Construction Surveying and Layout Third Edition

V B l
Right A A + B = Complementary
C .
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Obtuse

C om putations
Rectangle Prism
a
V = a3
V = ( | ) n r3
Pyramid
/ V = Bh = ti r2h
v = (|)Bh
Ellipsoid
V = (-i-)Bh ----------- ]; ^
r2
r3~J V= (|)itr1r2r3
V= 7cr2h
O
A - area B = area of base

71= 3.141593 r = radius of inscribed circle
V = volume h = height
Fractions Fractions Decimals

of an of an of an
Inch D e c im a ls o f a F o o t Inch Inch
0 1" 2 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9 10" 11"

0.00 .000 .083 .166 .250 .333 .416 .500 .583 .666 .750 .833 .916 0.00 .000
1/8 .010 .093 .177 .260 .343 .427 .510 .593 .677 .760 .843 .927 1/8 .125
1/4 .020 .104 .187 .270 .354 .437 .520 .604 .687 .770 .854 .937 1/4 .250
3/8 .031 .114 .197 .281 .614 .697 .781 .864 .947 3/8 .375
.361 .447 .531
1/2 1/2 .500
.041 .125 .208 .291 .375 .458 .541 .625 .708 .791 .875 .958
5/8 .052 .135 .218 .802 .885 .968 5/8 .625
.302 .385 .468 .552 .635 .718
3/4 3/4 .750
062 .145 .229 .312 .395 .479 .562 .645 .729 .812 .895 .979
7/8 7/8 .875
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1 1 1.000
083 .166 .250 .333 .416 .500 .583 .6 6 6 .750 .833 .916 1.000
Construction Surveying
and Layout
A Field Engineering Methods Manual
Third Edition
WESLEY G. CRAWFORD
T
/C l
CREATIVE
/ Tm
CO NSTRUCTIO N
Creative Construction Publishing, Inc.
2720 South River Road
West Lafayette, Indiana 47906-4347
www.creativeconstruction.com
@ construction su rve yin g and la yo u t
Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Construction surveying and layout: a field engineering methods manual - 7rd

Crawford. Wesley G .
Includes index. ed iti0|1
ISBN 978-0-9647421-1-6
1. Surveying
2. Construction
Construction surveying and layout

Library of Congress C ontrol Number: 2002095996
2003 526.9
ISBN 978-0-9647421-1-6
Adobe PageMaker 7.0 was used for the layout of this text. Adobe Illustrator 8.0 was used for the illustra
tions. Various fonts were used for different applications; however, the primary text font is Times. This text
was printed and bound in the United States of America by Thomson/Shore. Inc., of Dexter, Michigan.
Copyright 2003, Wesley G. Crawford

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced
in any manner whatsoever without written permission, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical articles and reviews. No illustrations may be used for any purpose without the expressed written
consent of the Author. For information, contact:
Wesley G. Crawford
2720 S. River Road
CREATIVE West Lafayette, IN 47906
CONSTRUCTION A pI0pe,
10 9 Eighth Printing
ISBN 978-0-9647421-1-6
Printed and bound in the United States of A m e rica b y T h o m s o n /S h o re lh c -> Ml
DEDICATION
I!
construction surveying and layout
peW C A T'O "

This text is dedicated to the FifU v:
Company with whom I have worked ng'neers of Hense[ phelPs Construction
spent two year-long sabbaticals w fh !y mtern for many years and have
review, this text would not have beernrOUL e A,aSSiS,anCe- inSigh- a"d
and Officers of Hensel Phelns for i ' A S' many thanks t0 ,he Pres,dent
mv knowledge about ti P t0 heir suPPrt a|id encouragement in developing
my knowledge about the many activities of field engineering. Thank you.
s p e c ia l t h a n k s
A special note of gratitude to Merry and Paul Crawford (Mom and Dad) who taught
me t ie great ce ing of accomplishment that only comes from working hard and
staying wit a task until it is finished. And to my wife. Bonnie, my son Matthew,
an m> aug itei Jessica, who persevered through my absences from family
activities and events during this period of writing and revising.
a c k n o w led g m en ts
Third Edition
Editor Sharyn Switzer
Design Coordinator David Humpherys
Illustrations and Layout Kevin Meyer
Cover Design Kevin Meyer, David Humpherys
First and Second Edition

Editor Bonnie Crawford
Cover, Layout, and Illustrations David Humpherys
Illustrators Dale Jackson, David Humpherys,
Andrew Mikesell, Jamie Mohler
Reviewers and Contributors

Special thanks to Professor Earl Burkholder of New Mexico, A1 McConahay of
Purdue University, and Alan Beane of Fluor Corporation for their review of this
edition. Special thanks to the field engineers ol Hensel Phelps Construction Co.,
Martin K. Eby Construction, and Peter Kewitt Construction, for responding to a
text questionnaire. Thanks for reviewing earlier editions or contributing material
or ideas for this edition to Mark Beck, Lee Bender, Scott Conrad, Milton Denny,
Chad Hobson, C liff Lipman, John Meyer, Matt Pietryka, Jerry Thomas, Tony
Truman Brian Phillips, Ralph Alamillo, Jerry Scakleitz, David Copeland, Terry
Anderson Billy Robison, Alan Gassman, Mark Witalec, Richard Lang, Phil
Lawrence Fred Bulger, Dennis Unger, Mark Hollinger, Rob Wallen, Paul
Litchy Rich Adams, Brad Sims, and other friends, and persons at seminars. And,
of course, to the many students in my classes who continually offer suggestions
for changes.
HI
and iayut
rveying
ruction SUI
cons'
9
0f contents
PART o n e - SURVEYING FIELD PRACTICE
Surveying G i n , Sl-r..d O rg .a i^d ,.j

Construction
F itld E n 0 l n . . M n u R . a p o n . i b M i . i . s
preparing R . p o r ' s C h 'la 1 -1 4

Qualified Land Surveyor 1- - | 8
Summary 1-2o
CHAPTER 2
Communication
The Basics 2- 2
Communicating with Signals 2- 11
Stakes and Laths 2-17
Marking Line and Grade 2- 2 5
Abbreviations and Symbols 2-30
Summary 2- 3 5
CHAPTER 3
Fieldwork Practices
Saf et y 3-2
Me a s u r e me n t Pr i nci pl es 3-10
Tol er ances f or C o n s t r u c t i o n L a y o u t 3-14
Fi el d N o t e k e e p i n g P r a c t i c e s 3-11
Gener al I n s t r u m e n t Ca r e 3-2E
Use and Ca r e of Ha n d T o o l s 3-3S
L e v e l i n g an I n s t r u m e n t 3-45
i nst r ument Setups 3-51
Summary 3-61
IV
Introduction 4-2
j9j j *k
horizontal line OF SIGHT r3
Chaining a Distance 4-7
Chaining a Traverse 4- 1 5
A n a l y s i s of C h a i n i n g E r r o r s 4-18
Summary 4-21
CHAPTER 5________
Angle Measurement
Introduction 5-2
Instruments 5-6
Horizontal Angle Measur ement 5-14
Horizontal Angle Layout 5-24
V e r t i c a l or Z e n i t h A n g l e s 5-28
Summary 5-32
_________
Total Station
Introduction 6-2
Carrying
' Handle Measuring Basics 6-11
Measuring Details 6-16
L a y o u t of a P o i n t 6-24
Trigonometric Elevations 6-33
Electronic Data Co ll e c ti on 6-40

Summary 6-43
V
CHAPTER 7___________ _________ ___ ______ ___
Leveling Introduction 7 -2
Standard Practices 7-11
Field Notes for L e v e l i n g 7-17
Differential Leveling 7-22
Profile Leveling 7-28
Cross-Section Leveling 7-33
Grid Leveling 7-39
Transferring Elevations 7-43
Applied Leveling 7-47
Setting Grade 7-53
Summary 7-57
CHAPTER 8
Introduction 8-2
Standard Practices 8-7
Applications 8-14
Summary 8-16
CHAPTER 9_________
GPS Field Procedures
Introduction 9-2
tg a
/ Standard Practices 9-7
\ /
Summary 9-16
\ /
construction surveying and layout @
CHAPTER 10 _ _
Equipment Calibration
Vertical
Axis
Introduction 10-2
I
T e s t i n g of a C h a i n 10-6
A n g Ie - M e a s u r i n g I n s t r u m e n t s 10-10
Total Station 10-19
Tr i b r a c h and P lu m m e t s 10-21
Levels 10-24
Laser 10-31
Prism Pole Bubble 10-34
Hand Level 10-40
Summary 10-43
P A R T TWO - OFFICEWORK AND CALCULATIONS

C H A P T E R 11
Office Practices
Drafting 11-2
Construction Drawings 11-7
Site Plans 11-11
Contours 11-16
Lift Drawings 11-26
Summary 11-34
CHAPTER 12
Math Essentials
Review and Formulas 12-2
c Units and Conversions 12-11
b
a Summary 1 2-1 7
CHAPTER 13
Chain Corrections
Introduction 13-2
Length Correction 13-8
Slope Correction 13-12
Temperature Correction 13-17
Combined Corrections 1 3 - 21
Summary 13-27
CHAPTER 14
Traverse Computations
Introduction 1 4-2
Angle Adjustment 14-9
Direction Calculations 14-13
Latitudes and D e p a r t u r e s 14-19
C lo s u r e and P r e c i s i o n 14-22
Adjustments 14-26
Adjusted D i s t a nc e s and Directions 14-30
Coordinates 1 4-32
Examples 14-36
Summary 14-41
CH APTER 15
Coordinate Geometry
Introduction 1 5-2
I n v e r s i ng 15-7
Intersections 1 5-13
R e - S e ct i o n 15-19
Layout Data 1 5-24
Areas 15-30
Summary 1 5-34
VIII
CH APTER 16
Horizontal Curves
Introduction 1 6-2
Formulas 1 6-7
D e f l e c t i o n s and Ch o r d s 16-14
L a y o u t by D e f l e c t i o n s 16-21
L a y o u t by C o o r d i n a t e s 16-30
Movi ng Up 16-35
Offset Curves 16-43
Summary 16-49
CHAPTER 17
Vertical Curves
Introduction 17-2
Gradient Elevations 17-4
Elements and Properties 17-9
Curve Elevations 17-12
Unequal Length Curves 17-16
High and Low Poi nt s 17-20
Layout 17-23
Summary 17-26
CHAPTER 18
Quantities
Introduction 18-2
Area 18-4
Average End-Area Method 18-8
Grids and Contours Method 18-11
Summary 1 8-1 5
PART THREE - APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 19
Layout Techniques Introduction 19-2
Control 1 9-9
Methods 19-21
Line 19-36
Grade 19-46
Vertical Alignment 19-56
Sticks and Strings 1 9-61
Summary 19-69
CHAPTER 20________
Construction Control
I ntrod ucti on 20-2
Sitework 20-4
Ret ai ni ng Syst ems 20-8
Caissons 20-11
F o o t i n g s and F o u n d a t i o n 20-14
A n c h o r Bo l t s 20-17
Structural St eel 20-20
C o n c r e t e an d Me t a l D e c k s 20-23
B l o c k - Ou t s and E mb e d s 20-26
Concrete Columns 20-29
E l e v a t o r and S t a i r Co r e s 20-33
Si d ewal k s , Cu r bs , and G u t t e r s 20-38
Summary 20-41
CHAPTER 21
One-Person Surveying
Introduction 21 - 2
Di stances 21-6
Li ne 21-10
Elevations 21-16
Layout 21-18
Summary 21-23
CHAPTER 22
Field Observations
1n t r o d u c t i o n 2 2-2
Tech Ti ps 22-7
R u l e s of T h u m b 22-1 1
Common Mistakes 22-1 4
A P P E N D I C E S _______________________________________________
Appendix A - Glossary 1
Appendix B - Bibliography 7
Appendix C - Additional Problems 10
Index 15
HOW TO OBTAIN ONLINE UPDATES ON THIS BOOK

Unfortunately, no book is perfect. Even after eight years of use by thousands of persons there
are still mistakes or typographic errors pointed out about the second edition of this book 1 m
sure that even though the best efforts have been made to eliminate mistakes in this new third
edition, there will be some that go to print. Im inviting you to go to Creative Construction s
wehsite a, www ereativeconstructioiLSOffi to view an up-to-date listing of the known errata for
this book. On the home web-page, click on ERRATA. The latest list of significant
corrections will be displayed.
0 construction surveying and layout
] Preface to the
Th ird E dition
This third edition of Construction Surveying and Layout has been updated to reflect
recent changes in surveying instrument technology, and to pack it with even more
quality illustrations and down-to-earth tips and techniques. This up-to-date text
includes discussions of new technology and the new methods that are being used in
the field of construction surveying and layout. The reader will find throughout this
text procedures for success with the new technologies and methods, and procedures
and standard practices useful in eliminating mistakes and reducing errors.
Although some o f the methods presented are no longer used every day on
some construction sites, there are still persons who perform them, so they continue
to be a part o f this text. Older instruments are still m entioned and illustrated
because, in some cases, they are the best instruments for teaching the fundamentals.
At the same time, new instruments are explained and used throughout the text to
reflect what is being currently used on the construction site. Throughout the text,
metric measurements and metric problems are also included for the international
community, and for those in the US who use the metric system.
A fundamental principle has been followed in presenting the material. This

principle is based on a quotation attributed to the famous General George S. Patton.
It is, Dont give me instructions so I can get it rightGive me instructions so I
cant get it wrong! The step-by-step procedures in this text have been written with
that quotation in mind so that persons following the steps will not make mistakes
in their measurements or calculations.
The vision that guided the original edition of Construction Surveying and
Layout is continued with this third edition. This text remains a non-theoretical
surveying text that presents material in a straightforward manner. The illustrated
"how-to" presentations for performing many of the surveying procedures in the field
have been expanded to include many methods and techniques that were not in the first
two editions. The same philosophy of "read and do" has been continued, as well, with
hundreds of new problems and field exercises to assist in the learning process.
Before beginning this new edition, decisions were made on adopting new
styles for the illustrations and for the layout of the chapters, sections, and pages.
These rules resulted in every one of the 1100 old illustrations being revised and
updated, and the 400-or-so new illustrations being created to these specifications.
In addition, to present a more professional look, hard rules of format, fonts, and
layout style were established and have been followed. It is hoped that the readei
will enjoy the look and feel of this text, and will be encouraged to read the text ever
more closely due to the many instructive illustrations provided.
construction surveying and layout @
that identify êature f this text is the inclusion of chapter summaries

from practicing survpv P inJ s! as wel1 as Mistakes and Errors from the Field
and Errors from fleld engineers* The comments presented in Mistakes
persons who 16 d are esPeciaUy meaningful because they came from
experienced ,hr CT " " > ' workin8 - field engineers or surveyors, and have
If evervnnp miu!a CS are hsted. Much is to be learned from these comments,
summarise ere, a &t0 aVO*d Just a few of the mistakes that are listed in the chapter
, muc more work would be laid out correctly the first time!
. This text is intended for those who are learning or are performing surveying
leld measurement and layout processes. It is suitable for technical and college-
eve courses in construction sciences, building construction, and civil engineering,
and is recommended as a reference for contractors, construction management,
engineering, architectural, and design-build firms. With an emphasis on eliminating
mistakes and reducing errors, many companies use this text as their field surveying
training manual, or provide it to layout personnel for self-study and personal
improvement of field and calculation techniques. Anyone who is involved in
construction should have this as a resource available for its common-sense
approach to surveying and layout activities.
To further assist in learning the fundamentals of surveying and construction

layout, supplemental material has been developed and is available on the World
Wide Web at www.creativeconstruction.com. Access to Digital Surveyor, a
web-based interactive tutorial based on this text, is available on this publisher s
website. Readers of the text may find it helpful to read the supplemental material,
and then access Digital Surveyor on the website to re-read the material and take
an interactive quiz.
For those instructors who adopt this text for their classes, an instructors
manual is available from the author. This instructors manual contains solutions to
all of the problems in the text. It also contains hundreds of other questions that can
be used for the evaluation of students performances. Detailed descriptions regarding
the fie ld and office activities' in the chapter summaries are also contained in the
instructors manual. Additionally, a course syllabus and activity schedule for two
typical-sem ester surveying courses are presented. If the text is adopted, the author
will provide as much assistance as possible to the instructor in helping to prepare
students to be the best construction surveyors/field engineers possible.
L earning has been a lifetim e activity of this author; and although this
text p resen ts a substantial am ount of inform ation, there are still ideas and
sug g estio n s to be presented. If readers have ideas or suggestions for the fourth
e d itio n , p lease co n tact this author at the postal address provided here, via
em ail, or th ro u g h the w ebsite.
Wesley G. Crawford
Author/Publisher
Creative Construction Publishing
2720 South River Road
West Lafayette, IN
Phone 765-743-9704
wes @creativeconstruction.com
www.creativeconstruction.com
c h a p te r one " ..... 1
c o n s tru c tio n s u rv e y in g
!
G e t t | ng S t a r t e d a n d O r g a n i z e d
1- 2
F ' el d E n 9 i n e er i ng R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s 1- 7
P r e p a ri ng Rep o r t s and Ch a r t s
1- 14
Q u a l i f i e d Land Su r v e y o r 1-18
Summary 1-20
one
6> rted and
G e ttin g s *a
' 1
!
O r g a n i z e d
J
i Planning
Daily S c h e d u l i n g
SCOPE
Welcome to the world of construction surveying, also com m only reterred to as
field engineering. This is an exciting area of construction that is very satisiying
for those who can successfully perform in this challenging position. People enter
this position in many ways and stay for various amounts of time. Some come from
the ranks of the carpenters, others from surveying firms, and others from college
programs. To some, it is a lifetime position that was chosen as a career. For others,
it is an entry-level position that is a stepping stone along the road to becom ing a
construction manager or such career.
Regardless of your ultimate career goal, your im m ediate goal is to m aster
the position of construction surveyor.
1-2
J
getting started and organized 0
j
PLANNING
11 stated throughout ,h;.
Flan to plan! construction activities manual ^ at P*annn8 the most important of all
probably one hundred*'' *^lout planning, conflicts will occur ten times, or
engineer is directly6 .timeS more than they already do. Your success as a field
activities. Your nl ^ * ÔUr to Pân yur claily and weekly work
plan to plan T h a t^ W* êPentênt on the plans of others. You will have to
work activities v seei^ s rePetitious, but it is true. In addition to planning your
the job. PhppJr ,?U W1 a^SO âve to plan yur equipment, both personal and for
is s are included in this section to assist in your planning.
"Be^p01181 E q U ip m en t
better for f^ in ^ . at ma^ the y Scout motto, but it couldnt be stated any
layout i n f 16 ^nSineering. Nothing is worse for a field engineer performing a
the torj r ri|t d crew f carpenters than to suddenly discover that he doesn't have
nee e to get the job done. D ont be embarrassed, be prepared! The
, na e 9 ulPmenl required tor field engineering varies with the type of work, the
ase e work, and the preferences of the individual. Standard equipment used
by m ost field engineers includes:
Standard Equipment
Field book (preferably bound) Whisk broom
4H pencil or lead holder with 4H lead Calculator for quick checks of pre
calculated layout data
Small protractor (C-thru Ruler Model
3751 or equivalent) Straight edge
Plumb bob (24 oz. minimum) Sighting target
Gammon reel Marking pen
Hand level Several rolls of plastic, colored flagging
Carbide tipped etching tool Chalk
25-foot tape (preferably graduated in Marking crayons

inches and tenths)
5-m eter tape graduated to mm Hammer for driving nails
6-foot engineer's rule Orange marking paint
Clear coat (varnish) to preserve layout

Tack-ball for cupped hub tacks lines
"Red-eyes (nails stuck through a 1" Safety belt and harness

square o f plastic flagging to mark And, of course, a belt and some type of
chaining points) sheath or leather carpenter's apron
construction surveying
c h a p te r one
Equipment Checklists . understanding of the capabilities of the

A field engineer should have a tno fe ^ (hat proper equipment is selected to
various surveying equipment av bilities of various types of equipment
perform the work, Information o u] provide detailed specification
cPan be obtained from the - " ^^capabilities1of the equipment,
sheets that can beanused
To obtain to an.evaluation
unbiased y J all or t 4equipment
of j aiiab]eavailable,
^ ^ ^ the field
engineer should consult 'he vanous ^ tensci omparisons of spe

profession. These magazic0 Parjsons of EDMs, total stations, theodolites, levels,
of equipment. Annually. P b.:shed jn these magazines. Contact a local
comparisons.
Software and Computers
More and more jobs arc of the complexity that computers are required for the
computation of layout data for the work. A short discussion of software and
computer equipment is presented here.
Select Many people buy computers and then think about software. That is just
software firs t, the opposite of what should be done. Software should be selected, and then the
and then buy computer which is needed to run it efficiently should be selected. Software is
hardware! selected to do your tasks efficiently and easily; the computer is simply the
electronic box that waits for instructions.
Software. There is a plethora of
surveying software on the market today.
It will run on all types of computers,
from the hand held, to the PC, to the
mainframe. Your job should dictate the
types o f softw are needed. M ost
surveying software is very broad in
scope and tries to cover every calculation
that could ever be encountered.
Fortunately, some of the powerful software com es in modules that will
allow you to install only what you need at the time, with the option o f upgrading
to more modules at a future date. This is the type o f program that should be
considered. Again, the field engineer should consult with various trade magazines
that annually compare the software that is available. These comparisons should
help in selecting the software that fits your needs.
Computers and Printers. With the ever-evolving technological advances in
computers, it is not possible to recommend specific computer hardware. What is
written today is obsolete tomorrow. Just a few general com m ents about selection
philosophy are possible.
Buy a computer that has the capability to run the software that is planned
calHm r ^ Ut the PrjeCf- If a Spedfic surveyin Prgram being considered,
now f , b !!* 7 aSk 'f upgrades t0 ,he software are going to require more
pricesôf ccmmute 7 " ^ P SSiWe ^ what *1.1 * needed, with the
computer that L b u d g e t c ^ 'a f f o S 8 ^ ^ 86,186 ^ ^ m St P Werful
surveying!^ graphic^pri^ter n e c e ^ T t S ^ S ftWar6'S 6XP6Cted ^ In

more popular plotters by printing graphics Some 7 Prmt6rS 6mUlate ^
language and can nlot i L , , f P Som e P in ters can understand plotter
ge can plot in small scale the images that the software sends to plotters.
1-4
getting started and organized @
DAILY oUHEDULING
One of the most difficuit a
A field Everyone on the ioh ' 4 t,vitles *be Eeld engineer will be time management,
engineer's engineer who is contSlte Want engineering activitiesNOW! A field
schedule is a someone's perceived'1111^ ^ putting out Eres by trying to respond in an instant to
key to success. time by planning D ?e S W'^ mn ragged- 11 *s better to take control of your
o f time. Using a d i3* ^ scbedules are essential to a field engineer's organization
w ill make your t' ^ ^ scêdule to communicate your plan to others on the jobsite
engineer must dI6 ^ & engneer much easier and more enjoyable. The field
occur. Time ^ an, WOrlc t0 aôw for unforeseen problems which usually seem tc
subcontract must e budgeted daily for activities such as layout, record keeping
Dlan c o n t i r meet,ngs staff meetings, and inspections. The field engineer mus
uous y to stay ahead of the work requirements of others on the jobsite
Sample Layout Schedule s the daily activities o f a fie Id engineer for three
The bar churt schedule here show ictivities and their duration are indicated by
days. The planned sequence o f a
length of the bar.
field engineering responsibilities
Fi,d Engineering
Responsibilities
Success Characteristics 1 -8
Field Dut ies 1 -9
Of fi ce Dut ies 1-11
Shared Duties 1-12
SCOPE
The position o f field engineer introduces you to a variety of jobsite activities that
will develop your understanding of the construction process and of company
m anagem ent systems. It is extremely beneficial that you work in this position
before m oving on to project engineering, area superintendent, or estimating. This
position is flexible and is designed to fit the capabilities and background of the
individual as well as the specific needs of each project.
Many companies place all of their newly-hired graduates into this
position because there are many fundamentals about the construction process
that can only be learned on the jobsite. As a field engineer, youll be exposed
to control and layout, excavation, concrete forming, placing and finishing,
steel erection, mechanical and electrical installation, shop drawings, and other
im portant aspects of project documentation. Performing field engineering
duties well and understanding the construction process are very important to
your success and to the success of your projects.
1-7
construction survey|ng
0 chapti:r n r
.e n r s the following characteristics:

SUCCESS C H A B A C T W ^ ......- - ........
,ohoaSlK /'in s tr u c tio n . on individuals who enjoy the
Be committed ||uc|j011 company being .he best constructors
Z S f r - * * " * * " * '

possible.
Be Willing to Work enBjneering if you dedicate
only be success!., ^ orkcr docs whatever ..
yourself to working hard. A h a.
takes to get the job done.
Be an Initiator Continuously be looking

Good constructors :,ie ality. and efficiency,
for ways to improve safety, quality
Be Responsible dcoends on being w illin g to take personal

Your success on your prqi- s I ^ proj ect are being successfully
responsibility tor seeing n a . . doesn't assum e that things are being
Z X Z L Z ' ^ " engineer checks it out.
Taekea theUdmeo1erarn every detail about your project. Ask questions. The more
questions you ask. the more rapidly you will learn the construction bus,ness, and the
more quickly you will advance. You will be expected to know the project details.
Be a Learner
Listen to everyone on the job site. Y our project engineer,
superintendent, and project manager are interested in your
development and in your understanding o f the construction
process. They w ill teach you at every opportunity. Pay
special attention to the craftspeople and forem en. T hey are
your best sources to learn the d etails o f construction m ethods.
Be a Communicator
Good com m unication skills are very im portant to your
success in construction. If you can effectiv ely com m unicate
with others, you will be able to ask and answ er questions
qu ick ly , a c c u ra te ly , and c le a rly . B e in g an e ffe c tiv e
com m unicator may be the single m ost im p o rtan t q uality of
a successful field engineer.
Be a Leader
Set an example for other workers on the jobsite. If others see th a t you are going
that extra step to achieve quality and efficiency, they w ill follow .
These qualities and characteristics w ill prove in v alu ab le to y o u in su ccessfu lly

performing your primary duties and resp o n sib ilities as a fie ld en g in ee r, an d w ill
establish habits which will carry you th ro u g h y o u r en tire c o n stru c tio n career.
f ie l d d u t i e s
The
with f,e,d engineer
the office works
enginee - . for the superintendent. This position, together
' h irect*>
advancem ent as a d ^ S ^> S't.*on' *s used as a part of the training leading to further
A . rject engineer, area superintendent, or estimator.
way possible Bv w k * most *mPrtant function is to help the superintendent in any

learn the const^ctTon n r 3S team, projects will be successful and you will
on process first hand from someone who was once in your shoes.
Engineering Layout
topic is discus113^ dUt*CS aS 3 Cngineer wiH be engineering layout. This
Engineering i Se m more detail in Chapter 20, Construction Control.
engineering Layout includes:
Providing stakes for site work which

tablishing primary, secondary and
involves locating utilities, sidewalks,
orking con trol points that are
earth work, and other activities that
tworked together, and are used to
control the final condition o f the site.
cate the project accurately.
'
i ,
\.y :
f ;ii
i
--'
, B
--------------_____ _
m m m 'T1 1
- % 'v: __ -/
g caissons exactly so that they Determining the position of retaining

iport the structure as designed. systems so th a t they p ro v id e the
m axim um safe w orking space; and
m o n ito rin g th em fo r m o v em en t
throughout the project.
construction surveying
chapter one

.catintt anchor bolts exactly so that

, y are in the proper location and
rrect orientation.
[MBBBBBBoB
dQDDDDDDOODO

Positioning structural steel so that it Establishing line and grade that will be
fits together, is plumb, and is placed at available to the crafts as structural
the correct elevation. concrete and metal decks are placed.
Locating embedded items, sleeves, and

M arking the location of c o n crete
blockouts precisely within the structure.
columns so they are square and plumb.
10
Utility Layout. Locating the sewers,

pipes, electric lines, and other utilities
on the jobsite.
performing !^ .Ul û,'es f u field engineer are extensive. Guidelines for

* nese activities can be found in this text.
Quality Control
Quality is the of activiti "g:nT r it? iI1 hC necessary for you to check the accuracy and adequacy
key t o success. In m w V ! rk' ,n'P,aCe aS lhe Progresses. Continuous quality
_lfl r C P 0 ensure that cstly mistakes do not occur. Quality control takes
Pldse * construction. Therefore, a field/office engineer is often
P1 CnS1 e wor^ Performed by the general contractor and the subcontractors.
arming qua lty control work is a most important step. A field/office engineer
must interpret schedules, know what work is occurring, and know what work to
inspect. To accurately inspect work, the field/office engineer must understand the
plans and specifications for each work item. Therefore, it is essential that the field/
office engineer review the plans and specifications before the work begins.
Planning is vital to preventing delays in construction.
The quality of layout determines the quality of construction. A field/office
engineers primary duty is layout, and his or her first quality control inspection is
to double-check the layout. The rule of thumb is do everything twice. All layout
work must be checked by measuring distances, turning angles, running level loops,
and establishing control. Mistakes in layout must be detected to prevent rework.
It is far less costly to double check layout than it is to demolish and rework an item.
Supervision
As you gain experience in the field, your superintendent may instruct you to direct
a small work force, such as a labor crew or subcontractor crew. The skills you
develop will be necessary for advancement within the company.
OFFICE DUTIES
Field engineers do not spend all their time in the field. There are activities in the
office that are also required. This is sometimes called office engineering and may
be the duty of the field engineer or a person assigned to be an office engineer.
Office engineering introduces the paperwork aspect of the construction process to
you Office engineering consists of working with shop drawings, submittals,
schedules trend curves, and other important aspects of project documentation.
Performing office engineering duties well and understanding th e construction
documentation process are very important to your success and to the success of
construction projects. Some specific activities of office engineering are:
Project Documentation funcdon t0 assist in the recording, updating,

cemveying!6interpreting, and maintaining of the project documentation. The
1-11
"n 9
chapter one
. :ect documentation is very important t0 th
4.imelv processing of p ' . ,rs.an(jing of the project administratis
ucceôTthe company ^ ^ f o l l o w - t h r o u g h is a good method of tracking th"
This It ensures that "tatena.s are on the jobsit,
materials 7 " /I r e needed by the crafts,
at the time that they Materials
Pr C fr nTr activities as an office engineer are the procuremem
T7 ,ric k in g of materials. This will involve processing the
anb e , shop drawings, and change orders in a timely
"T o avoid project delays. These activities involve
" i h - v i e w for completeness, accurate conformance
thorougn specifications, and coordination with
subcontractors and suppliers. It will be your responsibility ,0
Z lu r t that these are up to date and available for review at a
moments notice.
Information Requests
As the project progresses, assist the office supervision team
(office engineer, foremen, and superintendent) in the
preparation and follow-through of information requests by
conveying questions to and from the architect and owner.
Your ability to satisfy the owner depends on an understanding
of, and effective communication of, the owners requirements.
SHARED DUTIES
Although there are duties specific to the field engineer and duties specific to the
office engineer, there are also several related activities that are performed by
persons in both positions working together. From the moment a field engineer and
an office engineer are assigned to a project, they will work closely to support each
other's work and will complete many tasks together.
S a fe ty is Planning for Safety

fo r life! Every project involves many people working toward a common goal. As a field
engineer or office engineer, you are responsible for the coordination of their
activities and for their safety. This is where careful planning is of prime
importance. It is the policy of most companies to perform work in the safest
possible manner, consistent with good construction practices. To meet this policy,
an organized safety program must be administered. One o f the first activities of the
field or office engineer is to become involved in the safety program.
Materials Handling
Just as there will be many people on the jobsite, there will be many materials. This
is where planning becomes necessary. It will be up to you to check the materials
requirements in advance, and then to coordinate the deliveries of the materials. As
the materials are delivered to the jobsite, you must be prepared to check the
e ivery for proper quantity, quality, and condition of the materials. Keep a record
ot these deliveries, and of productivity and manpower. Because these records are
e asts for issuing checks for work performed, it is essential that they be accurate,
that m t f S 316 r S USed n estimating similar projects. I f you keep good records,
T y V r tUre T mates wil1 be accurate- WWle paperwork is certainly noi
daily to fin It8 PT f y0ur-iob is very necessary and valuable. Set aside tinu
datly to fill out productton records so that your reports are as precise as possible
1-12
field engineering responsibilities ( g
lIntaeddPretatl0n Plans
to qu^k i*l Ûr 0têr resPorsit>ilities, you must be prepared
subc 1C ^ and accurately assist the craftspersons or
speCT traCt0rS W*th lê interPretat*on f the plans and
pro1 1Catl?ns' oôr to do this, you must know your
dimeCt-inS^ e and Ut' ôu study the Pianslk fr odd
th f n^l ns and highlight them so they are not overlooked in
h e h!e ^ aP clumns are 50 feet on center and one is 49.5,
^ ** SO d easily noticed and won't be laid out
at 50 feet.
Attention^1"9 S ch ed u le
engineer, youll b 'S.VCry mPortant in the area of scheduling. As afield or office
both daily and w 6 !?Sponsible for developing detailed short-interval schedules,
complete oroiert ^ ^ ^ ese schedules will be the tools that will be used to
your innm mr)1 S n tlmC anc* w*dl*n the budget. Their accuracy will depend on
your input and communication with the project superintendent.
field/nffir^ ~ 1S S Can Cdeve*Ped for all types of work. The checklist enables the
that similar ngl/1eer to systematically check work as it progresses. It also ensures
u ffjTr ltems are checked using the same criteria. Checklists are needed
i ? e complexity and cost of construction work. Many checklists should
comp ete y a field/office engineer as well as a foreman or superintendent.
Problem Prevention
P resent In performing all of your duties as a field or office engineer, it is most important
problems by t at you work to prevent problems. It takes a full grasp of the processes involved
planning. in a project to prevent problems. This full understanding will be gained through
experience and by asking questions whenever necessary. The most successful
people in any industry are those who can anticipate problems. By recognizing
potential problems, costly delays can be avoided.
As-Built Surveys are performed by a field/office engineer to determine if
finished work meets the specified tolerances and has the proper size and location.
Finished work should be surveyed immediately after the work is completed. If
there is a problem with the work, this would identify where corrective action is
needed. Some areas that are normally checked are interior elevations, flatness of
floors, and locations of embeds. Accurate notes of as-built surveys need to be kept
in the field book. This ensures that the work has been checked and that the work
was in accordance with all tolerances and specifications.
Teamwork Requirement
As you are doing your job, always remember that you are part of a team, you are
working with your project manager, area superintendent, superintendent, and project
engineer. Work closely to avoid duplication of effort. Continually evaluate and
correct your efforts as necessary.
Remember also that at this point, you are in a learning situation. You are
expandin'* your knowledge so that you can become the finest field or office engineer,
or move up in the company. Remember the resources you have in your project
manager, superintendent, project engineer, craftspersons, subcontractors, and this
text By remembering these things, you can look forward to a full conceptualization
fo r, * * * * * and rewarding career in conamrciion.
1 -1 3
^ ofKipte*' one
Preparing Reports
and Charts
1.15 Recordkeeping
1-16 Trend Charts
SCOPE
The duties of a field engineer go far beyond layout and control work. Some of
the most important responsibilities are those ot docum entation, recordkeeping,
and preparing trend charts. This includes the docum entation ol all engineering
work performed in the field, as well as adm inistrative records such as production
reporting, project and subcontractor logs, caisson logs, concrete placing logs,
and trend charts. These records are vital to the evaluation of project status and
unit cost accounting.
The success of a project, and ultimately the success of the company, depend
to a great extent on how well the cost monitoring system functions. The field
engineers may be responsible for gathering the basic input information. This
information will include calculating the labor time, the cost codes to which these
times are charged, and quantities of work accom plished. The field engineer must
be impressed with the importance of accurate reporting. Inaccurate cost records
yield nothing of real value and often defeat the basic reasons for keeping records.
1-14
preparing reports and charts @
RECORDKEEPING
Paperwork may not be
However, it is one of th nC f ^ m re glamorous duties of a field engineer,
completed on time T & m St imPortant and it is necessary that it be thoroughly
the daily schedule p accomPbsh this as needed will require careful planning of
completing the pape Ur^Se^ set aside a time block each day for the sole task of
recordkeeDino erw rlc- A field engineer who is a true professional will treat
P ng as one of the most important duties of the day.
A used field The9Rn e e r S F'eld B k

book is activities ^ t S ^ k s*lould be considered the heart of all field engineering
invaluable. lavout h Wl C tb*S bok that all pre-planning, control information,
book rW ' C eS. w o ,*c activities, and project conflicts will be noted. The field
a l^cni a S nt>t SlmP ^ represent a means of notekeeping. Rather, it represents
s h n n l H u C U m e n t W h ic h m a y b e subpoenaed to court should conflicts arise. It
, , e maintained in a neat and orderly fashion with consecutive pages
a e an prepared in ink, and with no erasures. All information should be
escri e and stated clearly so it may be correctly interpreted by someone else,
t t e conclusion of the project, each Engineers Field Book should be
numbered and labeled before it is submitted with the projects permanent files.
Field books are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices.
OBSERVATION Jan 20.2002
While pouring concrete

to d a y a t level 4 , 1noticed Also 6 workers in
th e rebar stirrups on level placing crew. Note th a t
5 were bent a t 4 5 degrees on production report.
ra th e r than 3 0 degrees per
specifications. Check with
architectural
representative to see if
changes were made to
m aterials list.
Other Documents
Input may also be requested from field engineers for completion of other forms.
Some typical documents used on the project include the following:
The Daily Project Log is the only complete report of day-to-day activities on the
project. This report is designed to be as specific as possible while including all
pertinent information. The project log is completed in detail and includes weather
conditions, concrete pour locations, employees hired and laid off, crew sizes, and
descriptions o f all subcontractor and project activities. These logs are then
review ed by the superintendent, project manager, and area and district managers,
if needed. All unusual or unique activities or circumstances are entered and may
be used in court.
'"y
^ chapter one
, ,r Da/Iv Reports are completed each day by the su b con tract

S ubc ontra c tor Daily k p These reports describe crew size, area. '
superintendent or jobM e ^ (o be brough, to the contractors attem if
activity, and an> c _ maintained as part of the projects permanent fij
The subcontractor may choose to make copies
Daily and Weekly Production Reports are filled out at the end of each week with
the production quantities that were completed during that week Each cost code
Which has had time charged against it must have corresponding production reponed
Setting up a check sheet of alJ cost codes will be helpful to ensure that all codes which
have time charged against them have production recorded. The field engineer should
request that all foremen submit their daily time cards for review at the end of each
work day. This will enable the cost code check sheet to be current. Production should
also be collected on a daily basis and tabulated on a form. The collection of data
a daily basis will not only improve the accuracy o f that data, but it will eliminate the
need for late Friday afternoon quantity takeoffs. Daily production reporting f0
take many shapes and may include very detailed questions. S
TREND CHARTS
In order to complete a project on schedule, communicating the progress of the
Post trend in place is extremely important to everyone on the construction site One J c k
charts so tools that is used to communicate with everyone is a graphical representation 1 '
everyone is progress called a trend chart. y on *
aware o f job Trend charts are simple but effective tools that show, in an instant
s ta tu s ! that are ahead of schedule, on schedule, or behind schedule tlVltles
schedule, everyone knows it and action can be taken f Ifa f V,t,es are behind
Specifically, trend charts graphically depict the r>mo acceIerate the activity,
and show schedule requirements PgreSS f consttion activities
Basic Setup of Trend Charts
The principle lines on a trend chart are:
tons of steel^piecesôf^teef^sq^Me'fee o f 7 ' * ^ CUbiC yards of t e r e t e

acttvtt.es on the project can be quantified by s o m T " ^ * * ' JUSt ab W a11 of tha
?3SI;,et
Horizontal ___
iS:repreSents^ b m eiie Vertical Axis
_ Actual
it could even be ho* Cm'Cal ime Production
Line
Target Line
connects thenstantimeTndnht hat

the Projected end date T ^ 111
Typically, Early S tal and P ,qUamity'
Dat o f the activity are shoaw t FiniSh
Actual Production Line- ic a
or kly monitoring
7 ' e t a , i n , | , i e re|ln.hip! J " Pnd " * of,'
.head of target line6' nd,cal,ngthatthepronucl|n^(d f darl sk Wn
remained succe
preparing reports and charts
Indicating Success
determinedCata? ^ r Con" ele Placement, similar to the one just shown, it can be
and the taro^t r d0Ce that the relatinship between the actual production line
the ^ mdlcates tha<the production of concrete was good throughout
enpinppr u never droPped below the target line. Undoubtedly, the project
n l thC suPerintendent paid close attention to this chart and were
roughout the project that it consistently showed positive production.
Indicating a Probiem
An example that might cause some concern and action by the superintendent at the
start and almost to the end of a project is shown below.
On a trend chart for a dry wall subcontractor, it can be quickly seen that the
production fell behind from the first day of the project. Action was taken, and the
activity finally finished ahead of schedule. It is probable that the superintendent
was working on this activity throughout the project and was relieved when it
crossed over the target line to be ahead of schedule.
It should be apparent by now that trend charts are indeed an excellent

communication tool that can be used by all subcontractors and craftspeople on the
job. Trend charts may be copied and passed around for everyone to take back to
the office. A better method is to prepare them on a large sheet of paper and hang
them in a place that is highly visible to everyone. They can be constantly monitored
for the work progress every day.
Historical Data
The trend chart can also be used as historical data for use on future jobs. Any
relevant inform ation should be recorded on each trend chart such as the type and
size o f building, cost, location, weather conditions, subcontractors performing
work, etc. Contact the C hief Estimator to see if the information is needed.
A t the end o f the jo b , it is ideal to prepare a manual with copies of each
trend chart used on the jo b with all pertinent historical information so it can be
filed w ith oth er jo b records.
07
Qualified Land
Surveyor
Becom ing a R e g is te r e d S u r v e '
1-19
L ia b ility
1- 19
SCOPE
A major mistake by some layout personnel and others in construction is to think
they are registered land surveyors capable of determ ining the legal boundaries of
a property. They feel since they are know ledgeable about m easuring, they can
establish corners to build from. They think they can save tim e and m oney by
assuming the fence at the edge of the property is the property line, and they can use
it as a reference to locate the structure.
In many states, it takes several steps to becom e a reg istered lan d surveyor.
Some typical steps are presented in this Section.
1-18
qualified land surveyor @
b e c o m in g a REGISTERED SURVEYOR ors To

In most states, property surveying must be performed by registered experience
become a registered surveyor requires a combination of eduâ) ! ^ t Consult the
under the direction of a registered surveyor. All states are 1 er -rernents are
state board of registration for exact requirements. Some typtca r
listed here in the order in which they are attained.
Education
of most states 66 ^ an accred*ted surveying program is becoming a requirement

communications etc ^ f.Ur~year deree includes mathematics, physics,
Surveying Co * ln addition to specific courses on Land Survey Systems,
Desi s?n * mpUtatl? ns; LeSal Aspects of Surveying, Instrumentation, Subdivision
designed tn ,nptl n rd*n Courthouse Research, etc. Surveying programs are
ranee nf S- rtf amunt of time an individual must spend learning the broad
range of top.es that are necessary to become registered.
Surveyor-in-Training Exam
Upon completion of a four-year degree in surveying, individuals are qualified to
a e an eig t-hour Surveyor-in-Training (SIT) examination which covers the
opics studied in the undergraduate degree program. If successful, an individual
is t en 1 entified as a surveyor-in-training, and must now complete the experience
requirements for registration.
Experience
After passing the SIT, the typical state requires four years of land surveying work
experience under the direct supervision of a registered land surveyor. This experience
must expose the individual to all of the tasks that are expected of a practicing surveyor.
Professional Exam
After spending the required time in the field, SIT becomes eligible to take the
professional licensing exam. This is typically an eight-hour exam specific to the
duties of the surveyor and specific to the laws of the state. If successful, the person
becomes a registered surveyor!
An Alternative Method
Some states still allow individuals to become registered without obtaining a four-
year surveying degree. However, the number of years of experience required is
greatly increased, typically to at least 12 years.
So, the most direct method requires four years of education, passing the
SIT, four years o f experience, and passing the professional exam. The minimum
time required to become a registered surveyor is eight years and without the
education, 12 years. The reason for strict registration requirements is to protect the
public from persons who are not qualified to perform property surveys.
For a field engineer to feel fully qualified to establish property surveys after
having had one or two surveying courses is very foolish. Dont think it! Dont do it!
LIABILITY
If you are directed to perform surveys that establish property lines, you are
exposing yourself and the construction company for whom you work to tremendous
liability. If you locate a project from property lines that you establish, you are
responsible if the building ends up on the wrong property, or at the very least,
violates setback regulations established by the local government. Hire a professional
land surveyor for any m easurem ent that relates to property lines.
Summary
^ IO
Be prepared and you wiU be a good field engineer.
Obtain the proper personal equipment to perform m e ted .
work hard to learn to efficiently use the equ.pment of surveytng.
use daily scheduling to coordinate your surveying activates.
Understand the role of Field Engineering on the constructton site.
Follow quality control practices and checklists throughout your career.
Good notes are invaluable! Keep good, clear notes.
Trend charts are an important communication and scheduling tool forProjects
or personal goals.
Construction layout does NOT qualify one to become a Registered Surveyor.
MISTAKES AND ERRORS FROM THE FIELD

Not having the proper equipment for the job.
Lack of personal safety equipment.
Choosing software that has limited capabilities.
Leaving an activity off of your daily schedule.
Not working hard.
Being unable to interpret plans.
Keeping sloppy and inconsistent field notes.
Practicing land surveying without being licensed.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. List 10 personal tools carried by a field engineer.
2. Why do you think a safety belt or harness is needed in construction layout?
3. On a word processor, prepare a poster that could be hung on the wall, denoting
the personal items you would use for construction layout.
4. Prepare a bar chart of your daily schedule for a busy day of the week.
Determine if it keeps you from forgetting activities.
5. Review the success characteristics of a field engineer and determine which are
most important to you.
6. Describe the relationship between the field engineer and the superintendent.
Describe the duties of the office engineer.
Describe the role of the field engineer in quality control.
a g al ^SaVC money lose weight, etc.) and use a trend chart to keep
track of your progress towards that goal.
10 become H c e n s S ^ SUrVey r y Ur and find out what i( takes *
1-20
chapter two
communication
The Basics 2-2
Communicating with Signals 2-11
Stakes and Laths 2-17
Marking Line and Grade 2-25
Abbreviations and Symbols 2-30
Summary
crn<H"-
e
The Basics
General
unications
Or a l C o m m
unications
ritten Comm
W
Meetings
Dealing with P eople
Giving and R e c e iv in g C ritic is m
R e c o g n i z i n g Communication Barriers
SCOPE
A field engineer has to be competent in two distinct areas to be successful. One is
the primary reason for this textbook: being technically com petent and able to
perform construction surveying and layout. The other distinct skill of the field
engineer is to be able to communicate the results of those technical tasks that are
performed. The field engineer will have to discuss layout with the crafts and be
able to provide lines and grade for their needs. The field engineer w ill have to
communicate with the superintendent the points that have been laid out and the
plans tor future layout. The field engineer may have to com m unicate with the
owner giving an overall description of where parts of the project are located and
how the phases ot construction will occur. In short, the field engineer will
constantly be communicating. The field engineer m ust be ju st as com petent in
communication skills as in technical skills.
This Chapter provides reminders of some of the rules of thumb regarding
commnn-CS t- Wntt and oral communication. It also presents several
^ thC fie,d Cngineer Uses indudi"g hand signals, surveying
stakes information, marks and lines, abbreviations, symbols, and crane signals.
2-2
the basics @
GENERAL
.......appears to be simple, doesn't it? But, as a field engineer, how

do you do it well? How do you ensure that the other person understands you.
And how do you know that you say what you mean? How do you cause others
to complete the task at hand? Every day, all day long, your contacts as a fte
engineer require that you have skills in dealing with your bosses, fellow workers,
subordinates, subcontractors, and customers. Your contacts require that you
know how to deal effectively in delegating, discussing, explaining, listening^
managing, motivating, negotiating, reporting, and writing. You must be a
interact courteously, criticize effectively, gather information, make decisio
deal with conflicts, hold successful meetings, and solve problems. This sec \ ^
is offered as a brief collection of recognized skills and ideas to remem er m y
business dealings. First and foremost, the field engineer needs to un er
some basic principles of effective communication within the wor p ace
Dont ever compromise integrity or honesty. Once you hav ' ^ m i t y0ur
dishonest, it is aimost impossible to overcome ,t B e i s only
mistake and move on to improvement. Attempting to cov p
temporary because it will be discovered.
Remember Good Manners

Pay A tte n tio n . Answer correspondence and telephone messages promptly; use good judgment;
maintain a good rapport with co-workers; do not postpone thank you's; offer
praise, congratulations, sympathy, and assistance; and during meals, use good
table manners. Leave an area cleaner than found; promptly return borrowed
items; and develop structured work habits.
Think, Talk, and Act Like a Business Person

Present yourself in a way that makes your priorities clear to everyone. Be
perceived as someone who knows what the construction business needs and
deliver it. A nticipate problems and take care of them quickly. Extend courtesy
to all you meet as you never know when you might need their assistance. Be
accessible. Dress for success and think for success. A proper professional
m anner will gain support and respect from others and will help to build social
bridges. O thers will work better because they are being treated with dignity and
respect, and you will feel better and act better.
c o m m u n is
0 chapie' w o
Always Double-Check thathe field engineer mus, a.

seT
^'"w
Throughout this it on|y must the techn,cal aspects of cons,
double-check measuremen . check
fe
dor accuracy, communications n,u
surveying and layout be doub e che K arch itect .
he double-checked for " J ^ f ^ e r i n l e n d e n , has said? Is it ^ H at
, heard a. the meetings , ^ doub|e-check. *' 1 h*ve
communicated to others ? Check, checK,
ORAL COMMUNICATIONS communication is
ZSpfiSXSSZ
L ^ '^ d b u H d i d n o t s a y w h a t
you think I said.

These statements are expressed
expi
i rp neople working
:;:s r c .a y
S is a skill which must be
cultivated. You may think you are
discussmg and listening, bcaw
JeU
ÎT e are thinking about what we are
Aore is learned . ,^ ' nex Others have a hard time remembenng names of the people
by listening ,o whom y are introduced because they are waiting to hear them own names
;han by talking. during the introduction process. Effective verbal commumcatton ,s a key to the
success of a field engineer.
Are you listening well? Truly effective people have mastered the art of
listening well. It is a crucial skill in business and on the jobsite. Listening well
requires personal strength and self-control. An especially difficult atmosphere in
which to listen well occurs when there are strong differences of opinion present.
However, by using the following suggestions, even the poorest listener can learn
to listen effectively.
Effective Listening Techniques
Put the other person at ease.
Show that you are actively listening.
Make a conscious effort to concentrate.

Remove distractions.
Occasionally repeat or paraphrase what the speaker has said.

Be understanding and patient.
Try not to focus on the appearance or abilities of the speaker; remember that
thought-speed and speech-speed are d i f f e r e n t . _________ _
Watch your temper and the temptation to argue or criticize.
the basics
Since "seven"
and "eleven"
sound the
same, it is
common
practice to use
the word "punk"
fo r el even.
Good Telephone Habits
Be prepared - Know your material.
Call the person who can give the right answer.
Know what a satisfactory answer will be.
Exchange information, questions, and confirm.
Write down the date, time, caller, and take notes.
Follow up with a written memo to confirm the details.
Make short, uncomplicated calls.
M onitor your feelings, voice, and language.
Use words and examples which are familiar to the listener.
Speak slowly, enunciating each word, especially when speaking with one who
speaks another language._____________ ______________________________
Use your own phone when possible. _____________________ ___
Lim it personal calls on company time to emergency calls.________________
M ake occasional friendly calls to fellow business people to maintain rapport

communlcat|0n
chapte' two
Radio Commuoicat ^ ^ critica)

Radio commumca se messages
communication^. ?' the same
V\ \ /) i A
s r s s jw .. V
conduct clear discuss,ons.
------- awavjTom your chin.

