Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Vol. 38, Nos.

12, 2002

CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING,
PRODUCTION AND USE OF INDUSTRIAL GASES

NEW APPROACHES TO ANALYSIS OF THE

TURBO-EXPANDER STAGE

V. M. Kulakov and V. V. Kulakov UDC 621.592.3.001.24

A computational scheme for the turbo-expander stage, which is compiled on the basis of different approaches (in
contrast to the familiar traditional scheme [1]), has been tested over a period of ten years by the non-governmental organiza-
tion Kriogenmash [2]. A special algorithm [2] is used to determine the diameter of the impeller and the circumferential-veloc-
ity coefficient, estimate the loss factors for the guide case (GC) and impeller, determine the ratio of diameters of the radi-
al-axial impeller (as a function of other geometric parameters), and monitor analysis of the stage by comparing the hydraulic
efficiency with respect to the loss component, and on the basis of Eulers equation [2].
Let us examine the physical bases of these approaches and the relationships used to analyze closed radial-axial
stages with a channel GC. The advantages of the devices in question are obvious from Figs. 1 and 2, where different impellers
with a diameter D1 = 150 mm, and also a bladed and channel GC of one stage are compared as component parts of the same
stage. The designations are as follows: s is the isoentropic efficiency, xs is the circumferential-velocity coefficient, g is the
loss factor in the GC, and 1s is the reduced velocity at the inlet to the impeller.
The impeller diameter at the inlet is determined from the flow-rate equation with respect to flow parameters prior to
the impeller:
4Gi
D1 = ,
R1cr Ft *c*qn
2

where Gi is the initial mass flow rate of the working gas, R1cr = R1cr /R1 is the ratio of the radii of the outlet from the GC and
2
the inlet to the impeller, Ft = Ft /R1cr = z na t bg is the reduced throat area of the GC, a t = a t /R1cr is the reduced throat of the
nozzle, bg = bg /R1cr is the relative width of the GC, z n is the number of nozzles, c* and * are the critical velocity and den-
sity of the actual gas, qn = nqns is the reduced effective density of the flow in the throat of the nozzle, n is the flow-rate
coefficient of the nozzle (prior to the throat), and qns = tscts /*c* is the reduced isoentropic density of the flow in the throat
of the nozzle.
The following recommendations are useful in selecting parameters required for calculation of the impeller diameter.
It has been experimentally established that losses in the stage increase with increasing R1cr /R1. The variable power
load on the impeller from the direction of the GC increases, however, with decreasing gap. Compromise is achieved when
R1cr = 1.011.02 (1.03) as a function of the scale of the impeller.
The reduced throat is the most critical geometric parameter not only of the GC, but also the entire stage, since in
terms of the continuity equation, it defines the geometry of the impeller to a large degree. It is easy to explain the physics of
the optimum of the reduced throat: losses in the GC and the inlet section of the impeller decrease with increasing flow sec-
tion prior to the impeller, but losses in the discharge section of the impeller also increase with discharge velocity in connec-
tion with an increase in the diameter of the discharge, and all components of the velocity triangle at the outlet. From experi-

Close Joint-Stock Company Inlizing. Translated from Khimicheskoe i Neftegazovoe Mashinostroenie, No. 2,
pp. 2124, February, 2002.

68 0009-2355/02/0102-0068$27.00 2002 Plenum Publishing Corporation

 s s

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7
0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.8
xs xs
a b

Fig. 1. Comparison of impellers: a) closed radial () and radial-axial (); b) radial-axial closed ()
and semi-open ().

g
0.14
BGC
0.12

CGC
0.10
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
1s

Fig. 2. Comparison of channel (CGC) and bladed (BGC) guide cases.

s
0.9

0.8

0.05 0.15 0.25

Ft

Fig. 3. Computed (, +) and experimental () relationships between efficiency of

a number of medium- and low-pressure AS stages and reduced throat area of GC.

ence, Ft opt = 0.180.22 (Fig. 3). A range of from Ft = 0.04 oil-flow stages to Ft = 0.24 stages of heavy-duty air sepa-
rators (AS) is accepted in cryogenic engineering.
It is clear that the rotational speed of the rotor increases with increasing parameter Ft, i.e., the value of Ft is select-
ed with allowance for the slope of the efficiency optimum and the problem of ensuring the rotational speed of the rotor and
its support assembly, which is complicated with decreasing bulk flow rate Gi /i. Practical recommendations are as follows:
Ft opt = 0.180.24 for the low-pressure stages of heavy-duty AS (D1 250 mm), Ft opt = 0.140.18 for the median stage of
low-pressure AS, Ft opt = 0.100.14 for small low-pressure stages and medium-pressure stages of AS, and Ft opt = 0.060.14
for medium- and low-pressure stages of helium liquefiers. For stages of natural-gas expanders, and the expanders of air and
freon turbo-refrigeration machinery, the parameter Ft is selected from general considerations as a function of the ratio Gi /i,
and the required rotational speed of the rotor and its supports.
The critical velocity and density of the actual working gas occur relative to the maximum of the isoentropic densi-
ty of the flow (scs).

