all llamas and
75% of all alpacas are held by traditional herders who
do not consistently breed for selected phenotypes
(Novoa, 1981, 1989). Both inbreeding and hybridiz-
ation between llamas and alpacas commonly occur.
None the less, elaborate classification systems based on
colour and conformation characteristics exist among
Quechua (Flores Ochoa, 1986) and Aymara (Dransart,
19916) herders, suggesting that earlier management
strategies selectively bred for fibre characteristics in
both alpacas and llamas. Although written records
were not part of Andean civilization, detailed data on
size and colour of flocks were kept utilizing the quipu,
a mnemonic device made of camelid fibre. Under Inca
rule, an annual census was taken of the state and shrine
herds (Murra, 1978). Special emphasis was placed on
breeding pure brown, black and white animals for
sacrifice to specific deities, as well as on quality fibre
production for the state controlled textile industry and
the production of sturdy pack llamas for the Inca army
(Murra, 1978). Given such rigorous demands, it is
likely that specific llama and alpaca breeds were main-
tained which subsequently disappeared during the
Spanish conquest. The data from El Yaral, presented
 Pre- and Post-conquest Llamas and Alpacas 835

Table 2. Menu fleece diameter (tm) of nncienr and contemporary South American cam&is. All figures represenl
coriiplelejleece counts excepr where noted u (rrrictercoat), ti (hair)

Prehispanic
Contemporary C. AD 1000

Species and varieties Breeds

vicuiia, N= 10 $ adult* 12.5 f 0.4

alpaca x vicufia Fl, N=S adult? 15.3 f 0.2
Chiribaya extra fine fibre
alpaca huacaya, N= 5 m d 24 ml 32.1 f 2.4 alpaca, 17.9 f 1.0 17.8 f 1.1
alpaca huacaya, N=54 d & $ 24$ 27.9 f 3.7 l19,d f24m 18.0 f 0.9
317, d 9m
alpaca suri, N=5 0 48 my 26.8 f 6.0 Chiribaya fine fibre
alpaca, 23.6 f 1.9
314, g Cl8 m 22.8 f 2.0
228, 6 21 m 24.4 f 1.5
alpaca x llama, N, sex, age=? 34.Ou?
Chiribaya fine fibre
llama, 22.4 f 2.3
llama chaku, N=7 d 12 mtt 18.8 ul39.8 h 243. rT cl8 m 21.1 f 2.0
llama chaku, N=6 d 24 mtt 22.0 u/42.2 h 273; 3 >9 m 22.1 f I.3
248, 6 22.2 f 1.2
llama intermediate, N=7 6 12 mtt 20.0 u/55.6 h 237, 3 6-9 m 23.1 f 1.5
llama intermediate, N=8 6 24 mtt 25.3 ul73.4 h 23 1, $25-29 m 23.2 f 3.5
llama ccara, N=7 d 12 mtt Chiribaya coarse fibre
llama ccara, N= 10 d 24 mt-f 20.1 u/73.1 h llama, 32.7 f 4.2 32.7 f 4.2
25,2 ul77.7 h 247,d 3 m
llama x guanaco, N= 1 3 adult 23.6 f 2.2
guanaco, N=20 adultSI 16.5 u/72,8 h

*Solari & Carpio (1981).

tCarpi0, Layva, Solari, Santana & Sumar (1 990).
SCarpi & Arana (1975).
$Carpio (1991).
won Bergen (1963).
**Duga (1985).
ttChavez (1991).
SSVerscheure & Garcia (1980).

here, suggest that the origin of such breeds may
predate the Inca empire.
Pre-conquest breeds
The El Yaral llamas and alpacas were identified on the
basis of phenotypic attributes (conformation, fibre
distribution) and confirmed by incisor morphology
(Wheeler, 1991). The age and sex of each specimen
were determined, when possible, on the basis of dental
eruption (Wheeler, in press) and preserved genitalia.
Observations on fleece type and colour were recorded,
and evaluation of the fibre producing qualities of six
llamas and four alpacas from the site was undertaken.
Samples of skin with attached fibre (1.5 x 1.5 cm) were
taken when possible, at 11 standardized sites on the left
side of the animals: on the neck (A2), at equidistant
points from the fore to hind legs at the level of the
sacral tuberosity (A3-A6) and mid-way between the
dorsal and ventral surfaces (B3-B6) and at the tops of
the fore (C3) and hind (C6) legs. Fibre length was
recorded, and N 1 mm segments of 300 to 500 fibres
were cut from next to the skin of each sample, washed
on filter paper with 2 x 50 ml aliquots of BDH petro-
leum spirit 60-80, left to dry overnight, and mounted
on glass slides with Euparal (R.I. 1.485). Fibre diam-
eter measurements were recorded for 200 fibres per
sample utilizing a projection microscope, IWTO stan-
dards and the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute
GWBASIC FIBRE 2 programme.
Concern that desiccation and/or rehydration during
sample preparation may have altered the dimensions of
the El Yaral specimens was addressed through a series
of experiments utilizing fibre from a fresh llama x
guanaco specimen. Batches, each of 10 samples, were
dried under varying conditions, and statistical analysis
of the results revealed no significant alteration in fibre
diameter during these processes. Additionally it was
possible to observe under the microscope that the
medullary cavity of almost all specimens remained
intact and was not penetrated by the mounting fluid. In
the few cases where this had occurred, it was obvious
that the cuticle had broken down exposing the fibril
bundles of the cortex. Such fibres were eliminated from
the study.
Fibre diameter measurements from the El Yaral
alpacas and llamas (Table 1) revealed the existence of
four distinct groups of animals (Table 2). The data
show evidence of natural variation in fibre diameter
across the body, with coarser/hairier samples coming
836 J. C. Wheeler et ul.