SpeairsiowiyTenu^.attng each word, P

and concise
manner.
Exchange information, questions, and confirm.___________
Use words and examples which are familiar to the listener.
Use one word, "Out." to indicate end of discussion.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS
When you create memos, letters, reports, RFIs, or letters of transmittal, you are
presenting certain facts to your reader. In order for your document to be
understood, and in order to present a proper impression, you must present those
facts in the most correct manner. A document that is poorly structured and full of
unclear paragraphs, incorrect words, and misspellings, can easily give the reader
the impression that you are not a reliable person in business. This wrong
impression can easily be avoided by proofreading your document. In addition,
errors in your work may even cause future work to be in error. Although a study
of English language writing principles cannot be covered in this manual, you will
find presented here a discussion of a few common areas which might be of
assistance in producing more clear and correct messages.
Writing an Effective Letter
lettCr r memo accomplishes what the writer intends to carry out a
memos om i>nPerSUad! , SOme0ne agree r t0 take action- Effective letters and
presentation. A document shouldP<m C herence loSical thinking, and order of

important items, make sense Provide reasons, be concise, be easy to note
misunderstanding. The tone shouhTh" , r ' necessary inform ation, and allow no
attention to tone of voice point f ^ tactû* cêar and persuasive, with
repetition, and correct use of View word choice, crow ding, punctuation,
'"elude bo.h geJ
K nnf
2 'S
. genders as in "his
? f " her*d " a l Remember
ls not mentioned. r er, or turn sentences around so that gender
the basics @
Structure:
Introduction,
&ody.
K T ^ p^ " t:rente
important facts^F ^ expected structure^ t0 be structured in a three-part manner,
Conclusion. a conclusion In jVf.ry letter or memo y??r audience may glance right over the
contain an introd! dUl n ever> individual d C ntain an intr<>duction, a body, and
are goine tr> Uctln, a body and ^ paragraph within the document should
g l"8 to state, state it, and s t ^nclusion. In other words, state what you
Double-Checkinn , W Ut y U stated'
Before finishing a doc?/ Err rs
word usage (through, threw* it's! always to run a spell check, read over for
S imPrtant, ask someone m i Cn than; a^ ect*effect; etc.), and, probably
errors you might not and will Ver document. Another person will see
w,U read for understanding.
m e e t in g s
At times, you will feel h

between two people or an/! * U^ your revolves around meetingswhether
Before meeting with ^ many' ^ ey are a vital part of the operations of a firm.
en, ro persons, supervisors, and others, prepare yourself.
Plan
m ie t^ V anZTnV gt,think ! b Utthe *oal of the meeting, identify the reasons for the
information r ab Ut What Wl11 be exPected of yu at the meeting. Identify what
nersnrml F ^ necessary before and during the meeting, and identify a
personal purpose for attending the meeting.
Arrive Well Prepared
Pont bela te Br i ng to the m eeting up-to-date
fo r m eetin gs. information on recent accomplishment,
what is in place, what contacts have
been made, what follow-ups have been
made, and what problems there are.
Verify all facts and prepare them in a
well organized, easy to follow fashion.
Adopt Good Meeting Habits

Speak honestly and courteously. Speak less then one minute when not making a
report. Avoid interrupting others and carrying-on side conversations. Listen
carefully and observe facts, feelings, opinions, silences, mistakes, and ideas.
Learn from the disagreements, and always be patient.
A ctively Participate J ,
Study the needs and desires of the audience; collect feedback, and make appropriat
and positive com m ents. Ask for updates from subcontractors and others, and
deliver m essages in an interesting, but brief and simple manner, with a clear use
o f directives.
E ^ S r ' M"w f od
personal voice quality, and use appropriate words.
com m unication
chaptc two
. the method o f deal ing with every0ne
"
is different' Ht' Personalities w ith another is to discern how
Determine W * ? , U s f l receives your m essages^ As a field
A*irs. step i" and how he or ihe J rson alities, som e o f whom you
be or she commumcates severa, types p ssive, take-charge type 0f
engineer, you wl1' W|enge. There w'' f responffb ility to others, the one who
Will find to be a .|, be the one who shltts rb. Pjns detached and independent, or
person. There w.ll be em a.ns ^ o n , y in te re s te d ^
following rules. You will find others
who are great work companions who
understand the i mpor t ance 0f
maintaining a good morale, good work
ethics, a sense of humor, and a proper
pace. It will be necessary to learn to
deal with each of these personalities
throughout the course of your career.
Watch for Nonverbal Signals ^ something is said is often more

You have probably heard should you watch for nonverbal signals from
- you .
your nonverbal signals as well.
Nonverbal S i g n a l s _____________________________________________
Movements of body and face
Tone of voice, inflections, silences
Eye contact (expected in American culture)
Touching (person in charge generally initiates in American culture)
Demeanor, emotions, culture, and background

How close we stand or sit
Learn About Your Audience

Another step in effective communication is finding out w hat m atters to your
mavhpnff T d^ cussing a task to be completed on a jobsite, you m ust know what
understand inlnthASe whomyou are speaking. People will differ in how they
r ean n: da d I T T nence in h0W they draw their concepts and
meanings, and m how they fit new information into w hat they already know.
Make Decisions
engineers nvnsf ,he ,b ili|y t e decisions. Field

Hen. - of - p ro je C
the basics 0
g iv in g a n d r e c e i v in g c r it ic is m
Criticism can be positive as well as negativeas much can be learned from a
complaint as from a compliment. Establish your viewpoint, understand the other
person's viewpoint, and remember both of your viewpoints during the talk.
When You Criticize

When you criticize, direct your criticism at the behavior, not at the person, an try
Control your not to criticize when angry. Instead of screaming "You shouldn't have done that. ^
temper. perhaps saying "This did not seem to work out, we need a different approac .
w o u ld " ,...I, ?n less dsm .ged fe .lin ,. . d is b e,,.,
attempt to determine what the other person is trying to achieve, and then imagine
how that person arrived at the particular
action, you can better temper your
comments and criticize more correctly
and effectively. Make a good, specific
criticism that is understood without
lecturing. Set a pleasant tone. Show
understanding. Offer support. Show
confidence that the person w.ll better
his or her performance.
chapter two
crillcism Iliate your views and your methods. T
v u d e c eiv e c rltl , t0 reevaluate y ^ becom e self-defensive. When
Whenvlu receive e o ^ ' ^ others. and try " nt and reasoning c a p a b l y
S s 5
become clou q RIERS
....IIW ICA TIO N B A H rtl to you or will not understand you
BEC0 0 W c " (:^
p' n " " " 1
Use hand signals if possible.
Employee Status Levels Some wi have greater responsibilities than

Show respect for those around y nel on the jobsite have a part in
s s s s t js -
Lack Of BaSiC l<n " lee ^ not have the technical knowledge of construction
5 as does a field engineer. Be prepared to explain and teach the basics of
measurement and applications.
Differing Word Definitions

The same word may mean different things to different people. Ensure that everyone
understands the same definition for the terms and measurements you are using.
Insufficient Interest
Overwhelming someone about the details of an item will lose their interest.
Explain things one step at a time.
Lack of Praise
People need to be told they are doing a good job. Not rem em bering to thank or
praise for previous effort may result in silence.
Poor Listening Ability

Some people j ust have a short attention span, or may have lesser hearing capabilities
Poor Habits
cracking ^ra^chinp10118^ m Vmg 0r makln noises such as tapping, chewing

^ ^ ^ 7 h v ! , > ,,,8^,,8 ur m0Ving Cl0S6r and closer. R efrain fror
avoiding your fair s h a r L S p ^ S y ^ 8 miSUSm8 Pr P erty a rriv in late a"
Procrastination
Everyone, from your co-workers tn
while phone calls and messages rema' CUS mer t*res having to call repeated)
of finding it necessary to repeat infer UIT SWered or ^ retu rn ed . They also tii
Poor response time to requests is abo n T " 3086 f inadquate notetakin
* > - r . n l r rmea
rot the
h progress.
P i,lly when
2-10
(
communicating with signals @
Com m
Un'cating Wjth
Signals
*'"> , r N u mt , . r
2-12
2-13
' e l d P e r a t i o n s Si g n a l s 2-14
S i g n 3 I S tO P r
0 C r a ne O p e r a t o r ,
2-16
SCOPE
Hand and arm signals have been a part of communications since the beginning of
time, and still are for several reasons, even in this age of electronic communications.
It is often easier to use arm or hand signals than it is to speak due to equipment
noise; or it becom es necessary when batteries fail. Sometimes hand and arm signals
are the only means o f communication for persons who speak different languages.
W ithout hand and arm signals, construction methods could be more difficult or
tim e consum ing. For these reasons, it is the responsibility of the field engineer to
quickly learn hand and arm signals that are used on the construction site. Some
exam ples are shown on the following pages.
2 -1 1
$ chapter two
There ere ARMSIGNALS FOR NUMBERS

severe1methods o f c o m m u n ic a tin g n u m b e r s b y arm signals. The m
shown below is one which has been in use for several years. It is a Jogica] m
A lso, the recipient of the s ig n a ls do esn 't have to think i f the right arm or the J C^ 0^-
is being used to create the signal because it doesn't matter. Therefore, ma C^ arhi
illustrations below show two persons, one showing the signal with the r' Lf l he
and the other showing the signal with the left arm. Each is a correct wa ^ arhi,
the same signal. In this method, also, it can be noted that the signals for S^0vv
one through five are combined to create
------ ^ mcp the signals for numbers six th nUlT1bers
ugh nine
2-12
communicating with signals
HAND s i g n a l s f o r n u m b e r s
W hen using an instrument while holding a clipboard in one hand, an^ i^ ^ rson
set of plans under that arm as well, it is advantageous to the instrutne^ ^ arid
to be able to communicate with one hand instead of two. The o
signals allow a person to signal a prism holder to move away or
instrum ent a specific distance.
Eight
Seven
Nine
Move closer
two
chapter
Ur
years o f use by surveyors and
and usually self explanatory.
FIELD OPERATIONS SIGNALS
The following pages oi
oil ove
Move right or left

Pick up and
Give me line come ahead
Good No Good
I want line
This is a Clear line -

Down or Up benchmark I can't see
Close to grade
T h is is a tu rn in g
p o in t o r 1 n e e d a Plumb rod or
tu rn in g p o in t prism pole
(move arm slowly)
2-14
communicating with signals
ovmc types of arm signals, the amount of movement to the Poin* 1S

communicated by the length of time the arm is held out to the side. To move live
feet or more to get on line, the arm is held in the direction needed until the ro
holder gets close to line. Often, the rod holder will go past line, and the signaler s
other arm w ill have to be held out to compensate for going too far. Once the ro
holder gets within a foot or so, the arm is moved slowly in the direction nee e
As the rod holder moves closer, the arm movement becomes very quick. The ma
movements w ill involve quick movements by both arms as the rod gets closer an
closer to line. When the rod is held exactly on the line of sight, both arms are
waved at the side to indicate, "Good."
Moves until stopped
Arm moving continuously in direction pointed.

Indicates to move in that direction until stopped.
Stop by waving both arms.
Moves very slightly
Quick arm movement indicates to move slightly

In direction that arm is pointed.
2-15
,,lcati0t)
chapter two
SIGNALS TO CRANE OPERATORS
Hoist Slowly Travel

stakes and laths 0
Stakes and Laths

Pr i n
Pl eS f C o n s t r u c t i o n S t a k i n g 2-1 8
Princinipo ^
o m m u n i c a t i n g on S t a k e s 2-20
S e t t i n 9 S t a k e s on t h e S i t e 2-2 1
SCOPE
Construction stakes are the first on-site evidence that a project is about to begin.
Nothing is built until a project is staked. Nothing is built accurately until the stakes
are located correctly and the information on the stakes is conveyed clearly.
Communicating to the crafts on construction stakes is one of the most important
and most difficult aspects of field engineering.
Learning to communicate clearly on construction stakes is attained by experience
as a field engineer. But like the "chicken and the egg" and which happened first, how
can a field engineer communicate well on stakes without experience?
This Section will cover some principles on dealing with what information
should be written on stakes, and some guidelines to be used with typical stakes
generally required on the construction site.
2-17
communis
"'lot,
Q chapter two
S T H U U i iu m i STAKING
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION w ..
A ny tim e sta k es aflrp
re pnlaced
la c e d bby fie ld eern g in e e r , the persons who will be
y aa field
them w ill h a v e c e rta in
e x p e c ta tio n s a b o u t the types of stakes that are ueedan<n*4
a Vle'v*n&
they are placed.
Face Stakes in the irection o f use. For highways, center liBe

Face stakes so they ca ^ from (he beginnmg o f the project. Place offSe,
stakes are placed so they ca |ine. For buildings, place corner
stakes to be read from a person sand mg * such as when a ^
fading fro tfh e front u n b u i l d i n g . Offset stakes are set so they are read frotn
inSide Everv'project is unique, so the field engineer should think about stake
p.acememTn the planning phase, and develop and communicate a system that is to
be used by all.
Use the Proper Size Stake
The size of the stake often indicates its use. There are three sizes that are typically
used by field engineers, and they are typically called hub, stake, and lath.
Always Label , , , , , , ,
All lines or marks intended for use in the layout should be labeled so that their use
is clear. If it is for line, label which line or offset; if the mark is for elevation, put
the elevation on the mark. Many a mistake has occurred because the labeling of
marks and lines was not clear.
Hub. When a new bundle o f hubs arrives, it is a com m on and
Faint the tope encouraged practice o f some field engineers to promptly
o f hubs while paint the tops of all of the hubs at once. The paint dries and
bundled
the hubs are ready to be used. Typically a 1-1/2 inch by 1-1/
2 inch piece o f wood that can be obtained in lengths o f 6",
12", 18", or 24". A hub is generally used to mark a sp ecific
point such as center line points, control points, radius points,
curb and gutter lines, blue tops, etc.
Stake. Stakes are typically a 3/4 inch by 1-1/2 inch piece of
wood that varies in length from 12 to 48 inches. Stakes are
used for center lines, offset lines, slope stakes, and as
information stakes next to hubs, blue tops, etc.
Lath. Laths are 1/2 inch by 1-3/4 inches by 48 inches. Laths
are used predominately as guards for hubs and stakes. Laths
may also be used to indicate the limits of a clearing or as a
rough location of easements. LD
Offset Stakes for Protection
offset them. O ffsetting^ d efin eT ^ th 1 111 -b e m 8 destroyed by construction is t(

of need. The amount 0 fl" h
o a f StakeS away r "off"
discussed throughout the book S ^ ^ type f construct<on and will b
stakes and laths
be set within a tenth Uracy (tolerance) required for the work. Some stakes can
Fieldwork Practiser e*' ' 6 otbers must be within a hundredth. See Chapter 3,
c"ces,for a discussion of tolerances.
p lace S o lid ly
wn't placlJpropeHy "Jj / f t ' 31 Wi"d

a l ^ I n h S 1 ^ h^ m^ 8"ounnd
P|ace Plumb
Sloppy stakes a^d lafhsart T- ^ ^ StakeS

(not plumb) for grade inf ^ S lât t*ley are c*ose to plumb. There may be a reference mark
usually indicate stake is lean' ^ ^ ^ bottom f the stake which may become confusing if the
to cimpr; 'I 8' ,d the extra time to position stakes to be plumb communicates
sloppy measure to supenors that the field engineer cares about quality.
ments.
Place Centered
When a stake or hub is driven to
represent a point, time should be taken
to drive it so the exact point is close to
the center of the hub and on line and
distance. If remeasurement shows the
point is at the very edge of the hub,
take the extra time needed to position
it correctly.
Color Code the Flagging

Plastic flagging can very etlectively be used to communicate the type of stake and
type ol point that is being located. Three colors of flagging can be used, such as
red. white, and blue, to communicate different types of points. Recognizing there
are dozens ol dillerent colors of flagging available, the combinations available to
the field engineer are almost limitless, as shown here:
Color Code Flagging
S u rve y in g Point Flagging Color(s)
Primary Control Red/White/Blue
Secondary Control RedAVhite
Building Control Red
Benchmark White/Blue
Ttemporary Benchmark White
Slope Stake Red/Blue
Finished Grade Blue
2-19
p r i n c ip l e s o f
XTING d What you place on stakes if you are not consist
NO one will be able to ^ s to" n o w in g principles should be followed carefuy m
in how you mark them.
m Print Neatly is Used in the field book (all uppercase letterin
S . s c
s
Don't Legibly
Writecrowd mhpr(; Write from the top to the bottom of the stake
the words and numbers.
rV every time.
o
o Use Understandable Abbreviâtio^ abbreviatjons (i e B .C. could be read
tt as
If possible, write the ^ o f Curb) A field engineer cannot afford to have

Beg - r
, misunderstand thef
the verbiage
verbiage on a stake7 or lath. Som word
.......
abbreviations a miliar throughout the industry and will not be misunderstood.
However there are many abbreviations that have more than one meaning, and the
only way"to remedy the situation is to record as many letters as poss.ble on the
layout markers. . .. . . . . .
If abbreviations are to be used, discuss with others on the jobsite to
determine an acceptable abbreviation for common terms that are being used. A few
common abbreviations include:

Abbreviation What it means
Toe Toe of Slope
Top Top of Slope
P.I. Point of Intersection
P.C. Point of Curvature
E.O.P Edge of Pavement
B.C. Back of Curb

F.B.D. Flat Bottom Ditch
T.B.M. Temporary Benchmark
B.M. Benchmark
J ---- uicic die woras. rieia engineers can oe

creative in using abbreviations as long as they are com m unicated to everyone
on the jobsite. J
Use All Sides
bm the
Typical Order of Information
on a stake. Whate v e n d e r v o it's d^^ S rder f information that is presented

stakes in the same order P remember t0 remain consistent by marking
2 -2 0
stakes and laths
Stake Communication
. A* .
1. Station Number
2. Alignment information
3. Centerline ôfl
4. Offset O __ -

2 .
5. Cut or fill data rF>
6. Slope
gl
u\
Other information might include >o
General information description d
Super elevation data
Reference information
Specific information
Grade information
SETTING STAKES ON THE SITE

Stakes are used to indicate information for many areas or activities on the construction
site. Some examples are for indicating site-clearing limits, rough grade, fine grade,
slope, curb and gutter, pipe, minor structures, control, and many, many more that
aren't presented here. A brief description is presented here of these few.
Cut or Fill Stakes

On many of the types of stakes listed on the following pages, cut or fill will be
shown on the stake. The reference point on the stake that indicates where the cut
or fill starts is commonly called a "crows foot." Specific crow's-foot marks are
used for cut, fill, or on grade. Additionally, some persons use color-coded
surveying flagging to indicate cut or fill on a stake. This practice allows an
operator to view stakes on the site from a distance and readily see what areas will
be cut and what areas will be filled. For example: Red flagging is used on a cut
stake, and green flagging is used on a fill stake. When the stake is on grade, both
red and green are used. See the illustrations below.
Cut On grade
Fill
2-21
0 c h a p te r two
Some persons even use flagging

to indicate how much cut or fill. For
example: three red strips of flagging would
indicate a cut of 3 feet from the crow's
foot. Two green strips would indicate a
till of 2 feet from the crow's foot. Some
persons have even taken this farther by
using white with the red or green to
indicate that the cut or fill is less than a
foot. White and three reds would be a cut
of 3.1 feet from the bottom ribbon. See
Site-Clearing Limits
Tolerance:
Horizontal +\~ * 0
Set stakes within a tolerance that includes
the vegetation that is not to be cut. On
some projects, simply cutting one small
plant can be detrimental, and stakes
should be placed around them to indicate
not to remove them. Overall, there really
is no set spacing between stakes, but one
must consider fluctuating the clearing
boundaries. When a boundary moves in
and out, there must be stakes at each turn
of the clearing line. The stakes that are
placed must be visible before, during, and after cutting. If the boundary permit
stakes may be set every 100' or more. In site clearing, offset stakes are not necessarv
because the stakes should not be removed from the ground Offsets bee ^
necessary only when the marker stakes will be removed or are in danger of hT *
removed in the course of normal construction. ^
Rough Grade
Tolerance:
Horizontal +V0.T
Vertical +\- 0.2'
Stakes will be set on offsets from the
centerline at locations determined by the
contractor or plans. 100' intervals will be
the maximum the stakes should be placed.
Fine Grade
Tolerance:
vertical +V
These stakes may be set as o
may be set as the centerlin
elevation measurements will 1
off of the top of them. Cut or fil
noted on each stake. The i
between these stakes should b
less. Noted on the stake will b(
number, elevation of top o!
alignment designation, and cut
front
stakes and laths
S lo p e
Tolerance:
Horizontal .v A ,,
Vertical + \- 0.1
Since the^ +'- 0-1*
being removed f r o t h e d '" da" 8er f y 7
should be at a 10 m he d,g8,ng> they 22+50
scale stakes f r o r r T 0" 86' - NeWr C- 11.5
<3> 2:1
mathematical calcuHfP ri" her Use
field lo ra f u,at,ns to determine to back
& ' Berm
w n L n rf ,rn 1r dsSlope
h a v e th
: tormar
stakesn should
* C- 15.7
<5D1/4:1
them- off r ing 'abels a,tacbed to to
Pitch
from* ' d,S,anCe- ,0,al fil1 or cut
L e,X,ISt,lng lo P ^ P osed . total
to, a SPe distance S|PC ratio,
total distance to and from the offset
stake, offset elevation difference from
A
|
existing centerline elevation (+ or -)
and, station number.
i Curb and Gutter

Tolerance:
Horizontal +\- o.Ol1
Vertical +\-O.OT
This offset should be relatively close to
the center line, somewhere less than 6.
Grade elevations should be written as top
of curb, and offsets should be written as
back of curb. Hubs with a tack should be
used on the offset line for referencing
vertical and horizontal control. Stakes
should have the following labels: offset to
back of curb, cut or fill to top of curb,
gutter slope, superelevation of pavement,
and station number.
Pipe
Tolerance:
Horizontal +\- 0.01
Vertical +\- 0 .01
There are two kinds of pipe stakes: hubs
and laths. Hubs are used for alignment
and grade while laths are used in writing
c - 7 .3
information such as percent grade, offset

distance, station, type and size of pipe
to bottom
(dia.), and cut or fill from hub to the

invert. All runs of pipe should require a
minimum of two reference lines: one at
the beginning of the run and one at the
end. The reference lines should be set
perpendicular to the pipe run so as not to
interfere with digging and dumping
a e ra tio n s. The offset hub should be at
least 15 feet from the reference hub at
2-23
Oh
cm *" fvv0
9
Minor Structures
Tolerance:
Horizontal
+\- o.or
+\- o.oi
V e rtic a l
H eadw alls, in le ts, c u lv e r ts . C a tc h b a s in s ,
and ju n c tio n b o x e s s h o u l d r e q u ir e a
reference lin e w ith h u b s o n e i t h e r s id e .
R efere n ce lin e s s h o u ld r e fe i to th e c e n t e i
o f a fu n c tio n b o x . th e c e n te r o f a n in le t,
the inside b a ck w a ll o i a c a tc h b a s in , a n d
the fro n t fa c e o f a h e a d w a ll. G rades
s h o u ld c o m e f r o m th e p la n s or be
calculated to th e in v e r ts o f th e s tr u c tu r e s
th e m se lv e s, n o t th e in v e r ts o f t h e p i p e s
running in to them. L a th s h o u l d c o n t a i n
the fo llo w in g in fo r m a tio n : s t a t i o n , o f f s e t
distance to th e s tr u c tu r e 's e x a c t l o c a t i o n ,
eleva tio n o f h u b . a n d c u t o r f i l l d i s t a n c e
to th e stru c tu re 's i n v e r t or even to th e
b o tto m o f th e s tr u c tu r e . S o m e t i m e s t h e
^ / s ( pssibIebecausethe
o r th e ca tch b a s in s m a y d i f f e r from catch
basin to c a tr h h s c in U
Control
2-24
\
marking line and grade
arKing Line and r

Grade [l ......i
General 2-26
Principles of Marking 2-26
688,0 P r i n c ' P es of Chalking Lines 2-27
m m u nicating the Meaning of Marks 2-27
rnples of Communicating Line 2-28
Examples of Communicating Grade 2-29
SCOPE
Visit a construction site and everywhere you look will be evidence of the effort of
the field engineer to communicate to the craftsperson. In addition to stakes there will
be lines and marks that indicate the working control line and grade needed for the
crafts to build the structure. Pencils, lumber crayons, spray paint, chalk lines, nails,
paint sticks, ink markers just about anything that can be used to mark a line is used
to make the marks. Some field engineers are very meticulous and precise in making
marks that last and are easily understood, and other field engineers sloppily strike a
line that no one understands. This section will list some principles of how to make
good marks and identify them, and will present a few examples of good and poor
marks that have been observed on projects.
2-25
'urnuni
{vVO
g e n e b aL
.....
S" 'K' 1 ' ,ed ,o describe how a building ls ,0
_ MARKING , sc terms ate . marks should be made f0I ^
***-",IS?-*,
.. . .... " y ; ; , , , , " - 11- .....
s
, ut should be labeled so that their ust

Del , . for use in the W " ' if the mark is for elevation, PM
marks intentk id, line or o ' d because the labeling of
. r is ftn |,ne ' f Many a mistake has o
is clear- , ,he mark-
the e'e' n<'1;" s ot clear,
marks and hnc.
Straight laced on the floor

Whenaline.sbetn,Pference jn the
to he used as wal)s, it must be
conS,rUC'T other words, it should no
-on line. ln otl h other and it
he s k e w e d one way or the ^ ^
should n0 ^ ^ lf 0actL n line. When
; r r : - h - ; should spat the line
for its entire length.
WRONG
Horizontal lines placed on a wall to be
used as a reference for elevation shoul
be placed exactly horizontally. Lines
should not slope at all. If they do, at
which point are they to be used as a
reference? In the middle? At the right
end? At the left end? Mark them
horizontally and these questions won't
arise. See the examples for marking an
elevation on a wall.
Plumb
Vertical lines placed on a wall as a future
target must be plumb. Vertical lines
should not slant one way or the other so
aperson using an instrument in the future
has to guess which part of the line to
sight on. See the examples for proper
and improper targets on a wall.
2 -2 6
marking line and grade 0
b a s ic p r in c ip l e s o f c h a .
Itdoesnt, CHALKING U N E S
and confusing. Rea^ * *5erson to rea^ze that chalking lines can become repetitive
destroyed before it include having to re-chalk because the original line was
understand what COU d be used; or, having so many lines that it is difficult to
needed. Some principles of chalking are;
Color code the
----- ^ vumpany Color ..
chalk line.
When many contractors are working in the same area, multiple chalk in^
common and can be confusing if everyone uses the same color. It is he p u i
who are going to be chalking lines will choose different colors of chalk to tden y
their work. Develop a project color-code chalking scheme to reduce mista
Enhance Visibility .
Chalk lines should be highly visible. Sometimes on dark concrete s a s,
difficult to see chalk lines if the chalk is also dark. One method of making *
chalk lines more visible is to spray a light-colored paint at a few locations
the line, then chalk on top of paint.
Protect Lines
Chalk lines often become worn off quickly or are destroyed
on the construction site because of the constant activity
where they are located. One method of protecting their
inform ation is to spray them with clear varnish or
polyurethane. Spray several spots along the chalkline to
preserve the line for future use if needed.
?fCcieba r s ^ a y l n 't available, simply use a nail or other hardobject to sertoe the
chalk line into the surface. Check the plans first to be sure a ftntshed surface
being scribed.
COMMUNICATING THE MEANING OF MARKS

When communicating the meaning of a mark to others on the construction site,
clarity is the best policy. This statement refers to the information included next to
a mark that is made for alignment, elevation, or distance. Too much information
may be confusing, and not enough information may stop the work. An experienced
field engineer will know what needs to be written next to a mark to communicate
to the crafts. An inexperienced field engineer should go to the foremen or
craftspersons to find out exactly what is needed and ensure that all necessary
information is included next to the mark.
2-27
communic
two
e
IlhisiiMcd below is .in example o f u vnc ll-w rittc ii stake commun'
next i> it. .m o\.imp/e of a poorlx w ritten one. Note the m issing W o'?1'011' ne
eoiiiiisinu in/onii.itioii in die pour I \ w ritten eomnmnieation. cls ana
WRONG
2" O ff of MHB Line
(NORTH. SOUTH. EAST. WEST?)
4' Above Floor

_________ RIGHT (ROUGH. FINISH?)
2" O ffs e t to South o f "H" Line Cut 10.4 to back o f Ditch
(TYPE OR DITCH?)
4' Above Finish Floor
M e a s u re 12.00" o ff th e
Cut 10.4 a t a 1j1 to back o f j5 average c e n te r o f th e dow el rods
Flat S ottom P itch to t h e flu s h f a c e of t h e
fo rm ...a n d th e n ...
12" O ff Powel Center to Face
o f Form
EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATING ,ulbs stakes, and other control points around the
In addition to the nionuim f()r the crafts wherever there is something
project site, the field engmeu ^ on ,inc marks generally include walls,
solid and on hue I places that are already poured or are in
ol ,h
mark to communicate line.
Develop
company-
specific marks
so everyone on
the job knows
who made the
mark.
Targets placed on a wall as Chalkline marked on concrete
backsights. between anchor bolt centers.
1- o*% V - 6" %
CD <>
Points drawn and circled on the floor

Nail on a batter board indicating face
indicating offset point for line.
of wall.
2 -2 8
marking line and grade @
EXAMPLES o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g g r a d e
In addition to monuments, railroad spikes, and other benchmarks around the
project site, the field engineer marks elevations for the crafts wherever t ere is
something solid. This generally means on walls, footings, foundations, floors
columns, and other solid places that are already poured or are in place,
following illustrations are examples of the correct way field engineers mar o
communicate grade.
jm
/ %
4 a A.F.F.
ELEV.
T CENTER "D"
LINE
9 5 5 .0 0
Grade for finish floor and control line Temporary benchmark marked on a
information. wall.
Control point number and elevation

Spike driven into a pole and
on a concrete monument.
prominently marked with a lath.
Grade for finishes on a high-rise

M arking a horizontal line as a structure.
reference.
2-29
----.municatt0n
^ chaptel tw
and CC
ABbrevlalons
S y m b o l s
n A b t > r e v i a t i nS
C om 1100
2-31
on s y m b o l s
Comm
2-34
SCOPE
In the process of communicating, it is often the practice of the field engineer and
those in construction to use abbreviations or symbols. The use of these become a
part of every memo and every stake that is set. The list of abbreviations that follows
are some of the more common ones that will be encountered. Symbols are used on
stakes, lift drawings and in the field book. Often times the best method of
representing objects is to use a symbol.
2-30
abbreviations and symbols @
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS
a k VC
Center of Curve cc
Abutment 1 a b m sl Center line CL
Adjusted abt. Chain Ch.
Ahead adj. Channel chnl.
And ahd. Chord chd.
Alignment & Chiseled Cross "X"
Altitude align. Circle cir.
Approximate alt. Clean Out CO
Area approx. Concrete Block Wall CBW
Asphalt A Concrete Monument CM
At Asph. Conduit (specify type) cond.(tel.)
@ Construction const.
Avenue
Average Ave. Control Point CP
avg. Coordinate coord.
Azimuth
az. Corner cor.
_______ "B 1 Corrected corr.
Back Corrugated Steel Pipe CSP
bk. County Co.
Back of Sidewalk BSW
Back of Walk Court Ct.
BW Creek cr.
Backsight BS Crossing xng.
Backsight for line BS Cross Cut CC
Backsight Rod Reading BS Cross Sections X sec.
Barbed Wire Fence BWFe. Cross Section X-Sect.
Batterboard BB Culvert culv.
Bearing Tree BT Curb cb.
Bearing brg. Curb and Gutter C&G
Begin Curb Return BCR Curve to Spiral CS
Beginning of Curve BC Cut C
Begin Horizontal Curve BC
Begin Vertical Curve BVC "D"
Benchmark BM Deflection def.
Between betw. Degree deg.
Block blk. Departure Dep.
Boat Nail BN Description desc.
Boat Spike bt. spk. Destroyed dest.
Book bk. Detour det.
Bottom bot. Diameter dia. or D
Boulevard Blvd. Direct D
Boundary bndry. Distance dist.
bra. Distance D
Brass
br. Distance, horizontal Dh
Bridge
bldg. District Dist.
Building
BL Ditch dit.
Building line dbl.
BLM Double
Bureau of Land Mgmt. dn.
byJ int. Down
By Intersection DH
Drill Hole
"C" Drive Dr.
calc. Driveway drwy.
Calculated
csg. Drop Inlet DI
Casing
Cast Iron Pipe CIP
Catch Basin CB
East E
Catch Point CP Ely.
CTB Easterly
Cement Treated Base Edge of Gutter EG
2-31
com m unicate
chapter two
Hub & Track H&t
EP Hydrant Hyd.
Edge of Pavement ES
Edge of Shoulder
Electronic Distance EDM in.
Inch
Measurement Inside Diameter ID
el.
EC Instrument inst.
Elevation
End o f H o rizontal Curve EVC Interchange intch.
End of V ertical Curve EW Intersection int.
End Wall eqn. inv.
Invert
E quation exist. IP
Iron Pipe
E x istin g Exwy. Irrigation Pipe irr.P
Expressway E HJM
E x tern al
Junction jet.
F "K
Fahrenheit fe.
Fence Kilometre km
FP
Fence Post ft. II
Feet FB
Field Book Land Surveyor LS
F In.
fill FG Lane
Finish Grade Latitude Lat.
FS ii,
It.
Finish Surface Left
FH
Fire Hydrant
FL Length of Curve or Length L
Flow Line Longitude Long.
ft. LC
Foot Long Chord
Footing ftg.
FS "M "
Foresight
Foresight for Line FS MH
Manhole
Foresight Rod Reading FS mkr.
Marker
Found fd. max.
Maximum
Foundation fdn. meas.
Fwy. Measured
Freeway Median med.
Frontage Road FR m
Metre
"G" Mid-Ordinate of Curve M
Galvanized galv. Mid-Point of Curve MPC
Galvanized Steel Pipe GSP Mile mi.
Gas Line GL Millimeter mm
Gas Valve GV Minimum min.
Geodetic geod. Minute min.
Global Positioning System GPS Monument mon.
Grade Gra.
Grade Point GP "N"
Grade Rod GR Nail N
Grid grd. National Geodetic Survey NGS
Ground grnd. National Oceanic and
Ground Gr. Atmospheric Administration NOAA
Gutter gtr. National Ocean Survey NOS
North N
H"
Northerly Nly
Headwall hdwl. Number # or no.
Height ht.
Height of Instrument HI "O"
Height of Inst, above point hi. Offset O/S
Highway Hwy. Original Ground OG
Hinge Point HP Outside Diameter OD
Horizontal
hor. Overhead OH
-32
abbreviations and symbols
Road rd.
Roadway rdwy.
party Chief PP- Rock rk.
Pavement PC Rod Reading RR
P rorated Meta. Pipe pvmt. Route Rte.
PMP
P "S"
Pipe, Pin
Place P Sanitary Sewer San.
Plastic Pi- Sea Level Datum SLD
Point plas. Seconds sec.
pt. Section S
PC Semi-Tangent T
Point of Compound Curv. PCC Sewer Line (Sanitary) SS
Point of Compound Shoulder shldr.
Vertical Curve Sidewalk SW
PCVC
Point of Intersection PI Side Slope SS
Point of Reverse Curve PRC Slope Stake SS
Point of Reverse South s
Vertical Curve PRVC Southerly Sly.
Point of Tangency PT Specifications Specs.
Point on Horizontal Curvi POC Spike spk.
Point on Semi-Tangent POST Spiral to Curve SC
Point on Tangent POT Spiral to Tangent ST
Point of Vertical Curve POVC Square Sq.
Point of Vertical Stake stk.
Intersection PVI Standard std.
Portland Cement Concrete PCC Stand Pipe SP
Power Pole PP Station sta.
Pressure press. Steel stl.
Private pvt. Storm Drain SDr.
Profile Grade PG Storm Sewer Stm.
Project Control Map Street St.
PCM
Project Control Survey Street Grade Str. Gr.
PCS
Property Line Structure str.
PL
Subdivision subd.
Punch Mark PM
Subgrade SG
______________ "R" Superelevation SE
Radial rdl. Surfacing surf.
Radius R II II
Radius Point rad.pt./RP tk.
Tack
Railroad RR Tan.
Tangent
Railroad Spike RRspk. T
Tangent
Record rec. Tangent to Curve TC
Record R, Rec. Tangent to Spiral TS
Read Head Nail RH Telephone Cable tel.C.
Reference ref. Telephone Pole tel.P.
Reference Monument RM Temperature temp.
Reference Point RP Temporary Benchmark TBM
Refraction Ref. Top Back of Curb TBC
Reinforced Concrete Pipe RCP Top of Bank TB
Retaining Wall ret.W Top of Curb TC
Reverse R Township T
Right rt. Tract tr.
R/W Transmission Tower TT
Right of Way
ROW Traverse trav.
Right of Way
Riv.
River
2 -3 3
^ i,on
0 Chapter two
"W"
tria.
Triangulation Water Line
TP
Turning Point Water Valve WV
Westerly Wly.
Wing Wall ww
Vertical With w/
Vertical Angle Witness Corner wc
Vertical Control VCM iiy h
Monumentation
VC
Vertical Curve Yard yd. "
VCP
Vitrified Clay Pipe U^11
Zenith Angle
COMMON SYMBOLS
2-3 4
Summary
IMPORTANT POINTS
To deve^T ^1011 ^ ^ m St imp rtant part of every action-

p trust on the construction site, be honest in all communications.
^ ecttve person, master the art of listening well.
anH r Wr^^n concise, makes sense, includes necessary information,
and cannot be misunderstood.
polite, and be on time for meetings.
_ an(? arm S^ na^s are an effective method of communicating on the
construction site.
For safety reasons, be able to communicate with a crane operator.
Construction stakes are the communication tool used to locate the project.
Line and grade marks are used to communicate to the craftsperson.
Use abbreviations to reduce the size of writing on stakes.

Instead of clearly labeling a lath for 36" blockouts, the writing was interpreted
as a 30" blockout.
Shooting line on the wrong side of a 4' level held vertical. Results in an
alignm ent m istake the width of the level.
B eing too em barrassed to ask a simple question, and finding out that a
dim ension had been changed that caused laying out a point at the wrong
d istan ce.
Not communicating clearly when cutting a foot, and the layout is one foot short.
W riting the w rong elevation on a stake, and using that elevation to locate a
footing.
U sing the plans instead of the shop drawings that show exactly how the
product was made.
L aying out the m irror image of the structure because of lack of understanding
o f w hat the plans are communicating.
W riting 6-3" when it should have been 6-3" and someone lays out 63".
M oving a point to the right when it should have been to the left.
W riting "Cut" on stakes that were supposed to be "Fill."
M isin terp retin g the co lo r co d e system .
. U sing som eone else's elevation mark on a wall and being off a tenth.
q u e s t io n s a 0 " - S*"a '
w ha is Che key to oral co use to remind yourself to be ^

2.
Develop a poster that y
3.
communicator. following sequential hand signals?
number is represented by
4 % What
is represented by the following sequential arm signals?

5. What number
6. ins stick figures, draw out the number 3456.

Using
E x a m p le :
7. What field operations do the following arm signals represent?
8. Draw the top 10" of a 2"-wide stake on a piece of paper and place the following
information on it: Station 3+56, Offset 25 feet Left of centerline, Fill 4.5 feet
at a 2:1 slope. Use your best lettering techniques.
9. Develop an 8.5 inch x 11 inch poster of a color code system for the following types
of points: primary control, secondary control, working control, benchmark,
temporary benchmark, slope stake, centerline, offset point.
10. Develop your personal "mark" for communicating grade on a jobsite.
FIELD ACTIVITIES
1. If possible, visit several construction sites and photograph or copy on paper

what is written on different types of stakes that you observe. Ask what they
mean.
2. If possible, visit several construction sites and photograph or copy on paper what
various marks represent regarding line and grade. Ask what they mean.
2-36
chapter three
le|dwork practices
Safety 3-2
Measurement Principles 3-10
Tolerances for C o n s t r u c t i o n Layout 3-14
F ' el d N o t e k e e p i n g P r a c t i c e s 3-17
G e n e r a l I n s t r u m e n t Ca r e 3-25
Us e a n d Ca r e of Ha n d T o o l s 3-33
L e v e l i n g an I n s t r u m e n t 3-43
I nstrument Setups 3-51
Summary 3-62
.iciuworK pr&ctii
9 chapter three
Safety
A Responsible Attitude
3-3
Personal P ro te c tiv e Eq u i p men t
3-3
Crew Prote ctive E q u ip m e n t
3-4
Hand T o o l H a z a r d s
3-5
Natural Hazards
3-6
Highway Hazards
3-7
Construction-Site Hazards
3-8
Safety S ta rts with You

3-9
3-9 Resources
^Proper clothing |
SCOPE
Safety is a common-sense topic which is often taken for granted by people who
work in construction. W ork-related injuries, including fatalities, occur 54%
more often in construction than in any other industry. People die from accidents.
If that doesn't make safety in this hazardous industry a serious matter, then
consider that construction accidents cost the industry billions of dollars annually.
This needless waste of manpower and money is a serious concern of management.
This Section cannot cover all aspects of safety that relate to construction
surveying activities, however, this Section presents those topics which will
commonly be encountered and involve the g reatest risk to the field engineer
responsible for construction surveying and layout.
3-2
safety 0
A RESPONSIBLE ATTITUDE
As a field engineer, it is
and to cover these with Ûr resPnsibUity to observe standard safely practices
Attitude is everythin^! trcw members and the craftspersons on the jobsite.
details. If you have a good Ur.u!,' tu^c s very important when discussing safely
that you will help others t ^ >S'l'VCu,l' lude about safety practices, it is more likely
to exist on company T ccome more concerned. Allowing un unsafe attitude
proven this tinu
nine and again. s w*ll result in accidents. Numerous studies have
i ^ roun^
PERSONAL p r o t e c t iv e e q u ip m e n t
H ardhats. Hardhats come
use, select hardhats with . J n man^ *yPes and colors. For surveying instrument
the instrum
instrument _~ a,<;S" , 'rl" 7 so ,*leu,e
ent scodp hatnal
won't
woninterfere with
1 ,n,ertere sighting
with sighting through
Some hats come with lardhats that fit comfortably and arc easy to adjust,
comfortable Alth et susPensin systems that are easily adjustable and are
However - i ^ Ug 1 any crdor can he selected, lighter colors arc cooler.
E v 7 p r ,7 , T y bC diCUted h* Jhsi|c requirem ents.
iobsite c r ,n ' , a ety ^ 'asses with side shields are a requirement on many
c le a r lenc^ tu ^ asscs don t have to be bulky, uncomfortable, or contain only
1 SCS . ey can sly,ish with multiple-colored lenses, tinted lenses, ultra
, ^ ct,on' anci even with prescription lenses. Select types that are comfortable
and stylish, and they will be readily worn.
Hand Protection. This is another item that allows for individual choice of
materials and styles. Requiring gloves but allowing for individual selection will
ensure that they are worn.
Fall Protection. Safety belts and harnesses are required when a worker is exposed
to a fall situation of greater than 6 feet. When surveying and marking points on a
high area, personnel should always be wearing a personal fall protection system
and be tied off to at least one or more anchoring points.
Safety Vests. Surveying requires placing points in hazardous areas whether it is
on the jobsite where heavy equipment is operating or next to a highway where cars
are traveling at high speeds. Field engineers should wear highly visible fluorescent
safety vests at all times. Select high-quality vests that can withstand heavy daily
use. Vests that contain pockets to hold the numerous small tools of surveying are
especially popular.
Ear Protection. Construction sites are very noisy at times. Sometimes it is
difficult to talk to someone two feet away. Field engineers should have some type
of ear protection system with them at all times. Most popular are the small
expansive plugs that are placed directly in the ear. Some persons, however, prefer
the flexibility of being able to take off a set of protective ear phones.
Foot Protection. Feet are the part of your body that are in constant contact with
When y o u r f e e t
the hazards of the construction site. For that reason, proper footwear is a must.
hurt, you h u rt
Slips, trips, and falls are some of the most common construction site accidents.
all over.
Proper footw ear can be a giant step towards jobsite safety.
Safety footwear is designed to protect feet against a wide variety of injuries.
Select shoes that are sturdy and protect against compression and puncture foot
injuries. When choosing shoes, walk in them to ensure they are comfortable Boots
should have ample toe room to avoid foot problems. Boots should be laced fully
TcUnnlrt fit snugly around the heel and ankle. High-cut boots provtde additional
pPl ^ > * "f
e v e ry penny.
l lUP' ,..T ther workers and the public th
_ C O U IP M E N l re(J to warn o of drivers when they are
cul/ PROTECTIVE E w should b* P r y o r s are a t he S e c t i o n . To present as
CBEW s s - ** m s s * access ,0 as many of ,he

standing"^''^rivers as Pssl
Mlowiug devices as PosS ment 'nclU^ Ahead is a sign that tells

Safety ^ - "Survey ,, kout for you and your crew.
reduce their speed aîxious sizes, types, and materials,
drivers to available in v rveying supply stores.
r ~ m av.''aWe 31 ve|iicle should have a gooj
S , L of safety cones to u sizes are available, the

S i n g in he area. A " ' a r e to see. Select highly visible
bigger the cone, the easw b 2g hjgh. choose cones with
fluorescent cones that^re (ape on them so that the cones
reflective tape on loW-light conditions,
will be even easier to s ^ ^ extremeiy hazardous areas, it
Flashers and Barrie hers or even barricades to prevent
may be necessary to ms crew. In the planning stages
harm from commgto th ^ (o identify the locations where
of the job, efforts shou ^ est risk. The installation
the surveym gcrew jier^ surveying control points will
J S S S e s t degree of safety when using an instrument tn
a hazardous area.
Dressing for the Envir0" ^ "t d with more than physical hazards. When
As a field engineer, you must be co com fortable, and the weather will
s r j s r . 2 = s s r s - ~
/
Summer
Comfort and safety go hand in hand when it comes to clothing.
The proper attire for summer heat is sun protective fabric that
is light colored, light weight, and loose fitting. Select clothing
that has a high level of UV (ultraviolet) protection. You should
wear a shirt, long pants, and a hat. The proper clothes will not
only provide comfort; they will also protect you from sunburn,
sunstroke, and heat exhaustion. If any of these heat-related
conditions occurs, know how to treat it.
In addition to wearing the proper clothing in hot weather,
it is important that you drink plenty of water. You should not,
however, drink ice water in large quantities. Ice shocks your
system and 1S not as thirst quenching. You will receive the
feed
iced o n ^ Always
one. AlShment ^ &C01
remember glaSS in
to drink f moderation.
Water rather * a n an
3-4
safety @
Winter
press in layers!
Proper dressing for winter is clothing which is light, layered, and cuts the wmd- ^
is best to dress in multiple lav* fit loosely rather than in a single larSe
.......... y ,he mostimp- - N ation. Moisture control incold
-s * ittwai important aspect of keeping warm. Even when it isn e
cold,brinp
and wearing
rn improper clothing
rT" that holds moisture close to the skin wi
an on hypothermia Th ^lds mistnre close to the skin will chill you
moisture away from the bodv d f tb*n^ layer closest to the skin should pull
purpose. Wool makes a e h ^^roPyêne *s much better than cotton for this
important when working u d Second i&yer to also pull away moisture. It is
easily ventilated to ~ ^ Sw,eat to have clothing and outerwear that can be
Preparation is the k CSS heat t0 escape.
covers your ears and head i f l avo*d'n8 cld injuries. Wear a hardhat liner that
so it is important to kee P *u ^~Percent f body heat can be lost from the head,
warm beverages ar* P y UF bead wed covered- Good hot meals and plenty of
One of ,he m T *"
Pr ,eCtion from the cold-
frostbite aJOr anêrs surveying in cold weather is the danger of
. . . . . - r - < * ^
frostbite an d . * and t0es' P roPer clothing will protect you from
risk in cold w azards suc^ as hypothermia. Hypothermia is a special
Can bC CaUSed an^ condidon that causes body
weather r hv F P 6 Wab Ut ^ degrees F. The bottom line is, be aware of the
n 1 ! ns ^ ou be working in, and plan for the worst extreme. Make
youarerea yp ysically and mentally with proper rest, nutrition, and clothing.
hand to o l HAZARDS
It will be your employer's responsibility to see that the surveying
crew is provided with the proper safety equipment to carry out
assigned tasks.
The crew should be trained in the proper care, operation,
and transportation of this safety equipment. With a trained
crew and proper equipment, the field engineering activities
that you will be performing will be both productive and safe.
The sa fe st tool
At the start of a project, brush and tree clearing is the
is a sharp tool!
first activity where hazardous conditions may be encountered
by the crew. Tools commonly used for clearing include a
machete, ax, lopping pruner, or chain saw. Because of the
nature of these tools and their ability to cause injury, care
must be taken when using them.
The main rule to remember is that the safest cutting tool is a sharp one. The
amount of effort required to use a sharp tool is far less than that required to use a dull
one. Therefore, tools are easier to control. So, keep your tools sharp!
Machete
The machete is made for light brush cutting. When using a machete, you must
always ensure that no one is closer to you than 10 feet. You must never use the tool
while in a tree, and you must stay clear of all overhead obstructions which could
cause the tool to be wrenched from your grasp.
3-
,p , three
s Chain Saw . cha;n saw may be used, however, there are .
^ heavier cleurinj: Jobf ^ h e n eratjg this tool. F.rst and foreni > e
equipmen' ' ,n ad t0 your normal ha' %

Aiway* we*r and proper shoes, this l"t _ free of dangling or ragged edges that
ALL
r when u "0 . cio,hine tha' ' s 7 " saw For additional protection, use nylon mesh p r o b 'd
C mui**"1 , X ep a ^ knee pads to provide increased p ro te c o n to yOUr legsc-ve
; , , hflIDro,ects your head from falling limbs or branches and alsnl,
mesh face shield. If a face shield isnt available, wear safety g0g ^
safety
a wire eye glasses$ wlIn
m esh- with side
--------shields to prevent injury from f]ying ^
r S igs sawdust.
- e and sa w d u st. ~ ~ ~'ir n,ues will protect your
wiI1 protect your ears fro*
ears fro a
Ch,P^ p r o f comfortable ear m u ff s o ^ .^ ^ from the saw.
Continual exposure to the 95-e loves w protect your hands from abrasions,
A od pair Of lightweight lea
snlinters. and cuts. tops will help protect your ankles in
A pair of safety hoots o ^ e s w . ^ h gmoving ^ b)ade. Steel toes will help
,he event of acctden Hmbs or iogs.
protect your feet from ^ you are on firm ground and that
When operating the chain saw, ^ ^ c h a in saw on the ground, and
observers are w e l l o f ^ ^ saw .
always use bot surveying can b egin . N otice that the area
You have now cleared a lineJ ? (rip over, Qr w orse yet> faU onto
to avoid being injured.
AR D S
NATURAL HAZARDS . _ . , ...
In addition to weather and equipment hazards, surveying m the field will expose
you to dangers presented by plants, animals, snakes, and insects.
Plants
Plants which you should identify and avoid in the field include poison ivy, poison
oak, thorn bushes, and sticker patches. Again, the proper clothing will help protect
you from the ill effects of accidental contact.
Clothes you should wear when plant hazards are present include heavy
gloves, long sleeved shirts, and long pants which are bloused at the bottom below
the top of your sock.
Wild Animals
Not only are plants a concern in the field, but as a field engineer you may find
yourself confronted with many types of animals. In addition to common domestic
dogs, it is not uncommon to encounter skunks, foxes, or bats.
When you are confronted by a dog, face it and stand still. Speak to it
animals^re no*tr^ t0 Pe t l- Retreat slowly while facing the animal. Wild
n ec J th e" fn8 e"ed of yu ^ you may be of them unless they are
IS present. A domestic animal ,b m u y t0ukkl111

T
1dso
ic ta b le an d very d an 8 ero u s-
11can be determined if rabies
omesttc animal should be captured so it can be observed for rabies.
3-6
safety
Snakes
p o i s o n o u ^ ' i al so P ^ s e n ts hazards to the field engineer. Many species of

It is the rt>' 0 nc' nP^sonous snakes exist and may be encountered on the jobsite,
tw o ty p es S^ n s , **ly Held engineer to be able to distinguish between the
sh aD ed ^h 6 **lu m *> *s th a t most poisonous snakes have a trlangular-

r , . 1 ^ h e se include rattlesnakes, copperheads, and w ater m occasins.
a ttie sn a k e s are the easiest to identify because o f the rattle on the tip of their tail.
not e r ty p e o f p o isonous snake is the coral snake. Anyone w orking in coral
csn
a na be
e hm a bade.
ita t sh o u ld study a picture o f them carefully so a positive identification
It is w ise w hen w orking in areas where snakes are known to exist to use all
p re c a u tio n s to av oid their likely locations. They may be under rocks, in dense
g rass, a ro u n d ab andoned buildings, etc. If w orking near any of these, watch your
step a n d h an d placem ent. W ear knee-high boots or leggings for protection. If
d riv in g sta k e s, carefu lly scan the area where you will be kneeling. Carry a stick
a n d w av e it a ro u n d rocks, grass, etc., to see if anything m oves or rattles.
I f b itte n by a snake, be calm and identify it as poisonous or non-poisonous.
A s c a lm ly as p o ssib le, get to a hospital for anti-venom treatm ent. Excited movem ent
a c c e le ra te s th e h e a rt rate and spreads the venom m ore quickly throughout the body.
Insects
More people die Another hazard in the field is insects. With no warning
annually from whatsoever, you may find yourself in a "hornet's nest," so to
bee stings than speak. A few of the many insects to be aware of are chiggers,
from snake mosquitoes, spiders, ticks, wasps, and, of course, hornets.
bites. A good practice is to determine which insects generally
habitate in the area where you will be working so you can be
prepared for them. Precautions you should take include proper clothing and insect
repellent. The use of insect repellent is a good general practice when in the field.
Insects such as chiggers cannot easily be seen and may become a nuisance only
after they have embedded themselves in your skins pores. Mosquitoes can also be
handled effectively with repellent, thus avoiding not only pain and discomfort, but
also the diseases they may carry.
Be aware of those persons on the jobsite who may be allergic to bee stings.
They must be injected with anti-sting medicine within minutes of the sting. Ask
for anyone who reacts dangerously to bee stings to identify themselves. Make sure
others on the job are aware and can administer the injection.
HIGHWAY HAZARDS
Now that many of the hazards of nature have been considered, it is time to consider
W atch o u t f o r
man-made dangers such as those encountered when surveying on public roads.
d riv e rs .
Traffic conditions are hostile and unforgiving. The ever-present speed of the
drivers, and distractions such as cell phones reduce drivers reaction times.
Generally, drivers dont respect traffic control signs, devices, or workers. This
combination of factors results in the danger of being run over, equipment being
damaged, or a motorist being caused to have an accident.
It is your responsibility to see that workers and equipment under your
control are safe when working around traffic. Precautions include signs, barriers,
traffic cones and orange vests. Fluorescent vests will make crew members much
more visible to the average driver. If set up along the highway, a spotter should be
assigned to the instrument person to warn of oncoming wide-loaded vehicles, or
drivers who ride the edge of the road.
3-7
-
r . vom * conducting
uw .......... , . , he n eed ed tf .h e s u r v e y s ,
h>. - ......* * . .1 .he volume o f ir.ltw ,, h w.l|
'" .o en d ed I 'e '" '1' " pch.n mo.on. nd
^ c*< ,l 1 . ... t.MfW|,n * I...-IIV1' lIlSllllH'CS riKun i. ''M
the hl<PP,n^
C O N S T R U C T IO N -S IT E H A Z A R around m ore than j .. m ttral
CO As a Held engineer. yn 11 |n ,c ti n .M,e h azard s w here a major p ,n^
highway hazards There are . ru c|jo n w orkers are exposed .o , ^
v o u r work will he _ 0|<.r risk o f w o rk -re late d injury or fa.ali.y th
variety of hazards and (are a F You ...us. c o n sta n tly rem em ber iha, tkt
e m p lo y e e s m any o .h e r U^. ^ ^ o n d is alw ays hazardous. Tha*
eonstruction e t c i m lin es, h eav y e q u ip m e n t, h .g h -n se building,
hazards include: high vol .g I ^ jc lU e re d debris. m a te ria ls , trenches, e.e'
falls, chem icals, noise. th at c a he e n c o u n te re d . F or the sake of
Those arc n fraction or im
brevity, ju st a few are d iscu ssed here.
High Voltage
High vo ltag e pow er lines are very
dangerous. Electricity can arc to the
ground if a rod is brought near the line.
The use of rods, even wooden ones, is
very dangerous, and you should only
use one which is clean and dry. Wooden
rods are the safest, but you must never
bring the top of the rod nearer than 10
feet from any power line. Never touch
any pow er lin e w ith any type of
surveying rod. Unknowingly it may
still conduct electricity.
If there is ever the need to measure the height ot a power pole, you should use
indirect methods using trigonometry. Measuring the height directly is very dangerous.
In addition to overhead power, you must be aware ot buried power lines
when you are digging holes or driving pins. It is best to call your utility company
to locate any suspected buried lines.
Equipment and Trenching

You must remember that heavy equipm ent presents on e o f the greatest dangers on
the construction site. It is essential that equipm ent operators kn ow w hen surveying
work is taking place in their area. T his is e sp e c ia lly im portant w h en surveyors are
out o f the direct view o f the operator, such as w h en su r v ey in g in a trench.
safety @
y u g e n e ra lly o u t o f an en " tren c^ es and holes is very dangerous. N ot only are

re n c h e s is also a m ajor Ulpmenl operator's view , but the dangerous nature of
p ro p e r a n g le o f rep o se ^ ren c^ es m ust be properly shored or cut at the
su rro u n d e d by a fen ce or es or trenches in heavy w ork areas should be
h o le o r tre n c h . A n ra *\ *s your option to refuse to enter an unsafe
re p o rte d to y o u r sim ^r S& C .s*tu a torb such as an unshored trench, should be
y o u r su p e rv iso r im m ediately.
SAFETY STARTS WITH YOU!