69
 w2s c2ts
c1
1cr w1 2
w2 c2
1 2cr
2
u1 u2

a b

Fig. 4. Velocity triangles in impeller: a) at inlet; b) at outlet and in throat.

In determining the coefficient of discharge of the nozzle channel, it is necessary to consider the following. Accord-
ing to experimental data, basic GC losses are concentrated in the sloping section of the nozzles and the gap. Less than
one-fourth of all losses are sustained in a fraction of the nozzle channel, even in small-size GC, i.e., n values of 0.970.99
(as a function of the scale of the GC) are not on the high side.
The reduced isoentropic density of the flow in the throats of the nozzles qns = tsts /* (where ts = cts /c*) is determined
by the operating regime of the GC. The critical regime in the throat sets in when cs = ccs /c* 1.45 (where ccs = 2(ii ics )
is the assumed velocity of the stage). In critical and supercritical regimes characteristic of cryogenic stages, cs 1.45 and
ts = qns = 1.0. In the subcritical stages, cs < 1.45, ts < 1.0, qns < 1.0, and the isoentropic density may be determined from the
formula
1
k + 1 k 1 cs k 1
2
q ns = cs 1 ,
1.45 2 k + 1 1.45

the error of which is small for a real gas, since it is written in terms of the density ratio. More precise definition of the qns
value with respect to properties of the working gas is possible during the course of the analysis. The diameter usually deter-
mined for the impeller is rounded-off, but with a mandatory more precise definition of the value of Ft.
In traditional procedures, the inlet diameter of the impeller is determined from the flow-rate equation in terms of
flow parameters at the outlet. The ratio of the outlet and inlet diameters of the impeller and the angle of the blades are used
here; based on these parameters, the flow velocity is determined from the velocity triangle. The density of the gas at the out-
let is evaluated on the basis of the degree of expansion and the losses assumed. If it is found as a result of the calculation that
the diameter determined is not suitable with respect to the width b1 /D1 or the rotational speed of the rotor, the entire analy-
sis of the stage is redeliberated.
Conversion from the assumed velocity of the stage to the circumferential velocity of the impeller is traditionally per-
formed in terms of the circumferential-velocity coefficient: u1 = xsccs. In the familiar procedure, the optimum of the circum-
ferential-velocity coefficient is established by investigating the maximum of the curve of the hydraulic efficiency of the stage
versus this coefficient obtained on the basis of Eulers equation [1]. The range of optimal values of the coefficient, which is
also recommended for stages of different efficiencies, is determined as a result of this investigation.
Another simpler approach is possible: optimal values of the circumferential-velocity coefficient are determined from
disclosure of the assumed enthalpy gradient of the stage in the computational regime using equations of energy conservation
for the GC, impeller, and discharge diffuser, as well as relationships of the adopted velocity triangles. Values of the coeffi-
cient obtained in this manner differ little from familiar values, but take into account the specifics of the stage under design.
The adopted computational triangle of velocities at the inlet is a right triangle with an angle of attack 1 = 0 (Fig. 4a).
From experience, the optimal angles of attack 1cr = 90 and 1 = 010 for a radial-axial impeller with a leading-edge blade
angle, and a channel GC, respectively.
The computed isoentropic velocity triangle in the throat of the interblade channel at the outlet, i.e., with a geomet-
ric angle 2cr (Fig. 4b), is also a right triangle; this agrees in full with experimental data (Fig. 5). Moreover, the effective
velocity triangle at the outlet has an angle 2 not much greater than 90 due to losses in the impeller.

70
 s

0.79

0.78
70 90 110
2s

Fig. 5. Experimental relationship between isoentropic efficiency s

of stage (D1 = 150 mm) and discharge angle of flow 2s.

0.45 1 2 3
4

0.25 1 c
2 3 4
g
0.05
0.04 0.12 0.20
Ft

Fig. 6. Loss factors c and g for impeller and GC: 1, 2, 3, 4) impeller

diameter of 30, 50, 100, and 250 mm, respectively.