Figure 1. El Yaral mummies preserved by natural desiccation. (a) Alpaca 119, a -24 month old male, (b) llama 237, a 6-9 month c)Id male,
note szIcrificial blow between the ears. Scale interval is 5 cm.

from the neck (site A2) and legs (sites C3, C6). The at mid-rib height (sites B3-6). Taken together, thre eight
finest fibre is located along the back (sites A3-A6), samples from sites A3-6 and B3-6 correspond to the
with i3 tendency towards a gradual increase in diameter fleece, and represent that portion of the fibre wrhich is
 Pre- and Post-conquest Llamas and Alpacas 837

shorn for use in textile manufacture. Based on com-

plete (not dehaired) samples (N= 8 per animal), average (a)
fibre diameters for the two alpaca groups were found
to be 17.9 (SD. f 1.0) pm and 23.6 ( f 1.9) pm. Llama
fleeces likewise included a fine fibre group at 22.2
( f 1.8) pm, as well as a coarse fibre animal at 32.7
( f 4.2) pm. Analyses of variance indicate that the
differences between these ancient groups are highly
significant.
To the best of our knowledge, the heritability of fibre
fineness has not been determined for llamas and
alpacas, although values of 0.22, 0.27 and 0.38 have
been reported for fleece weight (Chavez, 1991;
Bustinza, 1991; Carpio, 1991). None the less, it has
been observed that fibre diameter generally increases
with age and number of shearings (Carpio, 1991;
Frank & Wehbe, 1994). There is also some indication
that a rich diet may increase fibre diameter,. while finer lb)
fibre may be produced by animals kept on a low plane
of nutrition, and during periods of physiological stress.
In the Peruvian Andes, it is generally believed that a
relationship exists between elevation and alpaca fibre
fineness (Carpio, 1991; Bustinza, 1991). As altitude
increases, pasture quality decreases and environmental
stressors become more severe, but relationship of these
factors to fibre diameter remains to be demonstrated.
None the less, the presumed correlation between fine
fibre and high altitude is often cited as evidence
that alpaca production is naturally restricted to this
habitat.
Fibre diameter values reported for contemporary
Andean llamas and alpacas vary greatly. This is due, in
part, to differences in the samples studied, measure- Figure 2. El Yaral skin and fibre samples. (a) Chiribaya extra fine
ment techniques and reporting. It is not always clear, fibre alpaca 119; (b) chiribaya fine fibre alpaca 314; (c) chiribaya
fine fibre llama 237 with visible hair and (d) 242 with no visible hair.
for example, if published figures come from complete Note that samples (a)-(c) were shorn. Scale l:l.
or dehaired fleeces, and extreme care must be taken to
select comparable data sets. Even with this caveat, the
range of values reported for alpaca and llama fleeces is or contained both crimped and wavy fibres (animal
so great that it would be misleading to give a single 314).
value for each. Alpaca fibres have been reported from Fibre diameter measurements of the six El Yaral
9 to 88 pm, and llama fibres from 8 to 144 pm, llamas revealed the presence of fine and coarse fibre
indicating a variable but significant presence of coarse animals. Chiribaya fine fibre llama fleeces (N=5)
guard hair in both groups. In comparing the El Yaral averaged 22.2 f 1.8 urn. Comparative figures for 12
mummies with contemporary animals, we have chosen month old males from Puno, Peru, vary from 18.8 urn
age matched samples in as far as possible (Table 2). undercoatl39.8 urn hair in the more heavily fibred
The fibre diameters of the ancient alpaca specimens chukus to 20.1 pm undercoaU73.1 urn hair in cwru,
were found to be significantly finer relative to todays increasing to 22.0 pm undercoatJ42.2 pm hair in chakus
animals. The Chiribaya extra fine fibre alpaca group to 25.2 urn undercoaU77.7 urn hair in ccarus at 24
(named after the culture of the El Yaral site) measured months (Macquera, 1991) (Table 2). Although these
from lo-14 pm less than lz~acnya alpacas of the same figures cannot be directly compared with the complete
age, while the Chiribaya fine fibre alpaca group regis- fibre counts on the El Yaral specimens, the non-
tered 4.7-8.5 l,trn less. Comparable age and sample data dehaired ancient fleeces are as fine as the dehaired
on suri fleeces is not available. It is generally considered modern ones. Abundant coarse hairs were present in
that the wavy suri fibre are finer than the crimped all the contemporary samples, while in contrast, only
kzrncn~~~fibre, but insufficient information is available one of the five ancient llamas (animal 237, Figures l(b),
to confirm this. Among the mummified alpacas, how- 2(c)) had visible fine hair in the fleece. Two of the
