1seawater Properties All in One Tobruk 2006 PDF

Short Introduction
Gerhardt Spalding
RWTH Aachen University
Institut fr Verfahrenstechnik since 1977
(Chemical Engeneering)
Tobruk Desalination Plant

5. Physical properties of seawater KWS
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Aachen
D
NL
Essen
B Aachen

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Aachen-Highlights

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Fountains of Aachen

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Aachen-Football
Season 2006/2007:
1.Division again after
36 years!!!! 5

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Aachen- Famous baths

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Aachen - Street life

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Aachen-City

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Aachen-Horse sport

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Aachen- University Hospital
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Aachen University
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Main building of the institute in Aachen
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Prof. Dr. Robert Rautenbach
Former head of the institute

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Prof. Dr. Thomas Melin
Head of the institute

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Lecture 5
Physical properties of seawater
5.1 Water, the miracle molecule

5.2 Salinity of the oceans
5.3 Calculation of physical properties
5.4 The role of carbondioxide
5.5 Laboratory practice
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5.1 Water, the miracle molecule
Have a look in the

dictionary:
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Definition of water:
-Water is a liquid
- clear, transparent
- colourless
- odorless (nearly)
- tasteless
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Water properties
Chemical formular: H2O

Essential for everybody, plant, animal life...
Most widely used solvent
Melting point: 0C
Boiling point : 100C (1bar)
Density: 1000 kg/m3
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Water a miracle ?
Periodic table of the elements
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Periodic table of the elements
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Every material consists of chemical elements
and / or of molecules of elements
Air: 78% Nitrogen (N)

21% Oxygen (O)
Steel: Fe, C, Ni, Cr, V, Mn
Water: H2O
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In the periodic table the elements are
arranged systematically
Atomic weigth
Atomic number
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In the periodic table the elements are
arranged systematically
Oxygengroup
Alkaligroup Halids
Earthalkaligroup Noble gases
Groups with
similar chemical
and physical
properties 23

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Reaction of hydrogen with
elements of the oxygen group
2 H + O (Oxygen) H2O
2 H + S (Sulfur) H2S
2 H + Se (Selenium) H2Se
2 H + Te (Tellurium) H2Te
2 H + Po (Polonium) H2Po
And what are the properties of these
24
products?
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Boiling temperatures (1bar)
Molecule Molecular Boiling
weight [g/mol] temperature
[C]
H2S 34,06 -61
H2Se 80,96 -42
H2Te 129,6 -4
H2 Po 211 35
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Boiling temperatures
40
H2Po
20
Temperature [C]
0
H2Te
-20
-40
H2Se
-60
H2S
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250
Molecular weight [g/mol]
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40
H2Po
20
Temperature [C]
0
H2Te
-20
-40
H2Se
-60
H2S
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250
Molecular weight [g/mol] 27

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
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Boiling temperatures (1bar)
Molecule Molecular Boiling
[C]
H2O 18 ?
H2S 34,06 -61
H2Se 80,96 -42
H2Te 129,6 -4
H2 Po 211 35 28

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40
20 H2Po
Temperature [C]
0 Calculated H2Te
-20
-40
H2Se
-60 H 2S
-71 H 2O
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250
18 Molecular weight [g/mol]
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100 H2O
80
60
Reality!
Temperature [C]
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250
Calculated Molecular weight [g/mol]
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Melting temperatures
Molecule Molecular Melting

[C]
H2S 34,06 -82
H2Se 80,96 -64
H2Te 129,6 -51
H2 Po 211 -36
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Melting temperatures
Hydrogens of the oxygen group
0
H2O
Temperatur [C]
-20
Reality!
-40
H2Po
-60
H2Te
-80 H2Se
H2S
-100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Molecular weight [g/mol]
calculated
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State of physical aggregation
(at 1bar and OC)
Molecule Molecular State of
weight [g/mol] aggregation
H2S 34,06 gas
H2Se 80,96 gas
H2Te 129,6 gas
H2 Po 211 gas
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(at 1bar and 0C)
H2O 18 ?
H2S 34,06 gas
H2Se 80,96 gas
H2Te 129,6 gas
H2 Po 211 gas
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(at 1bar and 0C)
H2O 18 Liquid!!!!!
H2S 34,06 gas
H2Se 80,96 gas
H2Te 129,6 gas
H2 Po 211 gas
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Density of water
Solid Liquid
1,010
1,000
0,990
0,980
Density [g/ml]
0,970
0,960
0,950
Abrupt decrease
0,940
0,930
with freezing!
0,920
0,910
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature [C]
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Structure of frozen water
Ice molecules form a spacious crystal structure
Structure (computer model) Foto of ice crystal

