A Short Course on

GENERAL
Biology i TOPICS:
Proteins
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Development Team:
Team Leader: Janus Francois Sigue

Writers/Researchers:
Protein Noreen Jemima Gonda
Christine Joy Falame
Van Cliff Carmona
Sameuel Rock Salazar
Photosynthesis Ara Jean Adap
Shekaniah Solapco
Kristine Ericka May Coz
Cellular Respiration Ariza Danielle Lagang
Mikaela Nicole Celo
Stiphen Regalario

Lay-out Artist: Jan Cedric Hernandez

DISCLAIMER: Photographs and illustrations in this module is not owned by any member of the development team.
Table of Contents
Lesson 1: Proteins 4 Cellular Respiration 30
Pre-Test 5 Pre-Test 31
Activity 1.1 6 Lesson 3.1 32
Activity 1.2 6 Activity 3.1 33
Activity 1.3 7 Lesson 3.2 33
Activity 1.4 7 Activity 3.2 34
Activity 1.5 9 Self-Test 3.2 34
In-Depth Lesson 3.3 35
Orders of Protein Structure 10 Activity 3.3 35
Video Resources 13 Lesson 3.4 37
Post-Test 14 Self-Test 3.4 38
Lesson 2: Photosynthesis 16 Lesson 3.5 38
Pre-Test 17 Self-Test 3.5 39
Activity 2.1 18 In-Depth
Activity 2.2 19 Steps of Cellular Respiration 40
Activity 2.3 20 Video Resources 41
Activity 2.4 22 Post-Test 42
Activity 2.5 23 Glossary 44
Outlook 24 References 46
Summary 24
In Depth
The Calvin Cycle 25
Video Resources 27
Post-Test 28
Lesson 1: Proteins
We tend to think of protein as a mass noun: a homogeneous
substance, something that your diet should contain in a certain
proportion. But if you ever work in a molecular biology lab (say, for a
summer internship), protein may start to look very different to you. Objectives:
How so? Well, you may see firsthand that protein isnt just At the end of the unit lesson, the learners
a single substance. Instead, there are lots and lots of different shall be able to:
proteins in an organism, or even in a single cell. They come in every
size, shape, and type you can imagine, and each one has a unique 1. Understand the functions and
and specific job. Some are structural parts, giving cells shape or importance of Protein in the body.
helping them move. Others act as signals, drifting between cells like
messages in a bottle. Still others are metabolic enzymes, putting 2. Discuss about the structure of protein
together or snapping apart biomolecules needed by the cell. And, (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary)
odds are, one of these unique molecular players will become yours
for the duration of your research! 3. Define and discuss about the three
categories of Protein (Globular, Fibrous, and
Proteins are among the most abundant organic molecules in Membrane Proteins)
living systems and are way more diverse in structure and function
than other classes of macromolecules. A single cell can contain
thousands of proteins, each with a unique function. Although their
structures, like their functions, vary greatly, all proteins are made up
of one or more chains of amino acids. In this article, we will look in
more detail at the building blocks, structures, and roles of proteins.

Source: Introduction to proteins and amino acids, https://www.khanac-

ademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-ac-
ids/a/introduction-to-proteins-and-amino-acids

4
Pre-Test
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. The structure formed by covalent bonds between adjacent 8. These proteins function as enzymes, cell recognition markers,
amino acid residues in a polypeptide. receptors, and transporters of compounds in and out of cells.
A. Primary structure C. Tertiary structure A. Globular proteins C. Membrane proteins
B. Secondary structure D. Quaternary structure B. Transport protein D. Fibrous Proteins

2. The combination of two or more polypeptide chains. 9. Different proteins typically contain from about ___________
A. Primary structure C. Tertiary structure amino acids.
B. Secondary structure D. Quaternary structure A. 10 to over 1000 C. 30 to over 3000
B. 20 to over 2000 D. 40 to over 4000
3. These proteins are responsible for building arrangements in
organisms. 10. Select the best definition of an enzyme.
A. Hormones C. Structural proteins A. An enzyme is an amino acid that speeds up chemical
B. Enzymes D. Amino acids reactions.
B. An enzyme is a protein that is consumed in the diet and
4. It is the most abundant protein in the body. aids in chemical reactions.
A. Collagen C. Hemoglobin C. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction
B. Insulin D. Glycogen and are destroyed in the process.
D. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction
5. These proteins relay signals from one body part to another. but are not destroyed in the process.
A. Enzymes C. Transport proteins
B. Hormones D. Collagen
Answer Key:
6. It is a monotopic protein which is responsible for converting 10. D
eicosanoic acid into prostoglandins, prostoscyclin, and 9. D
thromboxane. 8. C
A. lanosterol synthase C. prostaglandin E synthase 7. D
B. Cyclooxygenase-2 D. squalene-hopene cyclase 6. B
5. B
7. These proteins play an important in providing structural rigidity
4. A
and in contractile movement.
3. C
2. D
A. Globular proteins C. Membrane proteins 1. A
B. Transport protein D. Fibrous Proteins

5
 Activity 1.1. True or false
Read carefully each statement below, place T in
the blank if you think the statement is True and F if
False.
_______1. Proteins are single, unbranched chains of amino
acid monomers
_______2. There are 21 different amino acids.
_______3. There are four levels that determine the shape
of proteins.
_______4. Protein has 8 functions (enzyme, storage,
hormone, motor, defense, transport, receptor and
structural)
_______5. Proteins are made of long strands of small
molecules called amino acids.
_______6. Protein always remains as a straight chain.
_______7. Protein structure does not determine its
function.
_______8. Enzymes function as a catalyst to increase the
rate of virtually all the chemical reactions that take place
in a living system.
_______9. Quaternary structures describe the overall
shape when a protein is composed of two or more
polypeptide chains.
_______10. Primary structure is the linear sequence of
amino acids that creates the peptide chain.
Source: http://genome.tugraz.at/MolecularBiology/WS11_Chapter03.pdf
https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/pages/factsheet_structuralbiology.aspx
http://www.infoplease.com/cig/biology/proteins.html
Activity 1.2. fill in the blanks
Read the text carefully. Select the answers from the box
below.
Ribbon Nitrogen
Oxygen Secondary Structure
Primary Structure Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure Alpha Helix
Carbon Hydrogen
Two Spherical
Fibrous
Proteins are organic compounds that contain the element
(1)_________ as well as (2)________, (3)________, and (4)________.
Proteins are the most diverse group of biologically important
substances and are often considered to be the central compound
necessary for life. Skin and muscles are composed of proteins;
antibodies and enzymes are proteins; some hormones are
proteins; and some proteins are involved with digestion,
respiration, reproduction, and even normal vision, just to mention
a few.
The three-dimensional geometry of a protein molecule is
so important to its function that four levels of structure are used
to describe a protein. The first level, or (5)__________, is the linear
sequence of amino acids that creates the peptide chain. In the
(6)___________, hydrogen bonding between different amino acids
creates a three-dimensional geometry like an (7)___________ or
pleated sheet. An alpha helix is simply a spiral or coiled molecule,
whereas a pleated sheet looks like a (8)_________ with regular peaks
and valleys as part of the fabric. The (9)_____________ describes
the overall shape of the protein. Most tertiary structures are
either globular or fibrous. Generally, nonstructural proteins such
as enzymes are globular, which means they look (10)________.
The enzyme amylase is a good example of a globular protein.
Structural proteins are typically long and thin, and hence the
name, (11)__________. (12)____________ describe the proteins
appearance when a protein is composed of (13)______ or more
polypeptide chains. Often the polypeptide chains will hydrogen
bond with each other in unique patterns to create the desired
protein configuration.
6
 Activity 1.3. structure & function Activity 1.4. protein structure
Based in your knowledge about Proteins The structure of proteins is understood in terms of four
structure, fill the box with the appropriate answers. levels of organization:
1) __________________________
2) __________________________
3) __________________________
4) __________________________

Primary Protein Structure

The ______________ of amino acid residues in a peptide or
protein is referred to as its primary structure.
Example: The primary structure of the pentapeptide is
shown below:

The primary structure of peptides and proteins is

analogous to the arrangement of letters in a word.