Hazards that exist on a construction site are numerous and always present. We've
looked at safety hazards brought about by natural causes, inclement weather,
insects or animals, highways, and the ever-changing construction site itself.
As a field engineer, you will be at the first level of responsibility for
safety. You must observe safe practices yourself and see that these same
practices are followed by your peers and every craftsperson and subcontractor
under your control. Every construction operation can be conducted safely if the
proper precautions are taken.
RESOURCES
Most companies are deeply committed to providing as safe a work environment as
possible for their employees. If you have questions about any aspect of safety,
contact your company's safety director or visit these sites on the Internet.
American Society of Safety Engineers - http:Wwww.asse.org
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health -

http:Wwww.cdc.gov\niosh\pubs.html
National Safety Council - http:Wwww.nsc.org
Occupational Safety and Health Administration -

http:\\www.osha.gov\
0 chapter
Measurement Principles TO !
Total H o n e s t y R e q u i r e d
3-11
M i s t a k e s vs. E r r o r s
3-1 1
A c c u r a c y vs. P r e c i s i o n
3-13
PRINCIPLES
W e want accuracy \ \
/ Â lw a ys check,N and precision. \\
' ' double-check \( (
and triple-check. M easurem ents m ust.
------------- -------------------\ b e honest. 1
\ R ed uce errors b y >>
V refined techniques
^ and better equipm ent.
Mistakes m ust
v be eliminated.
mil
-i
SCOPE
A field engineer must have the knowledge to perform standard surveying
measurements on the jobsite. Standard surveying knowledge includes measuring
distances, angles, and elevations, in addition to understanding mistakes and errors,
preparing proper notes, and caring for equipment. Everyone, however, does not
have the same basic surveying knowledge. This Section points out the important
aspects of the basics of construction surveying so everyone will begin with the
same fundamental knowledge. It is important to remember that you won't know
everything about surveying measurement. In that event, ask someone who does.
The bottom line for any field engineer is eliminating mistakes and reducing
the size of errors in measurement. This can only be attained through a thorough
understanding of measurement principles, and by being driven to check
measurements an INFINITE number of times to ensure correctness.
-10
measurement principles @
TOTAL HONESTY REQUIRED!

Surveying measurement i
R eD ort
Report w h ^ -vrfUrCment requ*res total honesty in the measurements that are made,
or what vn Z- measure no* what you have calculated that you should measure.
Covering n ^ SOeone wants to hear. There should be no cover-up of mistakes,
work au P a mistake almost always results in impacting some other aspect of the
t , . e!Toneous measurements will be discovered eventually. Later, when t e
mistake is discovered, it will cost more to correct.
It your equipment is faulty, report it. Don't try to use equipment that is
suspected of not being able to measure within tolerances. Repairing or calibrating
an instrument is cheaper than taking out a column or footing. Reference C h a p t e r
JO , Equipment Calibration.
Just as in all other aspects of construction, one of the most important

activities of the field engineer is to be a good communicator. Reference C h a p t e r
2, Communication. This involves listening to the foremen and craftspersons to
be able to perform the layout they want, and communicating the work performed
to the project engineer and superintendent. You should advise everyone of the
m eaning of information written on stakes or other survey marks so the correct
work is performed.
m is t a k e s v s . e r r o r s
Mistakes and errors always exist in surveying measurement. A field engineer must
be able to distinguish between the two. Errors are something we must put up with,
but we can't live with mistakes. Here is a discription of the two.
Mistakes
Mistakes are
Mistakes (also called blunders) are large. They occur because of carelessness, lack
LARGE and
of understanding of the plans, lack of knowledge about measurement techniques,
Costly and
and lack of knowledge about measuring equipment. Examples are: dropping a
Avoidable.
hundred feet when measuring a large distance with a chain, forgetting that a foot
was cut when using the chain, reading a rod one foot off, setting an instrument one
degree off, etc. They are large, but if proper measurement techniques are used, they
will be discovered before they can do any harm.
Mistakes are simply too large. Always remember to Check, Check, Check,
and Recheck your work. Measure all distances twice, turn all angles direct and
reverse, check into two benchmarks, calculate all coordinates twice by different
methods, etc.
Do whatever it takes to remember that mistakes/blunders are only
discovered by checking the work performed! Mistakes can be avoided if proper
procedures are used.
Errors
Errors will always exist in every measurement that is made. Always! They also
We can't live
differ from mistakes in size. Where mistakes are large, errors are typically very
with m istak es.
small. They are due primarily to human limitations or slight imperfections in the
We m u st learn
manufacture of surveying instruments. Human limitations are eyesight, sense of
to like w ith
feel or touch, physical ability, dexterity, overall mechanical talent, etc. Typical
e rro rs .
imperfections in instruments are a chain length varying slightly from the marked
length, the line of sight not being horizontal on a level, and perpendicular
relationships not existing within an angle turning instrument, to name a few.
3-11
work
A chap**' three
M It.K <w vii2
|>tic to carelessness
Large, cost!) Due to human limitations or sii^p
I sick of understanding o f plans, lack of ,imperfections in equipment
know ledge ol techniques or equipment R e d u ce e rro rs b y p ro p e r t e c h n i q ^ "
na.e in ta k e s by checking m a t h f o n n u l a s . or p r o p e r p r o c ^ i , ^
K lin ti
re -ch e ck i ng
50% of
measurements __ "'easurem*^
H um an e rro rs arc typically less than true X n. yoater th*n l
si/c and follow the laws of p~ b b My. value / \ true vatu,'
1
That is. they arc random and ,M be ft
equally high or equally low. Tf .
cannot be eliminated. They always
-
exist If a distance is measurtt _____ ^ T ~
True 1 1
times, hall o f the measurements will
fall short of theu ^ ro e v a lu c * 1 Therefore, they tend to cancel each other out if
measurements are repeated. We dont like to live with errors, but we must!
can minimize the effect o f personal errors tf proper measurement procedures arc
need They can be reduced in size, but never eliminated. Reduction tn the siZe
of personal errors occurs because better equipment is available, and thc
measurement techniques are honed and refined to near perfection.
Instrumental errors are systematic in nature. That is, they follow the laws of
S ystem atic
physics, and they can be eliminated by mathematical formula, or by following
errors can be instrumental procedures which cancel their effect.
eliminated by
The tape is an excellent example of how the laws of physics apply \q
mathematical correction calculations. The length of the tape is established under controlled
formula o r by environmental conditions in the factory. As soon as the tape leaves the factory and
measuring is no longer at 68 degrees Fahrenheit, the tape is no longer the length it was at the
procedures. time of manufacture. Temperatures above 68 degrees cause the tape to expand in
length, and temperatures below 68 degrees cause it to contract. Since the
coefficient of expansion of the steel in tapes is known, and the change in
temperature is recorded, a simple formula can be written to eliminate the effect
varying temperature has on distance measurement. The same analysis holds true
for other conditions that might affect the tape.
A transit is a perfect example of how proper instrumental procedures will
eliminate errors. Errors in the axis of the instrument will occur systematically in
normal use. That is, they will be the same every time an angle is measured. If the
procedure of measuring angles first with the scope in the direct position and then
in the reverse position is followed, any error will occur one way the first time and
the opposite way the second time. Therefore, by splitting the difference and
eliminating the error all together, the correct angle is found. This topic is discussed
further in Chapter 5, Angle Measurement, and Chapter 10, Equipment Calibration.
In summary, mistakes must be eliminated by doing the work twice. Human
errors always exist, but they can be reduced in size by proper techniques.
Instrumental errors can be eliminated by mathematical formulas or proper
procedures. Field engineers must do all they can to eliminate or reduce all mistakes
or errors that occur so control will be good, structures will be properly located, and
the work on the project will be level, square, and plumb.
12
measurement principles @
ACCURACY VS. PRECISION
Some people think that accuracy and precision are one and the same. That is a
from true. In measurements, you can have accuracy without precision, or, you ca
have precision without accuracy. All measurement work must be accurate,
must work to varying degrees of precision depending on the layout situation-ina
is, we must work to the precision of the equipment and our measurement skills,
achieve the accuracy required for the layout. . . . . t of
A great example of the difference between accuracy and precision is ^
a building that was located and built to perfect plan dimensions. Everyt m1 ^
perfectly and was straight, level, and plumb. Only after the building was c ase
was it discovered that the building was located incorrectly on the site, n i
there was great precision, but no accuracy.
Accuracy is best defined as being able to obtain the true value with themeasur ^
taken. For instance, if a distance is measured ten times, the recor e v wou\d
not be very close to each other. However, out of the ten measuremen ,
be very close to the true value for the measurement by " * " t
measurements. Some will be less than the true value and some will
the true value will be reasonably known.
Precision
Precision on the other hand, is the closeness o f measurements to each other. That
is, all of the measurements will almost be the same. There won't be a large spread.
But even though there is a closeness to each other, that doesn't guarantee accuracy.
For example, a tape that is 1 foot short can still obtain measurements close to each
other, but the results will all be one foot off of the true value!
TARGET A A common analogy of accuracy and precision is the archer shooting at a target.
W ith an old bow and arrows, 10 shots are taken at a target. This old bow is shot
using instinct, no sights are available. Some hit the center and the rest are all over
the target. But the archer did hit the bull's-eye. So although not precise, there is
some accuracy in the shots, because the true value (the bull's-eye) was hit. See
target A.
TARGET B
The archer then shoots 10 arrows with a modern bow

using special sighting equipment. The shots are all very close
to each other. There is great precision, but no accuracy since
the bull's-eye was not hit. See Target B.
TARGET C
Of course, an adjustment could be made to the modern sighting equipment
so that the bull's-eye would be hit practically every time (accuracy), and the
precision is maintained. See Target C.
In Construction layout, we want target C! We want to achieve both accuracy

and precision in our measurements. Accuracywe want to obtain the true value.
Precision__we want our measurements to be close to each other to indicate that good
techniques are being followed. In simple terms, we want to get close to the true value
[consistently. We want to hit the bull's-eye every time we measure!
three
cbapt*
Tolerances fo r
Construction L ayo u t
ns,ruction Layout
G e n e r a l
3- 15 n tolerances
f or Co
Comm0
3- 15
References
3 .1 6
N.
-\A
* 0 - 0 ] i o.oa
w
* 0
a
7 ' A '
\
10
SCOPE
Tolerance in construction layout can be defined as how far off from the design
location something can be built and still be accepted by the owner. If lit
specifications say that all anchor bolts must be located to within +0.01 feet of the
design location, it means the anchor bolts can vary one hundredth either way from
the exact design location. In another example, when setting rough grade on a
par ing area, the specifications might indicate that grade cannot vary more than
and r J S A r ? " elr ati0n' lf the elevation at a specific spot is to be 545.2
and more dirt L ' n * a V y0U knOW that il d o esn t m eet the tolerance required,
ana more dirt will need to be added.
tolerances for construction layout
GENERAL
Tolerances are neces
componentrof thVCry large' ^ " a w h ile h"w'îrt Wrk that iS plaCed' If

in all nhn the structure together wru 1 WOU d he difficult to fit the various
met anri t i f 8 ^ construction Drop 60 tcderances are tight, it takes extra care
p ^ a U h e components fit eas^y S ^ SUre the sPecified tolerances are
aJ*e going to be tight. That u f ^!? Pracdce to alway8 measure as if tolerances

e evations occur, tolerances can n i l s^8^t deviations in distances, angles, or
as possible, however, can be c a Al ways drying to measure as precisely
put in some stakes to locate 7 ^ t0 ^ extreme- ^ the superintendent says to
m easuring to the nearest hunr^ ^Porary Peking lot, and the field engineer is
being wasted. Common sen ^ * wên the nearest foot would do, then time is
m ethod of measuring that I*!118* Prevad and the field engineer should use the
A rule of thu k ^ .^ta*ns nearest correct measurement,
h alf o f what is comino *êasurin8 is that you should always measure to one-
form s to the nearest h a l f - i n c h ^ 01^ That 1S if the carPenters are going to locate
for the forms to half of that ^ r tothlT ^ engi"eer should locate the layout lines
to the nearest t^nth tu u t0 nearest Quarter. If an operator can excavate
, hen the grade stakes should be placed to the nearest half tenth.
COMMON TOLERANCES FOR CONSTRUCTION LAYOUT

pecified tolerances vary from job to job so the field engineer should read each
sped 1CsPeci ication to determine what is allowed. Common tolerances for layout
activities are listed here.
Notice that the tolerances vary from zero to a foot. If the allowable tolerance
isn t known, it is the responsibility of the field engineer to ask the superintendent what
it is.
These represent just a small sample of the various layout activities that will
be encountered on the jobsite. They may not be the tolerances allowed on a specific
project. Check specific project documentation for tolerances.
Common Tolerances for Construction Layout
T o le ra n c e T o leran ce
L a y o u t A c tiv ity
(U S sta n d a rd ) (m e tric)
Aligning a wall Hundredth 3 mm
Anchor bolts Hundredth 3 mm
Blue tops Two Hundredths 5 mm
Fine grade 1/4" 10 mm
Interior partitions 1/2" 5 mm
Locating a pipe sleeve Hundredth 3mm
Five Hundredths 10 mm
Locating rebar
Foot 300 mm
Locating the office trailer
Foot 300 mm
Measuring a crane pick______
------------ " |jractic%%
chapter three
0 . oyout (cont.)
Tolerance Tolerance
Common (metric)
(U S jta n d a r a ^
LayoutA ctivity 0.01 feet 3mm
Offset points 10 mm in 3 rneters
/ " in ten feet
1 4
Plumbing a steel structure Hundredth in ten 3 mm in 3 meters

feet
Plumbing a wall
Primary control
R a d iu s p o in ts fo r s id e w a lk c u r b
R o u g h grade
S e c o n d a r y c o n tr o l
Tenth 30 mm
S lo p e s ta k e s
0.00 feet 0.00 mm
S e tu p s over a p o i n t
0.00 feet
REFERENCES
American Institute of Steel Construction Green M anual
American Concrete Institute ACI-318
Project Specifications
field
notekeeping practices @
Field
Notekeeping
Practices
B a s i <= P r a c t i c e s 3-1 8
L a y o u t of Fi e l d Bo o k
3-1 8
Guidelines 3-21
M e t h o d s of
Notekeeping 3-23
Ntekeeping
Ma t h C h e c k s 3-24
SCOPE
You must leave evidence of your work on the ground from which others will build,
and on paper for your reference and defense. Many field engineers do an excellent
job of laying out the points needed for the project, but are negligent in keeping good
notes. M ost of the time, lack of good notes may not hurt them; if what they do is
never questioned, a paper record isn't needed. But, it only takes one question about
the correctness and integrity of the work performed to cause a field engineer to
realize the fallacy of poor notekeeping. It only takes one question in a court of law
to realize that notes should be kept and should never be altered in any way.
3-17
fieldwork practice
chapter three
. the reco rd in g o f o b se rv e d date. O ther than

BASIC PRACTICES oineering surveys require m e ^ jm p o rta n t activity of the field
Neariy all eng ^keeping field "<> ' js a n e c essa ry p a rt o f the perm anent
en g in eer.U can't be layout activities as they are c o m p l y ,
enginee
ford of the project to reel
rec.
R ecord Data Exactly book must be honest. It must be admissible
No fudging in the field book. The fie ionable recording of the data measured
a court of law. Any erasures o o. J ^ be||lg thrown out 0{ court.
in
or
t t & T 'z s z s t s s z z r r s r s s s
Of work. The value wouk be n the safe at night.
when on the jobsite and lock it up in
Leave No Room fo r J"t ^ * t(J0nR em em ber the words of the old professor
r . . , * , ^
book and proceed on the job without delay.
Reference the When maeS nhaesSbeen copied from another source, refer to the book and page
plan's page numbers of the original source. All data should be recorded in (cop.ed into) the
numbers where field book at the time of observation and never left to memory or recorded on a
the layout data loose piece of paper. The information should be complete enough to answer any
is found. questions.
Use a Hard Pencil

To ensure permanence, a hard pencil is necessary. A soft pencil line will smudge
and will not be permanently impressed in the paper. A soft pencil will require more
sharpening than a hard pencil. The field notebook must be completed with all
information before the surveyor leaves the field. The items listed next are necessary
entries to ensure an accurate and complete record of survey data, as well as to
ensure efficient handling of the notebook by other people.
LAYOUT OF FIELD BOOK
Provide a Title Page

A title page identifies who ow ns the book. It sh ou ld b e g in w ith the company's
name, address, and phone number, and it should in clu d e the nam es o f the field
engineers, and any other identifying inform ation. T h is title p a g e is the first right-
hand page o f the Field B ook, and num bered as P a g e 1.
Orientation is
critical. Don't
forget the Provide a North Arrow
North Arrow. It is especially important to include a North Arrow on all sketches in a field book.
Many persons have a difficult time "orienting themselves" to a drawing, and a
direction arrow is very helpful to them. A North Arrow greatly assists in quickly
determining the relative location of one point to another, or for determining the
orientation of the layout. In addition to having a North Arrow on the overall site
or control sketch, a North Arrow should even be included on sketches showing
anchor bolt templates or other items where proper orientation is required.
3-19
fieldwork practice*
chapter three
Provide Identification Information i

The names o f persons performing the work on each new project are used to tdentify
Number th e top M who could help to clarify what work was performed. Identifying the equipment
rig h t corner o f used can be beneficial in isolating problems that have occurred in the measurements.
the right-hand If a particular instrument was found to be out o f adjustment, all work done with it
page only! may need to be checked. Recording what instrument was used on a particular day
is very important. Number each page of the book in the upper right corner of the
right-hand pages only. When the book is open, both the left-hand and right-hand
pages are considered as one page. The number and title o f each project should be
i n H i at fhe too o f the first right-hand page listed for the project.
Provide Date, Time, and W eather

Recording the date, time, and weather should be first, before any data is recorded.
The date and time are necessary to establish when the work occurred. If ever
questioned about the work in a court of law, this information will be of utmost
importance to back up your testimony. Recording the weather information helps
to identify any effect the weather may have had on the measurements. This should
be listed at the upper right-hand corner of the first right-hand page used for the
work activity.
notekeeping practices @
U se S k e tc h e s Pres,
A separate sketch of V
he interpretation of^h *" de,ails- drawn to
b etter tef,Ca' e the f i e l d t ^ U is "ot r e c o ^ s.c ae-wi'> b e t i m e s facilitate
A no 1 t0 ,h e d r a ftin 7 r k; il c n sume l ded that * * * be drawn to
A north arrow should Mak* s L 7 mUCl| Ume Drawin8 to scale is
^ _ _ J ^ mPany each sketcT 8* the sPace wi" al,ow-
Chinese
fr o v e r b: A
picture is
w orth te n
thousand w ord s.
g u id e l in e s
Don't Crowd the Data

Yes, it is important to conserve and recycle
paper, however, not at the expense of
severaf n l o ^ ^ f Ult t0 reCOrt* necessary information about the fieldwork, Use
several pages if necessary for each project.
Do Not Erase
P o not erase!!!
Do Not Erase!! It cannot be stressed
enough that field books that contain
erasures are suspected of alterations,
forgery, etc. They will be thrown aside
if there is any question about the
authenticity of the work. DO NOT
ERASE!!! Draw a single line through a
mis-entry and write the correct data
above.
Record Everything
If in doubt, do it! If in doubt, record it!
Leave nothing for possible interpretation.
Record in your field book in such a way
that anyone with the slightest knowledge
o f surveying could understand your work.
iblish Standard Note Forms

similar methods. This will help
rews should be advised to record data using
.u. hnnks can be exchanged between crews and easily understood.
fieldwork p ra c tl^
chapter three
Use Standard Lettering Techniques

It is recommended that all capital letters be used for clarity and consist
Practice
makes... Always PRINT
1/2 space high so that there is room to cross our "^-entries
m- nC^'
P erfect A hard pencil (4H) or harder should be used to avoid smudges and to ensur
lettering
permanence. e
Arrange columns so that all decimals are aligned.
In recording angles, it is customary to use two digits each in the minutes
seconds columns. For example, if the angle read was forty-two degrees
minutes, and thirty-one seconds, it would be recorded: 42 07' 3 j" SeVen
Number only the right-hand pages in the upper right-hand corner of the page
use standard Drafting Techniques

Use standard symbols for clarity and understandi
sketches for neatness. Carry a small protractor to i Use a straight edge on
make sketches proportionally correct, if possible. in drawing angles. Try to
n
field notekeeping practices @
METHODS OF NOTEKEEPIN q
There are several mfltu
d a ta , d e sc rip tio n s !nHdS keeping notes Th
containing each m a combination of th ey include sketches, tabulations of
8 CaCh methd is shown on t h / ^ ? SC mentioned- A sample notebook
Sample Sketch fUowmg pages.
A p ic tu re is w orth a th
Some in fo rm atio n sim p l ; aanndn^ s is very true when it comes l0 noteUeeping.
n y way to convey the informat ^ & t?F described adequately. Sketches are
n completely capable of standing oruh^60*1*86,0* thiS sketcbes musl be cleai
Sample Tabulation
3 -2 3
-- i ', w c e 8
chapter three
sam p le D escrlp'n 19
1 1-23 -0 2
7:30AM
55" RAINING
IN S T/5
11 =* CREW * 4
D
POINT MAPLE IS LOCATEP 1.3 M ILES PUE E A S T OF THE
0 z> PESC R1PT10N
II 4 0 0 MILE MARKER ON JAC KSO N STREET. 3E G IN N IN G A T
U THE AIRPORT. TRAVEL 2 M ILES ON 134 TO THE SCHOOL.
a IMMEPIATELY FOLLOWING THE SCHOOL IS W ILLIA M S O N
h :
n &LVP. TURN RIGHT ONTO THE & LV P A N P CONTINUE FOR 3 . 5
n MILES. UPON REACHING A S TO P S IG N A T 3 . 5 M IL E S THE
INTERSECTION WILL 3E THAT OF W ILLIAM SO N A N P

n
s
JACKSON STREET. TURN R IGHT CONTINUE FOR 2 . 6 M IL E S .
, ARGE pog at LOCATION

Xn NOTES: LARGE u u
Tl
n
Sample C o m b in a tio n
i level pop
POINT MAPLE *>C
tN5T#2
RE
elevation c
FS 55
POINT PS 5200.00
INST 6.77 5206.77 4.23 520254
Inst 7.45 5209.99 5.12 5204.07<
T
INPST
2 7.07 5291.94
3.40 5200.46'
TP 3
DESCRIPTION
POINT M APLE IS LOCATES 1 3 M ILE S
PUE EAST OF THE -TOO MILE MARKER ON 3$
JACKSON STREET. BEG INNING A T THE
AIRPORT. TRAVEL 2 M ILES ON 134- TO THE
SCHOOL IM M E D IA TE LY FOLLOW ING THE
SCHOOL IS W ILLIAM SO N BLVD. TUR N R IG HT
ONTO THE BLVD AN D CONTINUE FOR 3 .5
M ILES . UPON REACHING A S T O P S IG N
A T 3 .5 M ILES THE INTERSEC TIO N W ILL BE
THAT OF W ILLIAM SO N AN D JA C K S O N S TR E E T.
TURN RIGHT CONTINUE FOR 2 .6 M ILE S . 34
NO TES: LAR G E DO G A T LOCATION MAPLE n

Andy Mikessll
NOTEKEEPING MATH CHECKS

Whenever possible, the m easurem ents on the jo b site sh o u ld be p e rfo rm e d so that
mathematical checks can be made on the w ork c o m p le te d . E x am p les are:
summing the interior angles o f a trav erse to m eet th e (n -2 )1 8 0 geom etric
requirement; providing an arithm etic check on d iff e r e n tia l le v e lin g notes;
averaging distances; etc. Always perform all p o ssib le c h e c k s b e fo re leav in g the
field so that data can be re-m easured at th at tim e.
general Instrument care @
General 1
instrument Care
Surveying Instruments
r
1
3-26
Tr an sp or t in g Surveying instruments 3-26
6 r a l l n s , r u m e n t C a r e a n d Use 3-27
Electronic Surveying Instruments 3-29
Tripods 3-29
SCOPE
The oJd adage "cleanliness is next to godliness" very much applies to field
engineering. "Instruments should be used, but not abused" is another saying that
applies to how field engineers should treat surveying equipment. "Good work can
only come from good, clean, well-cared-for equipment" also applies.
How equipment is being kept is something that superintendents and managers
look at in their evaluation of the performance of a field engineer. Dirty, poorly-
m aintained equipment is an indicator of a field engineer who doesn't care or is
lackadaisical. Having a person with that attitude in the field engineering position
is not very comforting.
A lthough built to withstand much use, precision surveying equipment
perform s accurately only if it is well cared for. Field engineers should always take
the tim e to clean and care for the equipment. It will pay off with good measurements
and good perform ance. The following are tips on the use, care, and continuing
everyday m aintenance of surveying equipment.
3-25
@ chat** " EDMs, and total stations are
th co d o lte s' d istan ces, o r elevat
MENTS uisit^ lns.
INSTHU NISUrL " ^ i t c a n o b tain , th e very b "c
VEYING O/.v. M,t0,mtkj
V..v,n.r>.c*Mts u hT : ilv ,|sed
,t Jifrefenl to m easu rem en ts .t can Uu,#111> llic
ifl the
SUP Dump) . *. E ach h as a te lesco p e th a t co n ta in s g jas | bsic
sun eying inst runic ..... >h a s le v e lin g sc re w s. E a c h o f th** eriSes-
\lthough each insirumen " ------ 'nrttt's< Pans'
p u tts t t h e i.
' " '"nts
" T n an t i ^ t ' ^ ^ a "d r c f r e h w h n r o p e r a tin g and h an d lin g .
^ K- Invited W ith * ' ; r,y o n ly i f it is >" g o o d co n d ition, (
each has clumps
i rfornt p
nerlornt _ocedures re c o m m e n d e d by
.^ c o rd in g to p ro c c u u -
by th
lhe
ltd ic ittc and m u st b e m ... r .r, d o . b u t it ta k e s d is c ip lin e on the
A sun eying instrument will pe P8^
z is easy to
properly calibrated, and is used
- prope'
ner care and handling
,nanutacu*r , nts are su b je c te d to th re e situ a tio n s w h ic h m ay expo
T h e se a re tra n s p o rta tio n , u se , a n d storage
o f th e u ser- .ntally. instrti'tte
care.
Fundamental^
them to hazards and require proper c
cm to iu.__
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
tr a n spo r t in g
Transporting typically involves carrying
the surveying equipment from storage
Keep an to the survey vehicle and then to the
instrument in setup p o in t. When
W h en c a r ry in g th e
i t s c a s e when
* it in recom m ended
equipment on rotective c a se .
not m use.
-
p ~ -< r r z
10 pick up the instrument and tnpo
carrv it over your shoulder. It any
obstacles are close by, such as tree limbs,
buddings, etc., this can be very dangerous
,o the instrument. For those times when it
is necessary to carry an instrument while
on the tripod, put one tripod leg in front
and two to the back to keep the instrument
upright and close to your body. , . , f
Although surveying equipment can generally be hand-earned from one
location to another on a small jobsite, often it is necessary to transport it in a
vehicle. This is one of the most common sources o f damage to surveying
instruments. To avoid problems, a few simple rules should be follow ed :
Always place the instrument in its protective case and make sure it is securely
closed before transporting it in a car or truck. Som e m anufacturers recommend
tightening the clamps on the instrument, others recom m end a llo w in g them to
be loose. Follow the manufacturers exact instructions.
Place the case in a location in the vehicle that w ill prevent it from bouncing
up and down or sliding back and forth. W ise field en g in eers b u ild a storage
box in the vehicle, line it with foam , and provide straps to secu re the case in
place.
s l Z d o n l f ing the; nstrument on your lap. T h is c o u ld create a dangerous

situation if an accident occurs.
Check the instrument manual for any sp e cia l h a n d lin g

instructions.
26
general Instrument care 0
Transport the Instrument In Its Case

S and are caused by transporting equipment mounted
d i s t a n t Particularly when transporting in vehicles and when walking for long
distances. Try to transport in case.
-- 1-*/ waae VÎOSed

Allowing an instrument case to be open
w hile the instrum ent is in use on the
tripod is a poor practice because the inside
o f the case will collect dust. Later, when
the instrum ent is put in the case, it will be
like a dust storm inside o f the case while
the instrum ent is being carried. Some of
th e d irt w ill eventually penetrate the
b e a rin g s u rfa c e s in th e in stru m en t,
requiring an expensive cleaning and repair
bill. K eep an em pty case closed!
Carrying the Instrument

T h e in stru m en t can be carried on the tripod for short distances, b u t carry the
in stru m e n t in fro n t o f the body, under your arm w ith the legs of the tripod trailing
b e h in d in case th ere are tree lim bs, brush, or other obstructions. If it is carried on
th e s h o u ld e rs, care m u st b e taken th at the instrum ent does not strike any obstruction.
T h e in stru m e n t sh o u ld alw ays be kep t as close to vertical as possible (60 degrees
o r m o re ). C lam p th e m otions lightly so the equipm ent does not rotate, b u t is oose
e n o u g h to giv e.
g e n e r a l in s t r u m e n t c a r e a n d u s e
T h e su g g e ste d c a re an d h a n d lin g liste d below are n o t intended to b e inclusive. T h is
lis t p ro v id e s a few b a sic g u id e lin e s to fo llo w in everyday use and m ain tenance o f
in s tru m e n ts a n d trip o d s.
Attach Instrument Snugly to the Tripod

Attach the instrument just enough so that it will not move, but
not unnecessarily tight so that the tripod head or spring plate
become warped.
Grasp the Instrument Firmly
Grasp the instrument by the standards and tribrach when
placing it on the tripod, not by the telescope or other parts.
Secure the instrument immediately to the tripod. Do not allow
it to sit atop the tripod unclamped.
Not Touch the Lenses

Only touch /er touch the lenses of an instrument with your fingers or a common cloth. Use
instrum ent w ith y lens cleaning tissues and fluids. All lenses have optical coatings on them and
clean hands! o f any thing other than proper material to wipe them may result in scratches and
lage to this soft optical coating.
Do not handle the equipment with muddy, excessively dirty, or greasy
ds or gloves.
Accumulations of dirt, dust, and foreign material will eventually penetrate
) the motions and cause sticking. When possible, use the plastic hood for
tection against dust when working in such conditions.
3-27
^ chsptei three
Try to K oP E q u i p m e n t jobs. k e e p in g th e e q u ip m e n t d ry is p racti
r;,7 e n .he n e .h e rc ..,.d .m n - (en lio n lo w e a th e r a n d jo b s ,.e eondi,ions %
im possible. H o w ev er. w H - ^ m o islure is p re s e n t. I f c a u g h t te m po ' h*
.......rumen, can he p rotcc le d I ' be ,eft set u p . c o v e r .1 w ith th e pla slic '^ V
.bow ers w here .he ' " ' ' " ' " ictely drv | a le r. h u t a llo w th e in s tru m e n t to air "0tl
led. W ijv
pros ish'si. m i iti.r
ipe the n H . _ ru b o f f .h e fin is h . air * y
by le a s in g th e h o o d o ft o t th e case. Don t run o n im . .......... dry
by leasin g the hood o h " ^ .-xtiosed to m o is tu re o r h ig
W hen an in stru m e n t is exposed to m oisture o r high hum idity, c h h u m id ity , c are sh
he taken to in su re th a t th e in s tru m e n t is a l lo w e d to dry properly. Do not ^ S^ uId
T h e m o is tu r e w ill c o n d e n s e o n thie
an air p r o o f c a s e o v e rn ig h t. e msiae ofi tthe
. St re ;
tent. L e a v e th e case open so air can c i r c u l a t e a r o u n d th c
e nstrument.
,n
im s tr
., u m e r
i C the vcase o p e -------
inSimnK'"' me
NeVer,Lea , the .nstrument
hitirumcn. white ^ up during a survey or
U " * e,jthe
unattended,
while
M a t unlocked vehicles, etc.
* 36
s rX Z
vehicles, buildings, or trees, i- -
Never Force any Motion the c l a m p s s h o u l d b e just snug (not
When using the motions of an. ms ^ ,g w clamp the mot,on just snug
- yjStXW
hVM
' ,?gh. Micr; me 2 gnhV bom Te axis will not occur during slight pressure.
Never Force the Instrument ^ ^ c|amp is loose. Rotate about the axis
When rotating about the ax is fu with a grip. I f screws operate too
gently with fingertips, ra auaiified technicians. N ever remove any plate
beforehand.
*re >
KeeD it Clean .. .
The most Last but not least, keep the instrument CLEAN! On the construction site, this isn't
important care always easy. Dust and dirt will get on the instrument w h ile it is being used. To
is to keep it remove the dust, purchase a big-bristled, soft shaving brush and keep it in the
clean.
instrument case. Several times during the day, take out the brush and clean the
instrument, then clean the brush before returning it to the case. Som e persons buy
cans of compressed air and use them to rem ove the dust. I f the instrument is
splattered with mud or concrete, gently w ipe it o ff w ith a dam p rag as quickly as
possible. As mentioned earlier, keep the case closed.
general instrument care @
W h l^ llc f n lnStrUment * ,ts Case

S tore an clo sed , p lace^ M 6 ' nstrum ent back in its case, be sure illum inating m irrors are
instrument in secure the b a se 6 W hPe W*th obj ective lens dow n, clam p m otions lightly, and
its working su g g ested that th ^ transPortin8 the instrum ent in a vehicle for long trips, it is
environment. added n m r< w C 1f)strum ent *n its storage case be stored in its shipping case for
p rotection. C lose the case when its not in use.
whTnatlze the lnstrum em

w ea th e r 6 lnStrule [l t s to be in continual use outside in very hot or very cold
s ie n if ic , ^ Fe * e instrum ent nightly in its closed case outside so there is no
c o n d e " ! ln8trum ent tem perature change overnight. This w ill help to prevent
nsa ion rom occurring inside the instrum ent. If the instrum ent is w et, leave
the case open.
E LEC TR O N IC S U R V E Y IN G INSTRUM ENTS
In addition to the mechanical parts and optics, electronic instruments contain

ransistors, wires, and computer chips. Because of the electronics involved, these
evices require some special care to maintain their usefulness on the jobsite,
azards include: humidity, rain, snow, cold, heat, vibrations, etc.
The comments made about the care and handling of optical instruments
s ould be followed, especially those about exposure to moisture. Electrical
contacts are very susceptible to corrosion, especially from moisture that is
encountered around sea water. Humidity along the sea contains salt elements and
can penetrate an instrument. Electronic instruments being used around salt water
areas should be taken to a local repair shop to be conditioned for the exposure that
will be encountered.
TRIPODS
ust as a solid foundation is needed for houses and bridges, a tripod provides a solid
ûndation for instrument setups. Unfortunately, tripods are not generally well
ared for. Like level rods, they are thrown into the backs of pickups, left lying on
le ground, left out in the rain, seldom cleaned, etc. A foundation in poor shape
-ill not support good work. . . . . . . .
There are essentially two types of tripods: fixed leg and adjustable leg. The
d lee is solid and can be neither lengthened nor shortened to assist in the setup
, the instrument The adjustable leg tripod features legs that can be shortened or
ngthened to make setups over a point easier A clamp on the leg of the adjustable
ngin ,he operator to set the leg at the desired length. Regardless
f8ihe tvoe all tripods have similar parts. A tripod consists of a head for attaching
înstrum ent, wooden or metal legs, and metal points with foot pads to help force
ie leg points into the ground.
3-29
, t ,H in discussions o f equipm ent. Unfortunately,
The tripod is often over 0 (ion jt is easy to assum e that it is the fault
When a discrepancy o ccu rs in an ob s ^ tr jp o d . H o w e v e r, its u se an d care
o f the operator, o r the in strum ent, fo llo w in g a re ru le s f o r th e ca re and
may greatly affect the resu lts o f a su rvey.
handling o f a tripod.
Position Tripod Legs h for a firm setup, but do not exercise

T S ,Z t i * * * * * ' "d d *
leg so that it flexes.
Keep it Horizontal
P la c e th e h e a d o f th e tr ip o d m a HORIZONTAL
h o riz o n ta l p o s itio n . I n e x p e r ie n c e d
users have a te n d e n c y to d is re g a rd th e
re la tiv e p o s itio n o f th e trip o d h e a d
w hen settin g it up. T h a t is, th e h e a d is
not p arallel to th e h o riz o n ta l re fe re n c e
p lane. T h is c a u se s th e le v e lin g s c re w s
in an in stru m e n t to b e o v e re x te n d e d ,
m aking it m o re d if f ic u lt to le v e l. I f th e
in stru m en t is n o t le v e l, e rro rs o c c u r!
Keep it Tight
Firmly attach the tripod legs to the head. Regular use of the tripod may cause the
connection of the legs to the head to become loose and wobbly. This will cause
inconsistency in measurements. Taking a few minutes to tighten a wing nut or bolt
will eliminate this potential error.
Ensure a Solid Setup

Firmly insert the tripod legs into the ground. This is the "root" of the solid
foundation. Setting the tripod gently on the ground invites settlement. As the
instrument settles, it can shift out of level, affecting the measurement. By firmly
inserting the points of the tripod legs into the ground before measurements are
taken, most settlement can be avoided. If the tripod is being set on a smooth floor,
be sure to set it on something which will prevent the legs from slipping and possibly
damaging the instrument.
Chain or rope can be made into a device to hold the
legs from slipping. Or, a piece of carpet or plywood cut in a
triangular shape (with holes at the points) works well for
smooth, hard-surface setups. Additionally, care should be
taken when setting up on asphalt for the tripod will quickly
sink into the surface on a hot day. This can be prevented by
placing a piece of lath on the asphalt or a brick if available and
YES setting the point on the lath or the brick.
In times of high winds, caution must be taken to
prevent the tripod and instrument from being toppled over.
Care should also be taken when an instrument is set up next
to a busy road where 18-wheelers may cause a wind gust
this, place sandbags on the tripod legs tips to weight them
3-30
general Instrum ent care @
Secure Adjustable Legs

M osftrinnH ** Clm ps 0n the tr'P d adjustable legs hold them in position securely.
adiustM i US6d m SUrVeyin have adjustable legs. It is often said, "A tripod w ith
le e s h a v , leg a c a " b e s e t over any point." For the m ost part, this is true. A djustable
g s n av e m ade d ifficu lt setups easier. One problem w ith adjustable legs is a
te n d e n c y fo r them to slip if they are not securely clam ped.
Maintain Proper Tension

K eep te n sio n on the legs so they w ill fall slow ly or sw ing freely. If the legs are
ex en e stra ig h t out from the tripod head, the hinge they pivot about should be
tig h t e n o u g h to alm o st hold the leg in th at position. T he leg should fall or sw ing
s o w y to th e g ro u n d . If the leg stays straig h t out from the tripod head, it is too tig h t
a n d w ill w e a r e x cessiv ely . It should be loo sen ed and adjusted. A lso, if the h in g e
w h e re th e leg is attach ed is loose and there is excessiv e m ovem ent, the h inge sh o u ld
b e tig h te n e d . S om e trip o d s req u ire a special w rench to m ake this ad ju stm en t.
When Lubricating Tripod, Apply Silicone Lubricant

F re q u e n tly lu b ric a tin g jo in ts w ill p rev en t ex cessiv e w ear. A lso, lu b ricate the leg s
o f an a d ju s ta b le leg trip o d o ccasio n ally to keep them from sticking. A silico n -
b a s e d lu b ric a n t is reco m m en d ed b ecau se it w ill n ot attract dirt as do p etro le u m
lu b ric a n ts su c h as oil o r grease. C lean th e trip o d after use.
C a rry som e clean in g cloths, a w ire b ru sh , etc., to rem ove dirt fro m the tripod.
M u d a n d d irt clin g to the trip o d leg points and should be w iped o ff betw een uses.
Check all Screws and Bolts

L o o s e s c re w s are n o t g o o d . T h e trip o d w ill start to w o b b le w hen b ein g used . C h e c k
s c re w s fre q u e n tly to e n su re rig id ity . E v e n th o u g h m o st o f the screw s o r b o lts on
th e trip o d a re ste e l, th e th re a d s co u ld b e strip p e d if o v e r tig h ten ed . If tig h te n in g
is n e e d e d , u se th e p ro p e r to o l.
Do Not Abuse Equipment

D o n o t u s e tr ip o d f o r p ry in g , v a u ltin g , s e lf s u p p o rt, h a m m e rin g , p ro d d in g ,
d i g g i n g , e tc .
Protect the Head of the Tripod

If the head is dented or scratched, the instrument may not fit the tripod head
accurately or securely. Avoid leaning tripods against anything. Slight movements
may cause the tripod to fall, damaging the tripod or other things.
Transport Carefully . ,
For the same reasons as stated in the discussion on level rods, try to protect tripods
from heavy objects or other damage when carrying them in vehicles Never load
other material (stakes, monuments, etc.) on top of tripods, range poles, and other
instruments Objects such as stakes, monuments, etc., may damage a tripod if it
thrown into the back of a truck. Preferably, store a tnpod in a separate, clean
storage bin. An inexpensiVe method of safely storing tripods or

any other long, thin surveying tool is to pick up some PVC
nine and use it as a storage case. Check out the trash bins on
a construction site and find pieces that have been thrown
away If your survey vehicle is a pickup, place the pipe in the
hottom of the bed and store your tripods, prism poles, level
, etc in the PVC pipe. Then, bundles of lath, hubs, etc.,
can be loaded on top of the pipe and no harm will come to the
equipment.
fieldw ork practice*
@ chapter three
use and care of hand tools @
use and Care of

Hand Tools
Th e l m P o r t a n c e f M a i n t e n a n c e 3-34
K now Y o u r T o o l s 3-34
G e n e r al Ru l e s of Use 3-34
Ge n e r a l Sur ve yi ng E q u i p me n t 3-35
i nstrument Ha n d l i ng G u i d e l i n e s 3-42
SCOPE
T his Section will quickly review the most common types of surveying equipm ent
and tools. It explains the basic purpose of the equipm ent and sum m arizes how you
should use and care for surveying equipm ent. As a result of this inform ation, you
w ill be m uch better prepared to com prehend later Chapters that describe the
p ro ced u res for properly m easuring distances and laying out structures.
If you have already studied or perform ed surveying, much of this Section
w ill be review . H ow ever, you should quickly read through it to refresh your
m em ory and to pick up tips on the safe use of equipment. If you have NO T had
p revious training in surveying, study this Section carefully.
3-33
$ chapter th r e e
THE IM PO RTANCE y ! ? I r e T p " y e d as a field engineer and the following probfe^

resulted because of irwo eding smoothly until the day the specia].
M ain tain y o u r Problem: T he building P J To your displeasure, they did not fi
eq uipm ent. fabricated, steel I-beams between the established footings. he
beam s w ere too short f , ubdivlsion had been completed months earlier. tyh
P ro b le m : A survey ofb found ,hat the angles had an error o f
constructed too close to the p r o p e r ^
P ro b le m : A sew er line was connected from a mam sewer line to a new house
mdng your m easu rem en ts. T o the dismay of the new home owners, the waste***;
flow ed from the sew er lin e to the new house. Expens.ve repa.rs to the house ad
sew er rew o rk were required!
What happened in each of these cases? Were there mistakes in procedures
or was the equipment improperly maintained? Certainly, it could have been either*
In this Section, you will learn the proper care o f equipment so that problems simila'
to these examples do not result from poor maintenance. In other Chapters, y0u w ]!
study proper taping, leveling, and angle turning procedures which will also prev 1
problems like these.
KNOW YOUR TOOLS

The craftsperson who works with tools must know each tool's function, limitat*
utilization, and above all, proper care. Equipment should never be su b ieV n 08
misuse or lack of maintenance. This applies to any profession, be it w oodw ork t0
art sculpting, machining, or field engineering! The finished product is onlv , ng
as the operator and his or her equipment. If either is lacking, the finished nr a0d
u not)t be top quality. 6 snea
cu product
Prduci
wkinTwhh'sV
u 'r v ^ U ^ q ^ p le n f 'T /L s k p r in c 11 Pr Per procedus
g en er al r u le s o f u s e
Know How to Operate the Equipment
* N ot; - e E quipm ent ParJ Peratl0n When needed.
Forcing may T ^ eaSi,y find out ^ y , ask f

equipment. mae 3 thread or bearing 0r ma 6 h f refer t0 the manual.
Kee n th or may bre ak som ething on the
5 b%tS
hqdUiPmentC'ean
b ristie b ru s h - t
^ a Protective rat S e
helpskeen it? IS Provided UcP ,
eP " clean and serves to When the equipm ent
protect it from other hazard?' ^ ^ TWs
g e n e r a l s u r v e y in g e q u ip m e n t
some general about basic purpose, construction, care, and handling of

familiar with th FVeyin^ ecluPment- Remember, the responsibility of becoming
Gene 1&êrat*on any equipment rests with you, the operator,
of surveying survey*n8 eciuipment includes items that are used in several types
level ran 1,Vltles: These lols include: the plumb bob and gammon reel, hand
hamrnî- e Pr*sm pole, chaining pins, brush clearing equipment, and
hammers. Each will be explained.
Plumb Bob
renJ11^ USUa^ y weighing 8 to 24 ounces, are made of brass and have a
. ap.ea e stee^^P; A cord of at least six feet is attached to the plumb bob to make
use u or many situations. The plumb bob is used to create a vertical line or a
pomt to be used as a reference. The plumb bob is the most fundamental instrument
use y field engineers in taping, turning angles, laying outthe list is endless!
rom the plumb bob reference line, you can position yourself directly over a point,
a ign a column, set a form, etc. Plumb bobs are manufactured in a variety of shapes
and sizes. The most common is the 16 oz. brass with a replaceable steel tip.
Remember these rules about the plumb bob:
Keep the plumb bob clean. Normally, the plumb bob can be wiped with a
Don't hammer cloth, but you may also dunk it in water if it becomes extremely dirty.
w ith a plumb bob. Never use a plumb bob as a hammer. Brass dents easily and the plumb bob
will become unsightly with nail head marks all over it.
Do not use a plumb bob as a scribe. Damage to the point will result if the plumb
bob is used to mark hard surfaces. Replace the point if it becomes damaged.
Sight Level
In conjunction with the plumb bob, the sight level is one of
the most common instruments of surveying. The sight level
is used in taping to keep the tape horizontal; and in leveling
to keep from setting the leveling instrument above or below
the level rod.
The sight level consists of a metal tube on which a
level vial (similar to those found on a common carpenter's
level) is attached. A mirror, or prism, inside the tube allows
you to center the bubble and look through the tube at an object
at the same time. A horizontal line is formed from the
observer's eye to where the crosshair of the sight level hits the
ground or any other object. A few rules for the use and care
of the sight level include:
W ipe the lens with a clean cloth as needed.
Store the sight level in a protective case when not in use.
Frequently use the sight level test described in Chapter 10, Equipment
Calibration. This test on calibration is used to check if the line o f sight is
parallel with the axis of the level vial.
Be careful not to drop a sight level.
fieldwork practices
chapter three
. m h b o b s tr in g . T h is p la s tic d e v ic e is
G am m on R eel t0 sto re th e s t r i n g . T h e s tr in g a u to m a tic a lly
The gammon reel is i ^ g fe e t o f Plu m d r a g g in g o r ta n g lin g in y o u r feet.
spring loaded to ho P th e s trin g t % a r o u n d y o u r n e c k w hich
retracts e e d fo r th e s trin g * g trin g to u s e th e p lu m b b o b . In
It also elim,na^ s t asion burn when Pu,U goarnmon reel has a target which can
a sta" dard item' s me

care f "g dW iMide the reel will affect its ability ,0
. Keep the strin g d n . A llo w in g
perform properly. ^ j{ if string breakage appears imminent.
. check the string for wear * eP a he manufacturer.
F ollow the in stru c tio n s p ro v id e d y
Chaining Pins ica||ed field engineer's arrows, are used to
tS S S f^ & X S S S Z i
t,P1S7 lh v a e typically painted in alternate stripes to

S T ^ h e m highly visible In d to help guard against loss.
Concerning the use and care of chaining pins, rem em ber
these rules:
Clean chaining pins regularly.
Straighten the shaft of a chaining pin if it becom es bent
when being pushed into hard ground.
Repaint chaining pins when the paint becomes faded.
Range Poles
Range poles are used to make points in a surveying jo b m ore visible. This helps
maintain alignment for taping and gives the instrum ent person a target to sight on
when turning an angle.
Range poles are made of wood, fiberglass, or m etal and are available in
various lengths. They are painted in alternate one-foot bands o f w hite and red or
orange to make them easy to see. The most useful range poles are ones that are in
sections which can be added together to create poles o f u n lim ited length, but are
easily transportable. Some rules for the use and care o f range poles include:
Clean dirt and mud from the tips of range poles after each use.
Store a range pole in its protective case w hen it's n o t in use.
Repaint range poles as needed.
use and care of hand tools 0
Prism Poles
p o in ts visible. Thev el6ctfonlc instrum ents to m easure distances and to m ake

o f a p o in ted , hollow S?m sim ilar to range poles, how ever, they typically consist
a llo w s the roH U 6 that a ^ ows a graduated rod to telescope in and out. T his
T h e s te d a T eStabUsh ,he h eiSh o f the quickly,
so the p o le can be k ^ riS,m 1)016 a | so ^ as a bull's-eye bubble perm anently attached
this b u b b le is dis e P* P*um b w hile a m easurem ent is being m ade. C alibration of
use an d maim<*CUSSe W CflaPter 10> Equipment C alibration. A few rules for the
m ain te n a n c e o f prism poles are:
w h ile the te l6 sco Pln rocl clean. Any dirt on the rod w ill act as an abrasive
ro is telesco p ed in and out, and w ill w ear o ff the graduations.
n m ud and d irt from the prism pole point after each use.
S to re th e p rism p o le in a p ro tectiv e case.
Rr Ve t^ C Prlsm f rorn the prism pole after use and sto re it in its p ro tectiv e
taSC.
D o n o t o il th e te le sc o p in g rod. O il attracts dirt and only m akes o p eratio n m ore
d iffic u lt. K e e p in g th e rod clean is the m ost im p o rtan t facto r for c o n tin u ed
tro u b le -fre e o p e ra tio n .
D o n 't to u c h g ra d u a tio n s w ith so iled hands.
Brush Clearing Equipment

Brush clearing equipment includes the axe, hatchet, brush hook, machete, and
chain saw. Often in surveying, it is necessary to clear brush and trees from the line
that is being surveyed. It is beyond the scope of this text to cover these items in
detail, but here is a list of some important safety considerations. Remember these
rules for brush clearing:
Wear safety goggles! You only have two eyesprotect them!
Be aware of activity in and around your work area.
Warn others who enter that danger
exists. Any tool with a cutting
edge is dangerous!
A sharp tool is
a safe tool. Do not use brush clearing equipment
unless you have been instructed
about proper use and safety.
Chain saws are very dangerous!
Extreme care must be exercised when using chain saws.
Keep all tools sharp! A sharp tool is much safer than a dull one because it
requires less effort and is easier to control.
Keep all brush clearing tools clean! Wipe off dirt and apply a light coat of oil
to protect them from rust.
Store tools in their protective cases. With sharp cutting edges present, this is
very important.
Protect your ears! Wear ear plugs to reduce noise levels when using a chain saw.
W ear proper clothing! Proper clothing for brush clearing from head to foot
includes: a hard hat, close fitting shirts and pants, and leather work shoes The
hard hat protects from falling objects and provides protection from the
elem ents. Close-fitting clothing resists snagging on briars and becoming
caught by equipment. Steel-toed shoes protect the feet, provide lateral
support, and give good traction.
3-37
th re e
chapter
J riv e locks in to sta k e s , stak es into the

Hammers hammers to . temporary benchmarks. They ,c are
n M engineers o 'c']to trces or u tl'' ammer sizes and types vary with ^
ground, and P,K num erous tasK driVe nails and tacks, whil^
Wf d m dnvUen s m k : : t n ,o h a rd g ro u n d . A few r u l e ^
I^P(^ u n d sledge may be needed toê
u s ire and safe use o f ham n A nvtim e the h a m m e r strik es a nail, stake
. 1 W ear eye pm .ee, ion w h e n of a p iece fly in g o f f an d cau sin g b y * , /
chisel, or rock, there is t V^ w e a k n e ss o r d a m a g e is observed,
. check the hammer fo r cracks.
replace the ham m er. hnndles an d lo o se h a m m e r h e a d s. A flyjng
. Replace or tighten sp h n tered m issile. T ig h ten h a m m e r heads by
and the wood.
R o c k Chisel H im ensions o b ta in e d fro m p la n s a n d m u s t in sta ll stakes

The field engineer fo llo w s d im _ o fte n th a n not< th e p o in t fa lls on hard
where the m easurem ents indi o ffs e t th e p o in t, it is p re fe ra b le to place
ground or on a rock. W hi e i ^ ^ b e u s e d tQ s ta r t a h o le in h a rd ground
it at the indicated location. ^ afe fo u n d -n m a n y s h a p e s a n d siz e s ?h e
. W ear eye p ro te c tio n ! W h en tw o m etal o b je c ts a re s tru c k to g e th e r , th e possibility

o f a piece b reaking a p a rt and fly in g o f f is g re a t.
Always wear
eye protection. . Inspect the chisel. A fter a p erio d o f
use. a flange, or "m ushroom " w ill
begin to develop on the h ead o f the
chisel. As soon as this b eco m es
evident, it should be rem o v ed w ith a
grinder. The sharp flan g e can cu t
your hand or bits o f m etal can fly
when striking the chisel.
Steel Chain
The steel chain is used for measuring long distances. The m easurem ent may b<
to obtain the distance between two known points, or it may be to lay out a distant
on the ground from a set of plans. Most are commonly 100 feet long, althoug!
they can be obtained in increments of 25, 50, and 200 feet or longer. Metri
chains are also available.
Chains are graduated in many different styles and are purchased to suit
variety of needs. The 100-foot, fully graduated chain is the m ost common one use
y the field engineer. Whatever chain is used, it is the responsibility of the cha
person to use and care for it properly.
Rein. P/ VS' ? 1 nature of the chain makes it vulnerable to various hazard
be handed 3 -th th USandths of an inch hick, it is very fragile. Therefore, it mi
be handled wh great care. Some possible hazards to the steel chain are:
G e ttin g th e c h a in w e t a n d a llo w in g it to r u s t.
A llo w in g it to be ru n o v e r b y a v e h i c l e a n d b r o k e n .
ta r n " * W m ki"ked broke,,.