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Little experiment concerning
surface tension of water
Density of water: ?
Density of copper: ?
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Density of water: 1,00 g/ml

Density of copper: 8,92 g/ml
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High surface tension of water
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Influence of surface tension
Important: Forming
of an optimal liquid
film on the surface of
the heat exchanger
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What are the reasons for all
these phenomena
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Structure of the water
molecule
H O H
?
Sorry, it is not a straight structure
and water it is not a simple molecule
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molecule
O
H
H
105
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molecule
- - Oxygen is negative
charged
O
+
H +
H Hydrogen is
positive charged
105
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molecule (model)
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Tetrahedron structure of the
water molecule
3-dimensional
O
model
free pairs of electrons 48

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Structure of the water molecule
Tetrahedron + Hydrogen bond
bond
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molecule - clusterforming
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Example: cluster
of 8 water molecules
(computermodel)
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Clusters of the water molecule
60
50
(H20)-1
40 (H20)-2
Shares [%]
(H20)-4
(H20)-8
30
Polynomisch ( (H20)-2)
20 Polynomisch ( (H20)-4)
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature [C] 52

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Hydrogen bonds
(computermodel)
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Structure model of the water
molecule
Computermodel
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Anomalous physical properties
of liquid water 1
Specific heat:
Highest of all solids and liquids except Ammonia (NH3)
Latent heat of melting:

Highest except Ammonia (NH3)
Latent heat of evaporation:

Highest of all substances
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Anomalous physical properties
of liquid water 2
Surface tension:
Highest of all substances except mercury (Hg)
Dielectric constant:
Highest of all liquids except H2O2 and HCN
Conduction of heat:
Lowest of all liquids
etc...... 56

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Conclusions
Water has extraordinary properties
Reason is the dipole character

Forming of hydrogen bonds
Forming of molecule clusters
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5.2 Salinity of the oceans
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Contents of seawater
-Suspended (solid) material
-Colloidal particles
-Dissolved organic material

-Dissolved gases
-Dissolved inorganic salts 59

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Diatoms..

-Dissolved gases

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Silica, Fe(OH)2,
-Colloidal particles Al(OH)3....
-Dissolved gases
x nm

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-Organic material
Microorganisms,
-Dissolved gases
Aminoacids..

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-Dissolved gases N2, O2, CO2...

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-Dissolved gases Cations
-Dissolved inorganic salts Anions 64

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Definition of salinity
Salinity = salt concentration of seawater
expressed in g/kg seawater
Average value is ?
35 g/kg
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Salinity of the oceans
What about the salinity worldwide?

Is there only one big ocean wich the same salinity?
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Distribution of ocean salinity
20 30 40
67
higher salinity
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Salt components
How much natural chemical elements do
we find in the oceans?
92 chemical elements (more or less)!
How important are these elements for

desalination?
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Salt components
11 major components represent:
99,9 % of the dissolved constituents
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Salt components
Negative ions in (%) Positive ions in (%)
Chloride 1,8980 Sodium 1,0556
Sulfate 0,2649 Magnesium 0,1272
Bicarbonate 0,0140 Calcium 0,0400
Bromide 0,0065
Potassium 0,0380
Borate 0,0026
Strontium 0,0001
Fluoride 0,0001
2,1861 1,2609
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Salt components - anions
2 2
1,8
1,6
Chloride
% 1,4
1,2
1 1
0,8
0,6
Sulfate
0,4
Bicarbonate
0,2
0
Chloride Sulfate Bicarbonate Bromine Borate Fluoride
Bromine Borate Fluoride 71