Source: http://genome.tugraz.at/MolecularBiology/WS11_Chapter03.pdf 7
 The Primary structure of a protein is the _____________ of
amino acids connected by peptide bonds.
Different proteins typically contain from about 40 to
over 4000 amino acids
There are 400 distinct dipeptides (202 ).
There are 8000 distinct tripeptides (203 ).
When there are 100 amino acids in the chain, there are
20100 = 1.27 10130 distinct peptides!
Secondary Protein Structure
The properties of proteins depend not only on their
sequence of amino acid residues, but also on how they are
folded, twisted, and bent.
Secondary protein structure describes the geometric
patterns that occur when individual
peptide chains ____ back on
themselves.
There are two common types
of secondary structures, the ( helix)
and the ( sheet).
The Alpha Helix geometric
pattern resembles a _________________.
The Beta Sheet geometry occurs
when a peptide folds back on itself in a ________________________
arrangement.
Tertiary Protein Structure
Alpha helices and/or beta sheets, along with the
unorganized sections of a peptide chain, fold into a more
compact shape.
The shape of a peptide
is called the tertiary structure.
______________ are often used in
order to visualize tertiary protein
structure. These illustrative models
use ribbon-like shapes to represent
the geometry of secondary
structures. The spring-like ribbons
represent alpha helices and the
flat side-by side ribbons represent
beta sheets. Sometimes arrows are used at the ends of ribbons
to indicate the direction (from N-terminus to C-terminus). Lines or
thin tubes are used for unorganized sections of a peptide chain.
The ribbon model for ribonuclease A protein (RNase A), an enzyme
used to break down RNA, is shown on the right.
Quaternary Structure
A large number of native proteins are a
combination of __________ _______.
Quaternary protein structure is the overall
_______that occurs when two or more peptide
chains assemble to make a protein.
In proteins composed of two or more
peptide chains, the individual peptide chains are
referred to as subunits.
The quaternary structures of large
proteins are sometimes depicted using space-
filling models.
In these models, the various subunits are
often shaded with different colors or grey-scale tones.
Example: ATP synthase (right)
The forces that hold the subunits together in quaternary
structures are the same as those involved in tertiary structures.
8
Activity 1.5. Globular, Fibrous, and Membrane Proteins
Proteins generally fall into one of three categories: and in contractile movement (muscles).
1) _________________ proteins An example of a fibrous protein is collagen. Collagen is the
2) _________________ proteins most abundant protein in the body. Its function is to provide
3) _________________ proteins structural rigidity and stiffness. It is found in skin, ligaments,
tendons, and other parts of the body.
Globular Proteins
Globular proteins have a highly- ________________ and
compact shape.
The overall shapes of these proteins are more _________
than string-like.
The globular shape allows for hydrophobic side-chains
to be directed to the proteins interior (forming water-free
pockets), while polar side-chains are oriented outward to
form a hydrophilic exterior. The hydrophilic exterior allows
globular proteins to be more easily
dispersed in solutions (intercellular
and extracellular).
Globular proteins function An illustration of the components of collagen is shown
as ________, chemical signaling above.
compounds, transporters of other
compounds, and antibodies. Membrane Proteins
Hemoglobin (shown on the Membrane proteins are proteins that are ________________
right) is an example of a globular to biological membranes. Membrane proteins function as
protein enzymes, cell recognition markers, receptors (allowing chemical
signals to be relayed between the interior and exterior of cells),
Fibrous Proteins and transporters of compounds in and out of cells. Some
Fibrous proteins have long and narrow _______________ membrane proteins extend through the __________________
-like shapes. membrane and are called transmembrane proteins.
They are much less compact than globular proteins. Examples of transmembrane proteins include the
The narrower shape makes it difficult for hydrophobic aquaporins.
side-chains to be oriented toward the interior region of a Aquaporins function as transporter proteins; they facilitate
fibrous protein, and results in a hydrophobic exterior. For this the transport of water molecules (only) in and out of cells.
reason, fibrous proteins tend to be water-insoluble. Fibrous
proteins play important roles in providing structural rigidity

Source: https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/jzoval/mypptlectures/ch13_pept_protein_
enzyme/lecture_notes_ch13_peptides_proteins,%20and_enzymes%20_current.pdf
9
 There are several types of aquaporins, one of them,
aquaporin-1, is illustrated below. Some membrane proteins
do not completely extend through the membrane; these are
called __________________ proteins.
An example of a monotopic protein is cyclooxygenase-2.
Cyclooxygenase-2 is responsible for converting
eicosanoic acid into prostoglandins, prostoscyclin, and
thromboxane (you learned about this enzyme and
these reactions in a previous chapter). An illustration of
cyclooxygenase-2 attached to a membrane is shown below.
protein | In-depth
Orders of Protein Structure
Orders of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary. Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet.
Introduction
Have you ever wondered why egg whites go from clear to opaque
when you fry an egg? If so, this section is for you!
Egg whites contain large amounts of proteins called albumins,
and the albumins normally have a specific 3D shape, thanks to bonds
formed between different amino acids in the protein. Heating causes
these bonds to break and exposes hydrophobic (water-hating) amino
acids usually kept on the inside of the protein. The hydrophobic amino
acids, trying to get away from the water surrounding them in the egg
white, will stick to one another, forming a protein network that gives the
egg white structure while turning it white and opaque. Ta-da! Thank you,
protein denaturation, for another delicious breakfast.
As we mentioned in the last article on proteins and amino acids, the
shape of a protein is very important to its function. To understand how
a protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand
the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary.
Primary structure
The simplest level of protein structure, primary structure, is simply
the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. For example, the
hormone insulin has two polypeptide chains, A and B, shown in diagram
below. (The insulin molecule shown here is cow insulin, although its
structure is similar to that of human insulin.) Each chain has its own set of
amino acids, assembled in a particular order. For instance, the sequence
of the A chain starts
with glycine at the
N-terminus and ends
with asparagine at
the C-terminus, and
is different from the
sequence of the B
chain.
10
 Secondary structure
The sequence of a protein is determined by the DNA of the gene
The next level of protein structure, secondary structure, refers to
that encodes the protein (or that encodes a portion of the protein,
local folded structures that form within a polypeptide due to interactions
for multi-subunit proteins). A change in the gene's DNA sequence
between atoms of the backbone. (The backbone just refers to the
may lead to a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein. Even
polypeptide chain apart
changing just one amino acid in a proteins sequence can affect the
from the R groups so
proteins overall structure and function.
all we mean here is that
For instance, a single amino acid change is associated with
secondary structure
sickle cell anemia, an inherited disease that affects red blood cells.
does not involve R
In sickle cell anemia, one of the polypeptide chains that make up
group atoms.) The
hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in the blood, has a slight
most common types of
sequence change. The
secondary structures
glutamate that is normally
are the helix and the
the seventh amino acid
pleated sheet. Both
of the hemoglobin
structures are held in
chain (one of two types
shape by hydrogen
of protein chains that
bonds, which form
make up hemoglobin) is
between the carbonyl O
replaced by a valine. This
of one amino acid and
substitution is shown for a
the amino H of another.
fragment of the chain in
In an helix, the carbonyl (C=O) of one amino acid is hydrogen
the diagram.
bonded to the amino H (N-H) of an amino acid that is four down the
What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin
chain. (E.g., the carbonyl of amino acid 1 would form a hydrogen bond to
molecule is made up of two chains and two chains, each consisting
the N-H of amino acid 5.) This pattern of bonding pulls the polypeptide
of about 150 amino acids, for a total of about 600 amino acids in
chain into a helical structure that resembles a curled ribbon, with each
the whole protein. The difference between a normal hemoglobin
turn of the helix containing 3.6 amino acids. The R groups of the amino
molecule and a sickle cell molecule is just 2 amino acids out of the
acids stick outward from the helix, where they are free to interact.
approximately 600.
In a pleated sheet, two or more segments of a polypeptide chain
A person whose body makes only sickle cell hemoglobin will
line up next to each other, forming a sheet-like structure held together
suffer symptoms of sickle cell anemia. These occur because the
by hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds form between carbonyl and
glutamate-to-valine amino acid change
amino groups of backbone, while the R groups extend above and below
makes the hemoglobin molecules
the plane of the sheet. The strands of a pleated sheet may be parallel,
assemble into long fibers. The fibers
pointing in the same direction (meaning that their N- and C-termini
distort disc-shaped red blood cells into
match up), or antiparallel, pointing in opposite directions (meaning that
crescent shapes. Examples of sickled
the N-terminus of one strand is positioned next to the C-terminus of the
cells can be seen mixed with normal,
other).
disc-like cells in the blood sample on
Certain amino acids are more or less likely to be found in -helices
the right.
or pleated sheets. For instance, the amino acid proline is sometimes
The sickled cells get stuck as they try to pass through blood
called a helix breaker because its unusual R group (which bonds to
vessels. The stuck cells impair blood flow and can cause serious health
the amino group to form a ring) creates a bend in the chain and is not
problems for people with sickle cell anemia, including breathlessness,
compatible with helix formation. Proline is typically found in bends,
dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain.
unstructured regions between secondary structures. Similarly, amino

11
acids such as tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, which have up of multiple polypeptide chains, also known as subunits. When these
large ring structures in their R groups, are often found in pleated subunits come together, they give the protein its quaternary structure.
sheets, perhaps because the pleated sheet structure provides Weve already
plenty of space for the side chains. encountered one example
Many proteins contain both helices and pleated sheets, of a protein with quaternary
though some contain just one type of secondary structure (or do not structure: hemoglobin.
form either type). As mentioned earlier,
Tertiary structure hemoglobin carries oxygen
The overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is in the blood and is made up
called its tertiary structure. The tertiary structure is primarily due to of four subunits, two each of
interactions between the R groups of the amino acids that make up the and types. Another
the protein. example is DNA polymerase,
R group interactions that contribute to tertiary structure an enzyme that synthesizes
include hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, new strands of DNA and is
and London dispersion forces basically, the whole gamut of non- composed of ten subunits.
covalent bonds. For example, R groups with like charges repel vIn general, the same
one another, while those with opposite charges can form an ionic types of interactions that
bond. Similarly, polar R groups can form hydrogen bonds and other contribute to tertiary structure
dipole-dipole interactions. Also important to tertiary structure are (mostly weak interactions,
hydrophobic interactions, in which amino acids with nonpolar, such as hydrogen bonding
hydrophobic R groups cluster together on the inside of the protein, and London dispersion
leaving hydrophilic amino acids on the outside to interact with forces) also hold the subunits
surrounding water molecules. together to give quaternary
Finally, theres one special type of covalent bond that can structure.
contribute to tertiary structure: the disulfide bond. Disulfide bonds,
covalent linkages between the sulfur-containing side chains of Denaturation and protein folding
cysteines, are much Each protein has its own unique shape. If the temperature or pH
stronger than the of a protein's environment is changed, or if it is exposed to chemicals,
other types of bonds these interactions may be disrupted, causing the protein to lose its
that contribute to three-dimensional structure and turn back into an unstructured string
tertiary structure. of amino acids. When a protein loses its higher-order structure, but not
They act like its primary sequence, it is said to be denatured. Denatured proteins are
molecular "safety usually non-functional.
pins," keeping parts For some proteins, denaturation can be reversed. Since the primary
of the polypeptide structure of the polypeptide is still intact (the amino acids havent split
firmly attached to up), it may be able to re-fold into its functional form if it's returned to its
one another. normal environment. Other times, however, denaturation is permanent.
One example of irreversible protein denaturation is when an egg is fried.
The albumin protein in the liquid egg white becomes opaque and solid
Quaternary structure as it is denatured by the heat of the stove, and will not return to its
Many proteins are made up of a single polypeptide chain and original, raw-egg state even when cooled down.
have only three levels of structure. However, some proteins are made Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/pro-
teins-and-amino-acids/a/orders-of-protein-structure
12
protein | Video REsources

