Fluid mechanics is an important area of engineering science.
The nature of flow
in pipes, pumps and reactors depends on the power input to the system and the physical characteristics of the fluid. In fermenters, fluid properties affect process energy requirements and the effectiveness of mixing, which can have a dramatic influence on productivity and the success of equipment scale-up. To understand the mechanisms of these important transport processes, we must first examine the behaviour of fluid near surfaces and interfaces. Fluids in bioprocessing often contain suspended solids, consist of more than one phase, and have non-Newtonian properties. All of these features complicate analysis of flow behaviour and present many challenges in bioprocess design.
Classification of Fluids during flow. An ideal or perfect fluid
A fluid is a substance which is a hypothetical liquid or gas which undergoes continuous deformation is incompressible and has zero when subjected to a shearing force. viscosity. The term inviscid applies A simple shearing force is one which to fluids with zero viscosity. All real causes thin parallel plates to slide fluids have finite viscosity and are over each other, as in a pack of therefore called viscid or viscous cards. Shear can also occur in other fluids. Fluids can be classified geometries; the effect of shear force further as Newtonian or non- in planar and rotational systems is Newtonian. illustrated in Figure 1. Shear forces Figure 1. Laminar deformation due in these examples cause to (a) planar shear and (b) rotational deformation, which is a change in shear. the relative positions of parts of a body. A shear force must be applied to produce fluid flow. According to the above definition, fluids can be either gases or liquids. Two physical properties, viscosity and density, are used to classify fluids. If the density of a fluid changes with pressure, the fluid is compressible. Gases are generally classed as compressible fluids. The density of liquids is practically independent of pressure; liquids are incompressible fluids. Sometimes the distinction between compressible and incompressible fluid is not well Fluids in Motion defined; for example, a gas may be treated as incompressible if Bioprocesses involve fluids in variations of pressure and motion in vessels and pipes. temperature are small. Fluids are General characteristics of fluid flow also classified on the basis of are described in the following viscosity. Viscosity is the property of sections. fluids responsible for internal friction Streamlines When a fluid flows through a pipe or over a solid object, the velocity of the fluid varies depending on position. One way of representing variation in velocity is streamlines, which follow the flow path. Constant velocity is shown by equidistant spacing of parallel streamlines as shown in Figure 2(a). The velocity profile for slow-moving fluid flowing over a submerged object is shown in Figure 2(b); reduced spacing between the streamlines indicates that the velocity at the top and bottom of the object is greater than at the front and back.
Streamlines show only the net effect
of fluid motion; although streamlines suggest smooth continuous flow, fluid molecules may actually be moving in an erratic fashion. The slower the flow the more closely the streamlines Reynolds Number represent actual motion. Slow fluid Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is therefore called streamline or flow depends not only on the laminar flow. In fast motion, fluid velocity of the fluid, but also on its particles frequently cross and viscosity and density and the recross the streamlines. This motion geometry of the flow conduit. A is called turbulent flow and is parameter used to characterise fluid characterised by formation of flow is the Reynolds number. For full eddies. flow in pipes with circular cross- Figure 2. Streamlines for (a) section, Reynolds number is constant fluid velocity; (b) steady defined as: flow over a submerged object. Du = (1)
where D is pipe diameter, u is
average linear velocity of the fluid, is fluid density, and is fluid viscosity. For stirred vessels there is another definition of Reynolds number: 2 N i Di Hydrodynamic Boundary Layers i= (1) In most practical applications, fluid