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Salt components - cations
1,2
%
1 1
Sodium
0,8 Magnesium
0,6
Calcium
0,4
Potassium
0,2
Strontium
0
Sodium Magnesium Calcium Potassium Strontium 72

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Artificial seawater 1
NaCl 23,497g
MgCl2 4,981
Na2SO4 3,917
CaCl2 1,102
Make up to 1000 g with
KCl 0,664
water
NaHCO3 0,192
KBr 0,096
Total 34,449
= Salinity
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(in case of carbonate scaling)
NaCl 23,538 g
MgCl2 4,985
Na2SO4 4,087
CaCl2 1,108
Make up to 1000 g with
KCl 0,665
water
NaHCO3 0,000
KBr 0,096
Total 34,479
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(in case of severe scaling)
NaCl 23,538 g
MgCl2 5,985
Na2SO4 4,087
CaCl2 0,000 Make up to 1000 g with
KCl 0,665 water
NaHCO3 0,000
KBr 0,096
Total 34,321
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Artificial seawaters overview
1 2 3
NaCl 23,497g 23,538 g 23,538 g
MgCl2 4,981 4,985 5,934
Na2SO4 3,917 4,087 4,087
CaCl2 1,102 1,108 0,000
KCl 0,664 0,665 0,665
NaHCO3 0,192 0,000 0,000
KBr 0,096 0,096 0,096
Total 34,449g 34,479g 34,321g
= Salinity
Make up to 1000 g with water 76

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Definition of chlorinity
Chlorinity = concentration of the sum of

chloride, bromine and jodine(only traces) in
seawater
Chlorinity =[Cl-] + [Br-] + [J-]
[ ]= concentration
Expressed in g/kg seawater
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Constancy of composition
[Comp. A] / [Comp. B] = constant
for seawater samples only
Examples:
[Chloride] / [Sulfate] = constant
1,8980% / 0,2649% = 7.1649
[Chlorinity] / [Salinity] = constant..... 78

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Constancy of composition
Advantage:
If you can determine or analyze one of
the major components, you can
calculate the concentrations of all other
important ions!
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Measurement of salinity
1. Evaporation method
2. Determination of chlorinity
3. Determination of conductivity
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1. Evaporation method
Sample
Total Dissolved Solids
=TDS
Salinity = TDS / 1,0051 81

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Measurement of salinity (S)
2. Determination of chlorinity in the laboratory
Calculation of salinity:
S=1,80655 * chlorinity
Possible because of
constancy of composition!
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3. Determination of conductivity
Conductivity Salinity
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Formal definition of salinity:
Conductivity of seawater at 15C
R15 =
Conductivity of standard KCl solution at 15C
Standard KCl Solution beeing 32,4356 g/kg
S = 0,008 - 0,1692*(R15)0,5 + 25,3851*R15 + 14,0941*(R15)1,5- ,0261*(R15)2+2,7081*(R15)2,5
Example: R15 = 1 S = 35
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5.3 Calculation of physical
properties
Boiling point elevation of seawater
Liquid density
Heat of evaporation
Electrical conductivity
Heat capacity
Oxygen and nitrogen solubility....
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IVT
Boiling point elevation (BPE)
Definition:
Difference in temperature between
the boiling temperature of pure
water and the boiling temperature of
seawater at the same pressure
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IVT
Boiling Point Elevation (BPE)
BPE (
= 0 , 0825431 + 0 , 0001883 * T + 0 , 00000402 )
* T 2 * TDS
(
+ 0 , 0007625 + 0 , 0000902 * T 0 , 00000052 *T 2
)* TDS 2
+ (0 , 0001522 0 , 000003 * T + 0 , 00000003 )

* T 2 * TDS 3
Units for calculation:

[BPE] = Degree Kelvin = K
[T] = Degree Celsius = C
[TDS] = %
Limitations:
Total Dissolved Solids = TDS = 20 -160 g/kg
Boiling temperature of the pure water T = 20 -180C 87

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IVT
1,8
T=20C
1,6
Boiling point elevation [K]
1,4
T=40C
1,2
T=60C
1
0,8
T=80C
0,6
T=100C
0,4
0,2
T=120C
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Salinity [g/kg seawater] 88