Introduction to amino acids Peptide bond formation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk4d9lY48GI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nv2kfBFkv4s

Overview of protein sructure Tertiary structure of proteins

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MODnIkQvyz0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7udSVZ7bDb8

13
Post-Test
Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. The structure formed by covalent bonds between adjacent
amino acid residues in a polypeptide.
A. Primary structure C. Tertiary structure
B. Secondary structure D. Quaternary structure
2. The combination of two or more polypeptide chains.
A. Primary structure C. Tertiary structure
B. Secondary structure D. Quaternary structure
3. These proteins are responsible for building arrangements
in organisms.
A. Hormones C. Structural proteins
B. Enzymes D. Amino acids
4. It is the most abundant protein in the body.
A. Collagen C. Hemoglobin
B. Insulin D. Glycogen
5. These proteins relay signals from one body part to another.
A. Enzymes C. Transport proteins
B. Hormones D. Collagen
6. It is a monotopic protein which is responsible for converting
eicosanoic acid into prostoglandins, prostoscyclin, and
thromboxane.
A. lanosterol synthase C. prostaglandin E synthase
B. Cyclooxygenase-2 D. squalene-hopene cyclase
7. These proteins play an important in providing structural
rigidity and in contractile movement.
A. Globular proteins C. Membrane proteins
B. Transport protein D. Fibrous Proteins
8. These proteins function as enzymes, cell recognition markers,
receptors, and transporters of compounds in and out of cells.
A. Globular proteins C. Membrane proteins
B. Transport protein D. Fibrous Proteins
9. Different proteins typically contain from about ___________
amino acids.
A. 10 to over 1000 C. 30 to over 3000
B. 20 to over 2000 D. 40 to over 4000
10. Select the best definition of an enzyme.
A. An enzyme is an amino acid that speeds up chemical
reactions.
B. An enzyme is a protein that is consumed in the diet and
aids in chemical reactions.
C. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction
and are destroyed in the process.
D. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction
but are not destroyed in the process.
11. Which of these illustrations represent Quaternary Structure?
a b c d
12. It is found in skin, ligaments, tendons, and other parts of the
body that provides structural rigidity and stiffness.
A. Collagen C. Hemoglobin
v
B. Insulin D. Glycogen
14
13. It is simply a spiral or coiled molecule, whereas a pleated
sheet looks like a ribbon with regular peaks and valleys as part
of the fabric.
A. Beta Sheet C. Alpha Helix
B. Hemoglobin D. Enzymes
14. In a __________, the amino acid chain twists and folds
in a manner that enhances the proteins solubility in water by
placing polar groups of atoms at the proteins surface
A. Globular proteins C. Membrane proteins
B. Transport protein D. Fibrous Proteins
15. The bond that links two amino acids together is called a:
A. Polypeptide bond C. Dipeptide
B. Polypeptide D. Peptide bond

Answer Key:
10. D
9. D
8. C
7. D
6. B
15. D 5. B
14. A 4. A
13. C 3. C
12. A
11. B
2. D
1. A 15
Lesson 2: Photosynthesis
Objectives:
At the end of the unit lesson, the learners
shall be able to:
Study the general equation for photosynthesis
Have you hugged a tree lately? If not, you might want to give it and be able to indicate in which process each
some thought. You, along with the rest of the human population, reactant is used and each product is produced.
owe your existence to plants and other organisms that capture light. Distinguish between organisms known as
In fact, most life on Earth is possible because the sun provides a autotrophs and those known as heterotrophs
continuous supply of energy to ecosystems. as pertains to their modes of nutrition.
Explain the significance of the ATP/ADP cycle.
Describe the nature of light and how it is
All organisms, including humans, need energy to fuel the associated with the release of electrons from a
metabolic reactions of growth, development, and reproduction. But photosystem.
organisms cant use light energy directly for their metabolic needs. Describe how the pigments found on thylakoid
Instead, it must first be converted into chemical energy through the membranes are organized into photosystems
process of photosynthesis. and how they relate to photon light energy.
Describe the role that chlorophylls and the
other pigments found in chloroplasts play to
initiate the light-dependent reactions.
Describe the function of electron transport
systems in the thylakoid membrane.
Explain the role of the two energy-carrying
molecules produced in the light-dependent
reactions (ATP and NADPH) in the light-
independent reactions.
Describe the Calvin cycle in terms of its
Source: Intro to photosynthesis, https://www.khanacademy.org/science/
biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/introduction-to-stages-of-photosyn- reactants and products.
thesis/a/intro-to-photosynthesis

16
Pre-Test
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Where do plants get the carbon dioxide needed for B. carotenoids D. chloroplast
photosynthesis? 10. Where are the pigments located in the chloroplast?
A. water C. the air A. in the thylakoid C. in the mitochondria
B. the sun D. glucose B. in the carotenoids D. in the chlorophyll
2. Chlorophyll is green because 11. Photosynthesis takes what 3 things to create energy?
A. it absorbs green wavelengths A. carbon dioxide, water, and energy
B. of an optical illusion caused by transmitted light B. carbon monoxide, water, and energy
C. it reflects green wavelengths of light C. carbon dioxide cytoplasm, and energy
D. it absorbs blue and yellow wavelengths, which makes green D. carbon monoxide, cytoplasm, and energy
3. Light energy is converted to chemical energy through the 12. An example of a heterotroph is
process of A. grass C. a bunny
A. photosynthesis C. cellular respiration B. a bush D. a flower
B. glycolysis D. fermentation 13. The part of photosynthesis that does not require light is known
4. Which of the following do not carry out photosynthesis? as
A. plants C. algae A. The Calvin Cycle C. The Darwin Cycle
B. certain prokaryotes D. animals B. The Krebs Cycle D. The Hooke Cycle
5. Plants produce what two products in photosynthesis? 14. What is the role of NADPH in photosynthesis
A. carbon dioxide and oxygen C. glucose and carbon dioxide A. storing light C. storing carbon dioxide
B. oxygen and glucose D. nitrogen and glucose B. storing water D. storing energy
6. Plant cells have 15. What is the name of the sugar that is formed during
A. mitochondria only C. both mitochondria and chloroplasts photosynthesis?
B. chloroplasts only D. neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts A. fructose B. glucose
7. What is ATP? B. sucrose D. lactose
A. An energy source for plants 10. A
B. an energy source for animals Answer Key: 9. B
C. a compound created by the smooth endoplasmic reticulum 8. A
D. an energy source for both plants and animals
7. D
8. Which pigment reflects green light and absorbs the other colors
6. C
15. D 5. B
of light to provide energy for photosynthesis? 14. D 4. D
A. chlorophyll C. thylakoids 13. A 3. A
B. carotenoids D. chloroplasts 12. C 2. B
9. Which pigment reflects orange, yellow, and red light and 11. A 1. C
absorbs the other colors to provide energy for photosynthesis?
A. chlorophyll C. thylakoid
Source: http://internet.savannah.chatham.k12.ga.us/schools/ihs/staff/
Lawrence/Lists/Calendar/Attachments/47/photosynthesis%20quiz.pdf 17
Activity 2.1. photosynthesis: making energy The formula for photosynthesis is:
(products) (reactants)
Chloroplasts CO2 + H2O + sunlight ----> C6H12O6 + O2

Photosynthesis is a process This formula says that carbon dioxide + water molecules are
in which sunlight energy is combined with the energy from sunlight to produce sugar and
used to make glucose. The oxygen. The reactants in photosynthesis (what is used) are CO2,
site of photosynthesis is in the water and sun. The plant gets water from the ground through its
chloroplast an organelle found roots. The plant collects carbon dioxide from the air. Much of the
in the leaves of green plants. The carbon dioxide comes from living organisms that exhale (breath
main functions of chloroplasts it out) it, but some also comes from factory smokestacks and car
are to produce food (glucose) fumes.
during photosynthesis, and to
store food energy. Chloroplasts 7. What is the formula for photosynthesis?
contain the pigment, chlorophyll. 8. What three things are used to make glucose in
Chlorophyll absorbs most of the colors in the color spectrum, photosynthesis?
and reflects only green and yellow wavelengths of light. This is 9. Where does the water come from?
why we see leaves as green or yellow because these colors are 10. Where does the water enter the plant?
reflected into our eyes. 11. Name 3 some sources of CO2.
12. What type of energy does the plant use to convert
1. What is photosynthesis? CO2 and H2O into sugar?
2. Where does photosynthesis occur?
3. What are chloroplasts and where are they found? The products are glucose and oxygen. The glucose produced
4. What are the two main functions of chloroplasts? is used by the plant for energy and growth. We also use this
5. Why doe most leaves appear green? glucose by eating plants. The oxygen produced is released into
6. What is the primary pigment found in the chloroplast? the air for us to breath. Photosynthesis is essential for all life on
earth, because it provides food and oxygen. Plants are considered
Photosynthesis autotrophs because unlike us humans, they can make their own
food using this process.
Glucose is another name for sugar. The molecular formula
for glucose is C6H12O6. Plants make sugar by using the energy 13. What is produced in photosynthesis?
from sunlight to transform CO2 from the air with water from the 14. What is the glucose used for?
ground into glucose. This process, called photosynthesis occurs 15. What is the oxygen used for?
in the chloroplast of the plant cell. During this process, oxygen 16. Here are three different ways to visualize the
(O2) is created as a waste product and is released into the air for photosynthesis reaction: Is it easier for you to understand the
us to breath. reaction by using pictures, words, or symbols? Why?