" "C d <** > P e n . , ing f l . c h a in .
-38
use and care of hand tools 0
Of coif1 K bf C m e perm anently elongated from too m uch tension.

You w ant to 1S 1St 18 not inclusive. There are many other hazards that can occur
guidelines nrP 1 af many o fth em as possible. In addition to the general fundamental
im portant Tt,V1 US ^ ^^scussed, the following guidelines for the steel chain are also
ese are a few rules for the care and handling o f the steel chain:
Câ^n on reel or rolled up when not in use. Allowing it to lie
loosely on the ground invites trouble.
D ry th e ch ain w hen w et. M ost are steel and w ill rust w hen constantly w et. So
c a rry c lo th s o r p ap er to w els to dry the chain w hen finished. T he ch ain is m o st
e a s t y rie d by tw o p eople. O nce dry, it is a good p ractice to w ip e it w ith an
i y ra ^ f r ad d ed p ro tectio n against rust.
Don't le t
W atch o u t fo r cars. M any surveying jo b s require that chaining be conducted close
vehicles run
to ro ad s o r highw ays. A s you can im agine, it is difficult to stop traffic to allow
over chains!
you to chain. T herefore, it is up to you to avoid the traffic. Som e field engineers
allo w v eh icles to run over their chain w hile they are holding them flat on a sm ooth
su rface. T h is m ay only cause m inim al dam age. H ow ever, this is a very poor
p o lic y b e c a u se the chain can ju m p and catch on a part o f a vehicle. This w ould
c a u se th e ch ain to je rk violently and cause severe injury to the field engineer. It
is stro n g ly reco m m en d ed that you never allow cars to run over a chain.
R e m o v e a l l lo o p s in a c h a in
im m e d ia te ly . V ery few th in g s b ecom e
m o re o f a h a z a rd as they g et sm aller,
a n d , th e lo o p h a p p e n s to b e one o f
th o s e th in g s . It sta rts o u t as a sim ple
lo o p , b u t, as th e c h a in is p u lled , th e
lo o p b e c o m e s s m a lle r an d sm a lle r until
a k in k d e v e lo p s a n d th e c h a in b e c o m e s
p e r m a n e n tly d e fo rm e d . I f a k in k in th e
c h a in is d is re g a rd e d , it w ill b reak .
Pull hard enough to take up slack, but not excessively. In Chapter 4, Distance
Measurement - Chaining, you will learn that a certain amount of tension must
be applied to the chain to obtain good results. This tension is predetermined at
the time the chain is manufactured. Pulling it with more than the required
tension will eventually stretch and permanently elongate it. There is a
mathematical formula to correct the elongation, but why continually cause this
unnecessary step?
Following the above guidelines will ensure that your equipment is in good
condition. Once you learn to follow the procedures for chaining, you will experience
great results.
Cloth Tape
The field engineer uses the cloth tape for locating points in areas where steel
tapes and precise distances are not necessary. Usually, these tapes are 100 feet
long. Som e cloth tapes are woven with strong yarns which are covered with a
plastic coating to prevent moisture damage. Other cloth tapes have fine metallic
w ires w oven lengthw ise. The addition of these metallic wires cuts down on the
stretching that occurs with cloth materials. It is this natural characteristic of
cloth that m akes these tapes unsuitable for determining precise distances. For
care and handling o f the cloth tape, follow these rules:
Use a cloth tape only when measurement tolerances are only required to the
nearest tenth of a foot, or longer.
W ind the cloth tape on the spool when it's not in use.
3 -39
. W ash sailed d o th tapes by im m ersing in a bucket o f
. Check the tape frequently fo r w orn areas. R ep.ace tf necessary .
Level Rods p robably the m ost abused p iece o f su rv ey in g equipm ent.

After tripods, leve P * tru ck s, laid d o w n on th e g ro u n d or in the
. . . . * .
receive better care^ ^ ^ in v o |v e s settin g up a level and re a d in g a graduated
rod to determ ine d ifferen ces in elev atio n . T h e g ra d u a te d ro d th a t ts u se d ts called
a level rod It is o f various sh ap es an d sizes a n d is m ad e o u t o f a v ariety of
m aterials. A lthough m ade to w ith stan d the rig o rs o f e v e ry d a y u se on th e co n struction
site it is still a d elicate p art o f th e lev elin g p ro c e ss th a t m u st be h a n d le d and cared
for properly. T hese are som e th in g s to re m e m b e r w h en h a n d lin g lev el rods.
. A void to u ch in g the face. A v o id w rap p in g y o u r h a n d s a ro u n d th e face o f the
level rod. If you c o n tin u a lly to u ch the face o f th e ro d , y o u w ill e v e n tu a lly rub
o ff the num b ers and m a rk in g s. S ee the illu stra tio n to th e left.
K eep the level rod clean . C lean the face o f th e lev el ro d , th e jo in ts w here the
rod slides to g eth er, an d the b o tto m o f the lev el ro d , c o n s ta n tly th ro u g h o u t the
day. Pay sp ecial a tte n tio n to th e b o tto m o f th e le v e l ro d so th a t b u ild u p o f dirt
does not ca u se in c o rre c t e le v a tio n . N e g le c tin g to m a in ta in a c le a n level rod
w ill resu lt in e le v a tio n s u n a c c e p ta b le fo r c o n s tru c tio n p u rp o s e s .
Keep it tight. Regularly check all screws, bolts, clamps, etc., that may become
loose and affect the operation and use of the level rod.
Never throw the rod into the back of a pickup or leave it protruding from a
trunk. In either instance, it is exposed to abuse. A rod in the back of a pickup
will soon have other items such as the tripod, hammer, or stakes thrown on
top of it. It will soon be damaged by treating it this way.
Protect the rod with cloth covers or
put it in a protective tube. Some
rods have a cloth cover for
protection. Most of them are
immediately lost. The best way to
protect a rod is to obtain a solid tube
in which to place the rod. A popular
method is to put together some 4"
PVC pipe with some end covers.
Place the rod in this at the end of the
day. This tube can be permanently
attached to the survey vehicle if
desired.
Do not abuse. The level rod is not a stake driver or a pry bar and it is not used
for pole vaulting.
If it is necessary to lubricate, use silicon. Periodically apply a lubricant on

moving parts to ensure ease o f operation. An oil-based lubricant should be
avoided for it will attract dirt. A silicon-based lubricant is recommended.
Definitely do not use oil or some other lubricant that attracts dirt or dust.
ever lubricating at all is better than using something that will soon have
abrasive dirt in it.
Use the level rod as intended! A general principle regarding the care of any
d tZ n e d T T ^ ^ Sh Uld be USed 0nly for the PurPose for which it was
gned and in a manner according to accepted manuals or other instruction.
thev are full 100 ên us^n8 level rods, care should be taken to make sure
maximum 1 ^ e*tended. That is, some level rods telescope to achieve their
Blunder Will Occur
result in Careless users may not extend them fully and this will
major errors in the leveling activity.
Hand-Held Computers
, reclulre you to perform a wide variety of geometric, algebraic, and
ematica unctions. An electronic hand-held device such as a calculator, data
collector or personal data assistant (PDA) will make a dramatic difference in your
a 1 lty to perform these functions quickly, easily, and with remarkable accuracy.
T hese hand-held devices are readily available from a number of
manufacturers in a wide range of models, styles, and prices. Simple models will
be cheaper, but more expensive models will typically have many more features and
will result in greater computational power and increased productivity.
Many of these hand-held devices come with on-board programs or with
modules that can be inserted to add additional programs for specific calculation
needs. For the construction field engineer, programs would include coordinate
geometry, curves, volumes, etc. The hand-held has become a tool that is "rich with
versatility." To care for the hand-held, follow these rules:
Place the electronic device in a waterproof and dust proof case when on a dirty
or wet jobsite. If a special case isn't available, use a plastic self-sealing bag
readily available at a grocery store.
O perate and store computers according to the manufacturer's temperature
specifications. Temperature specifications can be found in the owner s
m anual.
A lw ays turn off the computer to remove or insert modules. To avoid damage,
replacem ents must be made while the unit is off.
Do not insert fingers or foreign objects into an input/output port on the
com puter. You could damage the unit with some models, by interrupting the
operation o f the memory functions.
Pay careful attention to low power and battery indicators. Power interruptions
o f sufficient length can cause difficulty with some memory functions.
M ost com puter batteries are not rechargeable. Refer to the manual for direct
battery requirem ents. Do not attem pt to recharge conventional batteries.
T urn o ff the com puter before attempting to remove and replace batteries.
A lw ays replace all batteries with new ones. Leaving one old battery inside the
unit m ay cause dam aging battery leakage and acid corrosion to the com puter.
fieldw ork practices
chapter th re e
B a tte rie s , vnu w j|| e n c o u n te r a n d u se a s a f .e ld e n g m e e r w ,U be

Much o f the equipment you wt T h ^ b a tte rie s a re a n im p o r ta n t a c c e s s o ry to
dependent upon b a tte r.e s to r Po w ^ w ill b e c o m e im p o s s ib le . F o r th is
Turn o ff
instruments all equipm ent. Wlth<u ' t ed a n d c a re d f o r a c c o r d in g to the s p e c ific a tio n s
when replacing reason, b atteries sh o u ld be P p |e c e 0 f e q u ip m e n t.
batteries. set forth by the manufacturer cadmium batteries designed to be
Much of the equtpment will yery sensitive. Using ^
recharged. Nickel cadm u important because replacement can be quite
recharging them properly^ P ' P fee laced, even
S S 3 2 S Z 3 5 T
k-*
the care o f e q u ip m e n t b a tte rie s:
. Turn off equipment when lengthy delays in operation are expected, as this will
prolong the charge on the batteries.
. Generally try to use the charge in the battery fully before recharging. This
may even require you to leave equipment on at the end of the day to fully
discharge the battery. Nickel cadmium batteries can develop a memory
pattern I f they are not fully discharged, which will eventually shorten the
immediate time/usage capability of the battery.
Turn off the equipment before removing or inserting batteries.
Charge batteries under the conditions specified by the manufacturer. This
includes adhering to all time limits specified for recharging.
Generally, it is best never to charge for more than 24 hours, but an ideal time
will be documented. This inform ation will be available in m ost equipm ent
manuals.
INSTRUMENT HANDLING GUIDELINES

Regardless how conscientiously operations are performed, the construction field
engineer can only be as effective as his or her equipment. Therefore, the field engineer
must always operate and maintain equipment with great respect for its value.
Fundamental G uidelines fo r H an dlin g T o o ls
Only use equipment if you know how to operate it.
Do not force a part if it is difficult to move.
Keep equipment clean. ~
Use protective cases.
When an instrument is wet, let it dry naturally.
When using an instrument in cold areas, store it in a similar climate at night.
Always attend the equipment.

leveling an Instrument
Leveling an [ \
nstrument |______ !
Gener al Pr i nci pl es 3-44
P r o c e d u r for F
o u r - S c r e w L e v e l i n g Head 3-45
P r o c e d u re f o r Th
r e e - S c r e w L e v e l i n g Head 3-47
P r o c e d u re f o r El
e c t r o n i c L e v el i ng Syst em 3-49
SCOPE
Leveling an instrument looks like an easy process, and it is if a few rules are
followed. However, observation indicates that many people either have forgotten
how, or never knew how, to level. They simply take too long to level an instrument
and get ready to use it. This Section needs to be understood before moving on to
the "Instrument Setups" Section. Being able to set up an instrument depends on the
ability to level it.
3 -4 3
fieldwork practice*
Q chapter three
Level Vial Positioning

P o sitio n th e level vial o v e r th e le v e lin g s c re w s p r o p e r ly s o th e m a n ip u la tio n o f the
lev elin g screw s is e ffe c tiv e . T h e p r o p e r p o s itio n d e p e n d s o n th e ty p e o f le v e lin g
head. S ee th e ste p -b y -ste p p ro c e d u re f o r th e th r e e s c r e w a n d f o u r s c re w le v e lin g
h ead s d e sc rib e d later.
CD o CD o
5
LU
5
LU om
BE3
DC cr o
0
CD
m- -- 0 o
LU
CD
DC
o
LU
DC 0 3
o
o 1o
LL 1
1
o o o
Left-Thumb Rule
Left-thumb rule: Both thumbs in, both thumbs out, the bubble follows the left thum b. This rule
The bubble applies for all types of leveling systems because all m anufacturers use the same
follows the left type of threads in their leveling screws. This is so sim ple; but repeatedly, people
thumb.
tend to try to use a random method for leveling the instrum ent w hich takes much
longer. A graphical illustration of the rule is shown.
o
o
n a
A lw ays Rotate 180 Degrees as a Check adjustment of the
Continually rotate the instrument 180 as a check of the proper j
level bubble to ensure that the bubble stays centered.
Turn Leveling Screws Equally

tW ê v e ^ nS screw s to g eth er, ro tate th em the sam e am ount, in
1 6 lêctlons, at the same rate. This is extremely important with the four-
screw eve ing system. If they are not operated exactly the same, they will
become too tight or too loose.
When the leveling screws become too tight on a four-screw leveling system,
it is difficult to operate them. And if the operator continues to operate them
incorrectly, they will become tighter and tighter. This will result in not being able
to move them at all. In an extreme case, the structure of the leveling head itself
could be damaged or the threads on the leveling screws could be stripped.
Not Indexed If improper operation causes the leveling screws to become too loose, the
Index instrument will rock on the leveling head. This will make it difficult to keep the
Line instrument level during the operation of turning angles. Again, rotate leveling
screws the same amount at the same rate.
There are two types of leveling head systems which have been used on
instrumentsthe original four-screw system, and the more recent three-screw system.
Indexed
Index the Screws
On most instruments, the midpoint of the leveling screw is shown with a line on the
screw body. See the illustration. When the top of the knob is on the line, an equal
amount of rotations of the screw can be made up, and an equal amount down. Store
your instrument with all leveling screws indexed.
PROCEDURE FOR FOUR-SCREW LEVELING HEAD

The four-screw leveling head system allows the instrument to be re-leveled without
changing the height of the instrument. The reason for this is that the four-screw
system involves the pivoting of the instrument around a half ball at the bottom of the
spindle. This is very useful when using the dumpy level because the instrument user
can re-level between readings if necessary. See the following illustrations.
S tep 1 Position the plate level bubble so it is o

OPPOSITE
directly over two opposite leveling
screws.
ADJACENT
CK
3-45
chapter three ,,e,<Jwork * * *
Step 2 Observe the location (left o r right o f o

the center o f the vial) o f the level bubble
ami. using the left thumb rule, move
both leveling screws equal amounts in
opposite directions to move the level
bubble towards the center o f the level
vial. Center it exactly.
Step 3 Rotate the in s tru m e n t 90 so the

bubble is directly over the other tw o
leveling screws. Observe the location
(left or right o f the center o f the vial) o f
the level bubble and. using the left-
thumb rule, move both leveling screw s
equal amounts in opposite directions to
move the level bubble tow ards the c e n te r
o f the level vial. Center it exactly.
Step 4 Rotate the instrument 90 again so

level bubble is over the original level
screws again. Check the location of o
bubble and make any necessi
adjustments using those leveling sere
as needed to center the bubble.
v ie p
xxuiaie the instrument 90 a*
level bubble is over the secc
leveling screws again. C
location of the bubble and n
necessary adjustments usin
leveling screws as needed to ct
bubble.
leveling an Instrument
S te p 6 Repeat this process until the bubble

sta y s c e n tered as the instrum ent is
ro tated . I f th e bubble fails to stay
o
cen tered w hen the instrum ent is rotated
180, the bubble needs adjustment. See
H 10
'
Chapter 10, Equipment Calibration, for
an explanation o f this process.
Q
o
PROCEDURE EOR THREE-SCREW LEVELING HEAD

I he ad v antage o f the thr
lev eled m ore quickly i f 6 SC*.6W leveln8 head system is that an instrum ent can be
in stru m en t is follow ed p S ^ quic*ter a system atic approach to leveling the
to level this tvDe o f eons ^ ave been observed going around in circles trying
m in u te s or m ore to ecause they were using it im properly. It has taken 30
procedure shouTd be uêd haVe ,aken 2 or 3 minu,es' The following
S te p 1 Align the level vial so its axis is parallel O

to a line through two of the leveling U
screws.

PARALLEL
- - ------H O
Step 2 Observe the location (left or right of

the center of the vial) of the level bubble
and, using the left-thumb rule, move
both leveling screws equal amounts in
opposite directions to move the level
bubble towards the center of the level
vial. Center it exactly.
T u rn the in stru m en t 90 so the bubble

Step 3 is aligned over the top of the third
rem aining screw.
o o
fieldwork practice
^ chapter three
Observe the lo c a tio n (le ft or rig h t o f

Step 4 the center o f the vial) o f the level bubble
and fo llo w in g the left-thum b rule use
that screw only to c en ter the bubble in
this direction. Center it exactly.
T u rn the in s tru m e n t 90 ag ain to alig n

O
S tep 5
the b u b b le so it is o v e r th e o rig in a l tw o
screw s. A d ju st th ese tw o sc re w s an d
re-center the b u b b le i f n e cessary .
Step 6 Turn the instrum ent 90 again to align

the bubble so it is over the remaining
screw. Adjust this screw and re-center
the bubble if necessary.
o o
Step 7 Repeat this process until the bubble

stays centered as the instrument is
rotated. If the bubble fails to stay
centered when the instrument is rotated
180, the bubble needs adjustment. See
C hapter 10, E q uipm ent C a lib ra tio n , for
an explanation of this process.
^ AO
**- mnnm
leveling an instrument @
pBOCEDURE FOR ELECTRONIC LEVELING SVSTEU

Some Lnsinimems n , S Y S TE M
in stru m en t. Instead thev onêr ^ ave a level vial that is used to level the
re la tio n sh ip o f the instrum ent to le v e T * SenS rS- a" d disp' ay on a screen the
S tG P 1 T h e to ta l station should be placed over

th e p o in t and roughly leveled using the
b u ll's -e y e bubble. A t this point, the
in stru m e n t should be positioned so that
th e sc re e n is directly over one of the
le v e lin g screw s.
Leveling screws
S tep 2 T u rn o n th e in stru m e n t and press the
m e n u b u tto n to a c c e s s th e le v e lin g
s c re e n . T h e illu s tra tio n to the rig h t
s h o w s a ty p ic a l o u t-o f-le v e l situation.
3 Using the left-thumb rule, rotate leveling

screw under the screen to center the
leveling system in that direction.
3 -4 9
chapter three fieldwork
S tep 4 Rotate the other tw o leveling screw s to

c e n te r the le v e lin g s y s te m in t ha t
direction.
S tep 5 Repeat the process u n til th e in s tr u m e n t's

leveling s y ste m is c e n te re d as s h o w n .
instrument setups @
Instrument Setups
P r o c e d u r e fTOr
or q
Se*t u p wi t
h a P l u mb Bob 3-52
P r o c e d u r e for Setu
P i t h an O p t i c a l P l u m m e t 3-54
P r o c e d u r e fnr o ^ *
UP w i t h a L a s e r P l u m m e t 3-57
SCOPE
Setting an instrument over a point is a fundamental requirement of surveying. Until
the mid 1900's, the plumb bob was the only available means to get over a point with
an instrument. The plumb bob works well, but it moves easily in the wind and
introduces errors in the setup over a point. Equipment developers recognized this
and designed lenses and prisms to create an optical plumb line, commonly called an
optical plummet, for quick setups. The wind doesn't affect the optical plummet, but
it can get out-of-calibration and needs to be checked frequently. See Chapter 70,
Equipment Calibration, for the procedure to check out the optical plummet.
Recently, it was recognized that lasers could be placed inside an instrument
and be used for instrument setups over a point. Laser plummets are now a part of
many of the instruments available and are expected to become a standard feature in
the future. No matter which system is used, setup over a point should be quick and
precise. Being over the point exactly is a fundamental requirement of instrument use.
Although there are many methods of setup, the procedures described on the
following pages will quickly and successfully get an instrument over a point.
3-51
(i ii
PROCEDURE FOR SETUP WITH A PLUMB B O B

One o f the fundam ental to o ls o f th e fie ld e n g in e e r, th e p lu m b h
used since the b e g in n in g o f tim e to s e t in s tru m e n ts o v e r a p o in t **as b
a n cien t Egypt sh o w p lu m b b o b s h a n g in g fro m w o o d e n in s tru m ^ etc^s
optical p lu m m e ts and la s e r p lu m m e ts a re n o w u se d o n m o d e rn
su rv ey o rs and fie ld e n g in e e rs sh o u ld still be a w a re o f th e p ro c e lnStrulTlents ^
an in stru m e n t o v e r a p o in t w ith a p lu m b b o b . SS Used to Se1Up
Step 1 Roughly set the tripod over the point.

By o b serv atio n , ro u g h -se t the trip o d
ov er the p oint. H old tw o leg s, and p la c e
the third one p a st the p o in t. M ove the
tw o you are h o ld in g u n til th e h ead o f the
tripod is a p p ro x im a te ly o v e r the p o in t
and h o rizo n tal. S tan d on th e trip o d fe e t
to sink th em firm ly in to th e g ro u n d .
Take the in stru m e n t o u t o f its box and
p lace it on the trip o d h ead . S c re w o r
clam p the in stru m e n t to th e trip o d as
in d icated by th e ty p e o f in s tru m e n t.
S te p 2 Attach the plumb bob to th e c h a in o r

h o o k h a n g in g d o w n o u t o f th e b o tto m o f
the in stru m e n t. A d ju s t th e p lu m b b o b
(u sin g th e g a m m o n re e l) so th e tip o f th e
p lu m b b o b is as c lo s e to to u c h in g th e
p o in t as p o s s ib le , b u t n o t to u c h in g .
Step 3 Observe the location of the plumb

and the tripod legs in relation to
point. Determine which tripod .
need to be adjusted to move the pit
bob over the point. Sometimes
takes moving one tripod leg, and ot
times it takes moving two. Carefi
and slowly adjust the tripod legs so
plumb bob moves to within a quartet
an inch of the point. It may be necessi
to adjust the length o f the gammon r<
string at this time to keep the plumb b
just over the point.
Instrument setups @
S tep 4 Level the instrument w ith the leveling

screw s. F in e ad ju st ov er the p o int w ith
th e in stru m en t. C heck the location of
th e p lu m b bo b to the point. If it is still
w ith in a q u a rte r o f an inch, m ove to the
in s t r u m e n t h e a d a n d m a k e a fin a l
a d ju stm e n t to get the plu m b bob exactly
o v e r th e p o in t. W ith a fo u r-sc re w
le v e lin g h e a d in stru m en t, slightly loosen
tw o a d ja c e n t screw s an d carefu lly slide
th e in s tru m e n t o v e r th e p o in t. T hen
tig h te n th e sc re w s an d re-lev el. W ith an
in s tru m e n t th a t c lam p s fro m th e b o tto m ,
l o o s e n t h e c l a m p a n d s l i d e th e
in s tru m e n t o v e r th e p o in t. T ig h te n the
c la m p a n d re -le v e l as n e ed ed . F o r e ith er
ty p e o f in s tru m e n t, do not rotate the
instrum ent, as d o in g so w ill req u ire
c o m p le te re le v e lin g in ste a d o f sim ply
fin e a d ju s tin g .
heck an d re p e a t the leveling an d

Step 5 Lifting of the instrument until it is
v e l a n d over the point.
... p L l)W W ^
, AM O P T IC A L - r ...r e d an art. Anyone can set
- c T U P W IT H AW 1S not cons of the basic procedures
)R S E < U r . . over a P* is anotne takes others "tn
procedure
he abMiiy " in 2 of carpenters waiting
sz~ . -* m
- fiew
rineers have
. bv observation,
ugh-set the trtpnf :npg he legs in or
ste p 1 ;r the Pinl b' " Hold t lei?s
iWrSSKS* - ,he
int and horizontal.
ach the instrument to^he^tript*^

Step 2
l00k lhr UL crosshairs and then
focus onto the cross"\ our
the objective point (p
, next to the point
ermining location). J
ation of the tripod, if necessary ,
ke the point visible in the optica
Center the optical plum m et. When

Step 3
the point is visible in the optical
plummet, use the instrument's leveling,
screws to center the optical plummet
exactly on the point-.
4
Instrument setups
' i
S te p 4 Adjust the tripod lees im
center the bullVeve k u u down t0
instrum ent. Only work with o ? *he
a time! lth one leg at
S te p 5 Confirm the position. Check to confirm

that the optical plummet is still on or is
very close to the point.
Step 6 C e n te r the bu b b le. Return to the

leveling screws and use them to exactly
c e n te r the p la te b u b b le on the
instrum ent. The plate bubble should
rem ain centered when the instrument
is rotated about its vertical axis.
chapter three fieldwork practices
S te p 7 Check the re latio n of the optical

plummet to the point. It will probably
be off the point slightly.
Step 8 Loosen the instrument attachment

clamp on the tripod slightly and while
looking through the optical plummet
slide the instrument until it is exactly on
the point. Do not rotate the instrument!
Instrum ent setups 0
S tep 10 Re-level and repeat, if necessary, until

the instrum ent is exactly level and
directly over the point. When this is
a c h ie v e d , c h e c k th e instrum ent
frequently to ensure that it remains level
and over the point.
procedure for setup w ith a laser plummet

In addition to the old nlum h hoh
instruments are now being buMt ^ Plumme>ft setting up over a point,
tn hflvp i iacp i ^ Wlt^ aser plummets. Although it sounds "high-
availahlf* tnnl T f f ^ Umrnet 11 is actually a simple use of a dependable and readily
' n ac* usln8 a laser as a plummet has several advantages over other
sys em s. e aser is cheaper than the optics of an optical plummet and since it
is insta e as part o the vertical axis of the instrument, it does not go out of
adjustment. It is predicted that someday all plummets in instruments will be lasers.
Setting an instrument over a point with a laser is even easier than with an
optical plum m et. A nyone can set up quickly if exact procedures are followed.
B ecau se ot being able to easily see where the laser is located in relation to the
point, m ovin g it onto the point becomes intuitive if proper procedures are used.
T his m ethod works w ell in setting up an instrument with a laser plummet.
A ny instrument with an laser plummet can be set up quickly and efficiently
by fo llo w in g these steps.
Step 1 Rough-set the tripod, by observation,

over the point by m ovin g the legs in or
out on the ground. H old two legs and
p lace the third one past the point. M ove
the tw o you are holding until the head of
the tripod is approxim ately over the
p o in t (w ith in a tenth or tw o) and
h orizon tal.
chapter three
9
Step 2 ' Tun. "*
ZZFZ' "...."
instrument.
*7qu'pp
Step 3
S te p 4 Determine from the location of the

laser to the point, which direction the
laser needs to be moved. Use the
instrument's leveling screws and rotate
them as needed to center the laser dot
exactly on the point.
instrument setups @
S te p 6 Confirm the position. Check to

confirm that the laser plummet dot
still on or is very close to the point.
S te p 7 Precisely level the instrument. Your

instrument may have a typical level bubble
or it may have an electronic bubble system.
Regardless of the system, the process is
fundamentally the same. Use the leveling
screws to exactly center the bubble on the
instrument. Ultimately, the bubble should
remain centered when the instrument is
rotated about its vertical axis.
r $ chapter three
fieldwork pract|C((g
S te p 8 Check Ihe relation o f the laser plummet

S P dot to the point. It w ill probably be o ft
the point slightly.
L o o s e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t attachm ent
Step 9
clamp on the tripod slightly and while
looking a t th e la s e r plummet dot, slide
the instrument until it is exactly on the
point. D o n o t rotate the instrument?
S te p 10 Tighten the attachment

recheck the plate level.
3-60
Instrument setups
Step 11 Re-level and repeat, if necessary, until

the instrum ent is exactly level and
directly over the point.
q f e p 12 C onstantly check and confirm. You

~ should now be exactly over the point
and exactly level. Time to get to work.
Sum m ary
IMPORTANT POINTS
. Common sense is the most important factor in being safe on the construction site.
. Personal protective equipment for field engineers includes a hard hat, safety
glasses, ear protection, safety shoes, fluorescent vest, and fall protection.
Mistakes can be eliminated, errors cannot.
. A popular saying is "Measure w ith a microm eter, mark w ith chalk, cut with
a chainsaw." This illustrates the progression o f how tolerances are sometimes
ignored, and as a result, are not met.
Know the tolerances required for construction.
Never erase in a field book.
Field books are a record o f work performed and should be kept safe.
A person w ith surveying experience should be able to p ick up your field book
and continue your work.
The most important aspect of equipment care is to keep equipment CLEAN.
Instruments that get wet should be stored w ith the case open.
O nly use instruments or tools i f you know th e ir fu n c tio n and lim itations.
Use the left-thum b rule to q u ickly level an instrum ent.

Failure to use protective safety equipment resulted in serious injury or more.
Not double- or triple-checking the measurement resulted in mistakes that
could not be eliminated.
Not recognizing the significance of accuracy and precision, and achieving
one, but not the other.
Used the wrong tolerance for the work.
Not keeping complete, logical, and accurate field notes of work performed.
Having a messy jobsite and losing accuracy due to construction debris that
created obstacles when surveying.
Trying to read through dirt and mud that have accumulated on the chain.
Having dirt on the top of benchmarks and holding the rod on them.
Having an open instrument case on the jobsite.
Storing a wet instrument in a closed case overnight.
Not having wide setups during windy conditions.
Bumping or jarring an instrument without anyone's knowledge, thus resulting
m differing elevations.
Not set up directly over the point.
Not checking to make certain the instrument was still level after leaving it
unattended for an extended amount o f time.
3-62
summary @
; - -
Inexperience in eoili
Chasing the bubble bv not r qUlck lnstrument leveling.

-rew s when levelingVe n ^ ^ mStrUment P-perly over the level
QUESTIONS A N D P R O B L E M S
1. What personal protective
2. Regarding cutting tools why'' ^ " h ShU'd 3 ^ engineer use?
3- l ,
, i , ; : r r *- - - ~
4. Explain how you would describe t o yi"8 meaSUrement-
and errors. to someone the difference between mistakes
5. Describe a layout situation ^
accuracy and precision ^ constructon sê where you would need both
6. List the cardinal rules of field book use.
7. Describe why erasures are not permitted in a field book.
8' erîneer.3 P Ster n eqUipment care that 70u would place on your job as a field
9. Discuss methods that you would use to keep instruments clean.

10. How is the care of electronic instruments different from other instruments?
11. What common food storage aid could be used to keep a calculator dry and
clean on a dirty, wet construction site?
12. Develop an instrument care and maintenance" chart to be used to regularly
clean equipment.
13. Describe why the left-thumb rule works.
14. Describe why it is important how the level bubble is oriented in relation to the
leveling screws.
15. Outline the process used to set up an instrument with an optical plummet.
FIELD A C T IV IT IE S
l. Field Book Setup - (1 person, 1 hour) Procedure: Obtain a field book and ready
it for recording data by writing your name on the outside and inside covers;
labeling the first page as Title Page and entering your address, phone, email, and
other contact information on it; labeling a page as the Table of Contents; labeling
a page as the Legend; and numbering the right pages in the upper right-hand comer
throughout the book with consecutive numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
Equipment Maintenance -(1 person, varies) Procedure; If you have access
2.
to some surveying equipment, clean it.
3.
Instrument Setup - 0 person J
S e t u p w ith a n O p tic a l Plummet.
3-63
chapter four
distance measurement - chaining
introduction 1 4-2
Chaining a Distance I 4-7
Chaining a Traverse 1 4-15
Analysis of C h a i n i n g E r r o r s \ 4-18
Summary 4-21
Introduction
4-3 Chaining Equipment
4-3 Chaining Basics
4-6 Properly Care for Chains and Chaining Equipment
SCOPE
, T g d*sfances a câin seems so simple. Hold one end of the chain on
That'^'ti11^ ^mt and odler end where you want to determine the distance,
he hnr! oes see simple, doesn't it? Not so fast. Consider that the chain must
zero reari*1 ^ 1 between the points, properly tensioned, held exactly on
in the f ie ld T ^ 01 ^ etC ^ tIlese act*v^ es must he considered and performed
procedure anri f" \ ^ nute' Y es G aining is simple once you understand the
procedure and get a feel for the physical skills required.
constantl^meaQ.i engnJeer and everyone else associated with the project, is
column etc is ISânces Every control point, offset point, anchor bolt,
Accurate Tocations h nZ ntally from the information given on the plans.
ability of the field engkeenr8S A f 7 7 SeWerS CtC' dep6nd Up0n the cha'n!ng
distances accurateiv , ^ ^le <J engmeer, to be successful at measuring
It should h d p recisely > must be consistent in the chaining procedure.
interchangeably^ S i f Ut that the terms "tape" and "chain" are used
chosen to use the term chafn 7 * 7 ^ ^ n the construction site. The author has
use and call a tape ' IstlnSuish it from the 25' tape that many carpenters
4-2
introduction @
CHAINING e q u i p m e n t
CHAINING BA SIC S
Use Two People

To chain a distance requires two persons working together and communicating,
verbally and through body language, as they perform the various steps in the
chaining process. Two persons who have chained together for a long time can
actually measure distance after distance without speaking a word. They understand
the process, and they understand each other's movements very well.
Become Familiar with the Chain Being Used

Chains come in many sizes, shapes, and colors. Possibly the greatest source of
error in chaining is that the users are not familiar with the chain. Where is zero?
One would think there's a simple answer to that question-that zero is at the end
of the chain. However, upon closer examination, it is found that zero is not
always at the end of the chain. Therefore, always examine a chain closely before
using it. A sample of chains is presented here. Note the positions of zero.
4 -3
chapter four distance measurem ent
Gaining
Reading an Engineering Chain

Forget about reading feet and inches when surveying. The engineer's chain is widei
used in construction layout and is graduated in feet, tenths, and hundredths. A tflrJ
this is difficult for someone who has always used feet, inches, and fractions, but the
engineer's chain is much easier to use, and is especially easier when measurements
are added or subtracted. The illustration shows how the engineer's chain is marked
o 6 4 \ 7 TOO
i_ _ A
a
Reading a Metric Chain

When construction dimensions utilize the metric system, it is much easier to use
a metric tape or chain than to convert to feet, tenths, and hundredths. Many
mistakes are made in the conversion process, so learning to read metric measuring
tools is good practice. On the jobsite, some field engineers have found that the key
to metric measurement is to read and record and speak in millimeters and ignore
meters. If a dimension is 15.674 meters, they say "15674 millimeters" instead.
Others will say "fifteen point six seven four meters." Both are correct; use
whichever you like. To read a metric scale, just read the meter, the centimeter, and
the millimeter, and string the numbers together to get the millimeters in the
measurement. See the example here.
Communication is the Key to Good Chaining

For beginners to be successful at chaining, it is required that they communicate
loudly and clearly to each other to acknowledge each stage in the process of
measuring a distance. A step-by-step procedure of the chaining process for
measuring the distance between two known points follow s in the next section.
Introduction
D on't Cut a Foot Tenth
cut a
Qo* , It is common practice by r A n y th in * Elaai
measuring distances n th yors field enRineer*
a foot." This practii'^ h construction site to " I . i arpcmcrs- or anyonc clsc
zero on 1 wor te ccurs for several r- .cut a fo 1*" also known as "burn
that then* 11 l U' taPe>not knowing u,u SS ns deluding not being able to locate
'here w tll be error in tro d u c e d ^ * Th " or wi,h ' tpe-.hinking
ere is no reason good cnouuh e..Cnt^ '^ c ' i * having a liule raovemenr
common m,slake in lt.yom hapw n? , f h V ' 3 fcK" ' 0 1 ""^thing else! The most
tenth or one inch, because someone * V Camounts that are off by one foot or one
superintendents have been "burnt" CfU* * Cm ^ y a ôot or a tenth, or an inch. Some
openly admonish all on the site Uen Cnough with this type of mistake that they
o ft a hundredth or an eiphth i, ? êver cut any amount - they can live with being
gmn. but they cannot ever live with being off a foot.
T h e "*8 ' " G OC! <V" 9 n m e m

'ti saying. the shortest distance between two points is
s raig t line, is a fundamental principle by which distances
must e measured. When measuring distances less than a
c am length, this isn't a problem. However, when measuring
eyond the length of a chain, intermediate chaining points arc
used. They should be directly on line between the points that
are being measured. The procedure used to maintain this
alignment is described in detail in the step-by-step procedure
fo r chaining a distance.
Measure Horizontally
Always measure Distances shown on the plan view of plans are horizontal unless noted otherwise.
horizontally. ere ore, w en chaining, the distances that are laid out for construction will be
horizontal. Two devices are used when chaining to obtain horizontal measurement.
They are the sight level and the plumb bob. The sight level is used to determine
where horizontal is, and the plumb bob is used to plumb down to the point.
The sight level is a device consisting of a tube with a
level bubble and a prism or mirror with a horizontal crosshair
inside the tube. The basic principle of use is to look into the
tube and center the crosshair on the bubble while looking
through the tube at the object. Where the crosshair hits the
object when the bubble is centered is horizontal from the
user's line of sight. Thus, when chaining, a horizontal line can
be determined between the persons at the ends of the chain.
Another method used by some persons is to attach a
magnetic line level to the chain. By keeping the bubble
centered on the line level, and keeping the chain tight, a
horizontal measurement can easily be made.
=e
The plumb bob is used in chaining to transfer the point or distance measured
tically to the horizontal measurement line. It is an ancient device used to assist
keeping buildings plumb. Whenever possible, while plumbing, do so from one
I only to eliminate doubling errors that occur when a plumb bob is used.
chapter four
re1kiZ CT , hc chain in two: breaking chain is a process that is used to measure

utTsfeep stones This involves measuring in lengths shorter than the full chain
length I f the length of the chain is 100 feet and the slope of he land is so much
'hat it is impossible to hold the chain horizontal then lengths shorter than 100 fee,
are used to measure up the slope. Generally, the chain is laid out full length and
then the head chain walks back to where the chain can be held ho rizo n tal-f0r
example, the 40 foot mark. The normal chaining process is used and that point is
marked. Both persons move forward and the rear chain person holds 40 and the
head chain person holds 100. The normal chaining process is used and the 100 foot
is marked on the ground. They have just performed breaking chain.
Apply Proper Tension

It isn't too tough to imagine that measuring a distance while
Pull hard to the chain is sagging in the middle from its own weight is
achieve going to affect the distance. Chains must be pulled tight to
precision.
achieve the precision expected for construction layout. The
exact tension that must be applied varies with the weight of
the chain being used. Some chains have a large cross-
sectional area and, as a result, are very heavy per foot while
other chains have a small cross-sectional area and weigh
much less. The amount of tension depends upon the weight
of the chain. A typical chain used in construction will require 20 to 25 pounds of
tension to overcome the sag. When in doubt about the amount of tension to apply,
PULL HARD! It is better to pull a little extra than not enough.
Measure All Distances Twice
Measuring just once in any situation risks making a mistake
without discovering it. To avoid the mistakes that frequently
occur in chaining, all distances must be measured twice.
Preferably, measure from the beginning point forward to the
end of the line, and then from the end point back to the
beginning. Reversing the direction of measurement helps to
eliminate the possibility of making the same mistakes twice,
as often occurs, when measuring in the same direction.
Remember: Field Engineers Alw ays Do It Twice!
PROPERLY CARE FOR CHAINS AND CHAINING EQUIPM ENT

Good results can only occur with well-cared-for equipment. This axiom
repeated throughout this book. Some basics of chain care include: keeping t
chain on reel when not in use, removing loops from the chain, drying the chi
when wet, cleaning off dirt and sand to prevent wearing off numbers, and wipi
the chain with an oily rag to prevent rust.
See Page 3-38, S teel Chain, for a detailed discussion on the care of cha
and chaining equipment.
4-6
chaining a distance @
Chaining a j
Distance l
r c e d u r e f or
Measuring a Distance 4-8
Calculations 4-1 4
Field Notes 4-1 4
SCOPE
Even though it has been shown in the previous Section that the chaining process
involves simple steps, it is still involved and requires constant attention to the
details o f performing chaining properly. To be successful at measuring distances
accurately and precisely requires consistency in the chaining procedure. This
Section will explain and demonstrate the step-by-step activities of the persons
involved in the chaining process.
4-7
chapter fo u r
ion your body properly to be able to easily

it is necessary to P ' chain. The head chain and rear chain
When chaining, { .g being applied to should be standing so that they are
resist the tens- Qther when c h your legs and feet apart so that yovi
should not tac watch your feet P If you have your feet together
facing the chain. able to resist the WU1 fall. Do not hold
can brace y e wi Ukely be <" f J a r , again,, yon, b ob ,*
bcn " S W '* y L S your body, you are able?
me mani ------- ~
the chain will eadv By having
be steady. having
Mvi
your arula a6ttl,," v ' ~ " .. 77
8 J ^ Ttension
. Z Lbeing -no,led to
d appiied ,o the ~ U1C to
,b, oW .
chain.
easily use your body and/ ir,? e chaining process d iffic u lt by the methods they
Many persons make the ^ a pointi and reading the tension-
when holding the chain, plumMlB ^ T q m ake this easy, determ ine how nigh
required to ber performed at the
1C C JU 11V U ---------- plum b bob string around your right index
to
to plumb using aa hand
plumb using hand level,
level, and
an wrap V
the piumu u w amu6
length y
w h ile holding *5IlllllU(
the end Q{
finger when the plumb bob string
finnpr u/hpn the plumb bOD SI & is the correct t
length. While holding the end of
Krinn irnui>mUL
the chain in your left hand, place the string over the chain and bring your right hand
down to the chain. If you intend to hold zero, place the string at zero and pinch the
string between your thumb and the chain and your index finger. As tension is
applied, you only need to glance at the tension and concentrate on getting the plumb
bob on the point.
H E A D C H A IN
REAR CHAIN
Applies the proper tension to the tape to
Step 5 Resists the tension being applied and
yells "good" or "mark" when the end of eliminate sag. Identifies the spot on the
the chain is over the point. ground that marks the end of the chain
and releases tension when the point is
marked with a chaining pin or nail.
Insert the
chaining pin a t a
45-degree angle
t o th e ground,
and a t a 9 0 -
degree angle to
th e chain.
ncMK C H A IN H E A D CHAIN
Step 6 H olding at the prescribed height, plumbs Holding at the prescribed height using
i f necessary, checks holding the ZERO a plumb bob if necessary c ec
over the point. 100-foot mark.
Checks the chaining pin or nail in the

S te p 7 Rechecks alignment and makes sure Checks to
ground at the new point,
^ ZERO was being held on the point. being held.
m ake sure exactly 100 was
check the measurement.

through 7 are repeated to
Steps 5
Step 8
chapter fo u r
head c h a in
r e a r c h a in Moves ahead on line toward the end

Gathers equipment and a|vd" f the point dragging the tape behind. Stops
S te p 9 when the Rear Chain yells "Chain."
Step 10 Steps 2 through 9 are repeated for each additional full chain length measured.
The following steps apply when the full length of the chain is not used.
Step 11 When measuring the less-than-full chain length at the end o f a line, dont forget to
chain horizontally. Also, the amount of tension applied should be decreased
slightly because of the smaller length of chain being used.
Step 12 Gets m position at the last point marked. Walks to the end point o f the line, reels
up the extra chain, and prepares to read
the chain.
r e a r c h a in
S te p 1 3
t, . .. ntMU
H EAD V^nMIN
CHAIN
Moiuing chain at ih
horizontal at the | ' ^ ,crnunct* *K*'iiht Holding at the determined heighlto clhain
resists tension hein * * ^ >m* mar^ct** horizontal, applies tension and reads the
"good" when the end a,u* chain when over the end point to the
the point. * e,1|peisover nearest 0.0I when the rej
Step 14 ec s t c ast mcasuicmcnl. The head chain yells out the last reading for the
C ^ C^ Cr rccor(T T he notekeeper adds the hundreds o f feet to the final distance
an repeats it back as a check as the head chain checks the reading.
Step 15 The distance measured is the total of the number of chain lengths measured plus
the reading the head chain made at the last measurement.
Repeat all o f the above steps anytime a measurement between two known points
Step 16
is desired.
This is the basic process for chaining a distance between existing points. This
detailed procedure should be studied and used every time a measurement is made
until it becomes second nature. To lay out a point by chaining, see C h a p te r 19,
L a y o u t T e c h n iq u e s .
4-13
^ chapter four
. bv adding them together and d ividing
Discrepancy _ JL
Mean X
For example, in the notes below for line
168.29-J68;2 5 = _ i _
168^27 4200
FIELD NOTES
U /D P I70N TA L P IS T . M E A 5 y R E M M 2 5 T E E L
C H A IN
a i/*y MEAN P1SCREP. 1-----------

TAnE FOREWARC PALrK
RATIO
1M 1 %DIST. FT. DIST. FT. DIST. FT.
J.O. KA-
105.99' 1/1764 M.B. C.P.

10-1 1 105.05' 105.91'
i ---------------
IQi
1111- IS l MJ501 159.53' 139.5T 1/4600 C.B. M.9.
t
10 -_ 1L-
ly 1A OQ* 169.25' 169-27' 1/4200 J.O. M.9.
'
L ------------- |----------------- <
1* 19
lu - 16 105.16' 105.10' \66AT 1/9300 M.B. J.O.
______ 1
10-21 91.24' 9\2& 9126' 1/2300 J.O. B.C.
:______
~ r r
NOTE; EACHTARTY MEMBER DIP P1FFERNET
0BS ONEACHDISTANCE.
------ 4-
----
itWrc, eACHMEMBERT00K
NC/iEic. NOTES ON
_____ L
*AINPCOflEP OTTER MEMBERS.
*
***
II Chaining a
Traverse
Procedure 4-16
Review of C h a i n i n g Fundam entals 4-1 6
C alculations 4-17
Field Notes 4-17
SCOPE
As linear measurement is the basis of all field engineering operations, traverse
chaining is the way the field engineer begins to determine the relative location of
points. By also measuring interior angles at the points, the field engineer can
determine the precision of the work which is a necessity when establishing control
networks on construction projects.
The actual process of chaining a traverse differs from measuring a single
line only in the number of lines to be measured. The same procedure of locating
or establishing the points, setting range poles, aligning, applying tension, plumbing,
marking, reading, and recording the forward and back distance is simply repeated
for every line to be measured. This process is used time and again on all types of
field engineering applications of horizontal distance measurement. Therefore, the
field engineer should learn inside and out the steps and techniques of chaining.
It should be noted that traverse chaining is seldom performed today due to
the ready availability o f Total Station distance measurement. However, there are
times when a total station may be unavailable, or when it is necessary to "change
technology" and check the electronic distances with a chain. For these occasions,
this Section is available as a reference.
4-15
r
r <9
,,.* fouf
PROCEDURE
I f**crw
lim tv**
'***!*' ,,K ' *
d lita n c * m tw u rtn w n l - chaining
im vcn^ Pn 10 u * v c n c Print iinf

Here, it * * > reP* the
n.x*s * hen chaining a traverse would
m," n^ I h IZ number ot tar*eh-ne ^ ^ |faxcfxC c|tKkwic unul they return io
7J717iV bgin* P0*01 *nJ v'" '7hc,r diiecOiMi and measure each distance ag,n<
n*-\ then re'crse thin j,nc 0f the traverse.
* * w^ wU' h*_hr *
h " ,11 he rea. chain Make sure each persun has
Cham anJ hi K nl such as a plumb huh and hand
*^w-
...... .. ""*> >"* M es.
lexcl. *n d ' h. . Ih 4 h pencil, hammer, and hubs and
M h-Jt
ncKl a
' , T ; Prepared sketch in your field hrurk o f the traverse y 0
K ,no Set range wiles at the points and begin the
. i l l he measuring S eira" | ine o f the traverse,
, !*> chaining p r o c e s s Repeat
Plumb to ensure all measurements are horizontal distances.

Chain It the terrain is sloping at more than 5 lect o f elevation per
horizontally 100 foot chain length, it w ill be necessary to utilize the
procedures indicated tor breaking chain.______________ _
variety o f types o f graduated chains may be encountered.
Know your Study your chain to be sure you understand its graduations
equipment and use (feet, tenths, and hundredths, or feet and inches).
Improper tension is the greatest factor affecting accuracy in
Pull hard chaining. It is better to place too much tension on the chain
rather than too little. So, P U LL H A R D !
Make sure good alignment is maintained w hile chaining
Maintain good
distances greater than one chain length fo r straight line
alignment
measurement.
Drive stakes until they are solid and Hush. Tacks w ill be
Set solid points
placed exactly on line and exactly at the measured distance.
Place guard lath around stakes to warn others o f the

Protect points importance of the point. Lath w ill be marked clearly w ith
information that describes the use o f the point.
Maintain
equipment Clean, dry. and oil chains regularly. Watch out for loops.
Record all measurements in the field book as they are

Record observed. Record complete, concise, and properly-arranged
notes. Provide sketches that allow tor a quick interpretation
of the work performed and where it is located.
4-16
chaining a traverse
Maintain Precision ents

The rule of thumb for construction is that forward and back meas*!**
should agree within 0.01 per 100 feet measured. Thus, for a distance ot z ^
the difference between the recorded forward and back measurement shou
or less. For a distance of 500 feet, the difference should be 0.05 or less,
any distances over 200 feet should be measured with an EDM.
C A L C U L A T IO N S ng
The forward and back distances are averaged by adding them together and ^ r'
by 2. Some persons chaining also calculate a discrepancy ratio or eetermi ne
measured. The calculated ratio is compared to an established standar to
i f the distance is acceptable or needs re-measured.
Forward - Back = Discrepancy
Discrepancy _ 1
Mean X
For example, in the notes below for line 19-13
168 . 2 9 - 168.25 _ 1
168.27 4200
TR A V E R S E c h a i n i n g f i e l d n o t e s
AUG. 16. 2 0 0 2
TAPING A TRAVERSE ANP REFERENCING ^ =
c= = . JILL OCHS
3 5 j SUNNY C. BROWN
MEAN PISCREP. RAL. ,__ Z

AND CLEAR
IffFIELD NOTES" M. BECK.
LINE FOREWARP
PIST. FT.
BACK
PIST. FT. PIST. FT. ERROR ^7 P01KT4
157.865' .01 1/ 1 5 . 8 0 0
>
6-4B 157.B6' 157.87'
4-B - 4 146.80' 146.84' 146.82' .04 1/ 3,700 Z

/ rm
4-4C 142.70* 142.71' 142.705' .01 1 / 14,30 < = -
'
.00 POINT 48 l INT4C tif fl,t 4f If
r/ PO
4 C -5 4 e.&9 46.89' 46.89' 1/00 c -
NOTE: ACCURACY rw 4I44

M
5-6 136.32' 136.325' .01 1/13,600 c= = OPT.4B IS IN m
QUESTION
BECAUSE
OF LARGE TRUCK..
BEING ON LINE
X tjj tffiY
7 POINTS
Iff!
NOTE*.
ORIGINAL FIELP NOTES- TAKEN BY ALL htrti
PARTY MEMBERS. (J.O.. C.B. A M.T.B.)
- CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE -

____________ ______ _
4-17
measurement - cha.n.ng
distance
A n a iy f( ^ r r o r s
i ng
r r orr in
>n C h a i n
Sources of E
Types ol E " orS
SCOPE
Errors always exist in any measurement. This statement is especially true in
chaining since there are two people involved and there are many steps that must be
followed. Individuals who are measuring distances must follow exact procedures
or mistakes will occur, and errors will multiply. Even though many of the mistakes
and errors listed here have been discussed previously, it is prudent t o "say it again."
4-18
analysis of chaining arrora 0
SOURCES O F ERROR IN CHAINING

111 ( f t a p tr t I h r l J * \ t>ri, P tu t lit r v it w av explained how CtTOC* <41 cl
m i t i a k f ' They .uc Mint 11 anti may only becom e tijtm lit ai h o n ih c \ "[jo in in g ,
u* accumulate I hetv ate diH ctvnl voutvev of c im it that ocxut w ^ f n 1
Inatrum antal t ^ tlcicc* n

\ ta p e m ay he tlille re n l in length Im m i t ' nom inal length hetuvC
m a n u ta t lu re ot rcp .ui or a t a result ot k in k '
'Ml tl |
I he horizontal distance between cntl graduation' of ' ta|V > a tit' htvat
effects nt temperature, wind, and the weight ot the tape it'o ll
Personal
Persons chaining may he careless in setting p i n s , reading the tape, ant*
manipulating the equipment
types o f er r o r s
I.irors can he classified into two different t\ pes S\sternalic I rrors and Random Error v
Systematic
Systematic errors are those errors which are predictable They occur over and over
S y s t e m a t ic They follow the laws of physics anti mathematics and can be removed by calculation
e r r o r s can be An example is:
eliminated.
A 100 tape is found to he 0.05 short, which makes the tape only
99.95'. Every tim e this tape is used, 0.05' must he added to obtain
the correct distance.
Random
Random errors are variable in nature. Every measurement
made by human hands and observed by human eyes will
contain random errors. If 100 measurements of a line are
taken, half will be more than the average measurement and
half will be less than the average measurement. It the 1(H)
measurements are plotted relative to their frequency of
occurrence, a bell-shaped curve will result. Thus, random
Random e r r o r e errors can be evaluated through the statistical formulas ot the
always e xist. law s of probability.
Random errors occur because of human limitations
in the senses of sight and touch. An example ot a random
error is:
During chaining, "Good is called out when the plumb bob has
settled. However, since no one can hold the plumb bob perfectly still,
it is really a judgement call. Therefore, most of the time, the plumb
bob is slightly off of the point. Thus, a small random error exists.
A n a lysis of C ^ m n es the errors that are encountered when
* M 0- ' < fc
errors when chaining distances.
Makes Procedure to
Type Chain Importance Eliminate
Error Source
Too...
Direct impact to
Calibrate chain and
Chain Long or Short record measurement.
Instrumenta [ Systematic apply adjustment
Length Always check
For a chain
Observe
standardized at 68
Systematic 01 temperature of
Temperature Natural r Long or Shont degrees, 0.01 per 15 chain, calculate and
Random degrees per 100 foot
apply adjustment
chain
Apply the proper
Often not important
Systematic or tension. When in
Tension Personal Long or Short if close to required
Random doubt, PULL
pull
HARD!
Breaking chain by
using a hand level
Negligible on slopes and plumb bob to
Tape Not Personal or less than 1%; must determine
Systematic Short
Level Natural be calculated for horizontal; or
greater than 1% correcting by
formula for slope or
elevation difference
Stay on line; or
Minor if less than 1
determine amount
Alignment Personal foot off of line in 100
Systematic Short o ff of line and
feet; major if 2 or
calculate adjustment
more feet off of line
by formula
Large impact on
recorded Apply proper
Personal or measurement. 0.01 tension; or calculate
Sag Systematic Short
Natural if sag o f .06 occurs at adjustment by
center of 100 foot formula
chain
Direct impact to Avoid plumbing if

Plumbing Personal Random Long or Short possible; or plumb
recorded
measurement at one end o f chain
only
Direct impact to Check and recheck

Interpolation Personal Random -ong or Short any measurement
recorded
measurement that requires
(estimating a reading
Improper Direct impact to
Marking Personal Random L'Ong or Short Mark all points so
recorded
measurement they are distinct
Summary
IMPORTANT p o in t s
The term "Chain" is used to describe a 100-foot. 200-foot, 30-meter, or 50-

meter measuring tool on a reel commonly used by surveyors and others for
long distances.
The term "Tape" is used to describe a 25-foot, 30-foot, 8-meter spring

retractable measuring tool commonly used by carpenters or others measuring
short distances on the construction site.
Persons chaining should have a plumb bob (with gammon reel), hand level,
and field book.
Zero on a chain can be at the end of the steel, the end of a loop, or several
tenths from the end. Examine your chain and determine the location of Zero.
The shortest distance between two points is a straight line, so measure straight
between two points.
Use a hand level and a plumb bob to assist in chaining horizontally.
If in doubt about the amount of tension to apply to a chain. Pull Hard!
Don't ever cut a foot or an inch or anything when chaining.
Always measure forward and back.
Plumb at one end of the chain only to reduce errors that occur when plumbing.
Communication is the key to good chaining.