As a result, the equation for the circumferential-velocity coefficient of the computational regime will assume the
form
1 g
=2+ + (c2 ts / u1 )2 [1 sd (1 c ) 22 cr ],
2
xs (1 g ) cos 2 1

where c is the loss factor of the impeller, c2ts / u1 is the discharge coefficient, sd = 0.50.55 is the efficiency of the dis-
charge diffuser (from experience), 2cr = 0.850.90 is the clogging factor for the trailing section of the blade edges, and
cos 1 cos 1cr.
The loss factors for the GS and impeller are determined from the curve (Fig. 6) plotted on the basis of the approved
procedure for loss calculation [4], and have been selectively confirmed by experiment for small-dimension stages.
The discharge coefficient c2ts /u1 = dst /D1tanst is found from the triangle of velocities in the throat of the channel
with allowance for the current relationship dtancr = dst tanst, as determined by the procedure used to fabricate the radi-
al-axial blade, the ratio of the diameters of the stage and impeller dst /d1 = 0.240.30, and the blade angle over the diameter
of the stage st = 5056.
In conformity with the equation cited, the circumferential-velocity coefficient falls within the range from xs = 0.64
for small stages to xs = 0.69 for heavy-duty stages, and xs 0.67 for moderate stages.
The rotational speed of the rotor n = 60u1 /D1. The basic means of reducing rotor revolutions is to reduce the sec-
tional area Ft, i.e., convert to a narrower stage. The circumferential-velocity coefficient can be lowered by positive angles of
attack or by converting to angles 1cr < 90 to a blade of triple curvature; this is linked to complication of the procedure
employed to fabricate the impeller. It is possible to convert to use of a radial stage. All alternate schemes of lowering the rota-
tional speed are associated with efficiency losses, i.e., the role played by the support assembly (especially for low-flow stages)
is major.

71
 The rotational speed of the rotor should be close to optimal, and it is not recommended that it be assigned in advance.
In cases where it is assigned (in turbo-refrigeration machinery), i.e., the diameter of the impeller is known, the reduced throat
area of the GC is determined from the flow equation.
The reduced velocity prior to the impeller 1s = c1s /c* and the degree of reactance = 1 (1s /cs) are calculated
from the adopted triangle of velocities at the inlet. Conversion from the velocity 1s to the velocity ts in the throat of the
nozzles is accomplished in conformity with the theorem relative to the conservation of angular momentum. A more precise
definition of flow parameters prior to the impeller and in the throat, as well as of the throat itself with respect to properties
of the working gas is possible.
The angle of the flow prior to the impeller is determined from the equation of continuity between the throat of the
GC and the inlet to the impeller:
n ts ts
sin 1 = sin 1cr R ,
g 1s 1s 1cr V

(1s c* )2
where g = 1 / 1s 1 g is the discharge coefficient of the GC; 1 = f(i1, p1); i1 = i1s + g ; and V = 0.940.96
2
is the volume efficiency of the stage (V = 0.970.98, if a gas gate exists in the ring seal; this is characteristic of low-tem-
perature helium stages).
The angular deviation of the flow in the inclined section in the supercritical regime is as follows: = 1 1cr,
where 1 = 1 when V = 1.0 and R1cr = 1.0. Losses in the channel GC do not increase right up to 1s = 1.3 and > 3 (see
Fig. 2); this makes it possible to realize a degree of expansion 10 with no significant efficiency losses in a single stage.
The existence of the law rtancr = rst tanst, which defines the variation in the current blade angles in the axial sec-
tion of the impeller along the radius, makes it possible to determine the area of the flow section of the throat of the interblade
channel by integration. For the ratio of this area to the known area of the axial section of the channel, we obtain

dst
D tan st 2 2 2 2
sin 2cr = 2
1 d2 + dst tan dst + dst tan ,
D st D D st
dst D1
2 2
d2 1 1 1