18
 Activity 2.2. cross-word-hunt
Crossword
Across
1 A plant pigment that ab-
sorbs sunlight.
4 The links between the en-
ergy that carnivores get from
eating to the energy captured
by photosynthesis.
7 Chlorophyll absorbs every
color of sunlight except this.
The Structure of a Chloroplast, the Site of Photosynthesis. Plant cells
contain chloroplasts that enable them to store light energy as chemical 8 A compound needed for
energy. It is the chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and that are the site of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll molecules are actually located within mem- 10 The product of photosyn-
branous sacs called thylakoids. A stack of thylakoids is known as a granum. thesis.
Down
2 The process by which plants
and some bacteria use the en-
ergy from sunlight to produce
sugar.
3 Part of the plant where pho-
tosynthesis generally occurs.
5 A compound needed for
photosynthesis.
6 An animal that eats plants.
9 A by-product of photosyn-
thesis.
10 Number of molecules of
oxygen produced along with
one molecule of sugar.
19
Word Hunt. Read the sentences below. Write them in the
empty spaces and find these hidden words in the puzzle!
1. All living things need __________ to live, and energy comes
from __________.
2. Plants take __________ from the soil through their veins,
which are called __________.
3. The __________ dioxide mixes with the water.
4. Energy from the sun helps this process along and turns the
combination into a sugar called __________.
5. Glucose gives the plants energy to__________.
6. __________ makes leaves green
7. __________ helps them grow and make leaves. Phosphorus
helps grow strong roots.
8. __________ helps the plant make fruit and it keeps them
__________.
9. Gardeners use __________ to give plants more nutrients.
CONCEPT REVIEW:
1. Photosynthesis is a biochemical pathway that involves
three kinds of activities. Name these and
explain how they are related to each other.
2. Which cellular organelle is involved in the process
of photosynthesis?
Activity 2.3. Light-Dependent Reactions and
Photosystems
Light-Dependent
Reactions
Overview:
1. What occurs in the process of photosynthesis?
2. Write the overall equation for photosynthesis using words.
3. Write the overall equation for photosynthesis using
chemical formulas.
4. What does photosynthesis require in addition to water
and carbon dioxide?
6. What is the principal pigment of plants?
7. Circle the letter of the region(s) of the visible spectrum in
which chlorophyll absorbs light very well.
a. blue region b. green region
c. red region d. yellow region
8. Chloroplasts contain saclike photosynthetic membranes
called ___________________.
9. What is a granum?
10. The region outside the thylakoid membranes in the
chloroplasts is called the ________.
11. What are the two stages of photosynthesis called?
Summary of Detailed Description of the Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
1. They take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast.
2. Excited electrons from photosystem II are passed through an electron-transport chain and
ultimately enter photosystem I.
3. The electron-transport system is used to establish a proton gradient, which produces ATP.
4. Excited electrons from photosystem I are transferred to NADP to form NADPH.
5. In photosystem II, an enzyme splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen is released
as O 2 .
6. Electrons from the hydrogen of water replace the electrons lost by chlorophyll in photosys-
tem II.
20
 12. Complete the illustration of the overview of
photosynthesis by writing the products and the reactants of the
process, as well as the energy source that excites the electrons.

16. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about the
light-dependent reactions. Correct the false statements.
a. They convert ADP into ATP.
14. Circle the letter of the carrier molecule involved in b. They produce oxygen gas.
photosynthesis. c. They convert oxygen into carbon dioxide.
a. H2O c. CO2 d. They convert NADP+ into NADPH.
b. NADP+ d. O2 17. Where do the light-dependent reactions take place?
15. How does NADP+ become NADPH?
18. What happens to water in the light-dependent reactions?
Photosystems:
19. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about the
light-dependent reactions. Correct the false statements.
a. High-energy electrons move through the electron
transport chain from photosystem II to photosystem I.
b. Photosynthesis begins when pigments in photosystem I
absorb light.
c. The difference in charges across the thylakoid membrane
provides the energy to make ATP.
20. What are the products of the light-dependent reactions?

21. The light energy from the sun is converted to what type
of energy and stored where?

22. How does ATP synthase produce ATP?

21
Activity 2.4. Photosystems & Chemiosmosis
The Mechanism of ATP Synthesis in Chloroplasts
The thylakoid membrane is composed of a phospholipid
bilayer (color phospholipids B light blue) and photosystem I
and photosystem II. Although they both work simultaneously, it
is best to look at them one at a time, starting with photosystem
II. The first and most important event in either system is the
capturing of light energy (color E orange) by the pigments
associated with each photosystem. Color the pigments of
Photosystem II (P2) dark green and the pigments of Photosystem
I (P1) light green. Pigment 680 (color dark green) is associated with
Photosystem II, and Pigment 700 (color light green) is associated
with Photosystem I.
When a photon of light strikes the reaction center of
Photosystem II, it excites an electron. Two water molecules bind
to an enzyme that splits water into hydrogen ions (aka protons)
and releases an oxygen atom. Color the protons (H+) yellow and
the oxygen atoms (O2) red. This process is called PHOTOLYSIS
and is illustrated by the arrows labeled L, which you should
color pink. Two electrons are released in this process, and these
electrons can be traced through photosystem II and photosystem
I. Color the electrons (e) grey. Two oxygen atoms will join together
to create an oxygen molecule which is released from the plant as
a byproduct of the entire reaction.
The primary electron acceptor for the light-energized
electrons leaving photosystem II is plastoquinone (color PQ
purple). The reduced plastoquinone passes the excited electrons
to a proton pump embedded in the membrane called the b6-f
complex (color dark blue). This proton pump moves protons
(H+) atoms across the membrane against their concentration
gradients, which eventually causes a build-up of protons in
the thylakoid space. This will be important later. The thylakoid
membrane is NOT permeable to protons, so they may only cross
the membrane via transport proteins. The protons will exit the
thylakoid space via a special channel provided by ATP Synthase
(color S pink). The protons move through the ATP synthase with
the concentration gradient, which allows them to do work-namely
drive ATP synthesis. As protons pass through the ATP synthase,
ADP is phosphorylated to ATP and released into the stroma. The
process of making ATP is called PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION.
The arrow labeled Z represents photophosphorylation - color
orange. This ATP (color orange) is now on its way to the Calvin
Cycle where it will be used to generate glucose.
But wait, theres more! The electron that was used in
Photosystem II is just sitting around, all de-energized but its
story is not finished. A small protein called plastocyanin (color
brown) carries the electron to Photosystem I. Light absorbed by
photosystem I energizes this electron and passes it to another
primary electron acceptor called ferredoxin (color Fd turquoise).
The enzyme NADP Reductase (color R dark purple) transfers
these electrons to NADP to fom NADPH. The electron is now on
its way to the Calvin Cycle as part of an NADPH molecule (color
light purple). Electrons lost from photosystem I are replaced by
electrons generated from photosystem II.
Phospholipids - light blue Light energy - orange
Photosystem II - dark green P680 - dark green
Photosystem I - light green P700 - light green
Protons - yellow Proton path (Y)- yellow
Oxygen - red Photolysis - pink
Electrons - grey Electron path (X) - grey
Plastoquinone - purple b6-f complex - dark blue
ATP Synthase - pink ATP - orange
Plastocyanin - brown Ferredoxin - turquoise
NADP Reductase - dark purple NADPH - light purple
Photophosphorylation (Z) - orange
Questions
1. Trace the flow of protons through the thylakoid.
2. Trace the flow of electrons through the thylakoid
3. Explain the role of each of the following:
---- P680
---- P700
---- Plastocyanin
---- Plastoquinone
22
 ---- Ferredoxin
---- NADP Reductase Activity 2.5. Light-Independent Reactions/
---- ATP Synthase
4. Explain how the concentration gradient affects the
Calvin Cycle (Dark Reaction)
process of ATP synthesis.

1. Where does the Calvin cycle take place?

2. Before the Calvin cycle begins, where is the energy stored?

3. What happens to CO2 in the Calvin cycle?

4. What are the inputs to the Calvin cycle? Where do they

come from?