Applying improper tension to the chain.
The chain was not held horizontal.
Not understanding decimals of a foot, (i.e., using an engineers chain, and
marking 4 inches at 0.4 feet rather than at 0.33 feet.)
Not measuring in a straight line.
Failing to keep track of the number of full chain lengths measured.
. A ccum ulating error by careless plum bing and/or breaking chain too often.
Transposing numbers. Measuring 56.65 and recording 65.56.
Not understanding where true Zero is.
M iscom m unicating from one end of the chain to the other.
. Not compensating for temperature changing the length of the chain.
Using a foot chain and converting to a metric measurement.
4-21
^ chapter four
q u e s t io n s a n d p r o b l e m s
1. Describe thed i^ nce needed fo r ch aining a distance.

2.
Develop a checklist poster to q P _ _______ rh a in . la b e l t
3.
foot marks and the tenth marks on the chain.
. the following with an arrow, x.23, X.45,
On the chain length you drew, mark the toliowi g
4.
X.69, X.77, X.92. 64.78 feet, 89.43 feet.
5. Write out in sentence form, the chain reading
Describe the effect on a b uild in g that is la id o ut i f the chain is not kept
6.
horizontal.
If you have a typical chain that requires 20 pounds of tension applied for the
7.
fun length, how much tension should be applied for a distance of 15 feet.
8. What is the #1 mistake made in chaining distances?

9. Why is it necessary in chaining to measure forward and back?
10. Describe situations where it will be necessary to violate the Rule of Thumb
of only plumbing at one end of the chain.
11. What is the key to chaining?
12. How should chaining pins be inserted into the ground?
13. If the forward distance measured is 1234.56 and the back distance is 1234.67,
what is the discrepancy ratio?
14. What is the source of error if a chain is labeled as a 100-foot chain, and it is
actually found to be 100.01 when compared to a calibration baseline?
15. List 5 random errors that might occur because of "human limitations."
FIELD ACTIVITIES
l. Chaining a Distance - (2 persons, 2 hours) Procedure: Demonstrate the step-
by-step process of chaining a distance. Gather the necessary personnel and
chaining equipment and go to an area about as long as a football field. Ideally,
an area that is on the side of a hill should be selected to allow for plumb bob
and hand level use. Drive a hub in the ground at the ends of the area and mark
a point on each hub. Set a range pole behind each point. Establish chaining
ht Cham and, rear Chain)- Follow the step-by-step procedure in this
vour fie?dnJ T SUre diStanCe f0rward and back- Record the distance in
better Renem 7 ? " 7 ' 0btai" a discrepancy ratio of 1\2000 or
better. Repeat as needed to fully understand the chaining process.
2.
sldHs'you have developed to^ sm alR h Urs) Procedure: Apply the chaining
block, place 4 points in the ore, a raverse- In a large field or
the hub. Using proper chaining ^ 7 mark a point on each or put a tack in
back. Obtain a discrepancy ratio^f 1\3000 T ? ? 16 f ' distances forward and
distance in your field book in proper noteform ^ ReC rd * *
chapter five
angle measurement
Introduction 5-2
Instruments 5-6
Horizontal Angle Measurement 5-14
Horizontal Angle Layout 5-24
Vertical or Z e n i t h A n g l e s 5-28
Summary 5-32
^ chapter five
Introduction
T y p e s Of A n g l e s
5 -3
Layout
M e a s u r e m e n t and
5 -4
u red
Field Angle s Meas
5 -4
SCOPE
Although distance measurement has been used since the beginning of time in layout,
it has long been recognized that angle measurement is also a method that could be
used to locate points. History shows that as mathematics developed and an
understanding of angular relationships was formed, the layout tools-of-the-time
began to contain circles divided into angular measurements. As the telescope
developed and was attached to these tools, the modern surveying instrument began
to evolve. Each generation of angle-measuring instruments has made measurement
of angles easier with more accuracy and better precision. Now , angle measurement
is just as important as distance measurement in the rapid location of points on the
construction site. Therefore, an understanding of the angles measured, the instruments
used, and applications to construction layout are presented in this Chapter.
5-2
Introduction
types OF ANG LES
Horizontal
H o riz o n ta l angles are measured in
horizontal planes. When measuring the
h o riz o n ta l angle w ith a tra n s it
theodolite, or total station, the angle is
measured between two points that are
sighted from the instrument which is set
up over a point representing the vertex
o f the angle. B rie fly , the scope is sighted
onto the fir s t p o in t and the angle
measuring circle is set to zero; the scope
is then turned to the second point and
the angle measured is read from the angle-measuring circle. The horizontal angle
measurement occurs on the angle-measuring circle w hich is independent o f the
ve rtica l sighting. A lso, note that the method o f measuring the horizontal angle
varies w ith the type o f instrument used. This is explained more thoroughly later
in this chapter.
Interior Angles. In te rio r angles are horizontal angles that are measured fro m an
instrum ent that is set up on a point that is located between tw o points. In te rio r
angles are often measured to determine the angles o f a closed geometric fig ure.
Deflection angle
Deflection Angles. D e fle ction angles are horizontal angles that are measured fro m
a p ro lo n g a tio n o f a preceding line. That is, the instrum ent is set up on the end o f
a lin e and sighted back onto that line. The scope is then "plunged" in the opposite
d ire ctio n and the lin e is extended. I f an angle is turned o ff o f this extended lin e ,
it is ca lle d a d e fle ctio n angle. T his type o f angle is used quite often in route
co nstru ctio n app lica tio ns where angles o ff o f the straight lin e are measured. T h is
type o f angle is ty p ic a lly very sm all and requires great care because o f the tendency
to extend lin e s w e ll beyond the lim its o f the instrum ent, causing errors in the
m easurem ent o r la yo u t o f the angle.
Vertical
Vertical angles are measured in a vertical
plane. That is, when an instrument is
set up and leveled, the angle is measured
using the vertical c ircle o f the
instrument. When measuring a vertical
angle with a transit, theodolite, or total
station, the angle is from the zero point
o f the circle to where the horizontal
crosshair intersects the point where the
vertical angle is desired. The method of
vertical angle measurement varies with
the type o f instrument used. With the
transit, the vertical angle is zero when
the scope is horizontal, and angles are
positive if above horizontal, or negative
if below. With theodolites and total
stations, zero is typically located at the
zenith o f the instrument, and all angles
are positive values.
m easurem ent and la v o ^ d in ,he
,aid out'Measurement - W
Angle e it is
w nhen
desired to determine the value o
angle between two lines, the angle is
measured. In this process, the
instrument is set up at the point where
the angle is needed and the instrument
is sighted onto the adjacent points with
the horizontal circle of the instrument
recording the angular value.
Angle6 Layout - When you want to locate a point on the
jobsite and an angle needs to be turned to locate it, you are
performing angle layout. In this process, you turn an angle
and measure a distance to lay out a point. The instrument is
set up on the required control point and a sight is taken to
another control point. The instrument is turned to the angle
ori fhr- fpipcrnnp is sighted towards the needed point.
FIELD ANGLES M E A S U R E D
In the process of turning angles, procedures such as direct, reverse, closing the
horizon, traverse angles, and layout are performed. Proper performance of these
methods is necessary to eliminate errors and mistakes in angle measurement.
Direct - Direct procedure is the simplest method of angle measurement and is
performed most often by persons in the field. In many instances, turning a simple
angle is all that is needed, or is the standard practice for certain field situations. For
instance, when performing radial layout, most angles are turned just one time to the
points that are being established.
Use D irect and Direct and Reverse -This process of doubling angles is used to eliminate
Reverse to instrumental errors and increase the precision of the angles turned. This involves
eliminate measuring or laying out an angle with the instrument in the direct position and then
instrumental again in the reversed position, so that the angle between points is measured twice.
errors!! Generally, direct is when the vertical
circle is on the left as you are sighting
through the telescope, and reverse is
when the vertical circle is on your right
as you sight through the telescope. Refer
to the owner's manual to determine what
is direct and reverse for your instrument.
This simple process should be used any
time critical angles are being measured.
reverse On 7 , more ttlan one direct an
correct, turn angles 2 direct M dT everse^ ^ irect'6 ad S

true'value % * btai" b e s t estimate
5-4
introduction
C losing the horizon - This method is used as a simple check to ensure tha ^
angles about a point add up to 360 degrees. For example, for an instrumen
up over any point, all angles at the
point are turned and the horizon is
closed. When the angles about the
horizon are added, they should meet
the predetermined closure. If they do
not close within an acceptable amount,
c l o s i n g the hob \z ov4
the angles are discarded and turned
a g a in u n til the r esu lts m eet the
required standard.
T raverse A ngles When the relative location of a series of control points to each
other is needed, traverse angles are measured. This involves measuring all of the
angles o f the traverse and determining if the traverse is a closed geometric figure.
Traverses can be either closed or open. If it is a closed traverse, the angles turned
can be checked by comparing them to a geometric closure such as using the sum
o f the interior angles formula. When measuring traverse angles, it is common
practice to turn the angles at least once direct and reverse, and more likely, two
direct and two reverse, for even greater precision and to obtain a better estimate of
the true value o f the angles at the control points.
L ayou t - Once the control has been established and direct and reverse traverse
angles have been measured, site activities will turn to layout. Angles will be
obtained from the plans or from calculations to lay out the construction points on
the site. Although m ost points w ill be laid out with single direct angles, it is good
practice to use the direct and reverse procedure for layout o f important points
such as the center o f a bridge abutment, or elevator shaft on a building, etc.
^ chapter five
Instruments
uring in s t r u m e n t s
O v e r v i e w of A n g l e M e a s
uring i n s t r u m e n t s
G e o m e t r y of A n g l e M e a s
C o m p o n e n t s of a T r a n s i
nd T o t a l Stations
C o m p o n e n t s of T h e o d o l i t e s a
ng ( M o t i o n ) Systems
Angle-Turning Clamp
SCOPE
When an angle needs to be determined or laid out in the field, an angle-measuring
instrument called a transit, theodolite, or total station is used. These instruments
all do essentially the same thingthey measure angles. Their differences are
described by the changes in instrument development and technology. The transit
was the original angle-measuring instrument and was a highly sophisticated
instrument when it was developed. It has since been refined by the optical
theodolite first, and now by the total station.
The field engineer must have an excellent understanding of the angle
turning equipment being used as well as the process of measuring the angles.
Control will not close, structures will not fit together, accurate layout by coordinates
will be impossible, etc. A good field engineer must understand the importance of
becoming an excellent operator of angle-turning equipment.
This Section gives an overview of the various types of angle-measuring
instruments that might be encountered on the jobsite. It is beyond the scope of this
text to explain how to exactly operate every instrument available. This Section
presents the basics of angle measurement and standard practices that should be
followed on the construction jobsite.
It must be noted that on the jobsite the total station has replaced most transits
and theodolites. Total stations can measure the angles very efficiently and can also
that enreh f T CeS W 38 perform data collection- They have powerful software
total staSn win S e T t0 * 7 COmplicated tasks with the push o f a button.
station will be discussed in more detail in 6, Total Station
5-6
Instrument* 0
OVERVIEW OF ANGLE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

T h e r e a r c i u u u n l \ p c \ o f ,i
to d a y . T h c \ in c liid * a n l d e - m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t in u s e o n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite
t h o u g h t h e n a m e s - , *K*'H**',CS* d i g i t a l t h e o d o l i t e s , a n d t o t a l s t a t i o n s . E v e n
d i f f e r e n t . t h e \ all ^ ! . CK*n l * d if fe r e n t, a n d th e ir o p e r a tio n is s lig h tly
are um. i lo r th e s a m e p u r p o s e a n g l e m e a s u r i n g a n d a n g l e la y o u t.
Transit
E h e t r a n s i t w a s d c \ e l o p e d t o i t s p r e s e n t f o r m d u r i n g t h e I KOOs .
It h a s b e e n u s e d o n c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s f r o m r a i l r o a d s a c r o s s
th e w ild w e s t to th e s k y s c r a p e r s o f th e m o d e r n c ity . A good,
s o l i d , a n d r e l i a b l e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e t r a n s i t is s t i l l u s e d b y m a n y
c o n tra c to rs to d a y . H o w e v e r, o p tic al th e o d o lite te c h n o lo g y ,
a n d n o w d i g i t a l e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g y . h a \ c p a s s e d it b y , The
m a jo r co m p an ie s w h o m a n u fa c tu re d transits h a \ c d r o p p e d
t h e m f r o m th e ir p r o d u c t lin e
T he tr a n s it's m a jo r c o n t r i b u tio n to th e fie ld e n g i n e e r
t o d a y i s t h a t it i s a g o o d t o o l f o r l e a r n i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s
of an g le m e a su re m e n t. Its p a r ts a rc e x p o s e d , m a k i n g it
e a s i e r t o s e e w h a t is g o i n g o n d u r i n g t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e
c la m p s d u rin g th e a n g le -m e a su re m e n t p ro cess. By
u n d e r s ta n d in g th e tra n s it, a fie ld e n g in e e r c a n e a s ily m o v e
o n to a n y o th e r ty p e o f a n g le -m e a s u rin g e q u ip m e n t.
A lth o u g h th e re a re a n u m b e r o f d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n tran sits an d th e o d o lite s ,
t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m is in t h e m e t h o d o f r e a d i n g a n g l e s . T h e ty p ic al
t r a n s i t h a s a m e t a l h o r i z o n t a l c i r c l e w h i c h i s m a r k e d f r o m 0 t o 360 d e g r e e s a n d is
g ra d u a te d to th e n e a re s t 2 0 o r 3 0 m in u te s o f arc. (A d escrip tio n o f a ty p ic al
t h e o d o l i t e is p r e s e n t e d l a t e r in t h i s S e c t i o n . ) A v e r n i e r is t h e n u s e d to o b t a i n m o r e
p r e c i s e r e a d i n g s t o t h e n e a r e s t o n e m i n u t e o r e v e n 20 s e c o n d s o f a r c .
V e rn ie r. T h e v e r n i e r i s a d e v i c e t h a t i s c o n s t r u c t e d s o t h e g r a d u a t i o n s o n it a r e
s lig h tly c l o s e r to g e th e r th a n th e g r a d u a tio n s o n th e h o r iz o n ta l c irc le F or e x a m p le ,
if a v e r n i e r h a s 3 0 g r a d u a tio n s , fo r th e s a m e le n g th o n th e h o riz o n ta l c irc le th e re
w ill b e 2 9 g r a d u a tio n s . T h u s , th e d is ta n c e s b e tw e e n g r a d u a tio n s o n th e v e r n ie r a re
c lo s e r th a n th o s e o n th e h o riz o n ta l c irc le . B y o b s e r v i n g w h ic h lin e o n th e v e r n ie r
c o i n c i d e s e x a c t l y w ith a n o p p o s it e lin e
on th e h o riz o n ta l c ir c le , a m o r e p re c is e
v a lu e o f t h e a n g l e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . A
d e s c r ip tio n o f h o w to re a d a h o riz o n ta l
c i r c l e a n d v e r n i e r is l i s t e d h e r e . V E R N IE R
R eading a C lo ckw ise Angle on a Transit Vernier

Read the angle in the same direction it was turned - O b s e r v e th e d ir e c tio n th e
a n g le w a s tu rn e d . E v e r y t h i n g is to b e r e a d in t h a t s a m e d i r e c t i o n . If th e a n g le w a s
tu rn e d c lo c k w is e , th e v e rn ie r a n d th e c irc le m u st b e re a d c lo c k w ise .
angle measurement
chapter v
Rcad the
" here lhc . L.ir'.k. Looking at the

h T rL o rn a l c ? ^ e r e a d i n g . R em e-b er
th e r e a d i n g f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l c i r c l e
w r i t e it d o w n o n a p i e c e o f p a p e r .
Read the vernier - G o to th e v e r n i e r
and read in th e sam e c lo c k w ise
d irec tio n . G o a c ro s s o n th e v e r n ie r
u n til y o u o b s e r v e w h e r e o n e o f th e
lin es o n th e v e r n ie r lin e s u p w ith o n e
o f th e lin e s o n th e h o r iz o n t a l c i r c le .
T h is is th e re a d in g th a t m ust be
re c o rd e d fro m th e v e rn ie r.
Add the readings - A d d th e v ern ie r
rea d in g to th e h o riz o n ta l c irc le r e a d in g
to o b ta in th e to ta l a n g l e m e a s u r e d . 7 1
20- + 6 ' 3 0 " = 7 1 2 6 ' 3 0
Optical Theodolite
The optical theodolite is a term that was originally applied in
Europe to instruments similar to the transit. However, as
instrument technology progressed, the term theodolite became
synonymous with a style of instrument that was enclosed, used
a magnified optical system to read the angles, had a detachable
tribrach with an optical plummet, used a three-screw leveling
system, and was more precise than the transit. These features
have made it much easier to use than the transit.
The better optical theodolites have been "delicate
workhorses since they were introduced. That is, if they are
properly cared for, they seem as though they will last forever
because of their excellent construction and quality materials.
However, they must be handled gently and carefully. A
typical optical theodolite may have as many as 20 prisms or
lenses as part of the optical angle-reading system. With a sharp bump, these can
get out of alignment, and may render the instrument unusable. As with any
surveying instrument, the theodolite cannot be exposed to inclement weather
because of the optical system.
The repeating theodolite contains the same upper-and-lower clamp system as the
transit; however, the reading of the angle is different because of the optical reading
capability. This instrument also has a
glass circle, but it does not have a scale.
It has a micrometer used to precisely
read the angle. The operator of the
instrument turns the angle and then uses
the micrometer to align the degree index
marks. A micrometer is used to optically
a ign the degree index marks, and the
reading from the degree window and
he micrometer window are added
together to obtain the angle.
5-8
instruments
0VMM' . c a u n i K i n e o d o l i t e * a r c e x c e l l e n t
in s t r u m e n ts ; b u t j u s t lik e th e tra n s it, th e y
are a lso b e in g s u rp a ss e d by th e elec tro n ic
te c h n o lo g y o f m o d e rn in stru m e n ts.
O p e ra tio n a lly , th e y h a v e a lo c k in g lev er
th a t is used in co n ju n c tio n w ith a
h o r iz o n ta l m o tio n to m a n ip u la te th e circle
in t h e a n g l e - t u r n i n g p r o c e d u r e . T h i s i s a
very rap id sy stem o f tu rn in g an g les and
is an e x c e lle n t c o n stru c tio n -site
instrument. The typical scale-reading Horizontal Angle = 209' 56' 30"
theodolite has a glass circle with a simple scale that is read. Simply read the degree
that shows up in the window, and observe where the degree index-mark intersects the
scale. Both the horizontal circle and the vertical are generally observed at the same
time. See the illustration for an example scale reading.
The directional theodolite is different
from other instruments as it does not
have a lower motion clamp and tangent
screw. Directions are observed and
recorded, and then the directions are
subtracted to obtain the angle between
the directions. This type of system has
generally been used only on the most
precise instruments. Zero is usually not
set on the instrument The reading of the . 174-
angle is similar to that of the repeating
theodolite. A micrometer is used to optically align the degree index marks, an t
readings from the degree window and the micrometer window are added together t
obtain the angle.
Digital Theodolite
Digital electronics has recently entered the arena of surveying instruments. Angles
are no longer read on a circle or with a micrometerthey are displayed on a screen.
The metal or optical circle of the past has been replaced with electronic sensors that
determine the angle quickly and precisely. From a distance, the digital theodolite
looks like the optical theodolite in size and overall shape. Actually, the manufacturers
did build the original digital instruments on the same structure used for optical
theodolites. The telescope, the clamping system, the tribrach, and the optical
plummet arc the same. Only the angle measuring-and-reading system is different.
Because it is electronically based, the digital theodolite is like other
electronic equipment it either works or it doesnt work. If a circuit goes out, the
instrument is useless. If the battery isn't charged, the instrument is useless.
However, it is a great instrument when it is working. An advantage to the
contractor is that it is typically less expensive than the optical theodolite.
D i g i ta l t h e o d o l i t e s a re a s e a s y
to r e a d a s r e a d i n g th e d is p la y o n a
c a lc u la to r. The a n g le re a d in g is V 45 2 6 2 0
p r e s e n t e d in d e g r e e , m in u te , a n d s e c o n d H 130 2 7 ' 20"
f o r m a t. T h e h a r d e s t p a r t f o r th e f ie ld
e n g i n e e r is to t r a n s f e r th e a n g le f r o m
th e d i s p l a y to t h e f ie l d b o o k c o r r e c tl y .
T h e re a re n o in s tr u c tio n s fo r re a d in g a
C ~ .1 f 1 f I
d ig ita l d is p la y . A s a m p l e is s h o w n in
th e illu s tr a tio n .
5 -9
angle measurement
'*APfr<
T o t.l S t* o n ........... ... , in stru m e n ts.
............ mb',in....., J , f "n| , lK;sl.dn ' ^ ^ |(, mc.m ,rc distances and
, 1 1 . 1.11 n l " n J ' (|1 1 / h n s i e s u t p o in ts. a n d n ltn e h nn c le e lro n ie field
................. . " i m . r ....... ... t o t a l s t a t i o n d o e s it n i l f o r t h e
h . . * l m c o d e c m id n r s * 'i ' M l ' ' 1| | c j , , u a l s t a t i o n .
Held e n s -.n c e . o p c . a u m r n . l m ' v s im p ly p h e n o m e n a l in e o m p a r i s o n
. . h a .t.n .1 s ta tio n s < P * W ^ * , J C o m p le x p ro je c ts
lh e a * held e n g i n e e r s h a am j t h e d a m u p lo a d e d to th e d a ta
^ r :t^ r s 7 h : .r ; n r ic h , a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e to ,..,
: ; : , ^ I h e , e h u n d r e d s o , p o i n t s c a n h e r a p i d l y e s l a h l i s h c d .
R ead in g an a n g le on a to ta l
v ia u o n iv s i m i l a r lolhe d i g i t a l th e o d o lite
~ > *
r e a d i n g system . T h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e is
th at th e r e m a y h e m o r e d a t a a n d o p t i o n s
n
w ir>o 4 9
d isp la y e d o n th e s c r e e n b e c a u s e of th e 'v
Hr
r *0 t t
I *3
d istan ce m easurem ent fea tu re s. Fie
careful w h e n re a d in g th e d i s p l a y th a t
ex tran eo u s in fo rm a tio n i s n 't r e c o r d e d <
in s t e a d of t h e a c t u a l a n g l e . A s a m p l e is
s h o w n in t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n .
CH6 Y " l o r m o re in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e to ta l s ta tio n , r e f e r lo Chapter 6. Total
S in turn
GEOMETRY OF ANGLE-MEASURING IN S T R U M E N T S
To o p erate an in s tru m e n t w ell, a field e n g i n e e r n e e d s to u n d e r s t a n d its c o n s tru c tio n .
T h e r e a r c d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g a t r a n s i t , a n o p t i c a l t h e o d o l i t e , a n d t h e n e w e le c tro n ic
th e o d o lite s o r to ta l s ta tio n s ; h u t g e o m e t r i c a l l y , t h e y a r e a ll t h e s a m e . A l l i n s t r u m e n t s
aie d es ig n ed a r o u n d th e s a m e f u n d a m e n ta l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r p r i n c i p l e lin e s .
The Principal Lines on a Transit/Theodolite/Total Station

VERTICAL
AXIS
E1 ? V
* ^ " a -
/
y | h o r iz o n t a l
VERTICAL c r SSH AIR
c r o s s h a ir
The Geometric Relationships
T he .e rtic a l a x i s sh o u ld b e p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e a x is o f th
. a x js .V enK a* Cr0SS*la'r s*10uld lie in a piane pcrpendicuU^to the hoi
' The h : : ~ P e r p e n d ic u la r to th e h o r i z o n l a , a x i s .
Instruments @
usno matter how elaborate or how inexpensive h av^ th e^

and geometric
metric relationshinc
relationships. A a good instrument operator will
ips and the effect_____ ________
they have ___ ____
on_measuring ang es , or
perpendicularities that should exist, do not exist, a^ S
at will be incorrect when proper procedures are no
be plumb or square. An instrument where the geom
exist is simply out of adjustment. ^ _
rk be
be performed
performed with o instrument
with an :*--------* that is out of adjustment?
adjustment be used? The answer is a qualified "yes,
are strictly adhered to. The fundamental principle
____ U16 avciagc V71 t..v

measurements. Instrument operators
'ements. Instrument operators should
s always use this double-centering
ability oo ff the
the instrument
instrument to
to eliminate
eliminate in
instrumental errors.
CO M PO N EN TS O F A T R A N S IT
Transit-type instruments can be broken
down into three major components: the
upper plate assembly or alidade, the
lower plate assembly or horizontal
circle, and the leveling head.
The Alidade Assembly
The alidade assembly consists of the
telescope, the vertical circle, the vertical
clamp and vertical tangent, the standards
or structure that holds everything
together, v ern iers, plate bubbles,
telescope bubble, and the upper tangent
screw. A spindle at the bottom of the
assembly fits down into a hollow spindle
on the horizontal circle assembly.
The Horizontal Circle Assembly

The horizontal circle assembly is comprised of the horizontal circle, the upper
clamp, and the hollow spindle that accepts the spindle from the alidade and fits
into the leveling head. The circle on a transit is typically metal with the degree
markings etched into the surface.
The Leveling Head

The leveling head is the foundation which attaches the instrument assemblies to the
tripod. It consists of leveling screws (4 on a transit, 3 on a theodolite), the lower
clamp and tangent, and a threaded bracket for attaching to the tripod.
angle measurement
chapter lve
COMPONENTS OF THEODOLITES ^ ^ c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e y lo o k d iffe re n t, a n d

th e ir c o v e r s , th e y still h a v e c o m p o n e n ts .h a ,
arc d esig n ed d i m r t m i > . ^77 7 ^ v
fu nction th e s a m e as the o ld tra n sit.
m ! io n * sy ste m . t h e s t m e t u r e ' o f t h e i n 5, n , n J ^ f
The Horizontal Circle System

O n the t h e o d o lite , th e h o r iz o n t a l c i r c l e s y s t e m ls c " ' ' p ;
Of c i t h e r a g l a s s c i r c l e a n d m i c r o s c o p e ; a n d o n t h e U
s ta tio n , an e n c o d i n g s y s t e m w h e r e th e a n g l e is m e a s u r e
electro n ically an d d is p la y e d o n a sc re en .
Use leapfrogging
fo r e fficie n t The Tribrach System , . , .. .
instrument O n th e o d o lite s a n d to ta l s ta tio n s , a d e v i c e c a l l e d a t r i b r a c h ts s t a n d a r d . T h e t r i b r a c h
movement when is r e m o v a b l e f r o m t h e i n s t r u m e n t a n d c o n t a i n s t h r e e l e v e l i n g s c r e w s a n d m ay
traversing. co n tain an o p tic al p lu m m e t. T rib ra ch s are ty p ic a lly in te rch an g e ab le am ong
th e o d o lite s a n d to ta l s ta tio n s o f d i f f e r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d c a n b e u s e d to h o l d
ta rg e ts and p rism s. T h is s y s te m a llo w s fo r th e tr ib r a c h to r e m a i n o n th e tr ip o d a n d
the in s t r u m e n t to b e r e m o v e d a n d s t o r e d if n e e d e d . I f s e v e r a l t r i b r a c h s a n d t r i p o d s
are a v a ila b le , a p ro c e d u re c o m m o n ly c a lle d " le a p f r o g g in g " th e i n s t r u m e n t t r o m
tr ip o d to t r i p o d c a n b e u s e d to e f f i c i e n t l y m o v e t h e i n s t r u m e n t f r o m s e t u p t o s e t u p
w h en m e a s u r in g a n g le s a b o u t a tr a v e r s e . A m i n i m u m o f t h r e e t r i p o d s is u s e d , a n d
th e in s t r u m e n t is m o v e d f r o m t r i b r a c h to t r i b r a c h .
ANGLE-TURNING C LA M PIN G (M O T IO N ) S Y S T E M S
The clamping system is probably one of the most important features on an
instrument because it is designed so angles can be repeated and added on the
instrument. By repeating angles, the angles can be averaged, and greater accuracy
and precision can be attained than from turning one angle. The clamping system
really is the heart of the instrument operation.
Operating the clamps properly is simple if the process is properly understood.
There used to be only one system of clamping the upper and lower assemblies
found on the transit. With the optical-reading instruments came several new,
simpler damping systems and procedures. Now, the electronic theodolites present
even easier clamping and angle-turning systems.
Transits, and some optical theodolites, have two horizontal-clamp clamps
P u m o r r i T n y C,a " ed heUpper motion and lower motion. Each has a specific
P pose in the operation ot the instrument. Other theodolites may only have a
s s h " 1 - - * * . r
may have a single clamn fhat' k

and measure the angle. ^
7 the foreslSh t' And total stations
n W'*h tller e 'ectroruc keyboard to turn
the instrument thatwill be u s e i f o 'I ^ r ^ 6" 1^ 86110 the o w n ers manual for
'earn how the instrumento S . e s s t i ? 7 Tme shou>d e taken to thoroughiy
be reduced or eliminated by proper p L e T u re s Wl1 * aV lded d e,TOrS wiU
5-12
Instruments 0
Th e Transit Clam ping System
clamp and an upper^lanin'ih 18 a,mwst ulwuys the same. There are a low er
and sightings onto the foresibht"tk'' t0 ero*sighlings onl thc backslghU
1he basic rules are:
.hec' b S ^ n r o r n S T ,h e line o f sish ' om o
Ite H netf sigmonUMhe

to the ^ " T (right
foresight '. ZCTO' of ilsccures
side angle). Lo3
C la m p in g S y s te m s on Th eo d o lites
n tbeo^htes vary widely. The system varies from the type of

... e Pre erence of the manufacturer. Some theodolites operate exactly
a ransit, w i e directional theodolites have only one clamp with a tangent
SC 1 at Pe*"orms dual purposes. No attempt to explain those various systems
wi e ma e ere. Just recognize several different ones exist, and they are based
on t e system devised lor the transit. If the transit clamping system is thoroughly
un erstoo , its use can be readily adapted to any of the newer instruments.
T o ta l S ta tio n C la m p in g S y s te m s
With the electronics ol total stations, there is generally a need for just one
horizontal clamping system. This is because thc software within the instrument
takes over and serves the function that was part of the upper and lower clamping
procedure of the old transit. Utilizing the keyboard of the instrument, zero can be
set and held. The single clamp is then used when sighting onto the backsight, and
then the keyboard is again used to release the zero hold, and the angle can be turned.
Tightening the Clamps
P orit over
With any instrument, when using either clamp, which is nothing more than a brass
tighten clamps
screw with a knob on the end, be careful to operate it properly. The screws will not
or th e y can be
withstand excessive tightening. "Finger tight" is all that is necessary to avoid
damaged! stripping the threads.
Tangent Screw Function and Operation

Tangent screws are part of the lower, upper, and vertical clamping systems that
allow the observer to "fine-tune" the instrument when sighting onto the backsight,
setting zero, sighting the foresight, or measuring vertical angles.
When preparing to use an instrument, one activity that separates good
instrument users from lackadaisical users is their operation ot the tangent screws. A
good user will look at the tangent screw to be sure the full range ot the tangent screw
will be available during the angle turning. By observation of the tangent screw
assembly, one can see the cylinder and threads and determine if an equal amount ot
movement will be able to be made in both directions. On newer instruments, there
is often an index mark on the screw itself that is an indicator of the midpoint of
available movement. Working from the center is important because it, while using
the tangent screw, you suddenly run out of threads, you will
have to stop and take time to correct the problem.
Another detail to observe when using the tangent screws
is to always make sure that the last movement of the clamp is
clockwise. Making the last movement clockwise eliminates the
possibility that the spring-loaded cylinder isn't binding because
of a piece of dirt or some other reason. If the last movement you
make with the tangent screw is clockwise into the clamp, you
will be putting pressure on the spring. This is a small detail that
could be important to accurate angle measurement.
5 -1 3
measurement
angle
SCOPE
Measurement of horizontal angles is a simple mechanical or electro-mechanical
procedure that can readily be learned by reading and studying the owner s manual
for the instrument, or by having someone who knows how to use the instrum ent
teach you. To understand well and to have full capabilities of the instrument, the
easiest way is probably to do bothhave someone teach you, and study the owner's
manual. It was stated before that all instruments are different, so it is up to the
operator of the instrument to learn the specific features of the one being used.
T h is S e c tio n w ill p re s e n t an o v e rv ie w o f s o m e s ta n d a r d p r a c t i c e s t h a t
should be fo llo w e d w h e n m e a s u rin g a n g le s w ith a n y i n s t r u m e n t. S o m e h i n t s a re
also p rese n ted to h e lp in re a d in g th e a n g le s . T h e b a s ic s o f t u r n i n g a n a n g le a n d t h e
p ro ced u res to tu rn d ire c t a n d r e v e rs e a n g le s th a t e l i m i n a te s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s w i t h i n
the in stru m e n t are a lso d is c u s s e d .
5-14
horizontal angle measurement
STANDARD p r a c t ic e s
Communicate
Again, communication is the key to this
measuring procedure. Generally two
persons are involved and it requires that
each be clear on what is being done A
mis-communication of which point to
set a backsight target on will result in
angles that are completely wrong Ask
questions if you aren't clear on what is
to be done.
Always read Read the Owner's Manual

and study the Too often, persons using instruments do not follow the operation procedures
owner's manual suggested in the owner's manual. Because of this, they do not fully utilize the
fo r any capabilities o f the instrument. This is especially true with total stations that have
instrument. so many features available.
Solid Setups
S p r e a d th e trip o d leg s w id e to p ro v id e a
s o lid f o u n d a tio n f o r th e in stru m e n t. A
w id e s e tu p is e s p e c ia lly n e c e s s a ry in
lo c a tio n s w h e r e th e w in d is s tro n g an d
c a p a b le o f b lo w in g th e in s tru m e n t o v er.
S te p o n th e f o o t p a d s a n d s in k
th e p o i n ts s o lid ly in to th e g ro u n d . T h is
is j u s t o n e m o r e little s te p to e n s u re
th a t a g o o d f o u n d a tio n is c r e a te d w ith
th e tr ip o d . I f th e s e tu p is o n s o ft g ro u n d ,
th e w e i g h t o f th e i n s tr u m e n t w ill c a u s e
c o n s t a n t s e t t l e m e n t i f th e p o in ts a r e n 't
i n i t i a l l y s h o v e d d e e p ly in to th e g r o u n d .
If s e ttin g u p o n a h a rd s u rfa c e , se a rc h
f o r a n i n d e n t a t i o n w h e r e th e p o in t o f
th e t r i p o d c a n b e i n s e r te d to p r e v e n t
s l i p p i n g o f f th e s u r f a c e .
I f n e c e s s a r y w h e n it is v e ry w in d y a n d th e s e tu p s a re o n h a rd s u r f a c e s
tie th e t r i p o d le g s to c o n c r e te b lo c k s . It is n o t n e c e s s a ry to tie th e m t ig h tly j u s t
h a v e th e c o n c r e t e b lo c k s s e rv e a s a n c h o rs in c a s e th e w in d c a tc h e s th e in s tr u m e n t
a n d it s ta r ts to f a ll o v e r.
Set Over the Point

T h e t r a n s i t o r t h e o d o l it e m u s t b e s e t o v e r th e p o in t e x a c tly , o r a s c lo s e a s it c a n b e .
E v e n a l i t t l e o f f o f th e p o in t w ill r e s u lt in e r r o n e o u s a n g le s m e a s u r e d o r la id o u t.
S e e t h e S e c t i o n in Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices, on Instrument Setups.
Level , ,
M a k e s u r e t h e i n s t r u m e n t is le v e l w h e n th e a n g le s a re to b e tu r n e d . R e f e r to
Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices, f o r s te p - b y - s te p le v e lin g in s tr u c tio n .
chapter five
S E T * - * . - very v S
instrument, there are two things to oclV d IS you must be able to see the
be able to see the objective clearly. The second is y activity with each
crosshairs clearly. Focusing on both of these will be an ongoing activity
Foculinegnon the objective -F ocusing on the objective for each' ^hot^necessary

since the distance to each shot will more than likely be 1 er .
on the objective, select a part that can be seen clearly and turn the focus knob until
you can see it sharply. Look at several parts of the objective or me
adjust the focus knob as needed for the absolute best clarity. , ,
Focusing on the crosshairsFocusing on the crosshairs often t roug ou e ay
will be necessary because the human eye tires as the day progresses, an 1 s a 1 1 y
to focus changes. When focusing on the
crosshairs, look at a light-colored object
(a white house, a cloud in the sky, a
1m i
piece of paper, etc.). Adjust the eyepiece
on the instrument to make the crosshairs
as dark as possible. Look at the center
of the crosshair and progress towards
Always check
the outer ends. Again, make them as
fo r and
dark and crisp as possible.
elim inate If the crosshairs are not focused
properly, a condition called parallax No Parallax
parallax.
can occur. This is when the crosshairs
seem to move slightly on the object as
your eye moves. Some people say the
crosshairs seem to jump. This can be
critical when reading a level rod with
the horizontal crosshair or sighting onto
a point using the vertical crosshair.
Parallax only occurs when the eye isn't
focused properly to the crosshairs. Be
sure to pay close attention to this detail
and eliminate parallax. P a ra lla x E x is ts
Good ta r g e t s Have Good Targets

a re n e ce ssa ry
A very important part of turning good angles is to have good targets to sight on.
f o r good angles.
Targets can be a plumb bob held on a point, a gammon reel or a small w allet-sized
target held on the point, a range pole on the point, a pencil held on a point, or iust
about anything that can be sighted upon.
It is just as critical to sight onto the
correct point as it is for the instrument
to be set up exactly over the point where
m
the angle is being turned. Any deviation
from sighting exactly on the point will 9

result in incorrect angles.
Sight Exactly on the Point (Target)

A m a jo r m is ta k e by s o m e w h o tu rn a n g le s i tr. u.
ta rg e t. B e in g q u i c k a n d c a r e le s s a n d n o t b e in g s i g h t e d 0 n t0 th e P o in t o r
v ie w in g th e b a c k s ig h t o r f o r e s ig h t w ill r e s u l t f n d e x a c t l y n t0 th e p o in t w h e n
in c o r r e c t p o in ts l a id o u t. T a k e a fe w e x tr a second COr?cf t a n l e s m e a s u r e d o r
e x tr a s e c o n d s t o s i g h t c a r e f u l l y .
5-16
horizontal angle measurement @
^necK calibration
project w henrrir calibratin at the start of a project and anytime during the
CH 10 Calibration tv, 'n! wor^ ' s about to be performed. See Chapter 10, Equipment
measuring instrumentU8h eXplana,ion of calibration procedures with an angle-
HELPFUL h in t s f o r r e a d in g a n g l e s
Set Zero Carefully

On transits and optical theodolites, the first step in turning an angle is to set the
instrument to zero. This should be done with precision and care to get as close to
zero as humanly possible. With a transit, one trick that is used is to set the vernier
in ex to zero, and to also look at the ends of the vernier and line them up as well.
it scale-reading optical theodolites, the operator can observe both ends of the
scale when setting zero. With digital
reading instruments, the biggest concern
is to be careful to not push zero set on
the keyboard at the incorrect time in the
measuring process and cause a large
angle mistake.
Read Both W ays
As a check when reading angles, it is possible on some instruments to read left and
right on the horizontal circle, then add the angles to compare to 360 degrees. They
should total exactly 360 degrees.
Read the Angles in the Correct Direction

If the instrument has a vernier or a scale, watch the direction the vernier moves
when turning the angle, and read the horizontal circle and vernier in that
direction. Never read the horizontal circle one way and the vernier in the
opposite direction. If the instrument is optical scale-reading with double
scales, be careful to use the correct scale.
Use a M agnifying Glass (Transit)

When reading angles on a transit, always use a magnifying glass. Very few people
have such excellent eyesight as to see the exact lines that are lining up between the
circle and vernier.
C lose the H orizon

Close the horizon to confirm that the angles turned add up to 360 degrees. If
turning several angles, turn the final angle back to the original backsight as a
check of 360 degrees.
Use Direct and Reverse

A s s ta t e d e a r l i e r , e r r o r s in th e c a lib r a tio n o f a n y a n g le - tu r n in g in s tr u m e n t c a n
o n ly b e e l i m i n a t e d b y c a lib r a tio n o r b y u s in g th e d ire c t a n d r e v e r s e p r o c e d u r e o n
a ll a n g le s m e a s u r e d . T h e p r o c e d u r e f o r D ir e c t a n d R e v e r s e A n g le s is d e s c r ib e d
l a t e r in t h is S e c tio n .
Double-Center
S i m i la r to d i r e c t a n d r e v e r s e , d o u b le c e n te rin g u s e s th e sa m e
p r o c e d u r e , b u t is u s e d w h e n la y in g o u t a n g le s . T h is p ro c e s s
e li m i n a te s in s t r u m e n ta l e r r o r s a n d is u s e d to a v e ra g e e rro rs in
la y o u t. S e e th e S e c tio n o n d o u b le - c e n te r in g f o r a m o re
t h o r o u g h e x p l a n a t i o n o f th is p r o c e s s .
angle measurement
Q chapter five
BASICS OF TURNING AN ANGLE

Set up and level over the point.
Loosen clamps.
Set and hold zero.
Sight and lock onto the backsight.
Release zero and release the
horizontal motion clamp.
Turn, sight, and lock onto the
foresight.
Read the angle.
Record in field book.
PROCEDURE FOR DIRECT AND R EVERSE A N G L E S

The concept of measuring angles direct and reverse is essentially the same process
for any instrument. There are some differences, however, in the operation of the
clamping system as some instruments have an upper and lower clamp, and other
instruments have a single clamp. See the owner's manual for specific procedures.
The step-by-step procedure outlined and illustrated here is generically written to
apply in principle to any instrument.
Measuring a Direct Angle

S tep 1 Set up the instrument exactly over the
point using the procedure outlined in
Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices. Test
the telescope for parallax; and. if
present, re-focus the eyepiece lens to
elim inate this con d ition before
observing the angles.
Step 2 Set to zero. R e le a se th e clam p (s).

R o ta te th e in stru m e n t until it is
a p p ro x im a te ly se t to z e ro . T ig h te n th e
c la m p , a n d u sin g th e ta n g e n t, se t th e
in s tr u m e n t p r e c is e l y to z e ro .
Step 3 Looking at the instrument, position th*

left as you are looking through the eyepiece S T T tr a rn 'eT " ' * ' ^
5-18
q+gp 4 Aim the telescope so the left point of

9 ^ the angle to be measured is in the field
of view. When the crosshairs are within
a few tenths of the point, tighten the
appropriate motion clamp. Set the
vertical crosshair precisely on the rear
station target using the tangent screw.
Step 5 R elease the zero. Loosen the appropriate clamp or zero-set button on the keyboard.
S te p 6 R elease the horizontal m otion clam p

and zero and point the telescope so the
right side of the angle is in the field of
view. Re-tighten the clamp and set the
vertical crosshair precisely on the forward
Step 7 Record the reading. T h is is th e d ire c t

JTZ.
a n g le a n d s h o u ld b e r e c o r d e d in th e p ro p e r
\ 60 20' 20 c
lo c a tio n in th e f ie ld b o o k . S e e th e e x a m p le
_c
f ie ld b o o k o n P a g e 5 - 2 7 .
c
I mi losr- mcicaxImosijimjI
Measuring the Reverse Angle

T h is p r o c e d u r e is i d e n tic a l to m e a s u r in g d ir e c t a n g le s it s im p ly r e q u i r e s t h a t th e
t e l e s c o p e b e r e v e r s e d , a n d th a t th e p r o c e d u r e f o r tu r n i n g th e a n g le d i r e c t b e r e p e a te d .
Step 1 H old the d irect a n g le. U s e th e a p p r o p r i a t e c l a m p o r p u s h a k e y b o a r d b u t t o n t o

H O L D th e d ir e c t a n g le th a t w a s tu rn e d .
Step 2 R e lea se th e c la m p t h a t a l l o w s y o u t o t u r n b a c k t o t h e b a c k s i g h t . B e c a r e f u l , f o r
H i f th e w r o n g c la m p o r b u tto n is p u s h e d , th e d ir e c t a n g le w ill b e c h a n g e d o r lo s t.
angle measurement
$ chapter five
Direct Reverse
ts te o 3 Reverse (invert) the telescope. Release
S te p o the vertical Mamn
clamp and pivot the
and Divot the
telescope about the horizontal axis. The
vertical circle will now be on the right
side of the instrument as the scope is
being sighted.
Step 4 Sight to the left side of the angle for a

backsight. Aim the telescope so the left
point of the angle to be measured is in the
field of view. When the crosshairs are
within a few tenths of the point, tighten
the horizontal motion clamp. Set the
vertical crosshair precisely on the rear
Step 5 Release the Zero. Loosen the appropriate clamp or zero-set button on the keyboard.
Step 6 Sight to the right side of the angle.