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IVT
Example : TDS = 40 g/kg and T= 100C
1,8
T=20C
1,6
Boiling point elevation [K]
1,4
T=40C
1,2
T=60C
1
0,8
T=80C
0,6
T=100C
0,4
0,2
T=120C
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Salinity [g/kg seawater]
BPE = 0,63 K 89

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IVT
Liquid Density (LD)
( ) ( )
LD = 1002400 + 7548 * TDS + 23 ,63 * TDS 2 + 133 ,8 9,35 * TDS 0,00976 * TDS 2 * T
( )
+ 3,375 + 0,0996 * TDS 0,00439 * TDS 2 * T 2
+ (0,0031 0,000163 * TDS + 0,0000244 * TDS )* T 2 3

) * 0,000001
90

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IVT
Liquid Density (LD)
Unit of LD = kg/l
Total dissolved solids [TDS] = %
Temperature [T] = Degree Celsius = C
Limitations:
Total Dissolved Solids = TDS = 20-160 g/kg
Temperature T = 10-180C
91

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IVT
Liquid Density (LD)
Example: TDS=50 g/kg and T= 140C
1,15
1,10
Temperature
[C]
Liquid density [kg/l]
1,05
20
1,00 60
100
0,95 140
180
0,90
0,85
0,80
0 50 100 150 200
TDS [g/kg]
92
LD=0,97 kg/l
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IVT
Heat of evaporation (HoE)
( )
HoE = 597,5 0,5708064 * T + 0,00023544 * T 2 0,0000037 * T 3 * 4,1868[kJ/kg]
[HoE] = kJ/kg
Unit for calculation: [T] = Degree Celsius = C
Limitation: Temperature T = 20 -180C
93

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IVT
Heat of evaporation (HoE)
Example: Temperature T = 120C
2500
Heat of evaporation [kJ/kg]
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature [C]
HoE= 2200 kJ/kg 94

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IVT
Electrical conductivity ()
= K+(T-15)*0,02*K
[]=mS/cm
Unit for calculation : [TDS] = g/kg

K =(-0,0053*TDS2+1,3986*TDS+0,2982)
IF TDS=0 Then K=0
Limitations: Standard seawater

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) = 0 - 70 g/kg
Temperature (T) = 20 -180C
95

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IVT
Electrical conductivity ()
350
300
Conductivity [mS7cm]
250
T=30C
T=60C
200
T=90C
T=120C
150
T=150C
T=180C
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80
Salinity [g/kg]
96

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IVT
Electrical conductivity (Kappa )
Example: TDS = 60 g/kg and T= 120 C
350
300
Conductivity [mS7cm]
250
T=30C
T=60C
200
T=90C
T=120C
150
T=150C
T=180C
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80
= Kappa = 200 mS/cm

Salinity [g/kg]
97

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IVT
Heat capacity (cp ) of seawater
cp = 2,38846*0,0001*((4206,8-6,6197*TDS+1,2288*0,01*TDS2)
+(-1,1262+5,4178*0,01*TDS-2,2719*0,0001* TDS2)*T
+(1,2026*0,01-5,3566*0,0001*TDS+1,8906*0,000001* TDS2)*T2
+ (6,8774*0,0000001+1,517*0,000001*TDS-4,4268*0,000000001* TDS2)*T3)*4,1868)
[Cp] = kJ/kg/K
Limitations:
Temperature T = 20 -180C 98

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IVT
Heat capacity (cp )
Example: TDS = 100 g/kg and T=140 C
Temperature
4,4 [C]
20
100
4,2 140
Heat capacity [kJ/kg/K]
180
4,0
3,8
3,6
3,4
3,2
3,0
0 50 100 150 200
Salinity [g/kg]
99
Cp = 3,80 kJ/kg/K
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IVT
Oxygen solubility (O2) of seawater
O2 = T*(0,0001555*TDS3-0,0009143*TDS2+0,001124*TDS-0,1563)
+(-0,007775*TDS3+0,05714*TDS2-0,8762*TDS+12,5)
[O2] = mg/kg
[Temperature] = degree Celsius = C
[TDS] = %
Limitations:
Temperature = T = 0-45C
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IVT
Oxygen solubility (O2) of seawater
10
8
Oxygen dissolved [mg/kg]
6 T=20C
T=30C
5
T=40C
4 T=50C
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Total Dissolved Solids [ppm] 101