5. Why are the reactions of the Calvin cycle also called the
light-independent reactions?
6. Circle the letter of each statement that is true about the
Calvin cycle. Correct the false statements.
a. The main products of the Calvin cycle are six carbon dioxide
molecules.
b. Carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin cycle from the
atmosphere.
c. Energy from ATP and high-energy electrons from NADPH
are used to convert 3-carbon molecules into similar 3-carbon
molecules.
d. The Calvin cycle uses six molecules of carbon dioxide to
produce a single 6-carbon sugar molecule.
23
 7. What are the products of the Calvin cycle?
8. What are three uses for glucose in a plant (FATES of
glucose)?
photosynthesis | outlook
Having gone through the information on photosynthesis,
you might have thought that this was the only way for this
biochemical pathway to take place. However, there are
many prokaryotes capable of carrying out photosynthesis
using alternative pathways. These Bacteria and Archaea
have light-capturing pigments but they are not the same as
plant chlorophylls or the accessory pigments. The range of
light absorption differs, allowing many of these Bacteria and
Archaea to live in places unfriendly to plants. Some forms of
photosynthetic bacteria do not release oxygen, but rather
release other by-products such as H 2 , H 2 S, S, or organic
compounds. The table below compares some of the most
important differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic
photosynthesis.
photosynthesis | SUMMARY
Sunlight supplies the essential initial energy for making the
large organic molecules necessary to maintain the forms of life we
know. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and
some bacteria use the energy from sunlight to produce organic
compounds. In the light-capturing events of photosynthesis, plants
use chemicals, such as chlorophyll, to trap the energy of sunlight
using photosystems. During the light-dependent reactions, they
manufacture a source of chemical energy, ATP, and a source of
hydrogen, NADPH. Atmospheric oxygen is released in this stage.
In the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, the ATP
energy is used in a series of reactions (the Calvin cycle) to join
the hydrogen from the NADPH to a molecule of carbon dioxide
and form a simple carbohydrate, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. In
subsequent reactions, plants use the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
as a source of energy and raw materials to make complex
carbohydrates, fats, and other organic molecules. The table below
summarizes the process of photosynthesis.
24
photosynthesis | In-depth
The Calvin Cycle
How the products of the light reactions, ATP and NADPH,
are used to fix carbon into sugars in the second stage of
photosynthesis.
Introduction
You, like all organisms on Earth, are a carbonbased life form. In
other words, the complex molecules of your amazing body are built on
carbon backbones. You might already know that youre carbon-based,
but have you ever wondered where all of that carbon comes from?
As it turns out, the atoms of carbon in your body were once part of
carbon dioxide (CO ) molecules in the air. Carbon atoms end up in you,
and in other life forms, thanks to the second stage of photosynthesis,
known as the Calvin cycle (or the light-independent reactions).
Overview of the Calvin Cycle
In plants, carbon dioxide (CO ) enters the interior of a leaf via pores
called stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplastthe site
of the Calvin cycle reactions, where sugar is synthesized. These reactions
are also called the light-independent reactions because they are not
directly driven by light.
In the Calvin cycle,
carbon atoms from CO
are fixed (incorporated
into organic molecules)
and used to build three-
carbon sugars. This
process is fueled by,
and dependent on, ATP
and NADPH from the
light reactions. Unlike
the light reactions,
which take place in the
thylakoid membrane, the
reactions of the Calvin
cycle take place in the
stroma (the inner space
of chloroplasts).
Reactions of the Calvin Cycle
The Calvin cycle reactions can be divided into three main stages:
carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the starting molecule
Here is a general diagram of the cycle:
1. Carbon fixation. A CO molecule combines with a five-carbon
acceptor molecule, ribulose- 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes
a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon
compound, 3- phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by
the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco.
2. Reduction. In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to
convert the 3-PGA molecules into molecules of a three-carbon ugar,
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name because
NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate
to make G3P.
3. Regeneration. Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while
others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration
requires ATP and involves a complex network of reactions, which my
college bio professor liked to call the carbohydrate scramble.
In order for one G3P to exit the cycle (and go towards glucose
synthesis), three CO molecules must enter the cycle, providing three new
atoms of fixed carbon. When three CO molecules enter the cycle, six G3P
molecules are made. One exits the cycle and is used to make glucose,
while the other five must be recycled to regenerate three molecules of
the RuBP acceptor.
25
Summary of Calvin Cycle reactants and products
Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P
molecule that can exit the cycle and go towards making glucose.
Lets summarize the quantities of key molecules that enter and exit
the Calvin cycle as one net G3P is made. In three turns of the Calvin
cycle:
A. Carbon. 3 CO combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 6
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
~1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards
making glucose.
~5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 3 RuBP
acceptor molecules.
B. ATP. 9 ATP are converted to 9 ADP (6 during
the fixation step, 3 during the regeneration
step).
C. NADPH. 6 NADPH are converted to 6 NADP
(during the fixation step).

A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes

two G3Ps to build a six-carbon glucose molecule. It would take six
turns of the cycle, or 6 CO , 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one
molecule of glucose.

26
photosynthesis | Video REsources

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate ATP hydrolysis mechanism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQfWiDlFEcA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-KE7jTXwNYs

Photosynthesis Breaking down photosynthesis stages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rsYk4eCKnA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wt5EMpUt-_g

27
Post-Test
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Most of the energy used by life on Earth comes from the 8. Plant cells have
A. Rotation of the Earth C. Weather A. Mitochondria only
B. Moon D. Sun B. Chloroplasts only
C. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts
2. Where do plants get the carbon dioxide needed for D. Neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts
photosynthesis?
A. Water C. The air 9. Where does cellular respiration occur?
B. The sun D. Glucose A. In mitochondria B. In chloroplasts
C. In the Golgi apparatus D. In the cytoplasm
3. Chlorophyll is green because
A. It absorbs green wavelengths 10. What is ATP?
B. It reflects green wavelenths of lght A. An energy source for plants
C. Of an optial illusion caused by transmitted light B. A compound created by the smooth endoplasmic
D. It absorbs blue and yellow wavelengths, which reticulum
makes green C. An energy source for animals
D. An energy source for both plants and animals
4. Cellular respiration occurs in
A. Animals only B. Plants only 11. An example of an autotroph is
C. Animals and Plans D. Bacteria only A. A dog C. A tree
B. A cat D. A human
5. Light energy is converted to chemical energy throught the
process of 12. Which pigment reflects green light and absorbs the other
A. Photosynthesis B. Glycolysis colors of light to providde energy for photosynthesis?
C. Cellular respiration D. Fermentation A. Chlorophyll C. Thylakoids
B. Carotenoids D. Chloroplasts
6. Which of the following do not carry out photosynthesis?
A. Plants C. Algae 13. Which pigment reflects orange, yellow, and red light and
B. Certain Prokaryotes D. Animals absorbs the other colors to provide energy for photosynthesis?
A. Chlorophyll C. Thylakoid
7. Plants produce what two products in photosynthesis? B. Carotenoids D. Chloroplast
A. Carbon dioxide and Oxygen
B. Oxygen and Glucose 14. Where are the pigments located in the chloroplasts?
C. Glucose and Carbon dioxide A. In the thykaloid C. In the mitochondria
D. Nitrogen and Glucose B. In the carateniods D. In the chlorophyll
28
15. Photosynthesis takes what 3 things to create energy?
A. Carbon dioxide, water, and energy
B. Carbon dioxide, cytoplasm, and energy
C. Carbon monoxide, water, and energy
D. Carbon monoxide, cytoplasm, and energy

16. An example of a heterotroph is

A. Grass C. A bunny
B. A bush D. A flower

17. The part of photosynthesis that does not require light is

know as
A. The Calvin Cycle
B. The Krebs Cycle
C. The Darwin Cycle
D. The Hookie Cycle

18. What is the role of NADPH in photosynthesis

A. Storing light C. Storing carbon dioxide
B. Storing water D. Storing energy

19. What is the name of the sugar that is formed durng

photosynthesis?
A. Fructose C. Glucose
B. Sucrose D. Lactose Answer Key:

20. Which of the following is a factor that can affect photosyn- 20. C 10. D
thesis? 19. C 9. A
A. too much water B. too little oxygen 18. D 8. C
C. too much sun D. too little glucose 17. A 7. B
16. C 6. D
15. A 5. A
14. A 4. C
13. B 3. B
12, A 2. C
11. C 1. D
29
Lesson 3: Cellular Respiration
Lets imagine that you are a cell. Youve just been given a big, juicy
glucose molecule, and youd like to convert some of the energy in this
glucose molecule into a more usable form, one that you can use to
power your metabolic reactions. How can you go about this? Whats
the best way for you to squeeze as much energy as possible out of that
glucose molecule, and to capture this energy in a handy form? Objectives:
Fortunately for us, our cells and those of other living organisms At the end of the unit lesson, the learners
are excellent at harvesting energy from glucose and other organic shall be able to:
molecules, such as fats and amino acids. Here, well get a high-level Classify the kinds of food you eat to its
overview of how cells break down fuels. correct food group.
Determine where the conversion of the
In Lesson 2, we learned that photosynthesis is the process used food molecules into ATP occurs.
by plants, algae and certain bacteria to harness energy from sunlight Discuss the different stages of cell
into chemical energy. The present module will discuss about another respiration.
Know the number of ATP molecules
energy conversion process in which cells turn food into usable energy
produced from a pair of electrons.
in the form of ATP.
Determine the amount of energy
derived from glucose.
This module consists of five (5) lessons:
Lesson 1- Kinds of Food
Lesson 2 - Mitochondrion
Lesson 3 - Cellular Respiration
Lesson 4 - Electron Transport System
Lesson 5 - Energy From a Glucose Molecule

Source: Introduction to cellular respiration and redox, https://www.

khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-respiration-and-fermentation/
intro-to-cellular-respiration/a/intro-to-cellular-respiration-and-redox

30
Pre-Test | Check your knowledge
Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Respiration is the process in which: 8. Which cell process occurs within the mitochondria?
a. Cells produce carbon dioxide and water a. exocytosis c. photosynthesis
b. Cells use oxygen to burn food for energy b. cyclosis d. cellular respiration
c. Both a and b
d. Neither a or b 9. What is the product of glycolysis?
a. carbon dioxide
2. Which of the following is a go food? b. dihydroxyacetone phosphate
a. boiled egg c. chinese ham c. pruvate
b. boiled young corn d. ripe pineapple slice d. phosphoglyceraldehyde

3. Which of the following is processed food? 10. Which of the following is the cells immediate source of energy?
a. cooked rice c. beef steak a. carbon dioxide c. fats
b. sliced apples d. longganisa b. glucose d. amino acids

4. What is the infoldings of the inner membranes of the

mitochondrion?
a. matrix c. vesicles
b. ribosome d. cristae

5. Where does glycolysis occur?

a. outer membrane of the mitochondrion
b. inner membrane of the mitochondrion Answer Key:
c. cytoplasm 10. B
d. matrix of the mitochondrion 9. C
8. D
6. How many molecules of ATP are produced from one glucose 7. A
molecule? 6. D
a. 4 c. 30 5. C
b. 12 d. 38 4. D
3. D
7. Which of the following is removed or minimized when you go
2. B
on a diet?
1. C

a. rice
b. chicken meat
c. vegetable
d. fruit 31
Lesson 3.1. kinds of food Figure 2. Nutrition Facts

Below is a variety of food you eat everyday, this

Figure 2 is an example of a
includes cereals, pasta, meat, fruits etc. It may come
Nutrition Facts Label, it contains
directly or indirectly from plants.
information about the food which
is helpful in evaluating whether this
food can be eaten sparingly or food
that should be consumed more.