Release the horizontal motion clamp,
and point the telescope so the right side
of the angle is in the field of view.
Retighten the clamp and set the vertical
crosshair precisely on the forward
Step 7 Repeat the Direct and Reverse Process.

the angle is required (i.e., greater p eSS'- I f a b e t t e r e s tim a te o f th e tr u e v a lu e o f
can
can be
be turned.
tu rn ed . For
F o r c o n tro l w o rk it
rev e rse an g le s, o r a to tal o f e ig h t
horizontal angle measurement (J)
Step 8 Read and record th e Final Anele Th

the final reverse anplp m e* ^ ls ,s
be recorded in the nmr!aSU. Shou,d
sa sa S S g
angle, Tba. is. if ,he firs, angle was 0 u '
then this angle shnniu k,,
this should be four times P^ ox,matel>'600 2g. If turning two direct and two reverse,
measured, the final J i uu ' T 120 56* lf four direct nd four reverse are
circle went past 360 one d ^ C^ ht t,mes thc first angle and so on lf ,he horizontal
of 360 to fhp fir. i . L 1 morc bmes. it may be necessary to add 360 or multiples
to (he final angle to obtain the total sum of the angles measured.
Notekeeping
MEASURING TR A V E R S E AN G LES
The traverse is a fundamental tool of surveying. By knowing the angles and distances
about a traverse, the precision of the work can be determined to see if the measure
ments meet established standards. If the work is good, the angles and distances can
be used to calculate coordinates for each traverse point. This information is then
used to control mapping work and to establish grid systems on large construction
projects among many other things. Because of the importance of traverse angles and
distances, these measurements must be measured with a great amount of care.
To achieve the precision required for traversing, mistakes must be eliminated,
and errors must be reduced. This is done by always turning direct and reverse
traverse angles.
Standard Traverse Angle Practices

W h e n m e a s u r in g tra v e rs e a n g le s , th e sa m e in stru m e n t p ra c tic e s and b a s ic s o f m e a
s u r in g a n g le s a re f o llo w e d as d e s c r ib e d p re v io u s ly . C o m m u n ic a te , se t e x a c tly o v e r
th e p o i n t, h a v e a s o lid s e tu p , le v e l th e in s tru m e n t, fo c u s p ro p e rly , h a v e g o o d ta r g e ts ,
s ig h t e x a c t ly o v e r th e p o in t, tu rn th e a n g le s d ire c t a n d re v e r s e , a n d re c o rd th e a n g le
a re f u n d a m e n ta l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f m e a s u rin g tra v e rs e a n g le s . In f a c t, in tr a v e rs in g ,
m u ltip le s e ts o f d ir e c t a n d re v e r s e a n g le s a re ty p ic a lly m e a s u re d a t e a c h p o in t to
d e te r m i n e th e b e s t e s tim a te o f th e tru e v a lu e o f th e a n g le .
angle measurement
^ chapter five
Locate the Traverse Points in the Field

A traverse is used in construction to determine the location of control points. These
points may be the property corners established by a registered surveyor, or they
may be points that are set in the general vicinity of the project. If the points are
not yet set, then monuments will need to be built.
Use Targets on Tripods for the Best Results
As noted earlier, a very important part of turning good angles is to have good targets
to sight on. For the greatest precision when turning traverse angles, targets should be
placed on tripods set exactly over the adjacent traverse points. This ensures sighting
onto a target that doesn't move while the angle measuring is taking place.
If Targets on Tripods Aren't Available
If targets on tripods aren't available, place range poles or some other targets on
the points so that they can be seen from the instrument. Someone will have to
hold the range pole on the points while the angles are being measured. Or, hold
a plumb bob on the points if possible.
Turn the Angles Direct and Reverse
All traverse angles must be turned
direct and reverse to average out any
instrumental errors and to obtain a
better value for the angle. Always turn
the same number of direct angles as
reverse angles. Only the first direct
angle and the last reverse angle need to
be recorded in the field book. The first
angle is recorded as a reference, and the
last angle is recorded.
Determine the Average Angle
If the horizontal circle went past 360 one or more times, it may be necessary
to add 360 or multiples of 360 to the final angle to obtain the total sum of the
angles measured. Divide the final angle by the number of turns to obtain the
average angle. If two direct and two reverse angles were measured, the final
reverse angle should be divided by 4.
Sum all Interior Angles and Compare to (n-2)180

After all angles have been measured,
recorded, and averaged, the mean of the
interior angles should be summed and
compared to (n-2) 180 (n is the number of
sides or number of angles in the traverse)
to determine the angular closure. If the
traverse has 5 interior angles, the angles
should sum to 540 00' 00".
5-22
Results data and

Averaging and summing the angles allows the field engineer to review t e a^ ^
determine if any angles do not meet specified standards of accuracy
instrument used. See the instrument operating manual for expected resu
angles turned do not meet expectations, re-measure the angle.
Notekeeping to record
The following notes represent one of many methods that are use
traverse angles.
5-23
Horizontal Angle
Layout
Standard Practices
5-25
5-26
SCOPE
Once control has been established on the construction site, attention is turned to the
layout o f the project. This requires m easuring hundreds or th ousands o f a n g le s
from the control points to specific points that w ill be u sed to b u ild the structure.
Angle layout must be exact so that the points are correct and the structure is b u ilt
at the correct location.
This Section w ill present an overview o f so m e standard p ra ctices that
should be follow ed when m easuring angles w ith any instrum en t, and so m e h in ts are
also presented to help in reading the angles. T he b a sic s o f turning an a n g le and th e
procedures to turn direct and reverse angles that elim in a te sy stem a tic errors w ith in
the instrument are also discussed.
5-24
STANDARD p r a c t ic e s
rT'l .
The same standard practices that are used when measuring angles are ^
important when performing angle layout. When laying out angles, e ^ ave
follow these standard practices described before: read the owner's m an t focUS
solid setups, set exactly over the point, carefully level the instrum ^
onto the crosshairs and the objective, have good targets, sight exac y ôV/jng;
point, and check calibration frequently. Additionally, conduct t e o
Communicate
Check and recheck to be sure you are laying out what is required. Communicate
your rodperson to be sure that the correct backsight control point is being use
Confirm this until you are absolutely certain that the backsight point is correc^
Communicate the need to set the points exactly on the angle turned and at the corre
distance. Emphasize the need to set solid points and to mark them well.
Confirm your Backsight
Check and
The single greatest mistake in angle layout is using the wrong backsight to measure
recheck t h a t
the angle from. When performing layout on a project with numerous control
the c o r r e c t
points, it could be easy to mistake one point for another if both are in the same
backsight is
proximity. Even if the points have been marked clearly, it is possible for someone
being used, and
to inadvertently get on the wrong point and give line for a backsight. Or, perhaps
check again.
numerous targets have been established around the site and it could be easy to sight
onto the wrong target. Always perform an additional check to ensure that the
correct point is used as the backsight for the angle to be turned.
Calculate the Angle Correctly
Angles that are laid out came directly from the project plans, are calculated from
plan data, or must be calculated from coordinates. The calculations must be
checked and rechecked to insure their validity. If possible, calculate the angle by
more than one method or calculate by using combinations of available data. The
old saying that you should calculate until you obtain the same answer three times
holds true when determining angle layout data.
Read the Data Correctly

W h e n p r e p a r i n g to t u r n a n g le s , e n s u r e th a t th e c o r r e c t d a ta is b e in g u s e d . D e v e lo p
a c h e c k - o f f s y s te m t h a t c r o s s e s o u t d a ta th a t h a s b e e n u s e d . W a tc h f o r t r a n s p o s in g
o f n u m b e r s w h e n r e a d i n g a n d s e ttin g th e a n g le o n th e in s tr u m e n t. S o m e p e r s o n s
r e a d th e d a ta o u t l o u d s o th a t th e y h e a r w h a t th e y a re r e a d in g a n d c a n c h e c k w h a t
is b e i n g u s e d .
Set the Angle Exactly

S e t t i n g a n a n g l e o n a n i n s t r u m e n t is a s im p le p r o c e s s . O f c o u r s e , it is d i f f e r e n t w ith
th e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f i n s t r u m e n ts th a t a re a v a il a b l e . W ith a n y in s tr u m e n t, it j u s t
t a k e s t i m e to m a k e s u r e th e a n g le is s e t e x a c tly . C a l li n g it " c lo s e e n o u g h " i s n 't g o o d
i f t h e a n g l e is o f f b y f iv e o r te n s e c o n d s o f a rc . A n y e r r o r in th a t a n g le s e t o n th e
i n s t r u m e n t r e s u l t s in a n e r r o r in th e la y o u t.
Mark the Line of Sight Exactly

W hen marking the line o f sight on the point, care should be taken to mark it exactly
and distinctly. U se a sharp pencil to mark the line so that it can be seen clearly.
Set S olid Points

If the layout o f the angle in volves setting a point on a w ooden stake (hub), make
sure the point is solid in the ground. U se longer hubs if the ground is soft.
a n y ie m e a s u re m e n t
{Q chapter five
D o u b le -C e n te r
Double-centering is a procedure that is similar to direct and reverse angle measurement
It
It is
is used
used to
to average-out
average-out any
any sighting,
signim g. turning,
or marking
******--------- .it- iserrors that might occur in
.just used
angle layout. Typically it is not used on -o r ,, noint:
every point: it is ju s t used on
on the
the critical
critical
lypicaii^
ii U - ...Vion enffim? the p o in ts |------------ -------------
points that are needed. For example, when setting the points
of a baseline, double-centering should be used to establish
Y ~ -------------^ V T\
those points. In a nutshell, double-centering involves turning
the angle twice and marking the line of sight each time at the
CH 19 \%p point. If two lines result, an average is established to create the
line. For more information, see Chapter 19, Layout Techniques.
PROCEDURE FOR LAYOUT O F AN A N G LE

To locate points on the construction site, the instrument is set up on the control
points, and angles and distances to points are measured. This is called layout. To
lay out a point, the angle off of a backsight is calculated and turned on the
instrument to the point along the line of sight of the instrument. The point is set
exactly on the line of sight of the instrument. This procedure is described in more
detail here.
Follow the standard practices described previously in this Chapter for the
best results in angle layout.
Step 1 Set up on a control point. Upon determining what angle(s)

need to be laid out, select the control points that are best suited
Long Backsight, for the layout. That is, select a control point for the instrument
S hort foresight, to be set on that is close to the layout area, and select a
ALWAYS!!! backsight control point that is as far away from the work as
possible. This "Long Backsight, Short Foresight" principle
should always be used in layout activities to reduce the size of
any sighting errors that occur. This will be more thoroughly
described in Chapter 19, Layout Techniques.
Step 2 Set the instrument to Zero. Using the zero-setting procedure

that is specific to the instrument being used, set and hold zero
on the instrument.
Step 3 Backsight. Sight the instrument

______ to the backsight
^ uic target. This
uacKsight target. This
?rrecu
An incorrect can be
can be aa tripod
tripod with
with aa prism
prism and tarrw a--------
and target, * --
person holding a
backsight is a prism pole, or a person holding a plumb bob on the backsight
huge mistake in point. Communicate with the rodperson and confirm that the
angle layout. correct control point is being used for the backsight. It is
good practice to measure the distance to the backsight as a
check to confirm that it is correct.
26
horizontal angle layout @
Step 4 Release zero and tu rn the angle. Release zero on the

instrument and the horizontal motion clamp. From the layout
data calculations, determine the angle needed and turn the
instrument to that angle on the circle or display. Lock the
exact angle on the instrument.
Step 5 Sight tow ards the point. When the line of sight towards the
point has been established, mark the location of the line on the
object that you are turning the angle towards.
Step 6 M ark line on the point. Sight onto the point and direct the
rodperson to mark the line of sight. If sighting onto a hub, it
is common practice to mark the front of the hub and then the
back of the hub, and draw a straight line between these marks
to obtain the line.
Step 7 D ouble-C enter if C ritical. If the point being laid out is a

critical point, such as the center of a bridge abutment, it is
common practice to use the double-centering procedure to
obtain the best results. If two different lines result from
double-centering, simply determine the average of the two
and mark the line.
Notekeeping
Vertical or Zenith
Angles
5-29 General
Standard Practices
5-29
Measurement
Angle
Procedure for Zenith
5-30
5-31 Field Notes
SCOPE
O ccasionally the field engineer needs to m easure vertical or zen ith a n g les as a part
o f the establishm ent o f control or the layout o f a d istan ce, or to determ ine
elevations. Accurate vertical angles are n ecessary to p recisely ca lcu la te h orizon tal
distances when using total stations. M any person s regu larly u se "trig levelin g" to
determine or transfer elevation s on the co n stru ctio n site. A g a in , all a n g le
measuring instruments are different, so the procedure o u tlin ed here w ill n ot apply
in all cases, but the basic fundam entals w ill pertain.
5*28
vertical or zenith angles
Gg(MERAL
Transit
When vertical angles are to be measured
with a transit and some theodolites it is
necessary to have the instrument
precisely leveled to ensure the vertical
axis of the instrument is truly vertical.
The operator must be very careful in the
leveling of the instrument to ensure this
occurs. Some instruments have a
telescope bubble that allows the operator
to more precisely level the instrument
to achieve a truly vertical axis.
Vertical angles are measured off of the horizon with most transits. The
vertica angle is considered positive if it is an angle of elevation (above the
horizon) and negative if it is an angle of depression (below the horizon). The
instrument operator must be very careful to record the correct sign of the vertical
angle when measuring with a transit or a mistake will occur.
Theodolite
Better-quality optical theodolites have automatic vertical compensators that
ZENITH mechanically or electronically index the vertical circle so that it is always correctly
ZENITH
ANGLE oriented. More and more electronic theodolites and most total stations have
automatic indexing of the vertical circle so vertical angles measured will be
corrected if the instrument is out of level. However, it is good practice to follow
the procedure outlined below, even with instruments that provide automatic
compensators, so that the vertical angle can be averaged to obtain a better estimate
of the true value.
Vertical angles on theodolites are generally measured from the zenith
(point straight above). This method eliminates the need to record a positive or
negative sign as with the vertical angle on a transit instrument.
STANDARD PR A C TIC ES
Even though vertical angles are measured in a vertical plane, many of the standard
practices of instrument use and horizontal angle measurement still apply. These
include: communicate, sight carefully, and read the angle correctly. Also of great
importance are the following:
Be Sure the Instrument is Level

For the measurement of vertical or zenith angles, it is necessary that the instrument
be as level as possible when the angle is measured. Extra care should be taken to
level the instrum ent exactly.
Sight with the Horizontal Crosshair

U n l i k e h o r i z o n t a l a n g le m e a s u r e m e n t w h e r e th e v e r tic a l c r o s s h a ir is u s e d f o r
a l i g n m e n t , in v e r t i c a l a n g le m e a s u r e m e n t, th e h o r iz o n t a l c r o s s h a ir is th e l in e o f
s i g h t t h a t is u s e d .
Sight Exactly on the Target

I n v e r t i c a l a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t , th e a n g le t h a t is b e in g m e a s u r e d is t y p ic a ll y g o i n g
t o b e u s e d a s p a r t o f a c a l c u l a t i o n to d e te r m i n e a h o r iz o n t a l o r v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e .
T h e r e f o r e , a n y e r r o r in s ig h t i n g is g o in g to h a v e a g r e a t e f f e c t o n th e c a l c u l a t i o n
re s u lt. S o , s ig h t c a re fu lly .
angle measurement
r ^ chapter,ive
, Reverse ,her theodolite-type instruments have an
Sight Direct and and some other * , circ|e to zero, there is no guarantee
Although the ..indexes" the veruca ^ ^ index t0 zero exactly,
EDURE ru n ......
, , . . . i the in stru m e n t. Leve
- ' s =
Practices.
Cfon 2 Direct Sight with the Horizontal

H Crosshair. With the telescope in the
direct position, bring the line of sight
approximately on the point where the
vertical angle is needed. Set the
horizontal crosshair exactly on the point
observed, tighten the vertical clamp, and
use the vertical tangent screw to get the
horizontal crosshair exactly on the point.
Step 3 Read and Record the Direct Vertical

Angle. Read the vertical circle and -----\
f
record the reading as the direct angular
V : 86 2 4 00"
value in the field notes.
V _ __
<__ -.
1a u | oe rl o c icoot |mog !m m *! os p |<
Step 4 Reverse Sight with the Horizontal

Crosshair. Repeat the procedure with
the telescope in the reversed position.
vertical or zenith angles @
Step 6
th in " gles- The average o 36000' 00'
the direct and reversed readings is ,h
-273 36' 10'
correct value of the vertical angle
8623' 50 86 23' 50'
+ 86 24' 00'
V 172 47 50'
172 47' 50"
= 86 23' 55"
2
f ie l d n o t e s
case f measured't 3 rePresentative sample of field notes for zenith angles. In this
case, measured to determine the horizontal distance.
5-31
Summary
IMPORTANT POINTS
. C o m m u n icatio n b etw een th e in stru m e n t p e rs o n a n d th e o th e r c re w m em bers
is critical to o b ta in in g g o o d a n g le s.
. Read the owner's manual thoroughly and com pletely to take advantage o f the
features of the instrument.
. Horizontal and vertical angles are different. Know how to m easure them
correctly.
Angles can be measured or laid out.
Close the horizon for a quick check of angles m easured by repetition.
Instruments are different in appearance, but all do the same thing measure
and lay out angles.
Understanding the principle lines and geom etric relationships w ithin an
instrument helps in learning how the instrum ent operates.
Reading angles on an instrum ent requires paying close attention to the angle
reading method.
The clamping system is different from instrum ent to instrum ent, but perform s
the same overall function.
Do not over-tighten clamps.
Turning angles direct and reverse elim inates system atic instrum ental errors.
Follow ing standard practices w ill result in c o n sisten t h o rizo n tal angle
measurement.
S e t u p e x a c tly o v e r a p o in t fo r a n g le m e a s u r e m e n t.
A n i n s t r u m e n t o u t o f f o c u s w i l l r e s u l t in p a r a l l a x a n d w i l l a f f e c t s i g h t i n g .
A k e y to g o o d a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t is to h a v e g o o d s i g h t i n g t a r g e t s .
C h e c k in s tr u m e n t c a lib ra tio n a t th e s ta r t o f a p r o je c t a n d a n y tim e d u r in g th e

p r o j e c t w h e n c r i t i c a l l a y o u t is o c c u r r i n g .
T h e b a s ic s o f tu rn in g a n a n g le a re th e s a m e f o r a n y ty p e o f in s tr u m e n t.
I n t e r i o r t r a v e r s e a n g le s s h o u l d b e c o m p a r e d to ( n - 2 ) 1 8 0 .
T h e b a c k s ig h t is th e m o s t c ritic a l p a r t o f a n g le la y o u t.
A lw a y s d o u b le - c e n te r c r itic a l la y o u t a n g le s .
B e s u r e t h e i n s t r u m e n t is e x a c t l y l e v e l w h e n s i g h t i n g v e r t i c a l a n g l e s .
S ig h t v e rtic a l a n g le s d ir e c t a n d r e v e r s e to o b ta in b e t t e r r e s u lts .
a ^ fl^ n T iU h e y ^ re s o m h"e ^ eStablished' Drive hubs straiS
5-32
sum m ary ^
MISTAKES a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f i e l d
. ^ aetly over the point where the angles were going to be turned.
Sighting onto the wrong poim.
Read and recorded the wrong angle in the field book.
Faded to check by closing the horizon.
measuring procfssClamP ^ tangent at the incorrect time in the angle'

Didn't eliminate parallax in the sighting of the instrument.
Bumped and disturbed the tripod after it was set.
Failed to turn equal numbers of direct and reverse angles.
Set zero incorrectly.
Poorly marked the line on a point.
The instrument was not level when the vertical angle was measured.
q u e s t io n s a n d pro blem s
1. Draw and describe the difference between an interior angle and a deflection angle.
2. State why it is important to turn angles direct and reverse.
3. How can closing the horizon check your measured angle?
4. Describe three differences between a transit, theodolite, and total station.
5. What is the main difference between a digital theodolite and a total station?
6. Why is a total station called a total station?
7. Draw or trace an instrument, and show the principle lines and geometric
relationships.
8. Identify the basic components of any instrument.
9. Describe the tribrach and identify how it is useful for rapid angle measurement
on control points.
10. Discuss the function of clamping systems and how they are correctly used.
11. List the standard practices that should be followed when measuring horizontal
angles.
12. Describe why good targets are important to the angle-measurement process.
13. List and describe three "helpful hints" for reading angles.
14. Describe any difference that exists in the process of measuring an angle direct
and measuring an angle reverse.
15. W hat geom etric form ula is used when comparing traverse angles to a
closed figure?
16. What is the basic difference between measuring an angle and laying out an angle?
17. I d e n t i f y th e s in g le g r e a t e s t m is ta k e th a t c a n o c c u r in a n g le la y o u t.
18 W h a t is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a v e r tic a l a n g le a n d a z e n ith a n g le ?
19 W h i c h c r o s s h a i r is u s e d w h e n m e a s u r in g h o r iz o n ta l a n g le s , a n d w h ic h
c r o s s h a i r is u s e d w h e n m e a s u r in g v e r tic a l a n g le s .
20. P r e p a r e a s a m p l e s e t o f f ie ld n o te s f o r r e c o r d in g m e a s u r e d a n g le s , a n d a n o th e r
s a m p l e f o r l a y i n g o u t a n g le s .
5 -3 3
angle measurement
9 ch a p ter five
FIELD ACTIVITIES
. . /in H Jv iH u a l 2 h o u r s ) P r o c e d u r e : S e t t h e i n s tr u m e n t
' over a p o i m a n d 's e l e c t 3 o r 4 a d j a c e n t p o i n t s o r w e l l - d e f i n e d o b j e c t s . T u r n
o v e r a p o in b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s . S u m t h e v a lu e s a n d
s e c o n d s p e r a n g l e o f 3 6 0 d e g r e e s . K e e p f ie ld
n o te s o f y o u r w o r k .
2 Measuring traverse angles - (2 o r m o re p e rs o n s , 2 -3 h o u rs ) Procedure: Set
u p o v e r e a c h t r a v e r s e p o i n t a n d t u r n 2 d i r e c t a n d 2 r e v e r s e i n t e r i o r a n g le s
b e tw e e n a d j a c e n t p o in ts . R e c o r d a ll a n g l e s . T h e s u m o f t h e i n t e r i o r a n g le s
s h o u ld b e w i t h in 15 s e c o n d s p e r p o i n t o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l g e o m e t r i c c l o s u r e o f
(n -2 )1 8 0 . K e e p f ie l d n o t e s o f y o u r w o r k .
3. Angle layout by double-centering - ( 2 o r m o r e p e r s o n s , 2 - 3 h o u r s )

Procedure: P l a c e tw o p o i n t s in t h e g r o u n d 4 0 f e e t a p a r t . S e t t h e i n s t r u m e n t
o n o n e o f th e p o i n ts . B a c k s i g h t a n d t u r n a 9 0 a n g l e a n d s e t a h u b o r s ta k e to
m a r k lin e o n . M a r k y o u r l in e o f s i g h t o n t h e p o i n t w i t h a p e n c i l . R e v e r s e th e
s c o p e a n d t u r n t h e a n g l e a g a in . M a r k t h e l i n e o f s i g h t o n t h e p o i n t . C o m p a r e
th e m a r k s . R e c o r d y o u r r e s u l t s in a f i e l d b o o k .
4. Slope Distance Conversion - (2 p e rs o n s , 2 h o u r s ) Procedure: S e t o n a p o in t

a t th e b o t t o m a n d t o p o f a s m a l l h i ll ( b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 f e e t a p a r t ) . S e t u p
a t r a n s i t a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e h i ll a n d m e a s u r e t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e t o t h e p o i n t
a t th e t o p o f t h e h i ll . M e a s u r e a s lo p e d is ta n c e to th e to p p o in t f r o m th e
in s tru m e n t c e n te r. C a lc u la te th e h o r iz o n ta l d i s t a n c e . C o m p a r e to a d is ta n c e
o b ta in e d b y b r e a k in g c h a in . K e e p f ie ld n o te s o f y o u r w o rk .
chapter six
total station
Introduction
Measuring Basics
Measuring Details
L a y o u t of a P o i n t
Trigonometric Elevations
Electronic Data Collection
Summary
Introduction
6- 3 General
T y p e s of T o t a l S t a t i o n s
6- 5
Basic M e a s u re m e n t
6-7
Standard Practices
6-7
Preparing Total Station Measurement
6-10
SCOPE
S in ce the b e g in n in g o f tim e , d is ta n c e m e a s u r e m e n t h a s b e e n a h ig h ly p h y s ic a l
a c tiv ity th a t firs t r e q u ir e d th e s tr e tc h in g o f a r o p e , th e n , a c h a in , a n d m o r e r e c e n tl y ,
a steel tap e . O b ta in in g a c c u r a te m e a s u r e m e n t w ith a n y o t th e s e t o o ls w a s tim e
c o n s u m in g , a n d r e q u ire d a g re a t d e a l ot tr a in in g a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n th e
in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d .
T h e a b ility to m e a s u re d is ta n c e s a n d a n g le s w ith th e s im p l e p u s h o f a b u t t o n
has b een a b o o n to th o s e in th e s u r v e y in g p r o f e s s io n a n d t o f i e l d e n g i n e e r s o n th e
c o n s tru c tio n s ite . In c o n s tr u c tio n , th e to ta l s ta tio n i n s t r u m e n t h a s r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e d
th e m a n n e r in w h ic h s u rv e y in g is u s e d o n th e j o b s i t e . T h e t o ta l s t a t i o n h a s e n a b l e d
th e fie ld e n g in e e r to a c c u r a te ly a n d q u ic k ly m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e s a n d a n g l e s f o r
p ro je c t c o n tr o l a s w e ll as to u tiliz e th e m e th o d o f r a d i a l l a y o u t in l o c a t i n g th e
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e p r o je c t.
H o w e v e r, th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th is m e th o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t h a s a ls o i n t r o d u c e d
new' s o u rc e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r . T h e c o m p e t e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s u r v e y o r m u s t b e
a w a r e o t th e s e p o te n tia l e r r o r s a n d m u s t u t il iz e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t e x p o s e t h e s e e r r o r s
w h e n th e y o c c u r. T h e te c h n iq u e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e w ill h e l p t o e i t h e r e l i m i n a t e e r r o r s ,
o r re d u c e th e m to a n a c c e p ta b le m a g n itu d e .
6-2
GgN R A L
What makes an electronic total station so powerful is the computer inside it. A t
stations have microprocessor technology that serves as the "brain. This comj?U.ê
directs the functions of both the electronic distance measurement (EDM) an ^
edm electronic angle measurement of the total station. For instance, the slope distance a
+ zenith angle are measured at essentially the same time and the m icroproces ^
theodolite performs calculations on the data. Because of this combination of data, the horizon
+ distance can be displayed instantly rather than having to perform hand calculations
computer a later time. The total station is fast to set up, fast to sight, fast to operate, as
performing computations, fast to record data, and fast to output needed data, n ^
^ total station hands of an experienced user, the total station increases productivity of measureme
and layout activity by 50 percent or more. If a project has numerous points to esta 1
within a tight schedule, the electronic total station is the instrument to use. ^
Today in surveying measurement, the electronic total station is t e ie ^
engineer's instrument of choice. It is a combination of a digital theodolite an a o
station working together with a microprocessor that gives the user the power to rapi
perform a variety of measurement tasks. Numerous measurement and computationa
functions are programmed into the microprocessor so practically any distance, irec 1 0 ,
or coordinate a field engineer needs can be determined. Most total stations ave e
capability to interface with electronic field books for storage of data or to Pr0V1
layout information. The field engineer should be aware of the power and versati lty o
the total station, and use its total capabilities.
Some advantages of the total station are summarized in the following a e.
Advantages of the Total Station
Instant S in c e th e v e rtic a l a n g le is c o n sta n tly a v a ila b le , as so o n as th e s lo p e

d is ta n c e is m e a s u re d th e m ic ro p ro c e ss o r in th e to ta l sta tio n in sta n tly
Horizontal
c o m p u te s th e h o riz o n ta l d ista n c e a n d d isp la y s it to th e o p e ra to r. B e
Distance
s u re to h a v e th e to ta l s ta tio n set to d isp la y th e to ta l d ista n c e.
R a p id o p e ra tio n a llo w s fo r m u ltip le c h e c k in g o f la y o u t a n d

Quick
m e a s u r e m e n t p o in ts , a llo w in g th e fie ld e n g in e e r tim e to c h e c k a n d
Checking
r e - c h e c k la y o u t w o rk .
B e c a u s e th e to ta l s ta tio n h a n d le s m a n y s u rv e y in g m e a s u re m e n t
ta s k s , it re d u c e s th e n u m b e r o f in s tru m e n ts n e c e ssa ry . C a rry in g
Single
o n ly o n e in s tr u m e n t in its c a s e to th e fie ld c a n b e a g re a t a d v a n ta g e
Instrument i f a tw o - p e r s o n c re w is w o rk in g . S in c e th e re a re so m a n y to o ls ,
s ta k e s , r o d s , e tc ., to b e c a rrie d , h a v in g o n e le s s b o x is a p p re c ia te d .
M o s t to ta l s ta tio n s a re e a s y to u s e e v e n th o u g h th e y m a y a p p e a r
d i f f ic u lt a t f ir s t b e c a u s e o f a ll th e b u tto n s a n d fu n c tio n s th a t a re
Easy to a v a ila b le . G e ttin g o v e r th e in itia l le a r n in g c u rv e m a y p r o v e to b e
Learn th e m o s t d if f ic u lt p a r t o f le a r n in g to o p e ra te th e to ta l s ta tio n . O n c e
th e o p e r a to r le a rn s th e b a s ic s o f th e s y s te m , m o s t o p e ra tio n s a re
c o m m o n sense.
I f c a lc u la tio n s a r e n e e d e d to e s ta b lis h a p o in t, m a n y to ta l s ta tio n s

Computer h a v e th e c a lc u la tin g a b ility o f a p o w e r fu l h a n d - h e ld s c ie n tif ic
c a lc u la to r . P r o g r a m s d e s ig n e d to s o lv e j u s t a b o u t a n y m e a s u r e m e n t
in the Field
s i t u a t i o n in th e f ie ld a re a v a ila b le .
T o t a l s ta tio n s c a n b e c o n n e c te d to a n e le c tr o n ic f ie ld b o o k , o r m a y
h a v e o n b o a r d m e m o r y to s to r e d a ta f o r th o u s a n d s o f p o in ts t h a t a re
Electronic m e a s u r e d , o r t h a t a r e to b e la id o u t. W h e n f u lly im p le m e n te d , th is
Field Book f e a t u r e p a y s f o r i t s e l f m a n y tim e s o v e r w ith i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v it y
a n d t h e e li m i n a ti o n o f r e c o r d in g e r r o r s b y a n o te k e e p e r .
total station
f
^ chapter six
s to the total station, there are also

JUS. as (here are tremendous not be disadvantages to all users.
a fcw potential disadvantages. Some _____________
n| Of th e Total station
------- T " nt in total stations requires a
One disadvantage is that mve jn to account, however, the
huge initial ^ ^ C d error chicking, total stations will be
Expense
sfrtnnnr to .p et WU11I1
S . -------
i --------
1 _--------------------
--------------------------
----------------------rTT ^Tthetotal station is exposed to
When used on a constmctio * heavy equipment, etc. One
the hazards of matenals mo ^ from its top mount
Exposure ^ - must be
protected at all tim es._____________ _________ - -
Batteries
d is c u s s io n Ol ____________________________________________
Unfortunately, some users of the S t a t i o n quicldy become
dependent on it and do not follow the basic principles of
Over
measurement. They do not perform as many checks as they
Confidence
should in the extra time that is available.___________________
Distinguishing Features
At first glance, the total station appears
Carrying
to be similar to digital theodolites " Handle
Pistance, Angle, because of its keyboard and digital
and Elevation display. Leveling screws, the optical
are available on plummet, and the clamping system are
a Total Station. the same in total stations as they are in
digital angle-turning instruments. The
total station, however, is slightly larger,
has an EDM as an integral part of the
telescope and instrument, and usually
has more keys in the keyboard. The
telescope of the total station serves as a
combination optical scope for sighting
purposes and a sending and receiving
unit for the EDM. For sighting purposes,
the telescope functions the same as any other. The keyboard on the total station
usually has many keys on it to accommodate easy access to additional functions.
The entire alphabet is available for fully describing the points.
T h e d is p la y o n th e to ta l s ta tio n
is ty p ic a lly a d ig ita l L C D . T h e t y p e o f
a n g le tu r n e d ( h o r i z o n ta l o r v e r tic a l) is
d is p la y e d as w e ll a s th e a n g le m e a s u r e d .
T h e ty p e o f d is ta n c e , ( s l o p e , v e r t i c a l , o r
h o r iz o n ta l) is a ls o d i s p l a y e d w ith th e
n u m e ric a l v a lu e . N o rth and E ast
c o o r d in a te s a s w e ll a s t h e e l e v a t i o n c a n
a ls o b e d is p la y e d .
6-4
Introduction
Vast Number of Capabilities

Just about any surveying measurement or
r v c tic a d # * calculation activity is available with a total
function of the station. Most total stations havethecapability
tota\ station. of measuring and displaying the following-
horizontal and vertical angles, slope distanc
es, vertical distances, horizontal distances,
inverses between two unoccupied points,
elevations of remote objects, coordinates
for any point occupied or sighted, traverse
closure and adjustment, resection forthe loca
tion of an occupied point, topography, data
units in feet or meters, averaging of multiple
sets of angles, corrections for prism constants, atmospheric pressure,temperature, curvature,
refraction corrections to elevations, and interface with an electronic field book.
Unfortunately, many operators of total stations do not tap into the vast number
of functions available. Simply reading and studying the owner's manual and practic
ing with the total station will greatly expand the measurement opportunities. See the
owner's manual for a complete list of functions for a particular total station.
Relative Precision
Most total stations found on the construc > 60,000 /
-
tion site use infrared light as the source of 1CE /

3 50,000 - /
their signal.These systems are reliable and O /
durable as well as relatively inexpensive. a 40,000 -
/
LU
The precision of these total stations is cc 30,000 /
3 -
usually found to be 0.01 feet or 3 mm (J) /

S
o
20,000 - /
for any distance measured. A distance of /
10,000 -
10.00 feet displayed on the total station /
will be 9.99 to 10.01. A distance of 1000 i "I---- 1---- 1---
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
feet is 999.99 to 1000.01. Obviously, the D IS T A N C E IN F E E T
total station is better for measuring long
distances because the constant 3 mm stays the same for all distances. See the graph
for a visual relationship of the precision attainable to the distance measured.
Why does a total station have this built-in error? It is a matter of economics.
Total stations are available that measure to the thickness of a human hair, however
they cost tens of thousands of dollars more than the total stations with the 0.01 er
ror. Contractors can live with 0.01 accuracy of measurements. For accuracy, field
engineers need to remember that total stations are better for long distances, and chains
are better for short distances.
TYPES OF TOTAL STATIONS

Total stations first became available when an electronic distance measurement
(EDM) instrument was mounted on top of a digital theodolite, and wires between
the devices shared information. This system was only around for a few years before
electronic designers created the magic of a single instrument that combined electronic
angle measurement with electronic distance measurement. These original total sta
tions" were bigger and bulkier than the sleek models now available. They also didnt
have as many functions and features. Total stations have continued to evolve, and
several types of total stations are available, today. They are briefly described in the
following paragraphs.
6 -5
to ta l station
^ c h a p te r six
Basic Total Stations t0 use. They are designed

stations are as
T h e s e to t a l a c c u ra c ie s re q u ire
to be highly productive and K^na (hese to ta l sta tio n s,
for general construction. O n m y ^ ^ b>jtton on
distances can be m ea, rem ent is p ractically a u to m a tic ,
the keyboard, and ang e statio n s ty p ic a lly h a v e a
To keep them affordable, the in stru m e n t, an d
Full-Featured Total S t a t i o n s and precision required for all types of

These total stations possess th eyxtensive software capabilities with built-
m e a su re m e n t a n d s itu a tio n s . y indirect measurements, resections,
in programs t h a t allow the - e r t o p erform ed . ^ ^ ,n ^ fie ld . T h ey
S ^ r r ^ a t a c o lle c tio n c a p a b ilitie s f o r th o u s a n d s o f points^

Using h eir ull featu red k ey b o ard , a lp h a -n u m e ric d a ta c a n b e e n te re d a n d re c o rd e d
for any m easu rem en t o b serv ed . T h e se in s tru m e n ts a re d e s .g n e d to m e e t th e
strictest accuracy and p recisio n re q u ire m e n ts o f a n y p ro je c t b e in g b u ilt.
Keyboard
Reflectorless Total Stations

The capability of measuring distances to points without the use of a prism is a
feature that may be desirable for certain types of work. Perhaps distances are
needed to the face of a building in which the owner will not allow access. The
reflectorless total station can be used to obtain these
measurements. This reflectorless feature may be on the basic
total station, but more likely will be on the full-featured
instruments. Having a reflectorless total station is a great tool
which works well in most situations. Unfortunately at this
time, reflectorless total stations are not able to measure to all
surfaces in all conditions. In some situations, the signal will
not return and the distance cannot be obtained. In those
instances, if it is possible, a prism should be sighted onto, and
the surveying continued.
Robotic or Automatic Tracking Total Stations
Since the beginning of time, measuring has typically been a team effort of two or
more persons. With the robotic total stations, one person can perform all measurements
as well as set the points in the ground. Once the robotic instrument is set up and
Advantage for initialized, sensors in the instrument follow the prism as a "single person" walks the
robotic is one-
sue and sets points from predetermined layout data. Radio control at the prism allows
person opera the operator the flexibility to control the P
tion. Pisadvan instrument remotely. This instrument has
tage is two all of the functions of full-featured total
heads are stations and increased flexibility of
better than surveying operations. A major concern
one. to many who survey is having a very
expensive instrument set up alone on a
construction site or wherever surveying
18takin8 Place>without the protection of
a person who could move it out of the
way if there is a hazardous situation
6-6
k
^ S lC M E A S U R E M E N T
A s noted, there are many models, styles, shapes, and sizes of total stations that
are made by many companies. They range from basic to sophisticated mo e
contain computers for field calculation as well as electronic storage of da a.
or advanced, the main function is the same; only the operation is dif eren
Stations measure two thingselectronic distance and electronic angles.
Electronic Distance Measurement. The Electronic Distance Measuremen an(j
function of the total station is a device that sends out a signal (wave e^ ^ s^ ayS
measures the time it takes for the signal to go out and come bac . accurate
distance, but the total station really measures time. It contains a very
timing device which measures
infinitesimal parts of a second. Knowing
the wavelength of the
signal ocm
sent out
out
nA ----------- r |v/K>xo(yxyxym\|Io
and the precise time, the basic formula
of "Distance = Wavelength \ Time" <-------------->
from physics, is used within the
instrument to calculate the distance
R e f le c to r
which is then displayed to the operator.
Measurements that are displayed by the total station are not just single
measurements. In the few seconds it takes from the time the measure button is
pushed until the distance is displayed, the total station has measured the distance
several hundred times and presents the average of the readings. Because of this
averaging, most measurements with the total station are typically very consistent,
and if the total station is in proper calibration, very accurate.
Electronic Angle Measurement. The electronic angle measurement function of
the total station is typically based on an electronic encoder that transmits alternating
light and dark patterns to a microprocessor that converts these patterns to our
familiar degrees, minutes, and seconds, and displays them on the LCD screen of the
instrument. This system has proven to be very reliable and capable of withstanding
the harsh environmental changes of the construction jobsite. Electronic angle
measurement has virtually replaced all mechanical and optical angle-measuring
systems on most new instruments.
As easy as electronic angle measurement makes the reading of angles, it
still doesn't eliminate the need to follow standard practices for measuring angles
that were described in C h a p te r 5, A n g le M e a s u r e m e n t.
STANDARD PRACTICES
Performing the use of the total station is similar to using an angle-measuring
instrument as described in detail in Chapter 5. All of the following standard practices
must be followed and performed to obtain the desired results from the total station.
The owner's
Preparing to Use Total Station
Communicate. Communication, again, is key to success in construction surveying.
manual helps
Read the Owner's Manual. Reading the owner's manual is especially important
you learn th e
with total stations that have so many features available.
specifics o f th e
instrument.
.. . -,i-
--
6 -7
total station
e c h a p te i s ix
A. .. nicnlav. The display of the total station

Study Total Static' . , Jf a calculator. Horizontal and
is similar to tne jn degrees, minutes, or seconds,
vertical aiiftes ^ ^ ^ decimal parts Qf a foot.
Distances are PJ ^ distinguish between horizontal,
Various icons ^ Coordinates are typically given
Ise NC,nd E The display here shows .he zenith angle and ,he
horizontal a n g l e have clamping systems similar

g e n e ra lly
Learn Clamping System, ota s < because of the push-button zeroing
to other angle-turning m stru m e n t push of a button, only one clamp
is*needed^for oper^tio n* ee the owner's manual o f the particular instrument for the
most efficient method of manipulating the clamps ,n the angle-turning process.
Check Calibration. Check instrument calibration at the start o f a project, and
anytime during the project when critical work is about to be performed. See
Chapter 10, Equipment Calibration, for a thorough explanation of calibration
procedures with an angle-measuring instrument.
Set to Horizontal. Total stations measure between the instrument and the prism.
Unless the ground is level, the distance measured will always be a slope distance.
It should be noted the total station can display slope or horizontal distances. In fact,
some total stations automatically display slope and must be set to display horizontal.
If possible, the total station should be configured to always display horizontal
distances when they are turned on. If this is overlooked, errors will result.
S et the prism Configure Prism Constants. Prisms are built differently. Some are manufacture
constant in the with a 0 mm offset and others with a -30 mm offset, a -3 4 mm offset, and so on. The
total station. prism constant is based on where the reflective center of the prism occurs in relation
Check it to how the prism is physically positioned in its case relative to the center of the prism
frequently. pole. This means that the user of the total station must know what the prism constant
is for the prism being used, and must be sure the total station is configured with that
prism constant in it. The old saying that "apples and oranges don't mix" applies
perfectly. Having a 0 mm prism, and a total station set for -3 0 mm will result in a 30
mm (or about a tenth of a foot) mistake in every measurement.
Using a Total Station
Set up Solid. Because of the weight of the total station, a
solid setup is required to obtain good measurements. Have a
wide foundation, step on the foot pads, and sink the points
solidly into the ground. To prevent slipping off of a hard
surface, search for an indentation where the point of the
tripod can be inserted.
Set up Over the Point. The total station must be set up over
the point exactly. Even a little off of the point will result in
erroneous angles measured or laid out. See the Sections in
Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices.
6-8
S e t u p L e v e l . M a k e s u r e th e in s t r u m e n t is le v e l w h e n th e a n g le s a r e to b e tu r n e d .
R e f e r t o C h a p te r 3, F ie ld w o r k P r a c tic e s , f o r s t e p - b y - s t e p l e v e l i n g i n s t r u c t i o n .
Focus an d R e fo c u s. T o ta l s ta tio n s m u s t b e f o c u s e d a s an y o th e r s u r v e y in g
in s t r u m e n t s . G o o d f o c u s i n g is v e r y i m p o r ta n t in o b ta in in g g o o d r e s u lt s . F o c u s o n
th e c r o s s h a i r s , a n d th e n o n th e o b je c ti v e s a s d e s c r ib e d p re v io u s ly . R e fo c u s
th r o u g h o u t th e d a y a s n e e d e d .
S e l e c t G o o d T a r g e t s . With a total station, the target is typically going to b e a
prism on a tripod or a prism pole, as distances, as well as angles, are going to b e
measured simultaneously from each setup.
S i g h t E x a c t l y o n t h e P r i s m . A major mistake by some who
turn angles with a total station is to not sight exactly onto the
prism. Being quick and careless, and not being sighted exactly
onto the point when viewing the backsight or foresight, will
result in incorrect angles measured or incorrect points laid
out. Take a few extra seconds to sight carefully.
E n s u r e I n t e r - V i s i b i l i t y . A clear line of sight is a basic
requirement for total station use. As stated earlier, a signal is
sent from the total station to the prism and reflected back to the
total station. For this signal to occur, there can be no constant
obstructions between the total station and the prism. There can
be the occasional interruption of the signal by someone walking
between the total station and the prism or a leaf fluttering
across the line o f sight o f the signal, but nothing that stays for
more than a second or two can be in the way of the total station
or it will be unable to display the distances.
Measure Control Distances Twice. Only measuring once in any situation risks
making a mistake and not discovering it. To avoid the mistakes that occur, all distances
should be measured twice, forward and back. For example, measure from the beginning
n
FORW
ARD
AND point forward to the end of the line, and then from the end point back to the beginning.
BACK
By reversing direction forward and back, mistakes that might occur when measuring
A
a distance twice in the same direction might be discovered. Remember: Field

Engineers always do it twice!
Enter PPM Correction. Parts per million (ppm) is a distance-correction factor based
on meteorological conditions. Total stations will come with a handy chart that can be
used to easily determine this factor. By knowing the air temperature and the barometric
pressure, a correction value can be determined and entered into the instrument.
Be Careful of Zero Set. With digital reading instruments, a big concern is to be careful
to not push zero set on the keyboard at the incorrect time in the measuring process and
cause a large angle mistake.
Work in the Shade

For best results when using any instrument, it is best to work out
of the direct sun. Of course, this isnt possible on a construction
site where all the trees have been removed. In situations where
the accuracy is critical, consider scheduling the measurements to
be done in the early morning before the sun comes up. Or,
consider using an umbrella. A simple way to do this is to obtain
a 5-gallon plastic bucket, a 2-inch-diameter by 15-inch-long
piece o f PVC pipe, and a beach umbrella. When concrete is being
poured somewhere on the site, place the PVC pipe in the center
o f the bucket and pour it full of concrete. After it sets, it can taken
anywhere the instrument is set up and the umbrella can be used
to protect the instrument from the hot sun.
6 -9
TATION measurement
nncDARiNG FOR TOTAL STATiuo* s step 1 includes setup and preparation
PREPARING ......process itself. The
fo i^ in e a s u rc in e n t. S te p 2 ,h e c io n to ,h e to .a l s .a t.o n s o n c a n o o tp w
e n g in e e r n ru si p r o v id e r e le r e n c e m l e ( h e u n its o f m e a s u r e m e n t, p ris m
d e s ire d re s u lts . T h is ^ " " " " ' " referen c e e le v a tio n , in itia l c o o rd in a te s , a n d a
reference direction. u nions is similar to simply using a combination

The operation of many tota See ^ owner's manual for an exact
of digital theodolite and total s ^cteristics o f the total station, however,
description of the process. *nP with a total station, it is necessary to
differ. When preparing for "je - occupied and for the backsight. The
initialize ihe instrument with data forThe^po.mo P s(a, ions
following procedure can be used as a gu.de tor
Typical Total Station Preparation for Measurement

Check the battery strength and replace, if necessary.
Turn on the total station
Degrees? Feet? Meters? Select on the keyboard.
Select the units
Atmospheric pressure and temperature are needed to
Input correction factor determine the parts per million (ppm) correction factor.
Prism offset must be set accurately for the prism
Check constants being used.
An elevation of the occupied point is generally inputted
Input elevation into the instrument or the electronic field book.
Input the height of the total station and the height of
the prism on the prism pole. These are needed to be
Input setup heights able to accurately determine the elevation of the
points where readings are taken.
Decide if the numbering starts at 1, 10, 100, 1000,
Initiate point numbering
or some other number.
Enter point number and Describe all occupied and backsighted points
description of occupied thoroughly. Many a survey has been lost because of
point inadequately-described starting points.
If the coordinates of the point are known from previous
Enter coordinates of surveys, input them. If values for the starting
occupied point coordinates are to be assumed, review the scope of the
project and assume coordinates that are large enough to
prevent negative coordinates from occurring.
Enter coordinates or When using points from a previous survey, use the
direction to backsight coordinates of the backsight. If a new survey is
being established, a direction is typically assumed.
Ready Set Go! Measure At this point, the total station should be ready for
or Lay Out! measurement. Go to the next Section for an
illustrated explanation of this process.
-10
Measuring Basics
Pr ocedur e for Measur i ng

Di s t a n c e and Angl e 6-12
Review 6-14
Fi el d Not es 6-15
SCOPE
The measurement of a distance and an angle between points on a traverse with a
total station is a very simple process and is somewhat similar among the various
types and models of total stations. However, it must be noted that the terminology
used and the actual button being pushed may not be the same on every model.
6 -1 1
p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r in g d is t a n c e a n d a n g l e
This general step-by-step procedure is wratten and illustrated to provide an
overview'of the process of measuring a distance and an angle samultaneously. It is
generic and may not apply exactly to all instruments. Read the owner's manual to
determine the exact method for a particular instrument.
Set up over the point and prepare for

Step 1
measurements. Set the total station over
the point using the optical plummet or
laser plum m et. See C h a p te r 3,
Fieldwork Practices. When the setup is
complete, it is necessary to check the
instrument settings, especially if there
are multiple users o f the instrument and
changes may have been made. This w ill
include units for distance measurement,
angle measurement, decim al places
displayed, tem perature, m easuring
m ode, d isp la y m ode (s lo p e or
horizontal), parts per m illion , data
recording, prism constant, and many
other items that are specific to individual
instruments. It is a good idea to check
the battery level to be sure there is
enough power for the measurements to
be taken. As always, refer to the owner's
manual for sp ecific checks for the
instrument being used.
Step 2 Measure the height of instrument. If

elevations will be needed from the
measurements, it is necessary to
determine the height of the instrument
above the control point. Measure from
the top of the control point to the center
of the instrument with a tape. Set the
prism pole at that height also to facilitate
determining the elevations where the
prism pole is held. Or, if the prism pole
needs to be extended, remember to
record the height so that an accurate
elevation can be determined.
6-12
i
.1 Sight onto the backsight and set the
Step 3
direction. After the total station has
been in itia lized with all o f the
information at the occupied point, it can
be sighted onto the backsight and locked
onto that point. Typically, this will
involve setting zero on the instrument
or, if the direction to the backsight is
known and used, going through the
procedure for that instrument to set a
specific direction.
Q te D 4 Loosen the horizontal clamp and turn

^ ^ to the prism pole held at the foresight.
The clam p in g system on various
instruments may be different. Some have
a clamp and tangent and others now
have a continuous drive.
Step 5 Sight onto the prism . Sight the

horizontal and vertical crosshairs
exactly onto the center of the prism so
accurate vertical and horizontal angles
can be measured. Because of continuous
updating, the horizontal angle and the
zenith angle measures will be displayed.
Step 6 M easure the D istance. Press the

distance measurement button on the
instrument. Within a few seconds, the
distance will be measured hundreds of
tim es and then an average o f the
distances will be displayed on the data
display screen. If coordinates of the
point are needed, press the appropriate
buttons or go to the menu as required to
display the coordinates.
613
total station
^ chapter six
Read and record the distance and

Step 7 angle. Record in proper field-book form
die distance, angle, and coordinates of
the point; or press the record button on
. . . L . I catinn if = u recording
capabilities.
Step 8 Double-check. If the measurements are

H highly critical, such as the angle between
control points or setting the centerline of
a bridge pier, it is recommended to measure
the distance twice, and turn the angle once
direct and reverse, or multiple times direct
and reverse to obtain the best estimate of
the true value of the angle.
REVIEW
As can be seen, measuring a distance and turning an angle all at once with a total
station is so much quicker than chaining a distance and then turning angles with a
theodolite. Especially for long distances of several chain lengths, electronic
distance measurement is the only way to measure. For short distances, either
chaining or total station distance measurement could be used, however recall from
previous discussions that the relative precision of the total station is not good for
short distances. The rule of thumb is "Measure with a chain for less than a chain
length; use a total station for distances greater than a chain length." Or more
simply Chain Short, EDM Long." If the field engineer follow s that simple
principle, measurement will be accurate and layout will be correct.
measuring basics 0
FIELD n o t e s
When using a total statio
dependent on whether or n o t ^ extent f the field notes that must be kept is
recorder is used, the field not 6 e?,tr n*c âta E lection is available. If no data
recording is available field ^ W1 ^ extens*ve- However, even if electronic data
location of the instrument n teS w*tb a sketch should be recorded showing the
back to the site and re c re a t^ t^ thbacksight and enough data to be able to go
of field notes is to allow a C WFk lf 3 problem arises. Recall that the purpose
b o o k a n d c o t i Ue , ? :h:cr r :^ L r z r gexperience,opickupthefie,d
----- --------------------- ------------------------
MORE5 0 N T A L CCjN T R O L LA Y O U T
F O R B R ID C 5 E # 6 3 2 1 ' f
j ----
A n ;S 6N ANGRT 0 * 0 0 '0 0 '
HI * 5.6 ------------
5255.6 UNLESS NOTED
| " ...............
~~ ---- ----
STA N j E RT ELEV
15 1533.77 1611.32 615.75

11017'32
.....K3 ... 1545.07 1594.16 89154 r 617.11
17 1600.91 1425.67 4500'00" 618.42
id 1627.15 1320.53 2815'4r 623.15
19 1520.13 1328.94 0 0 0 00" 613.32
20 1633.11 1575.18 6217*52' 614.11
....21... 1715.63 1950.02 7618'19 618.95
22 1700.00 1700.00 9 000'00" 620.31
23 1610.43 1650.71 9 0 0 0 00" 622.15
7C 1420.15 1575.18
6N j 1523.71 1325.11
i
\
Details
Measuring
Total Station
w ith a
ur e for M e a s u r i n g
Proced
Fi el d Notes
SCOPE
In the previous Section, the basics of measuring an angle and a distance with a total
station were presented. This Section is presented to show each step in the
measurement process, and the duties of the instrument operator and the prism-pole
holder in that process. Where applicable, the communication that occurs during
the measuring is also shown.
6-16
p fi OCEDURE FOR MEASURING WITH A TOTAL STATION
This procedure is a general Dre STATION
Studying and following this Sent^jlon to aPply to most total station instruments,
measurement to understand the^^ ^ ena^ e Persons new to total station
INSTRUM ENT O PERATOR

PRISM POLE HOLDER
S te p 1 Gathers all needed
equipment and Gathers all needed equipment and
proceeds to the work area.
Step 2 Locates the control point where the Locates the backsight point. Confirms
distance and angle measurements are from fieldnotes that it is the correct
needed from the field notes or plans. backsight. Checks to be sure it is still
Confirms that it is solid and stable. solid and undisturbed. (If it appears to
have been moved, doesn't use it, and
locates another backsight point.)
6 -1 7
total Nation v
$ chapter six
p r is m p o l e h o l d e r
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
Places a tripod with prism as a target on
S te p 3 Sets tripod over the point, keeping the it and uses the optical plummet to get
head of the tripod horizontal. Removes
the tripod exactly over the backsight
the total station from its case and
_i-. point.
Step 4 Levels and centers the total station over Rem oves the prism pole from its case
the point using the Optical Plummet or and attaches a prism to the pole.
Laser Plummet Quick Setup procedure
described in C hapter 3, F ieldw ork
Practices.
6-18
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
PRISM POLE HOLDER
Step S C h e c k s th e b a tte r y s,ren
in s tru m e n t s e ttin g s in n ,., " k s h e P ro c e e d s to th e p o in t w h e r e th e d is ta n c e
........ a n d u n g le a re b e in g m e a s u r e d to , a n d
te m p e r a tu r e a n d b a r o m e .r i d he w a its f o r a s ig n a l to p r e p a re f o r th e
o r e le v a tio n , a n d m e a s u re m e n t.
o -e r needed i n f o r m ^ " ^ *
o p e ra tin g m a n u a l o f th ^ . h
fo r c o m p le te d e ta ils % m io n
Step 6 Using a tape or rod. measures from the To expedite determining the elevation
ground to the center o f the total station. ol points, adjusts the prism pole until its
Informs the prism holder of the height height is the same as the height of the
o f the instrument. total station.
!!
;
6 -1 9
*<n
Q chapter six
PRISM POLE HOLDER

IN STRU M EN T O P E R A T O R
Waits.
Sights toward the tripod set on the
Step 7 backsight, locks the horizontal motion
clamp, and sights the vertical crosshair
exactly onto the center o f the prism with
the tangent screw. As a check, shoots
the dista n ce to the backsight and
compares it with control data to confirm
^-4 ka.'nn used.
Step 8 Sets and holds zero on the backsight. Ready for measurement, and facing the
Presses a button to release the angle and total station, places the prism pole
loosens the horizontal clamp, and turns exactly on the point, and holds the pole
to the prism pole holder. plumb by centering the bull's-eye bubble
attached to the side of the pole. Uses a
bi-pod or two pieces of lath held against
the pole to keep it steady.
6-20
measuring details
*r--hv*Mui1/j0
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR PRISM POLE HOLDER

qteP 9 Holds the prism pole steady, w * ^ cn
i
Sights onto the center o f the prism with

a signal that the reading has e m
** ^ the horizontal and vertical crosshairs to
determ in e the h o rizo n tal and vertical
angle.
11
10 Measures the distance by pressing the Continues to hold the pnsm pole p
S te P 10 appropriate keyboard button. over the pomt.
6 -2 1
PRISM POLE HOLDER
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
R e la x e s .
As soon as the measurement is complete,
Step 11 signals to the prism holder to relax.
Reads and records the angle, horizontal
distance, and vertical change in elevation
in a field book or in the data recorder.
Step 12 Double-checks to ensure that the Places the prism pole back on the point,
instrument is level and over the point. plumbs the pole, and waits for the total
Double-checks the vertical sighting and station operator to re-measure the
angle measured. Double-checks the distance.
sighting of the TS. Signals to the prism
pole holder that the distance is to be
double-checked.
6-22
measuring details
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
PRISM POLE HOLDER
Step 13
Upon receiving a signal to move, picks
r ^ : r c r '" c r = '; ; ; up prism pole and any hand tools and
proceeds to the next point where an
angle and distance are needed.
Step 14 Repeats Steps 1-14.