ever, the finest fibre came from animal 119, a -24 animals had very fine hair (animals 248, 231) and two
month old male with crimped fibre (Figures l(a), 2(a)), were single coated with no perceptible hair in the fleece
while the other fleeces were wavy (animals 317, 228) (animals 243, Figure 2(d) and 237). In contrast, the
838 J. C. Wheeler et al.
Figure 3. Electronmicrographs of skin and hair from: (a) El Yaral
coarse fbre llama 247 showing uniformity of fbres and (b) contem-
porary llama exhibiting marked variation
coarse hairs and undercoat fbres.
sixth El Yaral llama (animal 247), a 3 month old male,
had a coarse hairy coat with an almost equally coarse
undercoat (Figure 3(a)). At 32.7 f 4.2 pm, the fibre
diameter of this animal is greater than that reported in
contemporary llamas (Table 2).
Based on fibre diameter, it appears that three
possible fibre producing breeds of domestic camelids
existed at El Yaral. These include the Chiribaya extra
fine and fine fibre alpacas and the Chiribaya fine fibre
llama. Although alpacas continue to be raised for fibre
up to the present, llama fbre is generally deemed too
coarse and hairy for textile production, and these
animals are reared primarily for use as pack animals.
Early Spanish writers were impressed by the large pack
trains which accompanied the Inca army, and llamas
were valued as beasts of burden during the colonial
period (Murra, 1978). But not all llamas are reared for
cargo, and in some communities they are selectively
bred for fibre production (Dransart, 1991aJ). The
Chiribaya fine fibre llamas suggest that this practice,
which has virtually disappeared, may have ancient
roots. None the less, because so many environmental
factors can affect it, fibre diameter data alone are
insuficient for affirming the existence of breeds.
Evidence that selective breeding was practised at El
Yaral is seen in a uniformity of fleece characteristics
which are lacking in contemporary Andean llamas and
alpacas. In the ancient specimens, variation in fbre
diameters across the fleece is minimal, and hairy
patches are rare even in the coarse fibre llama (Figure
3(a)), while in living animals fbre diameter tends to
vary greatly and hairiness is a problem in both alpacas
and llamas (Figure 3(b)) (Carpio, 1991). Even though
the alpaca is considered to have a single coat com-
prised entirely of undercoat fibre, animals with up to
40% hair in the fleece are known today. Additionally,
the existence of single coat llamas with uniformly fine
fibre at El Yaral provides evidence of a variety or breed
which is no longer recognized.
Another indication of selective breeding for fibre
production is seen in the uniform coloration of the
mummies. Only two of the El Yaral specimens are
multicoloured, the coarse fibre llama male which was
eliminated from the gene pool at 3 months, and a
brown and white alpaca (animal 317). The possibility
that the coarse fibre llama represents a non fibre
producing (possibly cargo bearing) breed should be
taken into account. The Chiribaya fine fibre llamas
included one pure white, two red-brown, and two
grey/beige animals. Under Inca rule, animals of pure
colour were required for sacrifice to particular deities
and the shrine herds bred for this demand. White
llamas were sacrificed to the sun, red-brown animals to
Viracocha at the beginning of the agricultural year,
and black animals were starved and sacrificed in times
of crisis (Murra, 1978). Whether or not the llamas at El
in diameters between
Yaral were sacrificed to the same deities is unknown,
but with one exception, the requirement for pure
colour high quality animals seems to have been met.
The mummified alpacas included the brown and white
animal mentioned above, as well as a white, a brown
and a vicuiia-coloured alpaca.
One final line of evidence suggestive that the
Chiribaya fine fibre llama was selectively bred for fibre
production is an indication that iibre growth may have
been more rapid than in contemporary animals. In the
unshorn or partly shorn specimens (animals 243 and
273), a discrepancy was noted in the age predicted on
the basis of fibre length (Cardozo, 1982; Bustinza,
199 1; ChBvez, 199 1) and the age of the animal as
predicted by dental eruption (Wheeler, in press).
Although the data on fibre growth come from animals
raised at high altitude and may not therefore be fully
comparable, fibre lengths of 13 and 18 cm for llama
273 suggest an animal more than 2 years of age, but in
fact the animal was >9 ( - 12) months. The same is true
for llama 243, with fibre lengths of 14 and 16 cm; the
expected age would be more than 2 years, but the real
age was < 18 ( - 15) months. Clearly selection for faster
fibre growth would be of economic importance if the
 Pre- and Post-conquest Llamas and Alpacas 839