Figure 3. Food Pyramid

Figure 1. Kinds of Food
A food pyramid
is designed to make
The food in the pictures either fall to the category
healthy eating an
of processed food or unprocessed food. Processed
easier task to do
food applies to any food that has been altered from its
and understand.
natural state in some way, either for safety reasons or
It is about getting
convenience. An example of processed food are cake,
the right amount of
pasta, bread, and breakfast cereals. Unprocessed food
nutrients protein,
on the other hand are those in their natural unaltered
fat, carbohydrates,
state such as fresh fruits, vegetables, raw nuts, egg and
vitamins and
meat.
minerals to
maintain a healthy
Why is food necessary? Food is our main source of
diet. Foods with the same nutrient are grouped together on each
energy that we need in order for us to function properly.
shelf of the food pyramid. The top shelf of the food pyramid shows
The energy found in food is named as potential energy.
foods and drinks that is high in fat, sugar and salt, providing little
of the needed nutrients thus we should eat less of these kinds of
food.

32
What Did You Understand
Activity 3.1. Understanding the food we eat
What you need: nutrition guide/food pyramid
What to do:
1. Suppose you ate the following foods for breakfast:
a. 250 ml milk
b. one fried egg
c. 2 slices of white bread
d. apple
e. 2 pieces of bacon
2. Using the food pyramid, do the foods you have eaten
belong to the food to be eaten sparingly? Or food to be eaten
more?
3. Give some examples of food that should be eaten more
and food that should be eaten sparingly.
The foods that we eat are digested to simple forms for
it to be useful to our body. Forms such as glucose, amino acids,
and triglycerides are then transported to cells. Glucose is the
cells immediate source of energy and is broken down once it is
inside the cell to release the stored energy. This stored energy
is harvested in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP is a high-energy molecule needed by working cells for it
to function properly. In the next lesson, we shall first discuss
where ATP is produced.
Lesson 3.2. mitochondria
Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed
through the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their number
within the cell ranges from a few hundred to, in very active cells,
thousands. Their main function is the conversion of the potential
energy of food molecules into ATP.
1. The Outer Membrane contains many complexes
of integral membrane proteins that form channels through
which a variety of molecules and ions move in and out of
the mitochondrion.
2. The Inner Membrane contains 5 complexes of
integral membrane proteins:
a. NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I)
b. Succinate dehydrogenase (Complex II)
c. Cytochrome C reductase (Complex III)
d. Cytochrome C Oxidase (Complex IV)
e. ATP synthase (Complex V)
3. The Matrix contains a complex mixture of soluble
enzymes that catalyze the respiration of pyruvic acid and
other small organic organelles.
Mitochondria have:
An outer membrane that encloses the entire
structure
An inner membrane that encloses a fluid-filled
matrix
Between the two is the intermembrane space
The inner membrane is elaborately folded with
shelflike cristae projecting into the matrix
A small number (some 5-10) circular molecules of
DNA
33
 What Did You Understand
Self Test 3.2 Check your Knowledge!
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. This encloses the entire structure of the mitochondria and

contains many complexes of integral membrane proteins.
a. outer membrane c. cristae
Figure 4.1 Mitochondrion b. inner membrane d. matrix

This electron micrograph shows a single mitochondrion 2. The following are the integral membrane proteins found in
from a bat pancreas cell. Note the double membrane and the inner membrane EXCEPT:
the way the inner membrane is folded into cristae. The dark, a. NADH dehydrogenase c. Enzymes
membrane-bounded objects above the mitochondrion are b. Cytochrome C Oxidase d. ATP synthase
lysosomes. 3. A membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the
cytosol of most eukaryotic cells.
a. mitochondria c. vesicle
What Did You Understand b. ribosome d. vacuole