D D
1 1

where 2cr is the geometric angle averaged in the throat, (dst /D1)tanst = c2ts /u1, and d2 /D1 is the ratio of the diameters of
the peripheral outlet and inlet to the impeller. Accordingly, the ratio of this average diameter of the outlet to the diameter of
the inlet to the impeller: D2 /D1 = (dst /D1)(tanst)/(tan2cr). It is clear that it is impossible to assign the ratio D2 /D1 inde-
pendently of the geometry of the outlet.
The ratio d2 /D1 of the diameters of the peripheral outlet and inlet to the impeller is determined from the equation
of continuity between the throat of the GC and the throat of the interblade channel of the impeller. Moreover, the velocities
at control points are known, and the densities of the working gas are determined from its properties.
The objectiveness of the energy analysis of the stage is monitored by comparing the hydraulic efficiency with respect
to the components of the hydraulic losses: h = 1 h
( g +hc +ho) and the hydraulic efficiency from the Euler equation
D c
hE = 2 x s2 1 2 2u .
D1 u1
The hydraulic losses in the GC and impeller, and with the discharge velocity, which apply to the assumed enthalpy
gradient of the stage, are expressed in the following manner:
2 2
w c
hg = g (1s / cs ) ; hc = c 2 s x s ;
2
ho = (1 sd ) 2 x s ,
u1 u1

where w2 s / u1 = ( D2 / D1 )2 + [ 2 cr (c2 ts / u1 )] is determined from the triangle of velocities in the throat of the channel;

72
 c2 / u1 = (c2g / u1 )2 + (c2u / u1 )2 ;

c2u / u1 = D2 / D1 (1 c )( w2 s / u1 )2 (c2g / u1 )2 ;

c2 g / u1 = 2 cr (c2 ts / u1 ) 1 c ;

and 2 = 90 + arctan (c2u /u1)/(c2g /u1) are found from the velocity triangle at the discharge from the impeller.
Experience with numerous analyses of various stages indicates that the difference in hydraulic efficiencies usually
does not exceed 11.5%.
The volume efficiency of the stage accounts for overflows through the anterior labyrinth seal (past the impeller) and
leakages from the stage through the posterior labyrinth seal: V = 1 (ov + l), where ov = Gov /Gi and l = Gl /Gi are the
overflow and leakage factors.
The computational equation for the overflow and leakage coefficient is compiled on the basis of the Stodola equa-
tion:
d S p12 p22 1
ov = se se se ,
Gi zse p1

where se is the discharge coefficient of the seal (se 0.9 for a smooth seal), dse is the diameter of the radial seal and the
average diameter of the end seal (dse 1.2d2 in the radial seal, and unloading of the rotor by axial forces is determined in the
end seal), zse = 35 is the number of seal strips, Sse is the gap in the seal (evaluated from the empirical formula Sse 0.2 +
+ dse103 mm in the radial seal on the side, and Sse 0.1 mm in the end seal determined by assembly and grinding). The
advantage of the end anterior seal over the radial seal is obvious.
For the anterior radial seal, zse = 59, dse = (0.20.25)D1, and the pressure p1 is equal to the pressure of the leakage
discharge, usually to the atmospheric pressure.
The isoentropic efficiency takes into account power losses of the stage: s = h hN, wherehN =hd +hov
are the power losses due to disk friction and overflows, which are reduced to the assumed enthalpy gradient of the stage; here,
Nd
hd = and hov = h ov .
V Gi his
The power of the disk friction
Nd = fru13D121103 W,

where fr = 27Re0.2 is the coefficient of disk friction for a closed impeller, fr = 37Re0.2 is the coefficient of disk friction for
a semi-open impeller, Re = u1D11 /1 is the Reynolds number, and 1 is the dynamic viscosity of the working gas at the
temperature T1 [5].
A comparison of the computed and experimental efficiencies of various stages from low-flow helium (impeller
diameter of approximately 30 mm) to the stages of the turbo-expanders of heavy-duty AS (impeller diameter of more than
250 mm) can be found in [4] (also see Fig. 3). The good agreement between the computed and experimental efficiencies
should be pointed out.

REFERENCES

1. V. I. Epifanova, Radial Compressor and Expander Turbomachinery [in Russian], MGTU im. N. . Baumana,
Moscow (1998).
2. V. M. Kulakov, Algorithm for Design Analysis of the Setting in a Turbo-expander System for Automated Machine
Design (SAMD) [in Russian], Kriogenmash, Balashikha (1990).

73
3. V. M. Kulakov, I. Yu. Mironov, V. V. Kulakov, and V. I. Danilovich, Channel guide cases for turbo-expanders,
Khim. Neft. Mashinostr., No. 4, 3740 (1996).
4. V. M. Kulakov, I. Yu. Mironov, V. V. Kulakov, and V. I. Danilovich, Calculation of losses in the turbo-expander
stage, Khim. Neft. Mashinostr., No. 4, 5457 (1997).
5. V. M. Kulakov, Turbo-expanders, in: Low-temperature Equipment [in Russian], E. I. Mikulin, I. V. Marfenina, and
A. M. Arkharov (eds.), nergiya, Moscow (1975).

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