Repeats Steps 1-14.
FIELD NOTES
6 -2 3
Layout of
a Point
P roced
6-25
Fi el d N o t e s
6-32
SCOPE
The most frequent use of the total station on a construction site is to lay out points.
The radial method of layout is well suited for the total station where angles,
distances, and elevations can be determined simultaneously. The radial layout
process is different from measuring between points that are already in the ground
to determine an angle and distance. Radial layout begins with known angles and
known distances that must be used to place points in the ground. The procedure is
straightforward, and involves a trial-and-error process of locating the exact point
at the angle and distance required. The first time this process is performed, it seem s
to take forever; however, with a little practice the process is quick, accurate, and
very productive.
6-24
layout of a point ^
-OCEDURE FOR L A Y IN G -O U T A POIN T

P ft is important to illustrate a n d d e . c r i K
of layout because of the mistakes ih ^ m s'eP'ky*step detail the radial method
productive method of establishine ** Can CCUr n Process. Although a very
method because just one mistake ' rad'a' layout is also a very dangerous
incorrectly. Persons using radial pU resu^ *n an entire building being located
procedures to constantly check t. aÛt S*K>U*<* very careful and follow exact
occur. For more on mistakes tT W rk to eliminate any mistakes that might
Chapter 19, Layout T e c h n i q u e s em>rs thal occur in raditd layout refer to
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
PRISM POLE HOLDER
S t0 P 1 proceeds to th^work areaPment and Gathers all needed equipment and

S te p 2 Locates the control point on the jobsite Rides to the backsight point as instructed.
that will be used to radially lay out the Triple-checks that the correct backsight
points. Double-checks that it is the point is being used. Confirms that the
correct point. Checks to see that it is point has not been disturbed.
solid and undisturbed. Discusses with
the prism pole holder the location of the
backsight.
chapter six
PRISM POLE HOLDER

INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
Sets up the tripod over the backsight
S te p 3 Sets tripod over the point, places the point and places a prism on the tripod
total station on the tripod, and levels and
centers instrument over the point.
Prepares the total station for measurement
by checking all settings, inputting
Pfr
Stop 4 Sights toward the backsight, locks the Waits at the backsight for a signal that
horizontal motion clamp, and sights the the backsight distance checks and the
vertical crosshair exactly onto the center layout can proceed,
of the prism with the tangent screw.
Shoots the distance to the backsight and
compares it with control data to confirm
that the correct backsight point is being
used. Presses the appropriate button to
set the instrument to zero.
6 -2 6
iN s r n u r a c N r OPERATOR
PRISM po le h o ld er
R e fe rs to th e la y o u t d a ta sh e e t and
Step
d e te rm in e s th e a n g le a n d d ista n c e to be Advances, as directed by the total station
m e a s u re d to th e firs , p o im . R e le J e operator, to the area on the jobsite where
the horizontal clam p and turns th e e Pints will be laid out. Looks back
instrument to the angle o f the point to be ! the total station operator for
la,dour. Using the clamping system on instructions. By observing the direction
the instrument, sets the angle exactly on the instrument is pointed, determines
the display screen. Communicates to the approximate line of sight, estimates
the prism holder the direction o f the line where the distance to the point will be
o f sight and the distance. Gets the prism from the instrument, and gets on line as
pole holder on line by communicatina directed. Facing the total station, places
verbally or through hand signals the prism pole exactly on line and holds
the p ole steady for a distan ce
measurement.
Step 6 Sights onto the center o f the prism with Is careful to keep the prism pole plumb
the horizontal crosshair of the total station by centering the bull's-eye bubble
so the vertical angle can be measured by attached to the side of the pole. Holds
the instrument and used to internally the prism pole steady, waiting for a
calculate the horizontal distance. signal that the reading has been taken.
f Ready fo r
Shooting in 3,2,1...
l measurement,
G o t it!
c h a p te r s ix
PRISM POLE HOLDER

IN S TR U M E N T O P E R A T O R
Continues to hold the prism pole on line
Measures the distance by pressing the and plumb.
Step 7 appropriate keyboard button.
Step 8 As soon as the distance is displayed, Upon hearing the distance and direction
compares the distance from where the to the point, m oves the prism pole to
prism presently is to where the point is to that location for another reading.
be set. Signals whether the point is closer
or farther away from the total station.
6-28
INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
PRISM POLE HOLDER
S ig h ts a n d d ir e c ts th e p ris m p o le h o ld e r
S t e p *q Repeats the previous step until the prism
to get on line and repeats the measuring
process to determine the distance to pole location is within a few feet of the
the new prism location. Determines desired point. For measurement, uses a
how far the prism is from the point to 6-foot rule or tape to move very close to
the point.
be set now and communicates that to
the prism holder.
Step 10 Repeats the previous step until distance After confirmation from the instrument
to the point to be set is within a few operator, drives a stake or hub at that spot,
hundredths or a centimeter or two and
directs the prism pole holder to drive a
stake at that location.
6 -2 9
PRISM POLE HOLDER
IN S T R U M E N T O P E R A T O R
I
G e ts lin e e x a c tly o n th e to p o f th e stake
A fte r th e h u b is d riv e n , e sta b lish e s lin e
Step 11 by m a rk in g lin e o n th e fro n t o f th e stake
on it e x a c tly . S ig h ts an d e s ta b lish e s
an d th e n o n th e re a r o f the sta k e , and
line on the fro n t o f th e sta k e a n d o n th e
d r a w s a lin e b e tw e e n th o s e marks
r e a r o f th e sta k e . C o n firm s th a t the lin e
C o n firm s th a t th e lin e is g o o d .
Step 12 Re-measures the distance to the prism Holds the prism pole on top of the stake
pole held on top of the stake. Confirms w h ile the d istan ce is measured.
the distance on the data layout sheet and Measures with a rule and sets the exact
writes it in the field book. point on top of the stake. Inserts a tack
at the point.
>-30
layout of a point @
INSTRUM ENT OPERATOR

Signals to the prism holder the PRISM POLE HOLDER
Step iq
measurement is complete and refers to Proceeds to the next point to be laid out.
the layout data sheet for the measurement Repeats the process outlined previously
to the next point. Repeats the entire for all points to be laid out.
process outlined previously until all
points are laid out.
Step 14 When the last point is established, turns

After the last point is established, returns
the instrument to the backsight to
to the backsight to pick up the tripod and
confirm the instrument is still oriented
properly. prism after the backsight is confirmed.
6 -3 1
u cim y10' ""
PRISM P O LE H OLD ER
IN S TR U M E N T O P E R A T O R
G oes to a new b a ck sig h t and
As an additional check. picks up the established points, as directed, to chect
Step 15 instrument and moves to another control the correctness o f their location.
point. Obtains a backsight from another
control point and independently checks
the location o f some o f the points
FIELD NOTES . thit is used when performing radial layout consists o f normal
fieMnoreôf the activity performed as well as of the layout data that is precalculated.
The notkeeping should record the title, the date, the tndtv.duals performing ,he
ly o u t the equipment used, the weather, and then baste mformatton about the
layout'procedure This would include a sketch o f the layout area showing the
location of the control points used during the layout and any others used f0r
checking the layout. The instrument position and the backsight should be indicated
on the sketch. The distance measured to the backsight should be listed and checked.
Any angles turned to other control points should be listed and checked. A
description of the work performed and the methods used to check the layout should
hp described in detail. A sample o f these fieldnotes is shown here.
-32
11'gonometric 1 I 1
Elevations |
Background 6 - 3 4 !|
St a n d a r d Pr a c t i c e s 6-34
,or Tr i g o n o me t r i c Level i ng 6-36
Fi el d Not es 6-39
Vertical
Distance
SCOPE
Using the total station to quickly determine elevations of any point on the jobsite
is a useful practice in the field. In trigonometric leveling, a total station is generally
used for rough topographic elevations, and an automatic level is used for precise
topographic elevations. Using two instruments, however, doesn't have to be the
case if proper procedures and precise equipment are used. With a precise total
station, very good accuracy can be achieved through trigonometric leveling, and
just about any elevation on a jobsite can be established.
6 33
B A CK G R O U N D al method of d e^rm n i^ elev atio n s on * J wUh p leveling
differential leveling. This tned-and f few min,meters anywhere on a
^ eUminate aM
reduce errore. . . k and easy when the terrain is relatively flat.
Differential leveling is quick (.yons exist> the differential leveling
However, when great 'Jlffe' en ced t)me consuming. Alternatives to differential
process becomes cum bersom eana ^ ^ o f , he total station for measuring
lleveling
e v e l i n g (see Chapter 7, Level' f o f <G3j0
lobal
b a l FPositioning
o s i u o m u g System s ^(GPS,
u r o , ssee
ee
vertical distance changes, or the does nQt have the ability * -
,X____ p ^nTr-.pc
c P S ^ e l d Procedures).At this tim e, GPS F i,ld does not have the
Procedures). ability
At tms umv,for _ -----
precise e la tio n determination for most structure applications ,n construction.
Therefore, the best alternative to differential leveling is trigonometric leveling
with a good quality total station. .
Many persons in construction do not use trigonom etric leveling because
they haven't been exposed to the procedures required to obtain acceptable results
for the jobsite. In many cases, they do not have a total station that is precise enough,
either. The rule of thumb is that when using modern total stations capable of
three-second-or-Iess accuracy, tolerances requiring a hundredth of a foot or
a few millimeters can be achieved within a distance of a few hundred feet from
STANDARD PRACTICES
It must be noted that the accuracy of the elevations determined by trigonometric
leveling is dependent on many factors. This includes the angular precision of the
instrument, the distance to the point, the prism pole, the target that is sighted on,
heat waves, the experience of the individuals, and most importantly, always
turning direct and reverse positions with the total station. As always, follow the
principles of good measurement practices to obtain good results.
Use the Proper Instrument
The angular accuracy of an instrument has a great impact on the elevations
obtained. Using a total station with a 10-second accuracy versus an instrument with
a 1-second accuracy will result in a substantially different elevation. If a total
station is to be used for elevations on the jobsite, it should have an angular accuracy
of 3 seconds for the best results.
Calibrate the Vertical Circle
Refer to the
owner's manual.
Before any work is performed, calibrate the total station by checking for a vertical
index error in the total station. If this error is not determined, the elevations will
automatically be incorrect. The exact process used to check this is different foi
each instrument. Follow the procedure outlined in the owner's manual
Fundamentally, leveling the instrument and sighting both direct and reverse ont<
a target at about 100 meters away is performed. Read the vertical angles for thes
sightings and add them together. They should add to 360 degrees exactly. If th
angles sum to 360 00' 10, the error in each reading is 5. Consult the owner'
manual, and using the menu system on the instrument, go to the calibration c
collimation screen and follow the instructions. Some instruments will automaticall
perform this calibration each time the instrument is used.
6-34
Check Instrument Settings
In t h e m e n u s y s t e m o f m n y n > t a u , a l i
th e e le v a tio n s th a t a re o b ta in e d tr o *h c r c * r c *o r o e s e t t i n g s w h i c h c a n a f f e c t
s t a t i o n s h a v e a d u a l - a x i s t i l t C o n >m *h c * 'a * F o r in s ta n c e , s o m e to ta l
s o f t w a r e . T h i s c o m p e n s a t o r cor ' >p e n ^ttlu r , h a l c a n h e t u r n e d o f f t h r o u g h t h e
a n g l e i f t h e i n s t r u m e n t is n o t l e v e l e d i *'o r *o n u l n g l e a s w e l l a s th e v e r t i c a l
n o c o r r e c t i o n w i l l b e m a d e w h i -h C l ^ c c o m p e n s a t o r is t u r n e d o f f .
is o n s o t h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s c a n h e m a d e VUUSC n c , c v u t i o n c m r . M a k e s u r e t h i s
A ls o o n s o m e to ta l s ta tio n s
m a d e f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s i f , h ,w ; < r v a t u r c a n d r e f r a c t i o n c o r r e c t i o n c a n b e
tlt c e l e v a t i o n s o b t a i n e d w i l l ' ,h c * " " * "<>
m a k e s u r e it i s t u r n e d o n . h ' S C m > r , f l h e u > ta l s , a , i o n h a s , h i s f c a t u r c *
c o rrec t fW ^ a rts p e rm iH io ^ ^ p p v i)' c h ' T h ,n p U ,c m p c r a ,u r c a n d P r c s s u r c lo

th a t t h e c o n s t a n t is s e t in t h e in s t r n m e m e h e C k " *
Keep a Constant Rod Height

When performing the method of trigonometric leveling proposed in this Section,
maintaining the rod at a constant height is required. It does not have to he the same
Clf 3S I" S,rUmeint j ust âs to stay at the same height from the backsight
sig ting o e orcsig it sighting. It two rods are being used, carefully set them so
they are exactly the same height.
Have a Prism with a Target
Because sighting onto the prism has to he so precise, a prism with a target on it must
be used so that the vertical angle can be measured to an exact point. In the process
of sighting multiple times direct and reverse, the horizontal crosshair must be
positioned exactly on the center of the prism when the vertical angle is measured.
Several manufacturers make prism assemblies that allow for precise sighting.
Hold the Prism Pole Rock Solid
Good elevations can only be determined from holding the prism pole perfectly still.
Any movement will affect both the angle and slope distance being measured by the
total station. The greater the vertical angle, the more error any prism pole movement
will have on the elevation. Using a bi-pod or similar device is recommended.
Beware of Environment
When performing trigonometric leveling, eliminating the effect of heat shimmer
when sighting on the target should be considered. Just a little sunshine will cause
heat waves that result in sighting errors which result in vertical angle errors. Of
course, it isn't possible to eliminate all errors that might occur. The operator must
recognize this and use procedures that will result in trigonometric elevations that
Don't forget to are acceptable for the work being performed. Use trigonometric leveling carefully.
record the
Record the Data Exactly
Vertical
Keep good records o f the vertical distances determined at each point and carefully
Distance as
record the "sign" o f the vertical distance change as positive or negative.
positive or
negative. Sight Direct and Reverse
As with any operation with an instrument, to obtain the best results, always sight
direct and reverse to the points where elevations are being determined.
6 -3 5
^ chapter six
Calculate the Elevation known elevation sighting (backsight) to the

in e,evation [^"]l
T h e d if f e r e n c e a simple formula. These readings
m j n e ti f r o m
unknown elevation (foresight) s ue dMance readings displayed on the total
(backsight andjoJf^forge^the sign of the vertical distance and solve algebraically.
Elevation Difference = FS - BS
Use Common Sense there wjn be limitations o f what can be

Just as with any other . htsand foresights are limited by the power o f the
measured. In normal leveling. * Si ght s can't be taken longer than 1 5 0 - to -
^mese ^ e ' s pplies lo trigonometric leveling, as the distance from the
total station to the prism will be similarly limited dependmg on the condittons.
Therefore if an elevation 1000 feet away is needed, don't expect great results by
making one setup. Apply the principles of good measurement to obtam good results.
PROCEDURE FOR TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

The following procedure is one of several methods used to determine elevations
with a total station. This method assumes a random setup on the jobsite and is
intended for trigonometric leveling. The procedure is described for a single setup
but can be used to run a "trigonometric level loop" over a jobsite by repeating this
process from point to point with total station setups.
S te p 1 Randomly set up the total station on the jobsite within sight of a benchmark with
a known elevation. Level the total station and prepare it for measurement by
inputting the constants and corrections described earlier.
Step 2 Determine the elevation from previous fieldnotes of the point being used for the
backsight. Direct the prism pole holder to hold the prism pole solidly on this point.
Point out that the prism pole should be tightened so the height doesn't change,
a
Vertical
Distance
6-36
S te p 3 Sight the instrum ent in the direct position
at th e p rism pole targ et and carefully
fine-tune th e sig h tin g until the crosshairs
are exactly on th e p rism target.
A
Step * P ress th e m e a su re b u tto n o n th e to tal
station, and the vertical difference in
elevation between the instrument center 1 t
and the center of the prism will be o
V: 3.415' 1
displayed. Record this value and note if
it is positive or negative.
1
!)
Sii1
-a.0
I ait I fw! awlMl am itmm
C fe D 5 Reverse the scope, and again sight onto

Direct Reverse
the prism pole target, and carefully sight
onto the prism target. Measure the
distance and record the vertical distance.
Step 6 P e rfo rm an a d d itio n a l d ire c t a n d re v e rs e

s ig h tin g o n to th e b a c k s i g h t to o b ta in V d Directi =6.125 ft.
a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e r e a d in g s . V d Reverse 1 = 6.129 ft.
A d d th e s e f o u r re a d in g s a n d a v e ra g e V d Direct 2 = 6.124 ft.
th e m to d e t e r m i n e t h e b e s t e s ti m a t e o f
V d Reverse 2 = 6.128 ft,
th e tr u e d i f f e r e n c e in e l e v a t i o n b e tw e e n
V d Mean = +6.127 ft.
th e i n s t r u m e n t c e n t e r a n d th e b a c k s i g h t .
R e c o r d in y o u r f i e l d b o o k a n d n o te i f it
is p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e .
6 -3 7
' snrssrsassv
s e s a s s s tS S
d ire c t, re v e rs e , d ire c t, and r
sightings onto the exact cen ter o f the
prism target.
S te p 8 Record, add, and average these readings V d Direct 1 = 13.156

to obtain the true difference in elevation V d Reverse 1 = 13.153
between the instrument center and the V d Direct 2 = 13.155
foresight. Record this value and note if V d Reverse 2 = 13.157
it is positive or negative. V d Mean = +13.155
S te p 9 Using the f o r m u la fro m P a g e 6 - 3 7 , Elevation Difference = FS - BS

d e te rm in e th e d iff e re n c e in e le v a tio n
13.155-6.127 = 7.028
b e tw e e n th e b a c k s ig h t a n d f o re s ig h t b y
so lv in g a lg e b ra ic a lly .
Elevation Difference = +7.028
Step 10 T h e e le v a tio n h a s n o w b e e n tr a n s f e r r e d
BM 4876.321
fro m a b e n c h m a rk to th e to p o f a p ie r. I f
a d d itio n a l e le v a tio n s a re n e e d e d , r e p e a t
+ +7.028
th e p r o c e s s a b o v e b y m e a s u r in g th e Pier Elevation = 4883.349
v e rtic a l d is ta n c e m u lt ip le tim e s in th e
d ire c t a n d r e v e r s e p o s itio n s to o b ta in
th e c h a n g e s in e le v a tio n .
6 -3 8
f& S> N O T E S
Electronic Data
Collection
General
6 -4 1
Functional Capab ilities
6-42
SCO PE
E le c tr o n ic d a ta c o l l e c t i o n is a n e x t r e m e l y p o w e r f u l f e a t u r e t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s t h e
to ta l s ta tio n . U s e d p r o p e r l y , e l e c t r o n i c d a t a c o l l e c t i o n e l i m i n a t e s h u m a n e r r o r a n d
s a v e s tim e a n d m o n e y . E l e c t r o n i c d a t a c o l l e c t i o n c a n b e p e r f o r m e d b y a d e v i c e t h a t
is e s s e n t i a l l y a c o m p u t e r t h a t f i t s in y o u r h a n d ( c a l l e d a n " e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d b o o k "
o r " d a ta c o l l e c t o r " ) a n d a d d s t o t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e t o t a l s t a t i o n b y a l l o w i n g f o r
e x te n s iv e d a ta c o lle c tio n , th e a v a ila b ility of la y o u t d a ta , and a d d itio n a l
c o m p u t a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s in t h e f i e l d . O r, e le c tr o n ic d a ta c o lle c tio n c a n b e the
P C M C IA c a rd s th a t f it in s id e th e in s tr u m e n t a n d c a n b e e a s ily t r a n s f e r r e d t o a
c o m p u te r fo r d o w n lo a d in g th e d a ta in to a s u rv e y in g s o ftw a re p ro g ra m . O r,
e le c tro n ic d a ta c o lle c tio n c a n o c c u r in th e o n b o a r d m e m o r y s y s t e m in th e total
s ta tio n a n d c a n b e tr a n s f e r r e d to a computer v ia c a b le .
M/
'm
n e * AL With a total station, electronic field bo v

so ftw a re , th e fie ld e n g in e e r is able to ' asso c*atec* construction surveying
c a lc u la te d o n a c o m p u te r in the o ffir at a âster rate. L ayout data can be
fie ld b o o k . T h e e le c tro n ic fie ld book & ^ ata uPôa<ê<^ *nto electronic
sta tio n w h e re h u n d re d s o f p o in ts can i f * * the and connected to the total
b o o k c a n b e u s e d in th e fie ld as H Fapit* ^ estab lish ed . O r, the electro n ic field
d ire c tio n , e le v a tio n , c o o rd in a te s anH a * * c o llecto r cap ab le o f storing distan ce,
th e n be ta k e n b a c k to th e o ffice r o eSC nptlons fo r th o u san d s o f p o in ts. It can
c a lc u la tio n s a n d p lo ttin g . m p u ter to d o w n lo ad the info rm atio n fo r
Advantages of Electronic Data Collection
ran h<* *r &S r&j an angle or a distance in a field book

Eliminates without / rmnat^d because the data collector records the data
human errors *, uman involvement other than to push the read and
n r jf ton on the data collector or the total station. Numbers
will not be transposed nor forgotten
It has been reported that the use of data collection can reduce
vlfu hY? e by 50 ^ r c e n t over recording notes in a field book.
Time savings en ata collection is combined with the time advantages of
the total station, these two technologies together greatly increase
the productivity of the field crew.
A full-featured data collector that has much of the coordinate
geometry software useful to surveying enables the field crew to
Work work smarter by making powerful calculation capabilities readily
Smarter available. Common fieldwork computations such as inversing,
resections, traversing, areas, and horizontal and vertical curves
are instantly accessible.
The software available allows the data that has been collected to
Job Closure be processed in the field so that instant checks can be made and
spotted before leaving the field.
A major feature of some data collectors is the ability to do field
Point comparisons of field data and calculate coordinate data. If this
Comparison comparison is done before leaving the work area, poor field data
can be identified and re-measured.
Disadvantages of Electronic Data Collection

r-. i
Just as with all of the electronic instruments that are used,
batteries are required. Always carry extra batteries to prevent
Battery- job interruption. Fortunately, running out of battery power no
Dependent longer means loss of data, as manufacturers have built these
devices to automatically save to a disk or RAM-memory.
Hand-held The use of a hand-held data collector adds to the cost of the
system. These can be expensive; however, if a thorough
Data
analysis is made of the increase in productivity, the decision to
Collectors can
be expensive purchase is simple. -------------- -
- connected to a total station, the data collector controls the
operations. For example, the height of the prism pole may be
Non- set correctly on the total station, and set at a different height on
Coordination S dam collector. In this case, the height on the data collector
will be used when the data is recorded.----------- -------------------------
6 -4 1
total station
() chapter six
f u n c t io n a l c a p a b il it ie s d ff rent in how they operate, but they are getting

Electronic Field B o o k sa re a differ jons and cap ab ilitie s. Som
very close to standardization in uic
features include:
. Easy selection o f "program s by use o f m enu structure.
. Memorization o f codes so only the first ch aracter or tw o o f a code is needed
to display the code.
. Storage o f data is available for instant recall. O nce en tered it can n o t be
inadvertently deleted or changed.
Lines and points can be described com pletely.
. Coordinate G eom etry (CO G O ) capabilities are av a ila b le such as setting out,
resection, inverse, intersections, station and o ffset, a n d m uch more.
Topographic data can be collected fo r d e v elo p m en t o f site p lans.
Traversing can be performed that allow s the electronic field book to keep track
o f the distance, direction, and coordinate inform ation fo r points occupied and
points sighted. Traverse com putations can be perform ed b efore leaving the field.
Least squares adjustm ent o f the data m ay be a v a ila b le .
C oordinates can be rotated if needed.
Horizontal curve computations can be performed that calculate deflections,
long chord lengths from the PC, offset information, coordinates of the curve
stations, radial layout of the curve from any control point, etc.
Vertical curve elevations can be calculated.
Cut and fill for any point within a defined road alignment can be determined.
Slope staking can be performed.
Exportation of data to surveying software and to popular drafting software
is provided.
Interfacing to GPS (Global Positioning Systems) is possible.
There are built-in calculator functions.
Communication capability to printers, computers, and plotters is available.
i t d e c I r o V i c f t l d b o o f a b Ve man>' h e r f e a tu r e s be l i a b l e . See
< * c o m p le ,e > ' fu n c tio n s f ,
the electronic capabilities,* u l r ^ r s ^ j l n 0 0 ^ 5 U! ''ma,e in maximizing

available will work with several types of totM Many electronic field books
* * - t
i
I Sum m ary m
btant
PO IN TS
m *0 T o ta l s ta tio n s have num erous
g iv e th e lay o u t p erso n nowrr..|CiaSUrCmem an^ com Putational functions that
k- n pow erful layout options.
t K ,e t h " ' )ucS av ailab le in the ow ner s m anual.

T o ta l s ta tio n s h av e a creato r n>Uiiv
b e tte r fo r sh o rt d ista n c e s. accuracy at longer distances. C hains are
w h e n t u n i n g w ^rkS1^ , r r l o t a ' l Pli nS lnC ,udin? ,hc p m m c n s ,m
! n f I n g l e s w ith th e ^ i T s u i U m '" " ' hC b' S' reS " S " h<:n m casu rin * dlsU," ccs
T o ta l s ta tio n s a rc d e p e n d a b le , but not in fa llib le . C h eck them for p ro p er

c a lib r a tio n re g u la rly .
C o n f ir m a c c u r a c y by a lw a y s m e a su rin g d ista n c e s and an g les tw ice to c o n tro l

p o in ts o r to im p o rta n t la y o u t p o in ts.
C h e c k th a t th e c o r r e c t b a c k sig h t is u sed w h en p e rfo rm in g angle m easu rem en t.

In m o s t c a s e s , th e g re a te s t so u rc e o f e rro r in to tal sta tio n use is at the p rism p o le.
H o ld th e p r is m p o le v e rtic a lly an d as m o tio n le ss as p o ssib le to o b ta in a g o o d
r e a d in g f ro m th e to ta l sta tio n .
The bull's-eye bubble on the pole should be checked periodically for proper
calibration.
If the distance is less than 100 feet on level terrain, use the chain for more
accuracy. If the distance is between 100 and 200 feet on level terrain, use the
chain or total station. Any distances greater than 200 feet are measured more
accurately with a total station!
To achieve precise trigonometric leveling, the total station used should have an
angular accuracy of 3 seconds or less.
Use electronic data collectors to increase productivity with a total station.
MISTAKES A N D E R R O R S F R O M T H E FIELD
U s i n g a n i n c o r r e c t p r is m c o n s ta n t.
T h e r o d n o t b e i n g h e ld p lu m b c a u s in g th e d is ta n c e to b e w ro n g .
E n te rin g t h e w r o n g s ta r t i n g c o o r d i n a te s w h e n r e c o r d in g d a ta a n d a ll th e
r e c o r d e d p o in ts w e re in c o rre c t.
N o t u s i n g t h e f u ll c a p a b i l i t i e s o f th e to ta l s ta tio n a n d w o r k in g h a rd e r , n o t s m a r te r .
N o t h a v i n g a s e c o n d p e r s o n c h e c k c a lc u la tio n s b e f o r e p o in ts w e re u s e d in la y o u t.
N o t e n o u g h t r a i n i n g o n t h e e q u ip m e n t.
D a t a - i n p u t m i s t a k e s i n t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t.
F a i l u r e t o c h e c k t h e t o t a l s t a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n b a s e l i n e o r c h e c k i n g th e
trib ra c h .
6-43
Not calibrating the prism pole bubble.
Poor setups by not being set up e x a c tly o v e r th e p o in t an d not ch eck in g
if the instrum ent is still level a fte r u sin g it fo r an e x te n d e d a m o u n t o f tir n e ^
F orgetting to set the h o rizo n tal an g le to z e ro b e fo re tu rn in g a n g le s.
Not adjusting the total station to acco u n t fo r te m p e ra tu re c h an g es d u rin g th
and lo sin g instrum ent level in ch a n g in g w e a th e r d u e to e n v iro n m e n t f r e e z e / t V ^
S e ttin g up to o h ig h to c o m fo rta b ly se c th ro u g h th e e y e p ie c e .
S ettin g up on a h ig h tra ffic lo c a tio n .

m -> .m rW x tan d ing the p o te n tia l s o u rc e s o f e r r o r in total station measurement
Using a m iscalculated angle.
Poor accuracy because o f the w ind blo w in g the in stru m en t and prism pole
slightly out o f level at any given m om ent.
Not converting back to D egrees. M in u tes, and S e c o n d s, and using Decimal
degrees instead, or vice versa.
M isreading the disp lay on the total sta tio n and tra n sp o sin g n u m b ers.
Not do u b le-ch eck in g , w hen d o in g rad ial sta k e o u t, fro m a n o th e r point.
The total station signal b o unced o ff o f a h ig h w a y re fle c to r o r a re fle c to r on a
car instead o f the prism .
Not ap p ly in g atm o sp h eric c o rre c tio n s.
Q U E S TIO N S A N D PROBLEMS
1 D escribe w hy the total station is the in stru m en t o f c h o ic e on the c o n stru c tio n site.
2. List and describe five advantages of using a total station.
3. How is a total station different from a digital theodolite?
4. Visit the World Wide W ebsites of three surveying equipm ent m anufacturers
and research the measurement and functional capabilities of typical one-
second total stations that are available. D evelop a Table com paring a total
station from each manufacturer.
5. Describe how the relative precision of total stations would affect the layout
work on a construction site.
6. Visit the World Wide Web and research the various types of total stations that
are available from one manufacturer. List and describe the types.
7. What is actually measured by the total station?
8. Why is it important to sight exactly onto the prism (target) w hen using a total
station?
9. What major mistake could occur with the zero set feature o f a total station?
10. Describe the relationship of the prism to the center o f the rod w hen the prism
has a -3 0 mm offset.
11.
w n a t is i n p u t t e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e p a r t s - p e r - m i l l i o n c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ?
12.
F o r t h e t o ta l s t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o y o u , s e t u p a T a b l e t h a t l i s t s t h e s te p - b y - s 1
p ro c e d u re fo r p r e p a r in g th e to ta l s ta tio n f o r m e a s u r in g .
13.
O u tlin e th e b a s ic p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r in g a d i s t a n c e a n d a n a n g le .
14.
F ro m th e s te p - b y -s te p p r o c e d u r e o n m e a s u r in g , w h ic h p e r s o n is m o s t im p o r t
to t h e p r o c e s s ?
15.
D e v e l o p a l i s t o f e q u i p m e n t t h a t is u s e d i n t o t a l s t a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t .
6-44
summary @
16. D escrib e th e fundam ental difference he,
17. L ist som e a c tiv ities on a conct WCen m easu n n S and layout,
w o u ld be u sefu l. ruction site w here trigonom etric elevations
18. W hy is it im p o rtan t to turn direct
trig o n o m e tric le v elin g ? reverse to obtain precise elevations in
19. G iv en th e fo llo w in g data w hat ,
the elevation o f the top of the w ater tow er?
VD F oresight
D irect 1 = 77.176
VD B a c k s ig h t R everse 1 = 77.178
D ire c t 1 = 1.751 D irect 2 = 77.182
R e ve rse 1 = 1.7 53 R everse 2 = 7 7 .1 7 9 i
D ire c t 2 = 1.752
R e ve rse 2 = 1.751
BM = 620.04
20. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of data collectors.
a c t iv it ie s
field
1. Total station capabilities - (2 persons, lhour) Procedure: Take a total
station and the owner's manual to the field and randomly set up the instrument.
Place a prism pole against an object 50 feet away and follow the owner's
manual to measure distances and angles. Use as many of the functions of the
total station as possible, inputting coordinates of the point where the instrument
is set up and displaying the coordinates of the point(s) sighted on, if that is a
function of that total station.
2. Establishing control - (2 persons, 3 hours) Procedure: Establish a control
traverse of 4 or more points around a building. Set up the total station on each
of the points and measure the angles and distances around the traverse. Turn
each angle direct and reverse and measure each distance forward and back.
Record the data in a field book.
3. C ollecting Data - (2 p e r s o n s - 3 h o u r s ) Objective: T o m a p a s m a ll a re a u s in g
a t o t a l s t a t i o n . Procedure: S e t th e to ta l s ta tio n o n e a c h o f th e c o n tr o l p o in ts
e s t a b l i s h e d in th e p r e v i o u s f ie l d a c tiv ity . A t e a c h p o in t, b a c k s ig h t a n o th e r
c o n t r o l p o i n t w i t h 0 d e g r e e s o n th e i n s tr u m e n t a n d p r o c e e d to m e a s u r e a n g le s
a n d d i s t a n c e s t o o b j e c t s s u c h a s s id e w a l k s , b u ild in g s , lig h t p o le s , f ir e h y d r a n ts ,
t r e e s , r o a d s , e t c . R e c o r d in y o u r f ie l d b o o k th e lo c a t io n o f th e in s tr u m e n t, th e
b a c k s i g h t p o i n t , a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n th e a n g le s a re tu r n e d . I d e n tif y th e o b je c t a n d
r e c o r d t h e a n g l e s a n d d i s t a n c e s to th e o b je c ts . I n th e o f f ic e , u s e a p r o tr a c t o r
a n d s c a l e t o p l o t t h e p o i n t s o r i n p u t t h e p o i n t s in to a s o f tw a r e p r o g r a m to p lo t
t h e p o i n t s . R e t u r n to t h e f i e l d a n d c o m p a r e t h e d r a w in g w i t h th e a r e a m a p p e d
to s e e i f a n y o b je c ts w e r e m is s e d . R e fe re n c e Chapter Office Practices,
fo r s ite d r a w in g in s tru c tio n s .
chapter six
a _ ( 2 o r m ore perso n s, 2 h o u rs) Objective: To

j i av o u t o f a S tra ig h t L in e k be e sta b lish e d rad ially . Procedure:
determ ine if a establish 2 control points C P
Go to an open area ( 2 0 0 by ^ fie|d as shown in the illustration. Set
X and C P Y along the W est g backsight CPY with 0 degrees set on the
a total station on the and measure the distances as precisely
instrum ent. Turn the folio g & > with tack, or any other method
as possible and set points 1-5d Point j _ Angle =
90 00*00-
of marking the =87l3354" Distance = 158.11, Point 3
Distance - 150.00 P g= 180.2 8 \ Point 4 - Angle = 450000"
- Angle - 56 D $ _ Ang|e = 365 r i2" Distance = 250.00. When
Distance - 2 2 .. *ove the total station and set it over point 1.
Backsight onto point 5. Sight onto points 2,3, and 4 and see if they are exactly
on the line of sight. Record your results. If they are not exactly on hne,
explain what might have caused them to be off line slightly.
i ngonometric leveling - (2 P e rs o n s , 2 h o u r s ) Procedure: S e t u p a to ta l

s ta tio n in s ig h t o f a b e n c h m a rk . F o llo w in g th e p r o c e d u r e s o u t l i n e d f o r
R e c oo nrdo m
trig ine tric
fie lde le
b ovoaktio
. n s , d e te r m in e th e e le v a tio n o f a n e a r b y p o i n t o r tw o .
chapter seven
leveling
1i n t r o d u c t i o n 7 -2
Standard Practices 7 -1 1
Field Notes for Leveling 7-17
Differential Leveling 7-22
Profile Leveling 7-28
Cross-Section Leveling 7-33
Grid Leveling 7-39
Transferring Elevations 7-43
Applied Leveling 7-47
Setting Grade 7-53
Summary 7-57
1 introduction
L _ -------1 \
\
, l e v e l i n g Ba s i c s
7 -3 Dhi ,e, e T
T r 0h e o r y o . D i H e r e n n
| |aalI L e v e l i n g
7 -4 rocess
f the Leveling P
Quick Description of
7 -5
Leveling I nst r ument s
7 -6
Level Rods
7 -8
SCO PE
D e te r m in in g o r e s t a b l i s h i n g e l e v a t i o n s is a t t i m e s t h e m o s t t r e q u e n t a c t i v i t y o f t h e
f ie ld e n g in e e r . E l e v a t io n s a re n e e d e d t o s e t s l o p e s t a k e s , g r a d e s t a k e s , f o o t i n g s ,
a n c h o r b o l ts , s la b s , d e c k s , s i d e w a l k s , c u r b s , a n d m o r e . A n y o b j e c t t h a t i s l o c a t e d
o n a s tr u c tu r e r e q u i r e s a n e l e v a t i o n . T o d e te r m in e o r e s ta b lis h e le v a tio n s o n th e
j o b s i t e r e q u i r e s th e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l i n g . T h e b a s ic d if f e r e n tia l le v e lin g
p r o c e s s is e x t e n d e d a n d a p p l i e d to m a n y e l e v a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e j o b s i t e
in c l u d in g p r o f i l e l e v e l i n g , c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n g , g r i d l e v e l i n g , t r a n s f e r r i n g e l e v a t i o n s
u p a s tr u c t u r e , a n d s e t t i n g g r a d e o n t h e j o b s i t e . M a n y o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f l e v e l i n g
w ill b e e n c o u n t e r e d b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s u r v e y o r a s e l e v a t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e
p r o c e s s o f d e t e r m i n i n g e l e v a t i o n s is s i m p l e . T h e d if f ic u lt p a r t is to e lim in a te th e
i n e v i ta b l e m i s t a k e s , a n d t o l e a r n t o r e d u c e t h e s i z e o f t h e errors so th a t th e
e l e v a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d w ill m e e t t h e t o l e r a n c e s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e j o b .
7 -2
gNTlAL LEVELING BASICS
D ifferential leveling is a very sim ple process based on the measurement of vertical
^ distances from a level line. Elevations are transferred from one point to another
through the process o f using a leveling instrum ent to read a rod held vertically on
a point o f know n elevation, and then, on the point o f unknown elevation. Simple
addition and subtraction are used to calculate the unknown elevations. Perhaps thts
procedure can best be understood through a few definitions and illustrations.
Elevation
Elevation is the vertical distance above a zero datum. Datum in the case of leveling
is generally b ased on the o ce an 's M ean Sea Level (M S L ). An elevation in the mile-
high city o f D enver w ould be approxim ately 5 2 8 0 feet. An elevation in the city o
New Y ork, w hich is close to the ocean level, m ight be 15 feet. A point in Yellowstone
m ight be 8 9 0 0 feet above M SL. T here is a netw ork o f M SL m onum ents around t c
U nited S tates w hich have been established by the U.S. Governm ent.
I f you are at a co n stru c tio n site where there is no M SL m onum ent wit an
elev a tio n n e a rb y , a d atu m po in t is established and an elevation is assigne
G e n erally , a n u m b e r larg e en o u g h to prevent any negative elevation num bers rom
o cc u rrin g is p ic k e d . U su ally 1 0 0 .0 0 . 5 0 0 .0 0 , or 1 0 0 0 .0 0 is used. If. at a later tim e,
an M S L e le v a tio n is a v a ila b le , it is easy to convert any assum ed elevation to
by d e te rm in in g th e d iffe re n c e at th e estab lish ed datum point and ad ding ' a
ea c h e s ta b lis h e d e le v a tio n .
y ------ -T tO ftlZONTAL U N E ________
- mean sea LEVEL q.
Benchmark (BM)
A benchmark is best described as a permanent, solid point of known elevation.
Benchmarks can be concrete monuments with a brass disk in the middle, iron
stakes driven into the ground, or railroad spikes driven into a tree, etc. See Setting
Benchmarks on Page 7-48 later in this Chapter.
Backsight (BS)
A backsight is a reading on a rod held on a point whose elevation is known.
Height of Instrument (HI)

The height of instrum ent is the elevation of the line of sight of the instrument. This
is determ ined by adding the backsight to the known elevation.
Foresight (FS)
A foresight is a reading on a rod held on a point whose elevation is unknown.
Turning Point (TP)

A t u r n i n g p o i n t is a p o i n t u s e d in th e d i f f e r e n ti a l le v e lin g p r o c e s s o n w h ic h to
t e m p o r a r i l y t r a n s f e r t h e e l e v a t i o n f r o m th e H I. T h e e le v a ti o n o f th e T P is d e te r m in e d
b y s u b tr a c tin g th e F S fro m th e H I.
Closed Loop
C l o s in g a lo o p m e a n s to e n d th e le v e l lo o p a t th e b e n c h m a rk w h e re y o u b e g a n o r
a t a n o th e r b e n c h m a rk . Always, always, always close your loop is a r u l e o f
t h u m b w h i c h m u s t b e s t r i c t l y o b s e r v e d in l e v e l i n g . I f a l o o p i s n t c l o s e d , t h e r e is
n o w a y o f k n o w i n g i f a n y m i s t a k e s w e r e m a d e in t h e l e v e l i n g p r o c e s s .
7-3
9 chapter seven
T H E O R Y O f O .F F E R E N T .A L L * *
THE THEOH ration shows thc .ypical ^ e l.n * process that is repeated
knowntime and again
elevation U
m transfer an elevation fJom ""v L djg the backsight. By definition, the line
transferred up to the line * * ,ine of sight elevation can then be transferred
of sight is; horizontal: thereto*. ^ ^ reading the foresight.
Transferring the Elevation to the HI

In this illustration, the elevation where the rod is held is known. That elevation is
transferred vertically to the line of sight by reading the rod. By adding the known
elevation and the backsight reading, the height of instrument can be determined
The formula for this is shown as:
HEIGHT
OF
KNOWN
ELEVATION
(BM)
Transferring the HI to the Turning Point

In the illustration here, the elevation of the HI is known. That elevation is
transferred vertically down to the point on the ground by reading the rod. By
subtracting the HI and the foresight reading, the elevation of the point on the
ground can be determined. The formula for this is shown as:
7-4
d ' fio* ,s lh > h a v t b e e f lr V' 1:n * h*s *** illustrated, it is tim e to
sh o u ld b e fo llo w e d to p crforn, , ^ ' " ' cd " * a, the detailed procedure that
CMnP accurately
K description of the leveung process
0 U 'C A s can be seen , leveling is a very s itn n l. S
from an in stru m en t setup and rcpcatinoCt>r teSS * <ak' n8 a backsight and a foresight
one p oint to an o th er. Indeed, it is s:m \ ' cr and wvcr lo transfer an elevation from
to a c h ie v e th e p recisio n required mu U* *n ordcr 10 perform it accurately and
fo llo w in g ste p -b y -ste p d escription o f'th aUCntion m ust ** Paid to the details. T he
d e ta ils th a t m u st be fo llo w ed Se** ti, o C f leveling attem pts to cover the
the S ection. D iffe re n tia l U x elin n . on P a g e 7-22.
S te p 7 S et UP in s tru m e n t an d lev el it.
S te p 2 Ho,d the rod on known elevation point

and record to the nearest 0.01 ft. the
backsight reading, with the rod person
holding the level rod plumb over the point.
S te p 3 Advance the rod person to the turning

point (an equal d istan ce from the
instrument as the backsight station).
Step 4 Hold the rod on the turning point and

read and record the foresight reading.
Ste p 5 R e p e a t p r e v i o u s s t e p s u n t i l th e e le v a ti o n
o f th e d e s ig n a te d p o in t has been
d e te rm in e d .
Step 6 Close the loop by repeating the process

back to the benchmark.
LEVELING IN S T R U M E N T S have been used fo r lev elin g p u rp o ses. T h e instrum ents
Many t y p e s o f . n ^ m (h fo u r. fo o t le v e ls, and strin g -lin e levei
have ranged from w a g dum py lev el, au to m a tic lev el, an d laser Th
Instruments with Bubbles bui|der's transit level, the transit, and the
dumpyhjeve'r Each o f Z s "instruments contains a level vial with a bubble that
muTt be centered to be used for leveling. Each instrument consists of three mam
components: all contain a four-screw leveling head, all c o n tr a a level vtal attached
to the telescope, and all contain a telescope for m agm f.cat.on of the objective.
The Builder's Level. The builder's level
is one of the most in ex p en siv e
instruments used by field engineers. It is
a versatile instrument. In addition to
being able to perform leveling operations,
it can be used to turn angles, and the
scope can be tilted for sighting. Many
residential builders use this instrument
because it serves their purpose of laying
out a building very well.
The T ra n sit. A lthough the prim ary functions o f the transit
are angle m easurem ent and layout, it can also be used for
leveling because there is a bubble on the telescope. In fact,
many construction com panies w ho d o n t have both an angle
m easuring instrum ent and a dum py or autom atic level, w ill
do all of their leveling w ork w ith a transit. Som e people
prefer to use the tran sit fo r le v e lin g b e ca u se they are
com fortable with its operation.
The field engineer should be aware that the transit is
versatile and is used on the jobsite in an infinite num ber of
leveling and angle-turning applications.
The Dumpy Level. The dumpy level has been the workhorse of leveling instruments
cnna!t\^'a 211 Y?aJ"S j baS been usetl exens>vely for many of the great railroad,
has t e n " , ge 7 fb u' ld,ng and harbor Prjects for he last century and a half. It
aXancemenisTn n r , ', Yin constructing Projects that are level. Even with
the r erler ,ing lnstmments such * he automatic level and the laser,
dumpy ts still the instrument of choice by a number of persons in construction.
7-6
imvuuwuon
In som e types o f const

must be used. Vibrations in buildinos80^ aS rise buildings,the dumpy level
cause the com pensator and line of si S. 0ct'ur as toWer cranes and personnel hoists
* re when m oving m aking it practically imno ^ ki somc automatie levels to be constantly
thc^ sight o f the dum py level, how ever T . - f ake 8 rcadin8 on a rod. The line of
vrt\on^ Thus, the dum py level is the le v 'l ,as!':a* ^ holds steady in a sim ilar situation,
projects. On an y ty p e o f p ro i. c . " * > high -rise construction
vibration, such as pile driving V \ V ; re . ,here is going to be a great deal of
the best ch o ice for a leveling C.aVy Cc*u Pm e*tt usage, etc., the dumpy may be
in stru m en t
M any carpenters prefer to use a
dum py level rath er than an autom atic level
because they can relate better to the bubble 1 ------- *
on the d u m p y as opposed to the "m agic"
o f the c o m p e n sa to r on the autom atic. In
the d u m p y , they c an see the bubble and
have co n fid e n c e in the horizontal line o f
sight w h en it is cen tered .
Hand Levels
le v e lin g 0 it f CaMed 3 si* ht ,eve1 is ex trem ely u sefu l tool

f , , . S1S S. a ow tu he w ith a sim p le sp irit level th at e n a b le s th e
u s e r to q u ic k ly d e te rm in e a h o riz o n ta l lin e. It can be u sed to ro u g h ly d e te rm in e
e le v a tio n s t o r c u t o r till sta k e s, to se t slo p e slak es, ch eck h eig h t d iffe re n c e s w ith in
a e w e n s, e e p a c a m le v e l, o r to r a n y n u m b e r o f situ a tio n s w h ere an e le v a tio n
o e s n t n e e to e e x a c t. J u s t as w ith a p lu m b b o b , it sh o u ld be on th e to o l b e lt o f
a n y o n e w o is p e rfo rm in g s u rv e y in g . In d iffe re n tia l le v e lin g , it is u se d to
d e te r m in e w h e r e to se t a le v e lin g in s tru m e n t in re la tio n to the rod. W ith th e h a n d
le v e l, a n a p p r o x im a te lin e o t s ig h t is o b ta in e d , a n d a q u ic k d e c isio n on w h e re to se t
th e in s tr u m e n t is m a d e . T h is is d e s c rib e d fu rth e r in th e sta n d a rd p ra c tic e s S e c tio n
o f th is C h a p te r .
Automatic Levels
Automatic levels were developed just
Always check to after the end of WW1I, and are now the
see th a t the predominate optical-leveling instrument.
compensator is Although manufacturers use different
working. designs of compensators, these levels
essentially do the same thing create a
horizontal line of sight. An experienced
operator can set up an automatic level in
less than 10 seconds, as compared with
the setup of several minutes with bubble-
based instruments.
S o m e c o m p e n s a t o r s h a v e p r is m s
s u s p e n d e d w ith w ire s , a n d o th e rs h a v e
COMPENSATOR SWINGS BACKWARD
m a g n e tic d a m p e n e rs . T h e illu s tra tio n
to th e rig h t show s how a w ire
s u s p e n s io n c o m p e n s a to r a llo w s th e
p r i s m to s w i n g f r e e l y w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g
a h o r iz o n ta l lin e o f s ig h t. N o te th a t th e
in s tr u m e n t m u s t b e m a n u a lly le v e le d
b y c e n te r i n g a b u l ls - e y e b u b b le f o r th e
c o m p e n s a to r to w o rk .
COMPENSATOR SWINGS FORWARD
7 -7
D ig ita l L e v e ls , . ,
Just as distance and angle m easurem ent have gone electronic, electronics are now
a part o f the leveling process. Digital levels that read barcode rods are now a part
o f the everyday surveying equipm ent used on the construction jobsite. Digital
levels are easy to operate and are quick and accurate in reading the rod. They are
available in various sizes and shapes, but essentially do the sam e thing read a rod
electronically. In addition to being able to perform norm al leveling operations of
determ ining elevations, m any o f these in stru m en ts also have data collection
capability. This capability elim inates reading erro rs that occu r w hen hum ans are
involved in reading the rod and recording the data.
A lthough the exact operation o f
Digital levels digital levels varies from m anufacturer
remove to m a n u fa c tu re r, d ig ita l le v e ls are
rod-reading typ ica lly operated by sighting onto the
e rrors from the barcode rod and sim ply pushing one
leveling process. button the reading is taken w ithin a
few seconds. R eadings can be d isp lay ed
in either feet o r m eters. In addition to
rod reading, the elev a tio n at the rod can
also be displayed, as w ell as the d istan ce
to the rod.
Digital levels can be effectively used anywhere on
the jobsite for any type of leveling application. Examples
include top of curb, grade beams, as-builts, benchm arks,
and so forth. Digital levels are especially useful when
running leveling loops to establish elevations on control
points and temporary benchmarks.
It should be noted that many of the standard practices
that apply to optical levels still apply to digital levels.
There are still the possibilities of curvature and refraction
errors, line of sight errors from unbalanced sights, errors by
the rod not being plumb, and other common leveling errors.
The user of a digital level should carefully read the ow ners
manual and follow suggested procedures in addition to
following standard leveling practices
LEVEL R O D S
In addition to the leveling instrument, a
level rod is required to be able to transfer
elevations from one point to another.
The level rod is nothing more than a
graduated pole held vertically and read
by the person at the instrument. The
reading taken can be used to determ ine
elevations.
j^cvci rous are available in n
sizes, shapes, and colors. They
made of wood, fiberglass, and meta
a combination of these materials. T1
are one-piece rods, two-piece rt
three-piece rods, six-piece rods,
Some have a square cross-section
others are round or oval. Some are Elevation
7-8
introduction
V'
than 10 feet long while others
I ,rh l ahvidhen* ineer needs is vuilah|e1OA0 f' et lon*- Practically whatever type of
they ha e been m anufactured: they are J d i J arc named after the cities where
and probably o th e r geographical nam es Th PhUaUc,Phi - Chicago, San Francisco,
style o t rod. T he Philadelphia rod k he name hs a connotation of a particular
ap p ro x im ately 13 feet. The C h icae * '.piec* rod h ic h can be extended to
sectio n s w hich are placed together c a n ? " " ,S applied * rods w ith three or four
the P hilly but it has tw o extensions n ^ be ^ an Francisco rod is sim ilar to
som e p eo p le ju s t call them "rods" nr < 8t Cr tban ca^ ing rods by a proper nam e,
A p o p u la r rod that doesn't se St rypoles "
rod. T h is rod is the rod o f choice f o ^ ave a proper nam e is the telescoping
th ere is a g re a t d eal o f change in el -6 engineers w orking on projects w here
feet long. G re a t ro d len g th s increase^h3*1? 11 because telescoping rods are 25 or 30
at o n e tim e. It has been argued that th C evation d ifference that can be transferred
a re n 't as a c c u ra te as the m ore t r a d 'f eSe.types ^ rd s w ear rapidly; and, therefore,
for, th e y a re e x c e lle n t fo r c o n s tru c tio n ^ ^ telescoping rods are w ell cared
Rod Graduations
L ev el ro d s are g ra d u a te d in feet ;û a
o r m e te rs an d c e n tim e te rs. T he m ethod ^ fractlons; fe e t- tem hs and hundredths;
the fa c e o f th e ro d a lso varies Th r |'presen tln S uni's o f m easurem ent o nto
graduations on the face of the rod beable"to1 ! r 8",eerdSh U.d *** studying the
at th e le ft s h o w s th e m ark in g s on a tv n ic a f" r d av ailab le- T he illustration II
c o n s tru c tio n site . N o te that the rod nder s ro d that IS w id e |y sed on the
n u m b e rs w h ic h a re u su a lly p ain te d red ( t h u s f t e term " r r^ ^ w tliT e
e X Z U oT te rn t I
H " d ^
which is the width of the smallest m a r k o n , X d " e hUndredth
To read the hundredths, the observer should keep in mind that the bottom of
each graduation is an odd number and the top of each is an even number. Also, the
longest graduation mark is for feet and tenths, which points upward. The next longest
graduation is the half tenth or 0.05, 0.15, 0.25, etc., which points downward. The
field engineer only has to learn to read the hundredths graduations of one tenth of the
rod, because this pattern repeats itself for the length of the rod.
Metric rods are of various styles,
and use different methods of graduation.
One popular method is the "E" method of
graduation, as seen in the illustration
here, where the rod face is marked with
alternating left and right 10 centimeter
(decimeter) "Es." At first glance, this
looks difficult to read, however, with
close examination and an understanding
o f m etric m easurem ent, it becomes
apparent that reading the "E" method of _ _ _
graduation is quite simple.
M e t r i c r o d s a r e r e a d to th e n e a r e s t c e n tim e te r a n d a re e s tim a te d to th e n e a r e s t
m illim e te r. O n c e t h a t is r e c o g n iz e d , r e a d in g is s im p ly o b s e r v in g th e m e te r s , th e
d e c i m e t e r s , a n d c e n t i m e t e r s d ir e c tly , a n d th e n e s tim a tin g th e m illim e te rs . N o te th a t
th e b o t t o m o f e a c h " E " is a n e v e n d e c im e t e r , a n d th e to p o f e a c h ME " is h a lf - w a y , o r
5 c e n t i m e t e r s . E a c h o f th e g r a d u a t io n s o n th e r o d r e p r e s e n ts o n e c e n tim e te r . F o r th e
e x a m p l e s h o w n , t h e m e t e r s a n d d e c im e t e r s a r e r e a d d ir e c tly a s 0 .8 . T h e c e n tim e te r s
aa rr ee t h e n c o u n t e d a n d f o u n d to b e 9 ; s o th e r e a d i n g is n o w 0 .8 9 . T h e m il li m e t e r s a r e
t h e ni ee ss tt ii m
m aa tt ee dd a t 8 , a n d a d d e d t o th e r e a d i n g to o b t a i n 0 .8 9 8 .
7-9
Rod Targets
RihI targets arc useful devices for several purposes, but few people use them
forget them or don't have them when they are needed. The rod target can be
target by the person looking through the instrument to help locate the rod when**^ ^ a
conditions are|* H>r. If the rod target has a vernier, it can also be used to obtain ÎS'^'^*y
poor.
on the rod to the nearest thousandth of a
ftH>t. In this case, the instrument person
communicates to the rtxlperson to move the
target until it has centered on the horizontal
crosshair. The rodperson can then road the
rod and the vernier to obtain thousandths
of a foot. This is sometimes required on
very precise leveling work.
Rod Levels
Rod levels are used to keep the rod plumb
while the reading is being taken. Rod levels
are simple devices made of metal or plastic
and have a bull's-eye bubble attached. They
arc held along the edge o f the level rod
while the level rod is moved until the bubble
is centered. If the rod level is in proper
adjustment, the rcxl is plum b. C hapter /(),
Equipment C alibration, for m ethods to
check a buIJs-eye bubble.
7-10
Standard Practices
S e t t i n g Up 7- 12
Focusing 7- 13
Rod Us e 7- 14
F, el d P r a c t i c e s 7- 15
SCOPE
I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e th e a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d w h e n e s ta b l is h in g e le v a tio n s o n th e
j o b s i t e , s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e s m u s t b e f o ll o w e d . A lth o u g h th e l e v e lin g p r o c e s s is
s i m p l e , t h e r e a r e m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s m a l l e r r o r s to b e in tr o d u c e d a s l e v e l in g
is p e r f o r m e d p e r h a p s a l e v e l r o d is n o t h e ld p lu m b , o r th e b a c k s i g h t s a n d
f o r e s ig h ts a re n o t b a la n c e d . T h e s e a n d m a n y o t h e r s m a ll d e ta i ls w il l a f f e c t th e
p r e c i s io n a n d a c c u r a c y r e q u ir e d fo r c o n s tr u c tio n . T h e c o n s tr u c ti o n s u r v e y o r
m u s t b e d i l i g e n t , a n d p e r f o r m a l l s t e p s in t h e l e v e l i n g p r o c e s s c o r r e c tl y to e n s u r e
th a t th e w o r k m e e ts r e c o g n iz e d to le ra n c e s .
7-11
S E T T IN G u p
S e t U p Ef ICl " * 'o c a .io n o f< h e in s tru m e n t n ^ w a y . T h e lo c a tio n is n 't needed
W hen leveling. 1 is not m ark ed in V H o w e v e r, th e g e n e ra l instrum ent
,he inT,he ellva.ionS are on the .urmng pom<- work. Poor choices
because the ^ impact the *1 n o t e setups than needed to com
setup loca tup will result in mo ^ chances for error,
gcneralin^ûps equai more readings an the direction that the level loop is going
,0 P When selecting a setup spot, c o n s ^ the turning point will be located. Choose
- and then look ahead in the direction wn ^ distances from the instrument to the
instrument locations that t e n d ' " s will recognize a number of good
rod locations. Experienced mstrume> P wUhout hesitation, realizing it ts a waste
setup locations and proceed to start le \ ^ crjterion is a spot where the benchmark
of time to try to find aperfect spot i u( trees> bushes, or other objects in the
can be seen easily from the mstrutu direction the leveling is headed,
way. Also mm and look foro b s m ^ efficient ,eveling.
Adjust the instrument location
Set Up at the Correct Helghl levels DO NOT have to be set over a
As opposed to angle-turning ^ a tthe correct height to enable sighting on
point. However, levels so the horizontal line of sight of the
the level rod. That ts, levels need o be setu p s ^ ^ ,g ^ ^ and ,g ^
le v e lin g in s tru m e n t m te rse c d o w n h j[] I f th e ie v e [ j s t o o lo w , a n d th e lin e o f
S ' t s t g m L X front of where the rod is being held, the level must be moved
uphill A hand level is a useful device used by the person at the instrument to
quickly determine if the location is too high or too low.
Set Ud Wide and Solid , .