flow occurs in the presence of a stationary solid surface, such as the i walls of a pipe or tank. That part of where is the impeller Reynolds the fluid where flow is affected by Ni Di the solid is called the boundary number, is stirrer speed, layer. As an example, consider flow is impeller diameter, is fluid of fluid parallel to the flat plate shown in Figure 3. Contact between density and is fluid viscosity. the moving fluid and the plate causes formation of a boundary beginning at the leading edge and The Reynolds number is a developing on both top and bottom dimensionless variable; the units of the plate. Figure 7.3 shows only and dimensions of the parameters the upper stream; fluid motion in Eqs (1) and (2) cancel completely. below the plate will be a mirror Reynolds number is named after image of that above. Osborne Reynolds, who published in As indicated by the arrows in Figure 1883 a classical series of papers on 3(a), the bulk fluid velocity in front the nature of flow in pipes. One of of the plate is uniform and of the most significant outcomes of uB . The extent of the Reynolds' experiments is that there magnitude is a critical Reynolds number which boundary layer is indicated by the marks the upper boundary for broken line. Above the boundary laminar flow in pipes. In smooth layer, fluid motion is the same as if pipes, laminar flow is encountered the plate were not there. The at Reynolds numbers less than boundary layer grows in thickness 2100. Under normal conditions, flow from the leading edge until it is turbulent at Re above about 4000. develops its full size. Final thickness Between 2100 and 4000 is the of the boundary layer depends on transition region where flow may be the Reynolds number for bulk flow. either laminar or turbulent depending on conditions at the When fluid flows over a stationary entrance of the pipe and other object, a thin film of fluid in contact variables. Flow in stirred tanks may with the surface adheres to it to also be laminar or turbulent as a prevent slippage over the surface. function of the impeller Reynolds Fluid velocity at the surface of the number. plate in Figure 3 is therefore zero. When part of a flowing fluid has The value of i marking the been brought to rest, the flow of adjacent fluid layers is slowed down transition between these flow by the action of viscous drag. This regimes depends on the geometry phenomenon is illustrated in Figure of the impeller and tank; for several 3(b). Velocity of fluid within the commonly-used mixing systems, u , is represented i 10 . boundary layer, laminar flow is found at by arrows; u is zero at the surface of the plate. Viscous drag forces are transmitted upwards through the fluid from the stationary layer at the surface. The fluid layer just above the surface moves at a slow but finite velocity; layers further above move at increasing velocity as the drag forces associated with the stationary layer decrease. At the edge of the boundary layer, fluid is unaffected by the presence of the plate and the velocity is close to that of the bulk flow, uB . The magnitude of u at various points in the boundary layer is indicated in Figure 3(b) by the length of the arrows in the direction of flow. The line connecting the heads of the velocity arrows Formation of boundary layers is shows the velocity profile in the important not only in determining fluid. A velocity gradient, i.e. a characteristics of fluid flow, but also change in velocity with distance for transfer of heat and mass from the plate, is thus established in between phases. a direction perpendicular to the direction of flow. The velocity Boundary-Layer Separation gradient forms as the drag force What happens when contact is resulting from retardation of fluid at broken between a fluid and a solid the surface is transmitted through immersed in the flow path? As an the fluid. example, consider a flat plate aligned perpendicular to the Figure 3. Fluid boundary layer for direction of fluid flow, as shown in flow over a flat plate. Figure 4. Fluid impinges on the (a) The boundary layer forms at the surface of the plate, and forms a leading edge. boundary layer as it flows either up or down the object. When fluid uB reaches the top or bottom of the (b) Compared with velocity in plate its momentum prevents it the bulk fluid, velocity in the from making the sharp turn around boundary layer is zero at the plate the edge. As a result, fluid separates surface but increases with distance from the plate and proceeds uB outwards into the bulk fluid. Directly from the plate to reach near behind the plate is a zone of highly the outer limit of the boundary decelerating fluid in which large layer. eddies or vortices are formed. This zone is called the wake. Eddies in the wake are kept in rotational motion by the force of bordering currents. Figure 4. Flow around a flat plate either magnitude or direction of aligned perpendicular to the fluid velocity is too great for the direction of flow. fluid to keep to a solid surface. It occurs in sudden contractions, expansions or bends in the flow channel, or when an object is placed across the flow path. Considerable energy is associated with the wake; this energy is taken from the bulk flow. Formation of wakes should be minimised if large pressure losses in the fluid are to be avoided; however, for some purposes such as Boundary-layer separation such as promotion of mixing and heat that shown in Figure 4 occurs transfer, boundary-layer separation whenever an abrupt change in may be desirable.