Activity 3.2 Getting to Know the Mitochondria

1. Below is an illustration of a mitochondrion
2. Label the parts of the mitochondrion being indicated

34
Lesson 3.3. cellular respiration 3. Remove the funnel from the opening of the balloon. Tie
a knot in the balloon to keep the water-and-yeast mixture
Cellular Respiration is the process by which energy
inside. Measure your balloon.
is harvested from food. Before we discuss the process, we
4. Place the balloon in a warm place and wait. Measure your
shall first perform an activity wherein an organism would
balloon again.
utilize the substance produced during photosynthesis. The
5. Now sit back and wait as the balloon gets bigger and bigger.
organism would be yeast, a unicellular microorganism of the
fungi kingdom.
Discussion:
1. What are the reactants in the observed reaction?
2. What are the products?
Activity 3.3 Blowing Up a Balloon With Cellular Respiration 3. What is the purpose of warm water?
4. Why is respiration important for living organisms?
Objective: In this lab, students will use the respiration
5. How do people use the respiration powers of yeast? Or
powers of yeast to blow balloons. This activity will
more specifically, what things can you make with yeast?
reinforce the basic principles of respiration as a
fundamental metabolic process for living organisms
using yeast as a model. It will also explore how humans
use this biological knowledge in everyday life.
The yeast uses the sugar and warm water to grow. Warm
Material: balloons, narrow funnel, 1 tablespoon (15mL)
water provides heat to the yeast reaction and accelerates it. As
active dry yeast, 1 teaspoon (5 mL) sugar, measuring
yeast grows it expands and gets bubbly. By being bubbly the
spoons, measuring cup, warm water, ruler
yeast gives off carbon dioxide, the same gas that your body
produces when you breathe, and the gas inflates the balloon. The
Safety:
yeast also produces ethanol. Respiration provides organisms with
Remind students there is NO eating or drinking in the
the energy to do cellular work that helps them grow, function,
lab.
and live. People use yeast to bake because during fermentation
Students must not attempt to inflate the balloons with
carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough and expand it. Since
their mouths, especially after it is filled with the reacting
baking is done at high temperatures, yeast ultimately dies and
agents.
nearly all the ethanol evaporates. Ethanol fermentation is used to
produce alcoholic beverages. People also use yeast fermentation
Procedure:
to make ethanol for fuel.
1. Place the bottom of a funnel into the opening of the
balloon. You may need to stretch the opening of the
balloon a little bit so that it fits.
2. Have a carefully supervised student pour the yeast
and the sugar into the balloon through the funnel. Then
fill the measuring cup with warm water from the sink
and carefully pour the water into the balloon. 35
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the
process in which one
glucose molecule is
broken down to form two
molecules of pyruvic acid
(also called pyruvate).
The glycolysis process is
a multi-step metabolic
pathway that occurs in
the cytoplasm of animal
cells, plant cells, and the
cells of microorganisms.
At least six enzymes
operate in the metabolic
pathway.
In the first and third
steps of the pathway, ATP
energizes the molecules.
Thus, two ATP molecules
must be expended in the
process. Further along in
the process, the six-carbon glucose molecule converts into
intermediary compounds and is then split into two three-
carbon compounds. The latter undergo additional conversions
and eventually form pyruvic acid at the conclusion of the
process.
During the latter stages of glycolysis, four ATP molecules
are synthesized using the energy given off during the chemical
reactions. Thus, four ATP molecules are synthesized and two
ATP molecules are used during glycolysis, for a net gain of
two ATP molecules.
Another reaction during glycolysis yields enough energy
to convert NAD to NADH (plus a hydrogen ion). The reduced
coenzyme (NADH) will later be used in the electron transport
system, and its energy will be released. During glycolysis, two
NADH molecules are produced.
Because glycolysis does not require oxygen, the process
is considered to be anaerobic. For certain anaerobic organisms,
such as some bacteria and fermentation yeasts, glycolysis is the
sole source of energy.
Glycolysis is a somewhat inefficient process because much of
the cellular energy remains in the two molecules of pyruvic acid
that are created. Interestingly, this process is somewhat similar to
a reversal of photosynthesis.
Krebs Cycle
Following glycolysis, the mechanism of cellular respiration
involves another multi-step processthe Krebs cycle, which is
also called the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The
Krebs cycle uses the two molecules of pyruvic acid formed in
glycolysis and yields high-energy molecules of NADH and flavin
adenine dinucleotide (FADH2), as well as some ATP.
The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrion of a cell. This
sausage-shaped organelle possesses inner and outer membranes
and, therefore, inner and outer compartments. The inner
membrane is folded over itself many times; the folds are called
cristae. They are somewhat similar to the thylakoid membranes in
chloroplasts. Located along the cristae are the important enzymes
necessary for the proton pump and for ATP production.
Prior to entering the Krebs cycle, the pyruvic acid molecules
are altered. Each three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule undergoes
conversion to a substance called acetyl-coenzyme A, or acetyl-CoA.
During the process, the pyruvic acid molecule is broken down by
an enzyme, one carbon atom is released in the form of carbon
dioxide, and the remaining two carbon atoms are combined with
36
a coenzyme called coenzyme A. This combination forms
acetyl-CoA. In the process, electrons and a hydrogen ion are
transferred to NAD to form high-energy NADH.
Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle by combining with a
four-carbon acid called oxaloacetic acid. The combination
forms the six-carbon acid called citric acid. Citric acid
undergoes a series of enzyme-catalyzed conversions. The
conversions, which involve up to ten chemical reactions, are
all brought about by enzymes. In many of the steps, high-
energy electrons are released to NAD. The NAD molecule
also acquires a hydrogen ion and becomes NADH. In one
of the steps, FAD serves as the electron acceptor, and it
acquires two hydrogen ions to become FADH2. Also, in one
of the reactions, enough energy is released to synthesize a
molecule of ATP. Because for each glucose molecule there
are two pyruvic acid molecules entering the system, two ATP
molecules are formed.
Also during the Krebs cycle, the two carbon atoms of
acetyl-CoA are released, and each forms a carbon dioxide
molecule. Thus, for each acetyl-CoA entering the cycle,
two carbon dioxide molecules are formed. Two acetyl-CoA
molecules enter the cycle, and each has two carbon atoms,
so four carbon dioxide molecules will form. Add these four
molecules to the two carbon dioxide molecules formed in the
conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl-CoA, and it adds up to
six carbon dioxide molecules. These six CO2 molecules are
given off as waste gas in the Krebs cycle. They represent the
six carbons of glucose that originally entered the process of
glycolysis.
At the end of the Krebs cycle, the final product is
oxaloacetic acid. This is identical to the oxaloacetic acid
that begins the cycle. Now the molecule is ready to accept
another acetyl-CoA molecule to begin another turn of the
cycle. All told, the Krebs cycle forms (per two molecules of
pyruvic acid) two ATP molecules, ten NADH molecules, and
two FADH2 molecules. The NADH and the FADH2will be used
in the electron transport system.
Lesson 3.5. electron transport system
The electron
t r a n s p o r t
system occurs in
the cristae of the
mitochondria,
where a series
of cytochromes
(enzymes) and
coenzymes
exist. These
cytochromes
and coenzymes
act as carrier molecules and transfer molecules. They accept
high-energy electrons and pass the electrons to the next molecule
in the system. At key proton-pumping sites, the energy of the
electrons transports protons across the membrane into the outer
compartment of the mitochondrion.
Each NADH molecule is highly energetic, which accounts for
the transfer of six protons into the outer compartment of the
mitochondrion. Each FADH2 molecule accounts for the transfer
of four protons. The flow of electrons is similar to that taking
place in photosynthesis. Electrons pass from NAD to FAD, to other
cytochromes and coenzymes, and eventually they lose much of
their energy. In cellular respiration, the final electron acceptor is
an oxygen atom. In their energy-depleted condition, the electrons
unite with an oxygen atom. The electron-oxygen combination
then reacts with two hydrogen ions (protons) to form a water
molecule (H2O).
The role of oxygen in cellular respiration is substantial. As a
final electron acceptor, it is responsible for removing electrons
from the electron transport system. If oxygen were not available,
electrons could not be passed among the coenzymes, the energy
in electrons could not be released, the proton pump could not
be established, and ATP could not be produced. In humans,
breathing is the essential process that brings oxygen into the
body for delivery to the cells to participate in cellular respiration.
37
What Did You Understand Lesson 3.4. electron transport system
self test 3.4 check your knowledge! We have
1. Where does electron transport system takes place? discussed
a. Matrix b. Stomata the process
c. Cristae d. Inner Membrane by which
2. At key proton-pumping sites, energy from protons e n e r g y ,
transports electrons into the outer compartment of the ATP, can be
mitochondrion. harvested
a. True b. False from food.
3. It is responsible for the transportation of protons to the Let us now
outer part of the mitochondrion. count the
a. FADH2 b. NADH number of
c. Cytochromes d. ATP ATP obtained
4. What is the final electron acceptor in the process of from a
cellular respiration? molecule
a. O b. O- of glucose
c. H20 d. ATP when it is
5. All the statements below are correct ECXEPT: broken down
a. If oxygen were not available, electrons wont be completely
able to pass among the coenzymes. to carbon dioxide and water. During glycolysis, 2 ATP were used
b. If oxygen were not available, the energy in up but this produced directly 4 ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
electrons could not be released. The net is 2 ATP. From the two rounds of Krebs cycle, 2 ATP
c. If oxygen were not available, the proton pump are also produced directly. There are 10 molecules of NADH
could be established. produced from one glucose molecule. As each NADH enters the
d. If oxygen were not available, ATP could not be electron transport system, it yields 3 ATP. From 10 NADH, 30 ATP
produced. molecules are produced. Two FADH2 molecules are produced
from the two rounds of Krebs Cycle. The two FADH2 molecules
generate 4 ATP. The picture above outlines the number of ATP
molecules synthesized when high-energy molecules deliver
electrons and hydrogen ions to the electron transport chain in
the mitochondrion.
Answer Key: Most eukaryotic cells produce only about 36 ATP Molecules
5. C per Glucose Molecule. Why? About two molecules of ATP are
4. A used to transport 2 NADHs that are formed in the cytoplasm. If
3. B a cell produces 38 ATP Molecules, the efficiency would be 66%.
2. B This amount of energy is derived from glucose only which can be
obtained from starch, glycogen and other carbohydrates.
38
1. C
What Did You Understand
self test 3.5 check your knowledge!
1. There are 4 molecules of glucose that enter the cellular
respiration process. The substances were completely
changed to carbon dioxide and water.

2. Compute the following:

a. Number of carbon dioxide released
b. Total number NADH molecules that carried electrons
to the electron transport system
c. Total number of FADH2 that brought electrons to the
electron transport system.
d. Number of ATP produced
1. directly
2. through the electron transport system.

39
Cellular REspiration | In-depth are shuttled to the electron transport chain by electron carriers NAD
and FAD, which become NADH and FADH when they gain electrons. To
be clear, this is whats happening in the diagram above when it says
Steps of Cellular Respiration + NADH or + FADH. The molecule isnt appearing from scratch, its just
being converted to its electron-carrying form:
Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down NAD + 2e + 2H ----> NADH + H
glucose and produces ATP. The stages of cellular respiration FAD + 2e + 2H ----> FADH
include glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid or Krebs To see how a glucose molecule is converted into carbon dioxide
cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. and how its energy is harvested as ATP and NADH/FADH in one of your
bodys cells, lets walk step by step through the four stages of cellular
Introduction respiration.
Cellular respiration is one of the most elegant, majestic, and 1. Glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucosea six-carbon sugar
fascinating metabolic pathways on earth. At the same time, its also one undergoes a series of chemical transformations. In the end, it
of the most complicated. When I learned about it for the first time, I gets converted into two molecules of pyruvate, a three-carbon
felt like I had tripped and fallen into a can of organic-chemistry-flavored organic molecule. In these reactions, ATP is made, and NAD is
alphabet soup! converted to NADH.
Luckily, cellular respiration is not so scary once you get to know 2. Pyruvate oxidation. Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes
it. Lets start by looking at cellular respiration at a high level, walking into the mitochondrial matrixthe innermost compartment of
through the four major stages and tracing how they connect up to one mitochondria. There, its converted into a two-carbon molecule
another. bound to Coenzyme A, known as acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide is
released and NADH is generated.
Steps of Cellular Respiration 3. Citric acid cycle. The acetyl CoA made in then last step
During cellular respiration, combines with a four-carbon molecule and goes through a cycle
a glucose molecule is gradually of reactions, ultimately regenerating the fourcarbon starting
broken down into carbon molecule. ATP, NADH, and FADH are produced, and carbon
dioxide and water. Along the dioxide is released.
way, some ATP is produced 4. Oxidative phosphorylation. The NADH and FADH made
directly in the reactions that in other steps deposit their electrons in the electron transport
transform glucose. Much more chain, turning back into their empty forms (NAD and FADH ).
ATP, however, is produced As electrons move down the chain, energy is released and used
later in a process called to pump protons out of the matrix, forming a gradient. Protons
oxidative phosphorylation. flow back into the matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase,
Oxidative phosphorylation is making ATP. At the end of the electron transport chain, oxygen
powered by the movement accepts electrons and takes up protons to form water.
of electrons through the
electron transport chain, a Glycolysis can take place without oxygen in a process called
series of proteins embedded fermentation. The other three stages of cellular respiration
in the inner membrane of the pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
mitochondrion. require oxygen in order to occur. Only oxidative phosphorylation
These electrons come uses oxygen directly, but the other two stages cant run without
originally from glucose and oxidative phosphorylation.
40
Cellular respiration | Video REsources

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate ATP hydrolysis mechanism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQfWiDlFEcA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-KE7jTXwNYs

Cellular respiration introduction Overview of cellular respiration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2f7YwCtHcgk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zoS5WGsmpcv