goal of breeding is for fibre production. None the less, Gloria Salinas (Proyecto Contisuyu) and Dr Sonia
it should be observed that a good plane of nutrition is Guitlen (Proyecto Contisuyu) for making research on
also required in order to sustain such growth. Unfor- the mummies possible; Drs R.W.J. McHardy and
tunately, all four alpacas had been shorn prior to Pamela Dicks of the Macaulay Land Use Research
sacrifice, so comparable data are lacking. Institute for assistance in the analysis; and Dr Raul
Clearly the coastal desert was not such a bad place to Rosadio (Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, Lima) for
raise llamas and alpacas: fleece fineness and uniform- his constant support. Excavations at El Yaral were
ity, accelerated fibre growth, uniform colouration, and supported by US National Science Foundation grants
the existence of a single coat llama, all point to line BNS85-10877 and BNS89-20769.
breeding, and the probable existence of breeds. The
skill of the Chiribaya culture herders is recorded in the
mummified alpacas and llamas from El Yaral, and References
further confirmed by the fauna1 assemblage from Brotherston, G. (1989). Andean pastoralism and Inca idealogy. In
Chiribaya Alta, a nearby, contemporary site (Wheeler, IJ. Glutton-Brock. Ed.) The Walkinn Larder Patterns of Dome&
in press). Examination of 140 sacrificial llamas from carion, Pastorialish arid Predatiotr. London: Unwin Himan Ltd,
intact burials revealed that they had been selected in pp. 240-255.
accordance with herd management priorities. Only Bustinzd, V. (1991). Mejoramiento Gen&ico. In (C. Novoa & A.
Florez, Eds) Prohccidrr de Ruminantes Menores: Alpacas. Lima:
12.9% of the llamas sacrificed were of prime breeding Rerumen, pp. 113-128.
age (>24 months), and 3 (or 2.1%) of these had Cardozo, A. (1982). Avarices en el conociomiento de la Libra de
dental pathologies which would have been cause for Llama. Cuardernos de la Acadhnia National de Ciencias de Bolivia
slaughter. Of the remaining 122 animals, 69.6% were 60,25-36.
culled before first breeding at 21 months; 15.7% were Carpio, M. (1991). La fibra de Camtlidos. In (C. Novoa &A. Florez,
Eds) Produccidu de Rumianres Menores: Alpacas. Lima: Rerumen,
killed after the first and before the end of the second pp. 295-359.
breeding season at 21-42 months, and 2.9% were old Carpio, M. & Arana, L. (1975). Variaci6n del diBmetro de fibra en el
adults probably past reproductive age. Such a pattern vell6n de las alpacas de Huanacavelica. Anales Cien@cos U.N.A.
would be produced by the elimination of undesirable 13, 79-82.
and infertile animals from the herd which was raised Carpio, M., Leyva, C., Solari, Z., Santana, P. & Sumar, J. (1990).
Diameter and length variations in different types of alpaca fibre,
locally under a controlled breeding programme. The and fleeces of llama, vicuna and pace-vicuna in Peru. Schrifren-
end products of their efforts were fibre producing reilre des Deuhclren WalljbrscAungsinsli~utes an der Teclmischen
alpacas and llamas of unparalleled quality. Hoclrsclutle Aaclren 106, 7690.
ChBvez, J. (1991). Mejoramiento genttico de alpacas y llamas. In
(S. FernBndez-Baca, Ed.) Avarices y Perspectivas del Conocimienro
de /OS Cam&lidos Sudamericanos. Santiago: FAO, pp. 151-190.
Implications Dransart, P. Z. (1991a). Llamas, herders and the exploitation of raw
materials in the Atacama Desert. World Archaeology 22, 304-319.
In contrast to the pre-conquest alpacas and llamas Dransart, P. Z. (199lb). Fibre to Fabric: The Role ofFibre in Camelid
from El Yaral, todays animals are characterized by a Economies in Prehispanic and Contemporary Chile. Oxford:
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