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Nitrogen solubility (N2) of seawater
N2 = T*(0,0000964*TDS3-0,002041*TDS2+0,02339*TDS-0,2077)
+(0,006219*TDS3+1,842*10-15*TDS2-1,1048*TDS+18,6)
[N2] = mg/kg
[Temperature] = degree Celsius = C
[TDS] = %
Limitations:
Temperature = T = 0-45C
102

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IVT
Nitrogen solubility (N2) of seawater
16
14
Nitrogen dissolved [mg/kg]
12
20C
10 30C
8 40C
50C
6
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
103
TDS [%]
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Calculation of physical
properties
Much more seawater properties can be calculated for the
liquid phase:
Specific heat Liquid volume
Viscosity (kinematic, dynamic ) Thermal conductivity
104

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IVT
properties
Much more seawater properties can be calculated for the
steam:
Specific volume steam density
Dyn.viscosity of saturated steam Saturated pressure
Steam saturation temperature Saturated enthalpy
Heat of condensation
105

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
IVT
properties
Hoemig, H.E.
Seawater and seawater distillation
Vulkan Verlag 1978
106

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
IVT
5.4. Dissolved gases
The role of carbondioxide
107

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Major constituents of air
Components Vol %
Nitrogen (N2) 78
Oxygen (O2) 20,9
Argon (Ar) 1
Carbondioxide (CO2) 0,035
108

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
80
70
60
Shares [Vol%]
50
40
30
20
10
0
109
N2 O2 Ar CO2
06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
100
log Shares [Vol%]
10
0,1
0,01
110
N2 O2 Ar CO2
06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Equlibrium concentration
of gases in seawater
50
45
Equ. concentration [ml/l]
40
at 24C and 1 bar
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
N2 O2 Ar CO2 111

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
100
log Equ. Conc. [ml/l]
at 24C and 1 bar
10
0,1
N2 O2 Ar CO2 112

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
100 HCO3-
CO3-2
log Equ. Conc. [ml/l]
at 24C and 1 bar
10
1 CO2
0,1
N2 O2 Ar CO2 113

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
The carbondioxide seawater
system
N2, O2 and Argon are noncondensable gases

They are only molecular dissolved in seawater
CO2 reacts chemically with the water !
114

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
The carbondioxide seawater
system
Some important factors:
Chemical reactions
pH-value
Temperature
Time
Presence of other seawater constituents 115

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Chemical equilibria of
carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
HCO3- H+ + CO3-2
Dissociation of water:
H2O H+ + OH-
116

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Existing components
CO2 Carbondioxide
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate
CO3-2 Carbonate
H2O Water
H+ Hydrogen ion
OH- Hydoxide ion
This equilibrium is a function of temperature, pH and salt content

117

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Total carbonic acid = Qc
Qc = [CO2] + [HCO3 -] + [CO3-2]

[....] = concentrations in mol/l
This parameter is widely used in seawater chemistry

It can easily be determined in the laboratory by titration
118

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Total alkalinity = QA
QA = [HCO3 -] + 2[CO3-2] + [H+] +[OH-]
This parameter is widely used in seawater chemistry

It can easily be determined in the laboratory by titration
119

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Distribution of carbondioxide
components as a function of pH
Standard seawater
f
HCO3- CO2 CO3-2 HCO3-
Pure water
T = 25C
pH 120

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Example 1:
seawater, pH = 7,5:
f f CO2 = 0,03
f CO3-2 = 0,03 =1
f HCO3- = 0,94
T = 25C 121
pH
06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Example 2: pH = 9
Compare water and seawater!
f
Water: f CO3-2 = 0,04
Seawater: f CO3-2 = 0,46 !!!!!
T = 25C
122
pH
06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Example 3: pH = 5
Distribution in seawater?
f
seawater f CO3-2 = 0,00
seawater f HCO3-1 = 0,09
seawater f CO2 = 0,90
T = 25C
pH 123