41
Post-Test
Choose the letter of the best answer.

10. How many molecules of carbon dioxide are produced from

1. Which of the following substances is the immediate energy
one glucose molecule completely degraded to water and carbon
source of a working cell?
dioxide?
a. glucose c. butter
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 6
b. lactose d. beef
11. Which of the following is not able to carry out
2. Where does Krebs Cycle occur in the cell?
photosynthesis?
a. matrix
a. algae b. cyanobacteria
b. cytoplasm
c. frogs d. broccoli
c. outer membrane of the mitochondrion
12. A ______ consists of stacks of membranous sacs containing
d. inner membrane of the mitochondrion
chlorophyll.
3. How many ATP molecules are used during the initial steps
a. granum b. stroma
of glycolysis?
c. mitochondrion d. cell wall
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
13. During the ______ reactions, ATP and NADPH are used
4. How many ATP molecules were directly produced during
to help combine carbon dioxide with a 5-carbon molecule,
glycolysis?
so that ultimately organic molecules, such as glucose, are
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
produced.
5. Which of the following processes produces the greatest
a. light-independent b. light-dependent
yield of adenosine triphosphate?
c. Watson cycle d. Krebs cycle
a. glycolysis c. fermentation
14. Pigments other than the green chlorophylls that are
b. Krebs Cycle d. electron transport chain
commonly found in plants are collectively known as
6. Which of the following substances is the final acceptor of
______ . These include the carotenoids.
electrons in aerobic respiration?
a. chlorophylls b. hemoglobins
a. FAD c. water
c. accessory pigments d. thylakoids
b. NAD+ d. oxygen
15. This enzyme speeds the combining of CO 2 with an
7. The carbon dioxide released during cellular respiration is
already present 5-carbon ribulose.
produced during
a. DNAase
a. Glycolysis c. Pyruvic acid oxidation
b. ribose
b. Krebs Cycle d. b and c
c. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase
8. How many ATP molecules are produced through the
(RuBisCO)
electron transport system?
d. phosphorylase
a. 4 b. 12 c. 24 d. 34
16. Carbon dioxide undergoes carbon fixation, which occurs
9. Which of the following processes occurs in the inner
in the
membrane of the mitochondrion?
a. Calvin cycle. b. Krebs cycle.
a. Krebs cycle c. Glycolysis
b. Fermentation d. Oxidation of pyruvic acid

42
c. light-dependent reactions d. photosystem I.
17. The chlorophylls and other pigments involved in trapping
sunlight energy and storing it are arranged into clusters called
a. chloroplasts. b. photosystems.
c. cristae. d. thylakoids.
18. Light energy comes in discrete packages called
a. NADP . b. lumina.
c. photons. d. brilliance units.
19. The electrons released from photosystem ______ end up
in the chlorophyll molecules of photosystem ______ .
a. I, II b. A, B
c. B, A d. II, I
20. ______ are sacs containing chlorophylls, accessory
pigments, electron-transport molecules, and enzymes.
a. Thylakoids b. Mitochondria
c. Photosystems d. Ribosomes
21. Which kind of organisms use respiration to generate ATP?
a. plants b. animals
c. algae d. all of the above
22. Plants, like animals, require ______ for the ETS portion
of aerobic cellular respiration.
a. silicone b. hydrogen
c. nitrogen d. oxygen
23. ______ are an important group of organic molecules
derived from plants. These are organic molecules that we
cannot manufacture but must have in small amounts.
a. Accessory pigments b. Vitamins
c. Nitrogenous compounds d. Minerals Answer Key:
24. These prokaryotic organisms are capable of manufacturing 20. A 10. D
organic compounds using light energy. 19. D 9. D
a. algae b. protozoa 18. C 8. D
c. cyanobacteria d. tomatoes 17. A 7. D
25. Chlorophyll-containing organisms look green because 16. A 6. D
they reflect ______ -colored light. 25. A 15. C 5. D
a. green b. red 24. C 14. C 4. D
c. yellow d. white
23. B 13. A 3. C
22. D 12. A 2. A

43
21. D 11. C 1. A
Glossary:
Acid. A compound that can donate a proton (H+). The carboxyl
and phosphate groups are the primary acidic groups in biological
molecules.
Activation energy. The input of energy required to (overcome the
barrier to) initiate a chemical reaction. By reducing the activation
energy, an enzyme increases the rate of a reaction.
Active site. Region of an enzyme molecule where the substrate
binds and undergoes a catalyzed reaction.
Active transport. Energy-requiring movement of an ion or small
molecule across a membrane against its concentration gradient
or electrochemical gradient. Energy is provided by the coupled
hydrolysis of ATP or the cotransport of another molecule down its
electrochemical gradient.
Adenosine Diphosphate or ADP. A substance involved in energy
metabolism formed by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP. Molecule in cells that stores and
releases chemical energy for use in body cells. ATP plays a role in
rigor mortis
Amino acids. Molecules that contain both amine (-NH2) and
carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups. Amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins. Twenty different amino acids are commonly
used in protein synthesis.
Autotroph. An organism that makes its own food.
Calvin cycle. The major metabolic pathway that fixes CO2 into
carbohydrates during photosynthesis; also called carbon fixation. It
is indirectly dependent on light but can occur both in the dark and
light.
Catabolism . Cellular processes whereby complex molecules are
degraded to simpler ones and energy is released.
Catalyst. A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
without undergoing a permanent change in its structure. Enzymes
are protein catalysts.
Cellular respiration. Process that releases energy by breaking
down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
Chemiosmosis. The movement of ions across a semipermeable
membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. An example of
this would be the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by
the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular
respiration or photosynthesis
Chloroplast. An organelle containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis
Chlorophyll. Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to
carry out photosynthesis.
Citric acid. A weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical
formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is
an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism
of all aerobic organisms.
Covalent. A type of chemical bond where electrons are shared between
the two atoms involved.
Denaturation. Drastic alteration in the conformation of a protein or
nucleic acid due to disruption of various noncovalent bonds caused
by heating or exposure to certain chemicals; usually results in loss of
biological function.
Electron Transport chain. A sequence of electron carrier molecules
(membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions
that release energy used to make ATP.
Enzyme. A biological molecule that increases the rate and lowers the
activation energy of a chemical reaction.
Glucose. A 6-carbon sugar with the formula C6H12O6. Glucose is a
building block for larger molecules such as sucrose (a disaccharide) and
cellulose, starch and glycogen (polysaccharides). Plants produce glucose
during photosynthesis.
Glycolysis. Catabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate
and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP
in the presence of oxygen.
Granum. A stack of thylakoids in a chloroplast
Heterotroph. An organism that cannot make its own food.
Hydrogen bond. A noncovalent bond between an electronegative atom
(commonly oxygen or nitrogen) and a hydrogen atom covalently bonded
to another electronegative atom. Particularly important in stabilizing the
three-dimensional structure of proteins and formation of base pairs in
nucleic acids.
Krebs cycle. Also called Citric acid cycle ; second stage of cellular
respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in
a series of energy-extracting reactions
Light energy. Energy in the form of moving waves of light
Mitochondria. An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in
which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production
occur.
44
NAD+ (nicotinic adenine dinucleotide). A widely used coenzyme
that participates in oxidation reactions by accepting two electrons Products. Ending materials in a chemical reaction
from a donor molecule and one H+ from the solution. The reduced
form, NADH, transfers electrons to carriers that function in Protein. A polymer formed from a chain of amino acids joined together
oxidative phosphorylation. with peptide bonds.
NADH. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Carries H+ ions during Pyruvate. Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms.
metabolic reations. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis
NADP+ (nicotinic adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Reactants. Molecules entering or starting a reaction
Phosphorylated form of NAD+, which is used extensively
as an electron carrier in biosynthetic pathways and during Reduction. Gain of electrons by an atom or molecule as occurs when
photosynthesis. hydrogen is added to a molecule or oxygen is removed. The opposite of
oxidation.
Nucleotide. A compound formed of a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, guanine, uracil), a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) Stroma. In plants, the solution that surrounds the thylakoids in a
and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are the building blocks of chloroplast.
nucleic acids.
Substrate. Molecule that undergoes a change in a reaction catalyzed
Oxidation. Loss of electrons from an atom or molecule as occurs by an enzyme.
when hydrogen is removed from a molecule or oxygen is added.
The opposite of reduction. Thylakoids. Flattened membranous sacs in a chloroplast that are
arranged in stacks forming the grana and contain the photosynthetic
Oxidative phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of ADP to pigments.
form ATP driven by the transfer of electrons to oxygen (O2) in
bacteria and mitochondria. This process involves generation of a Xylem. Plant tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots
proton-motive force during electron transport, and its subsequent to the leaves / flowers
use to power ATP synthesis.
Peptide bond. Covalent bond that links adjacent amino acid
residues in proteins; formed by a condensation reaction between
the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another with release of a water molecule.
Phloem. A tissue in plants that is used to transport dissolved
sugars and other substances.
Photosynthesis. Plants use the suns energy to convert water
and carbon dioxide into sugars
Photon. A packet, or quantum, of electromagnetic radiation.
Photons travel at the speed of light (300,000km./sec). The
concept of a photon is used to explain the observation that some
phenomena of light have a particle nature.
Photophosphorylation. The process of converting energy from
a light-excited electron into the pyrophosphate bond of an ADP
molecule.
Photosystems. These are the arrangements of chlorophyll and
other pigments packed into thylakoids.
Polymer. A substance composed of large molecules with repeating
structural units, or monomers, connectec by chemical bonds e.g
proteins are amino acid polymers; cellulose is a glucose polymer.
45
References:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/a/introduction-to-proteins-and-amino-
acids
http://internet.savannah.chatham.k12.ga.us/schools/ihs/staff/Lawrence/Lists/Calendar/Attachments/47/photosynthesis%20quiz.pdf
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/isntroduction-to-stages-of-photosynthesis/a/intro-to-
photosynthesis
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/a/orders-of-protein-structure
https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/jzoval/mypptlectures/ch13_pept_protein_enzyme/lecture_notes_ch13_peptides_proteins,%20
and_enzymes%20_current.pdf
http://genome.tugraz.at/MolecularBiology/WS11_Chapter03.pdf
http://www.infoplease.com/cig/biology/proteins.html
http://genome.tugraz.at/MolecularBiology/WS11_Chapter03.pdf
https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/pages/factsheet_structuralbiology.aspx
https://www.google.com.ph/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=5vHPWMS1KaKl8wf5krn4Ag&gws_rd=ssl#q=chemosiosis&*&spf=110
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid
https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html
http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/farm/glossary.html
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21607/

46