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
f Conclusions:
pH
Below pH 6: [CO2] is dominant

pH 4: [HCO3-] is neglible
pH 4: [CO3-2] is neglible
Above pH 9: [CO3-2] is dominant
pH 6 - pH 9: [HCO3 -] is most important 124

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Applications
The distribution of the carbondioxide components is

important for alkaline scale prevention in MED and
MSF plants
In MSF plants sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is added to adjust
the pH of the feed to pH 4, in order to eliminate
hydrogen carbonate as carbondioxide
125

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Advantage
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-) is stripped to CO2
Maximum temperature in MSF plants is approximatly

120C.
This is the limit with regard to CaSO4 scale formation
126

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Disadvantage
Corrosion problems
High costs for chemicals
High costs for decarbonation systems
Solution
Additives instead of acid treatments
Phosphates, maleic or acrylic polymers..
127

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Effect of temperature on
CO2 release
70-100C
2 HCO3- CO2 + CO3-2 + H2O
In case of sufficient calcium:
Ca2+ + CO3-2 CaCO3 solid
Scaling! 128

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Effect of temperature on
CO2 release
> 90C
CO3-2 + H2O HCO3- + OH-
CO3-2 + H2O CO2 + 2 OH-
In case of sufficient Magnesium:

Mg2+ + 2OH- Mg(OH)2 solid
Scaling! 129

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
5.5 Laboratory practice
-Determination of salinity
-Seawater distillation
-Boiling point elevation

130

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Conductivity Salinity (S)

Conductivity of seawater at 15C
R15 =
Conductivity of standard KCl solution at 15C
Standard KCl solution being 32,4356 g/kg
S = 0,008 - 0,1692*(R15)0,5 + 25,3851*R15 + 14,0941*(R15)1,5- ,0261*(R15)2+2,7081*(R15)2,5
Example: R15 = 1 S = 35
131

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Practice
Determination of salinity
Your task :
Measure the conductivity of the standard KCl solution at 15C
Measure the conductivity of a seawater sample at 15C
Calculate the ratio R15= Cond. Seawater / Cond. of KCl solution

Calculate the salinity S according to the fomular:
S = 0,008 - 0,1692*(R15)0,5 + 25,3851*R15 + 14,0941*(R15)1,5-
7,0261*(R15)2+2,7081*(R15)2,5
Result: R15 = ? S=? 132

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Practice - Seawater
desalination using distillation
133

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Practice - Seawater
desalination using distillation
Your task:
Measure the conductivity of a seawater sample
Make a distillation of this seawater
Measure the conductivity of the distillate
and taste the distillate if you trust yourself!
134

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Practice - Determination of
Boiling point elevation
Ebulliometer =
Special apparatus for the precise
determination of boiling points
135

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Practice - Determination of
Boiling point elevation
Your task:
Measure the boiling point of ordinary water
Measure the boiling point of a seawater sample
Compare the measured boiling point elevation with
calculations of the boiling point elevation
Use the data from your conductivity measurements
136

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.
Laboratory practice
137

06 th Nov. 08 th Dec. 2006
S.T.E.P.

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Short Introduction

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Former head of the institute

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Head of the institute

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5.1 Water, the miracle molecule

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Chemical formular: H2O

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Periodic table of the elements

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Air: 78% Nitrogen (N)

Steel: Fe, C, Ni, Cr, V, Mn

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Earthalkaligroup Noble gases

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H2Se 80,96 -42

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H2S 34,06 -61

H2Se 80,96 -42

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Molecule Molecular Melting

H2Se 80,96 -64

H2Te 129,6 -51

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H2Se 80,96 gas

H2Te 129,6 gas

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H2Se 80,96 gas

H2Te 129,6 gas

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H2S 34,06 gas

H2Se 80,96 gas

H2Te 129,6 gas

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Structure (computer model) Foto of ice crystal

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Tobruk Desalination Plant

Density of water: 1,00 g/ml

S = 0,008 - 0,1692(R15)0,5 + 25,3851R15 + 14,0941(R15)1,5- ,0261(R15)2+2,7081*(R15)2,5