Spread the level's tripod legs wide to provide a solid foundation for the instrument.
A w id e s e tu p is e s p e c ia lly n e c e s s a r y in l o c a t io n s w h e r e t h e w in d is s tr o n g a n d
c a p a b le o f to p p lin g th e in s tr u m e n t. L e v e l s e tu p s m u s t b e s o li d . I f t h e l e v e l is s e t
on th e g r o u n d , th e f ie ld e n g in e e r m u s t w a l k a r o u n d a n d s t e p o n th e f o o t p a d s to
firm ly s in k th e p o in ts o f th e tr i p o d le g s in to t h e g r o u n d . I f t h e g r o u n d is to o s o f t
f o r s o lid s e tu p s , s ta k e s m a y b e d r iv e n i n to th e g r o u n d w h i l e t h e t r i p o d le g s s e t o n
to p o f th e s ta k e s . W h e n th e l e v e l m u s t b e s e t o n a h a r d s u r f a c e s u c h a s c o n c r e te ,
it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to c u t o u t a t r i p o d s t a n d in w h i c h to s e t t h e le g s to a v o id
s lip p a g e . I f it is v e r y w in d y , tie th e t r i p o d to c o n c r e t e b l o c k s o r s o m e t h i n g t h a t is
crIiH nr hsic r*nncirlprahlp wpiaht tn IcPPn the triood from tiDDinS OVCT.
Set Up Horizontally
In th e p r o c e s s o f s e t t i n g u p a t r i p o d ,
t a k e t h e t i m e to k e e p t h e t r i p o d h e a d
as h o riz o n ta l a s p o s s ib le . B y d o in g
so , le v e lin g th e in s tru m e n t w ill be
q u ic k e r a s th e le v e lin g s c r e w s w ill n o t
h a v e to b e m o v e d a s m u c h t o l e v e l t h e
in s tru m e n t. Page 3-44,
R e f e r to in
Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices.
Center the Bubble

R e f e r to Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices, fo r d e ta ile d in s tr u c tio n s o n u s in g a th re e -
sc re w o r fo u r-s c re w le v e lin g s y s te m to c e n te r th e b u b b le .
7-12
compensator
****
When using an instrument with a
to make sure the compensator is aUt0atc compensator, it is common practice
watch the crosshair as the tripod 1 wor^ n8- Sight through the instrument and
enough vibration that the compe68 ^ tapped 8ently with one finger. This causes
this movement will be e v id en t^ Satr W*** move iX is working properly, and
settling back to the same spot ^ n C!osshair moving up or down and then
Alternatively, some instruments ha ^ CVery time an autolevel is set UP'
that when toggled, the comn VC * push button or a lever on the instrument
move confirming that the compensTt ^ gent^y Pusbed> and the crosshairs will
Carrying a Level
Although levels can be carried
a good practice, especially with automat'**? Terthe shoulder this isn t necessarily
an automatic level upright to avoid H *VelS' U ls a Sood practice to always carry
& oid damaging the optical\mechanical compensator.
FOCUSING
Focus onto the Level Rod

l^vebne vvork8 ^ bj e^t.ive (in this case>the level rod) is very important in
*11 likelv nrr F *s not clear>a hundredth-or-two mistake in a reading
vT lnnk* d* lS^ S unaccePtable leveling work. Focus onto the level rod
y . m^T 1FeC y at t e graduations on the rod. Each hundredth should be sharp
an crisp. wi e necessary to focus each time the distance to the rod is changed.
Focus onto the Crosshairs
It was pointed out earlier in Chapter 8, Lasers, that failure to focus properly onto
the crosshairs causes parallax. Recall, parallax occurs when the crosshairs seem
to move slightly on the objective as the eye moves. If this occurs when reading a
level rod, major errors can occur in readings causing the level loop to not close.
Eliminating Parallax
L o o k t h r o u g h th e in s tru m e n t a t a lig h t-
c o lo r e d o b je c t: a w h ite h o u s e , a p ie c e o f
p a p e r , s o m e o n e 's sh irt, e tc . T h e c ro s s
h a ir s m a y b e f u z z y o r a lm o s t n o t v isib le .
A d j u s t th e e y e p ie c e u n til th e c ro s s h a ir s
a r e a s d a r k a n d c r i s p a s th e y c a n p o s s ib ly \ J
l
b e . L o o k f r o m e n d to e n d o f th e c ro s s h a ir
m a k i n g it t h e d a r k e s t a n d c ris p e s t a t th e
fV l x
1 ) s_
0-
c e n te r .
V
7-13
QJ chapter seven
Elim inating Parallax ( c o n t^
Look a. .he level rod

slightly, looking at the cross
slays on the same spot ontte d
parallax has been el.m.nated for now.
Throughout the day, as your eyes tire, the

crosshairs will become fuzzy and parallax
will return. Continually repeat the
procedure described above to keep
parallax in check.
ROD USE
Check Rod Bottom , , r t ,

It is important for the rod person to continually check the bottom of the level rod
for mud and dirt that my have accumulated. Dirt on the bottom of the rod will
change the height of the rod, and introduce error into the measurementsso, keep
the bottom of the rod clean.
Extend Rod
A popular rod on construction sites is the telescoping rod. This
rod consists of a series of segments that can extend to as much
as 30 feet, or collapse down to five feet. When using this rod,
the rod person must be careful not to miss any of the segments
when the rod is extended for a high reading. Every time the rod
is extended, look at it and double-check to see that it reads
correctly from top to bottom.
Plumb or Wave Rod

When readings are taken by the instrument operator, the rod must be perpendicular
to the line of sight or the reading will be incorrect. If a rod level is available, it can
be used to quickly keep the rod plumb. If a rod level isnt available, a common
practice is to "wave" or "rock" the rod. This simple procedure involves the rod
person standing and looking at the instrument operator, and moving the rod back
and forth towards the instrument. As the operator views the rod, the readings will
go up and come down, go up and come down. The lowest reading occurs when the
rod is perpendicular to the line of sight. Record that reading.
Turning Points
Reiterating that leveling consists o f
transferring elevations from point to
point, it is easily recognized that the
points should be solid and unm ovable
when the rod is placed on the point.
Many objects can be selected as turning
points- sidew alks, curbs, light pole
b a se s, large ro c k s, fire h y d ran ts ,h
list is e n d le ss. W hen usin g e x ~ he
o b je c ls selecr h ig h p o i ,s on8, h e
fo r th e b o tto m o f the level rod |'s
on. If a sid e w a lk is u sed , lo o k fo r a
h ig h c o rn e r an d m ark th e sp o t w ith "
c ra y o n in. c a s e th e sp o t n eed s to be used
a g a in . I f le v e lin g th ro u g h an o p en
fie ld , tu rn in g p o in ts w ill hav e to he
c re a te d by h a m m e rin g an o b je c t in to
th e g ro u n d u n til it is so lid . T h e co m m o n
c o m p o n e n t th a t s h o u ld e x is t in all
tu rn in g p o in ts is th a t th e y a re S O L ID
an d h a v e a H IG H p o in t.
Turning Point Pin

If a solid natural point such < ,
le v e lin g p r o c e s s to b e u se d as a turn ^ " gC etC Snt available during the
c re a te o n e . T h is is a c c o m p lis h e d b v cs PO' n t' th e " fie ' d en g in eer w i" haVC l
piece of rebar, wooden stake or pl^mb7 ' '"8t.some,h,"S such as a railroad sPike-
g ro u n d . T h e ro d is p la c e d o n to n o f th e b ^ h be ,n se r,e d s01' 111* in to ,h e
rpaH inoc a r P t a t o n T u p 1 th e so lid p o in t w h ile th e fo re sig h t and b a c k sig h t
th e n e x t tim e a ivt e S e s o h d p o in ts are re m o v e d a fte r e a c h b ack sig h t to be u se d
th e n e x t tim e a s o lid tu rn in g p o in t is n e e d e d .
Reading a Foot High

When looking at the rod through a telescope, it is possible to easily read the rod and
e o exact y one oot or even one meter. This occurs when the operator is
concentrating on the tenths and hundredths or on the millimeters, and reads those
correctly, but sees the big red foot or meter number above the crosshair and reads
it instead of the one below the crosshair. Many a footing or form has been set one
unit off because of this blunder. The operator should make a practice of reading,
recording, and reading just the foot or meter mark, and then completing the rest of
the reading to be sure this huge mistake isnt made.
f ie l d p r a c t i c e s
Communicate
Just as in any other surveying activity, leveling requires constant communication.
Details that need to be communicated between the instrument operator and the rod
person include, "where are elevations needed, where is the benchmark located,
what is the condition of the benchmark, where are turning points needed, what to
use as tem porary benchm arks," and more. Constant communication will eliminate
errors and m istakes.
7-15
A fruracv S tandard s ,F ra n c e s for elevations are recognized and
nn the construction site, required to je(J These tolerances can vary from
attained so the project will be bu.lt J^ e,evation to less than a hundredth,
setting a point to the nearest tent fwork, being performed, benchmarks
To establish the elevations n e e d e d ^ officially, the standards listed
throughout the site must meet spec haye been devel0ped for vertical
in this table as first, second, and ef way to look at these standards is to
control networks. For jobsite con accuracy requirements cannot always
relate them to the size ofaprojecr sma projects of one acre may require
be related to the size of the PrJe irements from the project specifications,
first order precision. Determine " surveying in your area, contact a
For more information on standards require
local government office.
Benchmark A ccun Relative to Project Size
Size of Project (acres)
Balance Backsights and Foresights

The distance from the instrument to the rod held at the backsight, and the distance
from the instrument to the rod held at the foresight should always be equal. When
the distances are equal, the errors that
occur w ill also be equal and will be
cancelled out when the basic equations
for differential leveling are applied.
Therefore, by balancing backsights and
foresights, errors due to m iscalibration
of the instrum ent, curvature of the earth,
and refraction of the line of sight can
be elim inated.
Check into Other Benchmarks

In the process of leveling, there are usually opportunities to check into other
benchmarks along the loop. W henever possible, this should be done as a double
check and as a reference for the work being perform ed. T hat way, if the loop
doesnt close at the end, it is possible to go back and isolate any m istake that
might have been made.
Close the Loop

I t w a s s ta t e d e a r l i e r , a n d is s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t i t m u s t b e s t a t e d a g a i n , a l w a y s , a l w a y s ,
a lw a y s , c lo s e t h e lo o p ! T h e r e t y p i c a l l y i s n t a n y w a y t o c h e c k l e v e l i n g w o r k o t h e r
th a n to c lo s e b a c k i n to a n o th e r k n o w n b e n c h m a r k a n d c o m p a r e t h e r e s u l t s . I f t h i s
c lo s u r e is n o t p e r f o r m e d , t h e r e is n o w a y o f k n o w i n g i f m a j o r m i s t a k e s w e r e m a d e
in th e l e v e l in g p r o c e s s . T h e b e s t m e t h o d o f c l o s i n g a l o o p i s t o c l o s e i n t o a s e c o n d
B e n c h m a r k , f o r t h a t c h e c k s th e l o o p a n d a l s o c h e c k s t h e B e n c h m a r k s .
7-16
*
field notes for leveling ^
Field Note s for

Level iing
Rec
S a m p l e N o t e s fo r
0 r d ' n9 *"e v e l i ng Da t a 7-18
a T y p i c a l Level Loop
7-19
A r i ' hme t i c Check 7-20
R u l e s R e I at
ed t 0 F i e l d B o o k Us e
7- 21
SCOPE
A s s t a t e d e a r l i e r in Chapter 3, Fieldwork Practices, n o te k e e p in g c a n b e in th re e
f o r m s t a b u l a t i o n , d e s c r i p t i o n , o r s k e tc h . B e c a u s e o f th e q u a n tity o f n u m b e rs th a t
a r e r e a d a n d r e c o r d e d , t a b u l a t i o n is b y f a r th e b e s t m e th o d o f n o te k e e p in g fo r
l e v e l i n g w o r k . T h e u s e r s h o u ld s tu d y it c a r e f u lly a n d lo o k a t th e s a m p le s e t o f n o te s
to d e t e r m i n e w h e r e n u m b e r s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d a n d c a lc u la te d . A lw a y s b e s u re
to f o l l o w t h e s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e s o f g o o d le v e lin g .
7-17
"9
chapter seven
EVELINU DATA
RECORDING LEVELING u mi
, follow a very distinct and m ethodical p attern. D ata is recorded
across "drop down to next line, left to right, drop down to next line, left to righ
drop downTo next line, etc. Once the pattern ts recognized, leveling notes are very
easy to iTeep0and
e a s yto keep and to
to'understand.
understand. The
The note
note page
page below
below describes
describes what
w ha, is,s recorded
r
in L
eacho column
. a n and
d shows the progression from point to point in ei
each row.
Remember the basic formulas for leveling:
Elevation + BS = HI
an d
HI - FS = Elevation
j STATION e>5 HI FS ss ELEVATION

Add the Subtract
Describe Record backsight to Left blank fo r
the elevation Record foresight
points ark1 backsight now. Will be from the HI
amber readings to record the foresight used fo r
HI readings and record
profile leveling L/tLtY c3blVTD
Starting
point - - ---------------- __ Starting
Instrument B J&S. " elevations
First
setup *1 backsight Hi x
V
Turning
point #1 F irst
foresight
- _ ------------- ^ ~~ Turning
point #1
instrument Next ^ Calculated elevation
setup #2 backsight
Turning
ELEV. + PS = __
point *2 Next * Tymino
foresight := - ------------- > point #2
Instrument
setup
Next ^
backsight
Calculated elevation m
ELEV. + BS = HI x.
Tuning
pomt #3
d
*!
S
it
: - ------------- >

pgS %
etc. etc. elevation
-------------- L etc. l
etc.
- - i etc.
------------------- - L _ etc.
..........................1
"
7-18
NOTES FOR A TYPICAL LEVEL LOOP
Going from BM A to TBM 1
Closing the Loop from TBM 1 Back to BM A
7- 1 9
A R ITH M ETIC C H E C K
It is always a good practice to check level notes for arithmetic or calculator input
errors. Simply sum the BS and FS columns and compare the difference between them
with the starting and ending elevation for the level loop. An example follows.
The difference between the BS Sum and the FS Sum is 0.01.
The difference between the starting elevation of 5280.00 and the
ending elevation of 5280.01 is 0.01.
Since the differences are the same, the arithmetic checks. An arithmetic error
would exist if the differences had not been equal.
7-20
p6LA TED TO f i e l d BOOK USE
10 Field Book Rules
1
o f contents, ......' ' '' '
2 P rovide date, tim e, and w ea th e r ~ -------------------------
3 P ro v id e id e n tif ic a tio n in f o n n a ti^ " --------------------------
4 A d d to the leg end any sym bols used.
5 U se sk etch es freely. ------------------------
6 D o n o t c ro w d the data.
7 D o n o t erase.
8 R e c o rd e v e ry th in g .
9 U se sta n d a rd le tte rin g tech n iq u es.
10 U se s ta n d a rd d ra ftin g tech n iq u es.
7-21
Differential
Leveling
Differential Leveling
procedure for
SCO PE
B e g in n in g a t a k n o w n b e n c h m a r k , w i t h a g i v e n e l e v a t i o n a b o v e m e a n s e a l e v e l
( A M S L ) , c o m p l e t e a le v e l lo o p to a p o i n t w h e r e e l e v a t i o n is n e e d e d , c l o s i n g a g a i n
o n th e k n o w n b e n c h m a r k . T h a t is t h e o b j e c t i v e o f l e v e l i n g .
B e fo re y o u b e g in th e le v e lin g p r o c e s s , y o u m u s t k n o w w h e r e y o u a re g o in g
to e n d b e f o r e y o u k n o w w h e r e to s ta r t. T h a t i s , k n o w i n g w h e r e a n e l e v a t i o n i s d e s i r e d
w ill a ll o w y o u to s e l e c t t h e c l o s e s t b e n c h m a r k t o t h e w o r k , t h e r e b y s h o r t e n i n g t h e
d i s t a n c e to l e v e l . T h e k e y to s u c c e s s f u l l e v e l i n g is t o k n o w th e s te p -b y -s te p
p ro c e d u re fo rw a rd a n d b a c k w a rd a n d to p e r f o r m a ll o f th e s te p s w ith c o n s is te n c y .
A lw a y s b e s u re to f o llo w th e s ta n d a r d p r a c t i c e o f g o o d l e v e l i n g .
22
.gpURE FUH u irr-tM tN T IA L LEVELING
pflOC T h e fo llo w in g s te p -b y -s te p p ro c e d u re w . , .
' t h e r e a d e r w h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l in th ' r l e v e , l n 8 h a s b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d t o s h o w
c a p t i o n a n d c a r e f u l l y s t u d y t h e a r a n h - *. p c e s s o f l e v e l i n g i s d o i n g . R e a d t h e
p ro c e s s o f le v e lin g . 6 P ic to d e v e lo p a d e ta i le d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e
G te P 1 ThC perSOn holdin8 the rod removes The person using the instrument s e ts
the rod from its case, inspects it for dirt
u p th e tr ip o d w ith th e le g s s p r e a d a p a r t
on the bottom, and inspects it for any
f o r a firm b a s e . In s p e c ts trip o d f o r lo o s e
broken or loose parts. Proceeds to the
benchmark. s c r e w s , e tc . T a k e s le v e l o u t o f th e c a s e ,
in s p e c ts its c o n d itio n , p la c e s it o n th e
tr ip o d , a n d c la m p s i t s e c u re ly . P r o c e e d s
to th e v ic in ity o f th e b e n c h m a rk .
Q te O 2 The person holding the rod inspects The person using the instrum ent
^ ** the benchmark once it has been located
observes the location of the benchmark.
to see if it shows any signs of having Notes the direction that must be taken to
been disturbed. Reports any irregularities get to the point where the elevation is
to the field engineer in charge. needed. Considers where the first
turning point will be and determines the
best location for setting up the level.
S te p 3 ^he Person fo ld in g the rod stands at The person using the instrum ent, at
1 the benchmark, facing the instrument, the selected set-up location, looks at
waiting for the level to be set up. the benchmark, and sights through a
Extends the rod fully if downhill from sight level to make sure the line of
the instrument. sight of the level will intersect the rod.
If the line of sight is going to be above
a fully extended rod or hits the ground
in front of the rod at the benchmark, a
new location must be selected.
7 -2 3
even
^ chapter seven *9
S tep 4 The Person h o l d i n g t h e r o d w a its .

The person using the instrument
p o s i t i o n s t h e t r i p o d w i t h t h e l e g s w id e
a p a r t , k e e p i n g t h e h e a d o f t h e tr ip o d
c lo s e to h o r i z o n ta l . W h e n s u r e th e line
o f s i g h t w i l l i n t e r s e c t t h e r o d , w a lk s
a ro u n d th e tr ip o d and s t a n d s o n th e
t r i p o d f e e t , s i n k i n g t h e m f i r m l y i n t o th e
g r o u n d . L o o k s th r o u g h th e te le s c o p e at
a l i g h t - c o l o r e d o b j e c t a n d f o c u s e s th e
e y e p i e c e u n t i l t h e c r o s s h a i r s a r e a s d a rk
a n d c ris p a s p o s s ib le .
BMA
5 The person holding the rod waits. The person using the instrument levels
** the instrument using the leveling screws,
centering the bubble so the instrument
is level in all directions turned.
S te p 6 The person holding the rod holds it on

The person using the instrument looks
the benchmark, keeps it plumb with a rod
Read rod to
through the telescope and focuses on
level, while the backsight reading is being
neareet
the rod held at the benchmark. Carefully
taken, and waits for a signal to move.
hundredth
reads the rod and records the backsight
or reading in the field book. Re-reads the
iwilimeter. rod and confirms what was recorded.
7-24
Step 7 bThe person holding the rod, a t th e s ig n a l
e g in s to p a c e th e d is ta n c e to th e he person using the Instrument
in s t r u m e n t . U p o n r e a c h i n g th e in s tr u m e n t s i g n a l s to th e p e r s o n h o l d i n g th e ro d
c a lls o u t th e n u m b e r o f p a c e s , a n d c o n s u lts th a t th e re a d in g h a s b e e n ta k e n . W h ile
w ith t h e p e r s o n u s i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t to th e p e r s o n h o l d i n g th e r o d is m o v i n g to
d e t e r m i n e w h e r e th e l o o p is h e a d e d a n d t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t , t h e f i e l d b o o k is
b e g i n s p a c i n g in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . W h e n th e c a l c u l a t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e H . l . o f th e
in s tru m e n t. T u r n s t h e t e l e s c o p e in t h e
n u m b e r o f p a c e s in t h a t d i r e c t i o n is e q u a l
d ir e c tio n th e ro d p e rs o n is h e a d e d a n d
to th e n u m b e r o f p a c e s to th e in s tr u m e n t
w a its to r th e s ig n a l ( c irc u la r m o tio n
( i.e ., b a la n c e d ) , s to p s a n d lo o k s fo r a
o v e r h e a d w ith o n e h a n d ) th a t a tu r n in g
s u ita b le tu r n in g p o in t s u c h a s a s o lid ro c k ,
p o in t h a s b e e n lo c a te d o r e s ta b lis h e d .
to p o f c u r b , b o lt o n f ir e h y d r a n t, e tc . If n o
s o l i d p o i n t is a v a i l a b l e , h a m m e r s a m e t a l
p in f r o m t h e s u p p l i e s p a c k to c r e a t e a
s o lid p o in t. I f t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t is o n a
s id e w a lk , c a re fu lly m ark s th e exact
lo c a tio n o f th e p o in t w ith a c ra y o n .
The person u sing the instrum ent looks The person holding the rod signals
S tep 8
through the telescope and focuses on readiness to the person using the
the rod held at the turning point. instrument and holds the rod on the turning
Carefully reads the rod and records the point. Keeps the rod plumb with the rod
The rod must be foresight reading in the field book. Re level until signaled that the reading has
plumb. reads the rod and confirms what was been taken. After being signaled, removes
recorded. Calculates the elevation of rod from the turning point.
the turning point. Signals to the person
holding the rod to relax while the
instrument is being moved.
7-25
r The person u * "
Step 9 wwalks,
a lk s , ccurrying
, instrument
a r r y i n g tt nh ec i..............
n
n s in im e n i (
, (ht.
The person holding the rod w a i t s u , k
,h c in s tru m e n t is b e in g a d v a n c e d . ^
,
'
position of t h e t........ ini> p o i n t . in t h e

u r n in g p o in t, in th e
d i r e c t i o n w h e r e the elevation is needed.
Locates the best Un-ation for setting u p
th e le v e l
The person holding the rod repeats

S tep 10 The person using the instrument r e p e a t s p re v io u s s te p s :
p re v io u s s te p s : H o ld s th e ro d p lu m b on th e know n
S e ts u p . L e v e ls th e in s tru m e n t. F o c u s e s e le v a tio n w h ile th e b a c k s ig h t r e a d in g is
on the r o d . R e a d s t h e b a c k s i g h t . R e c o r d s ta k e n , paces th e d is ta n c e to th e
th e backsight r e a d i n g in t h e f i e l d b o o k . in s tru m e n t, paces to lo c a te a tu rn in g
C a lc u la te s th e H I. T u r n s th e in s tr u m e n t to p o in t, s e le c ts a s o lid tu r n in g p o in t, an d
th e n e w tu r n in g p o in t. R e a d s th e f o r e s ig h t,
h o ld s th e r o d o n th e t u r n i n g p o in t w h ile
AND C a lc u la te s th e e le v a tio n o f th e
* u:r,Cfn,rnpnf.)gain a f o r e s i g h t r e a d i n g is ta k e n .
S te p 11 The person using the instrum ent The person holding the rod repeats
repeats this entire process until the last this entire process until the last foresight
foresight taken is to the point where the is taken to the point where elevation
elevation was needed. There may be a was needed. There may be many turning
dozen or even a hundred or more setups points that will be located or established.
required to transfer an elevation to Using solid turning points throughout
where it is needed. the leveling process is a major factor in
closing the loop successfully.
7-26
12 The Person holding the rod
StP needed e le v a tio n is d e t e r m i n e d u 'e s
The person using the instrument uses
th e s a m e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e t o
t h e s a m e process d e s c r i b e d a b o v e m
r e t u r n t o th e o r i g i n a l s t a r t i n g b e n c h m a r k .
c lo s e th e lo o p b y re p c o , in , h
d if te r e m ta l le v e lin g p ro c e s s b a c k to t h ,
o rig in a l s ta rtin g b e n c h m a rk .
The person holding the rod, upon

The person using the instrum ent,
a r r iv in g a t th e o r ig in a l b e n c h m a r k , w a its
u p o n a r r iv in g a t th e o r ig in a l b e n c h m a r k
to f in d o u t i f th e w o r k m e e ts a c c e p ta b le
and h a v in g read th e fin a l f o r e s ig h t,
c l o s u r e . I f i t d o e s , h e l p s in p u t t i n g a w a y
c o m p a r e s th e fin a l c a lc u la te d e le v a tio n
e q u ip m e n t to go to th e next w o rk
w ith th e s ta r tin g e le v a tio n . If it m e e ts
a c tiv ity . I f it d o e s n t, r e p e a t s th e le v e l th e e s ta b lis h e d c lo s u re s ta n d a r d s , th e
c ir c u it ju s t c o m p le te d . p r o c e s s is c o m p l e t e . I f it d o e s n t , t h e
lo o p w ill h a v e to b e r e p e a te d .
Profile Leveling
7-29
General
Leveling
p rot i e
Procedure for
7-29
Calculations
7-31
Field Notes
7-31
7-32 Plotting
SCOPE
Determining the elevation o f the ground along a defined line is a constant activity
of some field engineers. Field engineers who work on route projects such as
highways will constantly be determining the profile o f the ground along the
centerline of the route. Profile leveling is an extension o f the basic differential
leveling process. The main difference is that numerous foresights (sideshots) are
taken along a defined line. Otherwise, the process and calculations are the same.
The notekeeping format for profile leveling is very sim ilar to differential levelin g
with the addition of subtracting the sideshots from the H.I. to obtain the desired
ground elevations. When leveling along a defined lin e, elev a tio n s m ust be taken
so the exact profile is determined. This requires the careful attention o f the field
engineer to take elevations at all places along the lin e w here the slop e changes.
7-28
a 1
The saying, "A picture is worth a th
CT e n g i n e e r s , a r c h i t e c t s , l a n d s c a p e r s c o * " 11 w r< is ." aD n,;* ,
p r o f i l e s t o v i s u a l l y e x a m i n e w h a t i h e Z T ' T a n d ' o f c o u r s e f\*i C iv i l
a llo w s th e u s e r to o b s e r v e th e g e n e ^ a , ^ ,0 0 k s > * * o - P ^ A u*e
d ra in a g e s tru c tu r e s s h o u ld b e lo c a te d / 0 p e o f t h e g r o u m l f P l ,e d p r o f ,l e
e x i s t i n g p r o f i l e t o a p r o p o s e d p r o f i l e ', e t c * am ou^ s o f cut or m u r " " T
a s p e c ts o f c o n s tru c tio n . c * P r file s a re e x t r ^ , . 1 f r o m th e
P A s s ta te d e a r lie r , p ro f ile le v e lin 'npW M t *"
e x c e p t t h a t s i d e s h o t s o n t o t h e n ro fiis s g , s V ery s i m i l a r t o
l e v e l i n g i s p e r f o r m e d a s p a n o f t h e n n i n " , W P ,r< o f , h c P r o c e s s l l T " , " ? i e v e lin 8
fo r e s ig h ts , h e ig h , o f in .s n u m e n t t ^ ^ ^ ' r o g P r o c e s l^ h m ^ ' 2 '
p r o f i l e l e v e l i n g . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t a l f c r a n H u b a ' a " ,:e d r e a <M"gs a r e a l l p a n o f
o n to th e p r o f ile p o in ts a n d re c o rd e d s y s te m a tic ' ls d < = 'e rm in e d . r e a d i n g s a r e T J n
R e fe re n c e Chapter 4. Distance M e a s u r e m e n t, ' h e f i e , d * a s .d c s h o K
^ ain- ' fr ,hc propcr use o f ;
f o r p r o f il e l e v e l in g
edube
The profile leveling process involves usinc lh. , ,.
. define the line to be profiled ' '1,e and chain to:
locate a benchmark
. perform differential leveling using an
from the benchmarks to the profile line U matC r dl8ital level to proceed
take readings on the profile
use the differential leveling nrorecc ^ .
as required by the terrain or length o f therofilenStrUmem a'nS ^ Pr f'le
. use differential leveling to return to a benchmark to close the loop
transition. * ' 'eVeUng iS Understood learning profile leveling is an easy
Define the line to be profiled by determining the starting and ending points of the
S tep 1 line and setting a transit or theodolite on one end of the line. Sight the other end
of the line. Using a chain or EDM to measure distances and the theodolite to stay
on line between the end points, establish profilepointsonthe line.The profile
points should be taken at regular intervals such asevery25,50, or100 feet, andat
any other locations on the line where there is an observable change in the slope of
the ground. Mark each profile point with a stake, or lath, or chaining pin with
paper, and write on it information to define its position on the profile. The method
of stationing ( 0 + 0 0 , 1 + 0 0 , 1 1 + 7 3 , 12+50, etc.) is typically used on profiles to mark
the positions o f points.
7-29
a starting elevation and to tie into at
Gln*K
. 'oobiam
, rk < t h a t c o n b e u s e d ,e station and the necessary
Locate benchmark. ^ eIevation of ea itions o f known elevations are
the end of the lo P- s wi be determin ftl distance from instrument to
Step 2 intermediate turn g P ,d be appro^m ^ q Assume a maximum sight
; ^ e t n n n e d . They s h o u l d b e ( P P s la ,io n . A s s u m e a m a x im u m s ig h t
<>^ J' ,ern ".:d ad instrument
S l i g h t s ta tio n a n d in s tr u m e n t t o b 8 ^
minim ize errors in reading the
^ to m in im iz e e r r o r s m r e a d m g U te
C a n c e ( d e t e r m i n e d b y p a c i n g )' o f ,M,ieci
5 > e n s u r e t h a t t h e instrument
m s t r u m e n t person
p e r s o n can
can
le v e l r o d . Examine the slope o f h e t e s ( a tio n s w ith th e tn s tr u m e n t le v e le d .
o b s e r v e th e b a c k s ig h t, t o r e s .g m . *
ns
BM 2
learest 0.01 ft. (hundredth) the backsight reading with the

R e a d a n d r e c o r d to PVP| rod plumb over the backsight station.
S te p 3 ro d p e rs o n h o ld in g
Read rod to the

hundreth on
TP's and 3M's.
dvance the rodperson to the previously determined profile points; and read and
S tep 4 cord the sideshot reading on the points to the nearest 0.1 ft. (tenth). Repeat this
ocess for as many stations as possible until a turning point is needed.
Read rod to th e
te n th on profile
ground shots.
7 -3 0
o \XS
Step 5 T h e p e r s o n h o l d i n g t h e r o d s h o u l d s e l e ,.t
~ th e i n s t r u m e n t u s w a s
t h e b a c k s i g h t r e a d i n g ^ R e 8 ^ * th M S a n C q u a l d i s t a n c e f r o m
8 K C ad a n d r e c o r d th e f o r e s i g h t r e a d i n g .
TP 1
TP 2
Step 6 R e p e a t th e s te p s u n til th e e le v a tio n o f e a c l

d e te r m in e d a n d th e le v e l c ir c u it h " e a ,C h d e s , g n a t e d p r o f i l e p o i n t h a s b e e n
h a c k on a k n o w n b e n c h m a rk .
IL
ll \
END
\
TP 2 BM 3
CALCULATIONS
The formulas used in differential leveling also apply to profile leveling. They are:
Elevation + BS = HI
and
HI - FS = Elevation
To calculate the elevation of the points along the profile, use the following formula
(SS represents SideShots):
HI - SS = Elevation
field n o tes
Recording field-note data is very similar to keeping field notes for differential
leveling. The only change is the addition of the SideShots which are simply
subtracted from the HI from which they were taken. Some persons record all of the
leveling data, and then calculate the elevations of the turning points and the ending
Benchmark to determine if the closure of the loop is acceptable. If it meets the pre-
established closure, they can then calculate the SideShots knowing the loop is good.
To understand the calculation of SideShots, carefully study the sample field
notes that follow. Note that the SideShots on 0+00, 0+50, 1+00, 1+50, 2+00, and
2+50 are all subtracted from the HI elevation of 103.11. After the mstrument .s
7-31
r ^ cnaptt*' s e v e n
PLOTTING
After the fieldwork has been completed and checked, the fieldnotes can be used for
plotting the profile. Determine the use of the profile so that a proper horizontal and
vertical scale can be selected. For example, in an area where there is not much
change in elevation, the vertical scale may need to be exaggerated by as much as
ten or more times the horizontal scale in order to show the ground changes. See
the illustration below. If the profile is through a hilly area, no difference between
the horizontal and vertical scale may be necessary to show ground changes.
STATION
Horizontal Scale is 1 = 100'
7-32
'9
fc iio n
re lin g |
G e n e r a l 7 - 3 4
P r o c e d u r e for Cro:
S e c t i o n i n g 7 - 3 5
Tot al St at i on Croi
' S e c t i o n i n g 7 - 3 7
S e c t i o n i n g 7 - 3 7
F ie l d N o t e s 7 - 3 8
SCOPE
Cross-section leveling is important to the contractor and to the owner because the
data is used in the computation of volumes of earth that are cut or filled. Cross-
sectioning itself is a very simple task. All it requires is that the elevation and
location of ground points be determined and recorded along a line that is
perpendicular to the centerline. The type of instrument used to perform cross-
sectioning varies from a hand level to a total station. The field engineer should
choose an instrument that can be used efficiently to collect the data that meets the
accuracy requirem ents of cross-sectioning.
7-33
GENERAL B a s ic a lly , th e c r o s s - s e c tio n in g p r o c e s s is th e s a m e a s p r o f i l e le v e l i n g . R a th e r th a n
d e te rm in in g e le v a tio n s a lo n g th e c e n te r lin e , c r o s s - s e c t ,o n ,n g d e t e r m ,n e s e le v a ,i0 n s
f o r li n e s t h a t a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e c e n t e r l i n e . T h e r e , s o n l y o n e c e n t e r l i n e p r o f , i e
f o r a p r o je c t b u t th e r e m a y b e h u n d r e d s o r th o u s a n d s o f c r o s s - s e c t ,o n s . F o r th e e n tir e
length of a route project, cross-sections a r e ty p ic a lly r e q u ir e d a t e v e r y f u ll s ta tio n a n d
a t e v e ry half station. Cross-sectioning is a constant activity

. . of the field engineer
on a highw ay project. A fte r the centerline for a highway project
has been established, the first activity of the field engineer will
be cross-sectioning, and after the roadway has been constructed
the last activity of the field engineer w i l l be cross-sectioning
Additionally, cross-sections are often required during the project
for partial payment o f work performed.
P lann
The ingengineer preparing to cross-section needs to review the scope of the work
field
to evaluate the length o f the p ro ject, the required interval between cross-sections
the elevation d ifferen ce s that w ill b e e n c o u n te re d , the accuracy requirements and
the eq u ipm ent available.
Cross-Section Interval
M o st o ften , the specifications from the
owner (State D e p a r tm e n t of
T r a n s p o r ta tio n ) w i l l s p e c i f i c a l l y
indicate the required in terva l fo r cro ss-
sectioning. U su a lly th is d ista n c e is 5 0
fe e t b u t m a y be 100 fe e t i f th e terrain is
n o t c h a n g in g much. The c lo se r the
in terva l , the more a ccurate th e v o lu m e s
Elevation Spots
Elevations on the cross-section are typically determined
wherever there is a change in the slope o f the ground. That
is, if the ground is flat and all o f a sudden starts sloping
downhill, the spot where that change took place is where an
elevation needs to be determined. Additionally, it may be
required that elevations be taken at specified offsets from
centerline such as 10, 20, 30, 40, etc., feet from centerline.
Read rod to Accuracy Requirement

nearest tenth on Typically, cross-section data for readings taken on the ground are read to the nearest
cross-section tenth of a foot. Distances from centerline are also measured to the nearest tenth.
shots. Confirm in the specifications or with the owner the required accuracy for the work.
Maintain Perpendicularity
When cross-sectioning, it is essential that subsequent cross-sections be performed
where the original cross-section was measured. In other words, all of the cross-
sections taken at a particular station along the centerline must be along the same
perpendicular line that the original cross-section followed. If much deviation from
this line occurs, the data collected will yield an incorrect volume. M ost often when
cross-sectioning, no instrument is used to determine the perpendicular line that is
required. A double-right angle prism or a "Right Angle W ingding" is m ost often used
7-34
b y (h e f i e l d e n g i n e e r . R e fe r to chapter
21, One-Person Surveying for
e x p la n a tio n o f h o w to o b ta in a r iBh1
a n g le w ith th e s e m e th o d s . K
Equipment ____ _
T o c ro s s -s e c tio n , a fie ld e n g in e e r c a
a r e d u c in g ta c h o m e te r , a to ta l s ta tio n * a d u m Py a u t o m a t i c le v e l ,
o n w h a t ts b e s t s u i t e d f o r t h e t e r r a i n t h a 7 w n , I C h o ,c e o f i n r u m e n t d e p e n d s
e q u i p m e n t ts a v a i l a b l e w ith in th e c o m n a L ^ e n c o u m e r e d . a n d w h a t ty p e o f
e q u ip m e n t. E v e r y o n e w o u l d l i k e G P S w i t h r ,w ^ a t b u d g e t is f o r p u r c h a s i n g
b u t t h a t i s n 't a l w a y s t h e b e s t o r t h e m o s t n a d a a c o lle c ,o r f o r c ro s s -s e c tio n in g ,
u n d e rs to o d , th e fie ld e n g in e e r m a y w a n t t h T nC e t h e s c o p e o f t h e w o r k is
a re c o m m e n d a tio n . 0 c h e c k w ith a n e q u ip m e n t s u p p lie r f o r
iCEDURE f o r c r o s s -s e c t io n in g
ppo
As indicated earlier, cross-sectionine f
e q u ip m e n t. T o u n d e r s ta n d th e b a s ic c o n c e n t p e r f o r m e d W lth a W ld e v a r i e t y o f
l e v e l r o d , a n d c l o t h t a p e w i l l b e d e s c r i h ^ H P c r ( Js s " s e c t , o n i n g w i *h a h a n d l e v e l ,
- * "" * , u , '
S te p 1 Gather the equipment and proceed to

the area that needs cross-sectioning.
Locate the previously-set centerline
profile stakes. Assign the tasks of
holding the rod along the section, of
being the person at centerline using the
hand level, and notekeeping.
S te p 2 At the starting station, determine a cross-

section line that is a perpendicular line
to centerline by the use of a double right
angle prism or a right angle wingding.
Step 3 The person at centerline directs the

person holding the rod to proceed along
the cross-section line with the cloth tape.
It is the responsibility of the person
holding the rod to select the spots where
the slope of the ground changes and an
elevation is needed. At the first spot
where a break in grade occurs, stops to
take a rod reading. Reads the distance
on the cloth tape and yells it back to the
notekeeper.
7-35
~r -
S tep 4 The person at centerline, using a h a n d

level, centers the b u b b l e w h i l e l o o k i n g
through the instrument a n d r e a d s t h e
l e v e l r o d to th e n e a r e s t t e n t h . If a
notekeeper is available, states the
reading loudly, and the notekeeper
repeats the reading tor confirmation and
Step 5 The p e r s o n h o l d i n g t h e r o d t u r n s a n d
b e g in s w a lk in g o n th e c r o s s - s e c t i o n
lin e lo o k in g f o r th e next change in
g r a d e . W h e n it is l o c a t e d , s t o p s , r e a d s
th e d is ta n c e o u t lo u d to th e n o t e k e e p e r
a n d h o ld s th e ro d f o r th e r e a d in g . The
p e rso n w ith th e h a n d le v e l o b s e r v e s
th e le v e l r o d a n d c o m m u n i c a t e s th e r o d
r e a d in g to the n o te k e e p e r.
S te p 6 This process is repeated until the

required distance out from centerline is
met. The person holding the rod then
walks back to centerline and proceeds
to the other side of centerline to cross-
section it. At each spot where the ground
changes, a distance is measured, a rod
reading is taken, and the data is recorded.
Step 7 This process is repeated over and over

until all centerline stations have been
cross-sectioned.
7-36
cross-section leveling 0
*9
T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s a r e t h e n t a k e n t o th e
GteP ^ 0 f f ic e f o r p l o t t i n g a m i u s e d in th e
d e te r m in a tio n o f v o lu m e s .
WW
iW
STATION c r o s s -s e c t io n in g
U s i n g a t o t a l s t a t i o n a n d a d a t a c o l l e c t o r fn
in s p e e d o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d t h e a b i l i t y to |\ rOSS' s e c U o n in 8 P r o v id e s th e u lt im a te
,, . . y lo a l m o s t in s t a n t l y p lo t th e c r o s s - s e c t i o n
a s w e l l a s d e t e r m i n e v o l u m e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g i i i llcl l p ' , secuon
, foi c t a i i n n So o w in g i l l u s t r a t i o n s h o w s h o w th e p o w e r o f
t h e t o t a l s t a t i o n c a n b e u s e d t o c ro c i: . . .
rtf t h o t ^ t o i . . 8 s e c tio n s e v e r a l s ta tio n s o n th e c e n te rlin e fro m
o n e s e tu p o t ta l s ta tio n R e a d th e o w n e r 's m a n u a l f o r th e to t a l s t a t i o n t o
d e t e r m , n e h o w c a n m o s t e f f t c t e m l y b e u s e d f o r c o l l e c t i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n d a ta .
in
GPS CROSS-SECTIONING
Cross-sectioning on many roadway projects is now performed using GPS equipment.
Determining locations is an ideal application of the GPS systems. See C hapter 9,
G P S F ie ld P r o c e d u r e s , for more information.
7-37
FIELD NOTES The field notes presented here represent two o f m a n y m e th o d s o f n o te k e e p in
are used f o r cross-sectioning. ^
*OSS SECTIONING 4 KM >2

ntlP f*-M1* nr**'** x >\ tom* m nnt
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7-38
<37
sveiing ]
Gener al 7 -4 0
G rid L e v e l i n g
*T
0
1
Ca | c ul at i o ns 7 -4 2
F' el d Notes 7-4 2
SCOPE
Determining the elevation of the ground in an excavation or on a mound is a common
activity of some field engineers. Field engineers who work on building or route
projects may be asked to calculate the volume of material that has been excavated or
placed. Grid leveling is an excellent method used to determine volumes of irregularly-
shaped excavations. Grid leveling is another extension of the basic differential
leveling process. Grid leveling is different from basic differential leveling because
numerous foresights (sideshots) are taken on the grid. Otherwise the process and
calculations are the same. The notekeeping format for grid leveling is very similar to
profile leveling except it is also necessary to subtract the sideshots from the H.I. to
obtain the desired ground elevations. When leveling a grid, elevations at each grid
point must be taken so the exact contour of the ground is determined. If the grid interval
is too large and high and low points are being missed, the field engineer should consider
decreasing the interval and setting more grid points.
7-39
I a c t i v i t y . T h a t i s , it i s p e r f o r m e d o v e r a n d
GENERAL n , l e v e l i n g is t y p i c a l l y a r e d u n d a n l l c u a l i e n s a r c n e e d e d . F o r a n e x c a v a t i o n . *
a. ' " ^ v o l u m e w ill b e n e e d e d . T h e l e v e U ^
" , i d is e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e o f th e g rid p o in t. je c o r t e d . A f te r
p r o c e s s is p e r f o r m e d a n d s s a r e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d l e v e l i n g is
e x c a v a tin g , th e e le v a tio n s o f J h e b ) r .g . n a | e le V a o n a n d th e f in a l e le v a tio n
p e rfo rm e d a g a in . 1 h e d if f e r |a t o d e te r m t n e th e a m o u n t o f m a te ria l
is u s e d in a v o l u m e c o n t p u a 'n , , () , h e c o n t r a c t o r s , n e e p a y m e n t f o r
e x c a v a te d . V o lu m e s a r c t r e m e p o f m a ,c r ia l m o v e d . S e e Chapter 78,
w o r k p e r f o r m e d is o f t e n b a s^ f v" c a lc u la tio n s .
Quantities, f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f s im ila r to d if f e r e n tia l le v e lin g except
A s s ta te d e a r lie r , g rid c of the p ro c e ss. In fa c t, differential
th a t s id e s h o ts o n to th e g rid a r e P |c v e |i n g p r o c e s s . R e fe r t o Chapter 7,
le v e lin g is p e r f o r m e d a s p a r t * ja l ie v e |i n g p ro c e d u re . Benchmarks.
Leveling, f o r t h e s t e p - y - s P tu r n in g p o in ts , a n d b a la n c e d re a d in g s
b a c k s ig h ts , fo r e s ig h ts , h e ig h t ^ " s ,r b c e is ,f t a , a f t e r a n H .l is d e t e r m i n e d ,
p o in t s a n d r e c o r d e d s y s te m a t ic a l ly in th e fie ld
I l dCfi"in?-
nrk performing differential the toS"d
leveling Sidg from
proceed fa Chaib'
the
thTgrid 'andu'l'g'Vifferemial leveling to return to a benchmark to close the loop.

If deferential leveling is understood, learning grid level,ng ts an easy transition.
Grid leveling on many roadway projects is now performed using GPS
equipment. Determining locations is an ideal application of the GPS systems. See
C h a n te r 9, G P S F ie ld P r o c e d u r e s , for more information.
PROCEDURE FOR GRID LEVELING

Define the grid to be leveled by determining the limits o f the excavation or pit.
Randomly establish the size of the grid so it completely surrounds the site. Check
with the superintendent and the specifications to determine the grid interval that
will best determine the volume to the accuracy required. Typically, regular
intervals such as every 25, 50, or 100 feet are used.
S te p 1 Use one side of the grid as a baseline and begin measuring and marking the
intervals. After that side is marked, use a right angle prism or use the 3/4/5 triangle
method of establishing a right angle to determine the direction of one of the other
sides of the grid. See C h a p te r 21, O n e - P e r s o n S u r v e y i n g . Begin measuring and
marking the intervals on that side. Repeat the process for the remaining sides of
the grid. Use the method o f stationing on one side o f the grid to label the points
and use letters to mark the points in the other direction, or some other notation
which avoids confusion. With the intervals established on the outsides o f the grid,
the actual grid points can be located fairly accurately by having two individuals
sighting across the grid from one side to the other w hile a third person sets the
interior points o f the grid.
7-40
Qrtd ittvoHng 0
Locate b e n c h m a r k s t h a t c a n b e u s e d to o h ta in .
S tep * th e e n od o f. tu.w h e lo o p . T h e eelleevvaattiioonn ooff eeaacchh anri<! r> a. m n 8. c ,c v aul lo
r i d n*v io n a nU
n d 'o
to tic in to at
tt uu rr nn ii nn gg pp oo ii nn tt ss w
w ill
i l l bb ee dd ee tt ee rr m
m ii nn ee dd . A
a ,s s.......8
u m e u JP; int a n d tth ch n c c-c s *ary
.......=--------
in te rm e dia te
b y p a c i n g ) o f 1 5 0 f e e t in o r d e r t o m i n im iz e e r r o ^ * " S' g h l d is U n c c (d e te rm in e d
th e s l o p e o f t e r r a i n t o e n s u r e t h a t th e in s tr u m e n t *" r C a d ,n g th c lc v c ' ro d . E x a m in e
f o r e s i g h t , a n d g r i d p o i n t s w h e r e th e i n s t r u m e n t w WbSCrVe th c b a c k ** h
C> BM2
\ i _
R e a d a n d r e c o r d t o t h e n e a r e s t 0 .0 1 ( h u n d r e d t h ) f o o t th c t u r n i n g p o in t r e a d i n g w ith
Step t h e r o d p e r s o n h o l d i n g t h e l e v e l r o d p l u m b o v e r t h c t u r n i n g p o i n t s t a ti o n . A d v a n c e
t h e r o d p e r s o n t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e t e r m i n e d g r i d p o i n t s a n d r e a d a n d r e c o r d th c
s i d e s h o t r e a d i n g o n t h e p o i n t s t o t h e n e a r e s t 0 .1 ( t e n t h ) f o o t . R e p e a t f o r a s m a n y
p o i n t s a s p o s s i b l e u n t i l a n e w t u r n i n g p o i n t is n e e d e d .
T u r n in g P o in t S li(je S h o t
rod t0.
^r*9* te"th
O rf* * * *
A Balance BS and FS between turning points. The person holding the rod shou
select a turning point that is an equal distance from the instrument as was the
backsight reading. Read and record the foresight reading.
Repeat the steps until the elevation o f each grid point has been determined
Step 5 level circuit closes back on the known benchmark. ari(^the
f TP
j
BALANCED
CALCULATIONS . ....
If the grid leveling process required several turning point.. the differential level
circid/data should be checked for numerical m,stakes of add,non and subtract,on
,n the field book by performing an arithmetic check on each page of notes.
Reminder: the sideshots are not used in the arithmetic check process.
FIELD NOTES
The following is a representative example of field notes which could be used for
grid leveling.
Transferring
Elevations
Eq u i p ment 7 -4 4
Pr oc e du r e for
Tr ansf er r i
n9 El evat i ons 7 -4 4
Ca l c u l at i o ns 7 - 4 6
Fi el d Notes 7 - 4 6
Multi-story building construction and tall column construction on a bridge project

require that ground elevations be transferred vertically as the structure progresses
upward to maintain the design grades. Occasionally, this can be accomplished by
normal differential leveling procedures of backsights and foresights when there is
an adjacent structure or high ground. However, the most common method of
transferring elevation up into a structure is to use a good calibrated chain and
measure vertically along a column, the elevator/stair core, or any other part of the
structure which is solid and progressing vertically. It is a simple process, but one
that requires following exact procedures to obtain accurate results.
e q u ip m e n t
Transferring EIvatlon Equipment
Psrcrsw Per person
L e v e lin g in stru m e n t P lu m b b o b
L ev el n>d F ie ld b o o k
T u rn in g p in H a n d lev el
C h a in S tr a ig h t e d g e
H am m er 4 H p e n c il
PROCEDURE FOR TRANSFERRING ELEVATIONS

S tep 1 a n t* P r c P a r c - D is c u s s a p la n o f a tta c k f o r th e e f f i c i e n t a n d a c c u r a t e c o m p le tio n
o f th e ta s k . O b ta in th e n e c e s s a r y e q u ip m e n t. L o c a t e a n e a r b y s t a r t i n g b e n c h m a r k
a n d d e te r m in e its e le v a tio n .
S tep 2 U s in g th e te c h n i q u e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l i n g , r u n a l e v e l l o o p t o th e s t r u c t u r e a n d
e s ta b lis h a t e m p o r a r y b e n c h m a r k ( T B M ) a t th e b o t t o m o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . T y p i c a l l y ,
T B M s a r e s im p ly a m a r k o n th e w a ll w ith th e e l e v a t i o n w r i t t e n t h e r e . R e m e m b e r
to d e s c r ib e a n d i d e n t i f y th e p o i n t c h o s e n in y o u r f i e l d n o t e s .
Step 3 Complete the level loop by returning to the starting benchmark. Check your results.
If your work is acceptable (i.e., it meets accuracy standards for the project), proceed
with the transfer. If your work is unacceptable, re-run your level loop.
7-44
transferring elevations ()
Using the chain, transfer the elevation up the side of

which the elevation is needed. Have one field the structure t0 the floor on
end of the chain on the TBM just established at accuratety hold the zero
engineer carefully establish a new TBM ud e,bottom and have another field
buildings, this is typically four feet above finishfl, f the sttucture (Ff
vertical distance needed. Care should be taken ' the appropriate
it will be visible from the instrument. No extm tenT '6 * * ? M 'Slocaled Where
chain in this instance. Its own weight
To use the TBM up on the structure, set up a leveling instrument and establish your
S te p s HI by backsighting a rod held on the TBM. Perform leveling tasks as if you were
on the ground.
Often, points that need
elevations up on structures may be above
the line of sight of the instrument. If
this is the case, those which are on the
ceiling or on the bottom of a beam will
require the level rod to be used upside
down. This will result in a positive
foresight that must be added to the HI
rather than subtracted! Be careful in
your notekeeping.
7 -4 5
C A LC U LA TIO N S
D iffe re n tia l le v e lin g c a lc u la tio n s :
Elevation + BS = HI
and
HI - FS = Elevation
(except with positive foresight, then: E le v a tio n = H I + F S )
FIELD NOTES
The following is a representative sample of field notes which could be used for
transferring an elevation up a structure.
7-46
N
Applied Leveling
Setting
Benchmarks 7-48
^h r e e- w
, re L e v e l i n g
7-49
Bu cki ng. | n
( E| evat i on) 7-51
SCOPE
There are an infinite number of ways to apply leveling that are performed every day
on jobsites. In addition to the leveling practices of differential, profile, grid, cross-
sectioning, and transferring elevations, these and other leveling practices are applied
while setting benchmarks, marking grade on formwork, bucking onto an elevation,
and while performing numerous other applications that are beyond the scope of this
text to list. It is hoped the reader will build on the standard practices and procedures
of leveling to apply the basic differential leveling process when an elevation is
needed. A few common leveling applications are discussed in this Section.
7-47
a?
SETTING BENCHMARKS b e a v e ry re w a r d in g ta s k f o r th e fie ld

S etting b e n c h m a rk s on the j o s H a v in g b e n c h m a r k s re a d ily a v a ila b le
e n g in e e r if it is p e rfo rm e d c o r r e c t l y ^ Ha . g d u r a tio n w ill s a v e th e fieJd
an y w h ere on the jo b s ite th ro u g ^ P C o n s e q u e n t l y , it is im p o r ta n t th a t
e n g in e e r tim e in se ttin g g ra d e c SQ th e y a re n o t e a s ii y d is tu r b e d by
b en ch m ark s be set in a p e rm a w e a tlie r e o n d itio n s . It is im p o r ta n t to lo c a te
a c tiv itie s on th e c o n s tru c tio n site o r b y ^ h e r c o ^ ^ ^ ^
b e n c h m a rk s o u tsid e th e c o n s tr u c tio n a re a so th e y
d u rin g c o n stru c tio n .
Equipment and Supplies e s ta b lis h e d , s o m e s u p p lie s a n d to o ls

D e p e n d in g o n th e ty p e s and s u p p lie s in th e fie ld
m ay o r m ay n o t be u sed . C a rry a p p ro p ria te
e n g in e e rin g v e h ic le at a ll tim e s so th e y a re a v a ila b le f o r u s e .
Locating Benchmarks . , .
T he fie ld e n g in e e r s h o u ld e s ta b lis h b e n c h m a r k s a t c o n v e n i e n t in te r v a ls F o r th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s , t h e r u l e o f t h u m b is t h a t a t l e a s t t w o b e n e m a rk s s h o u ld
b e v is ib le fro m a n in s tr u m e n t s e t u p a n y w h e r e o n th e j o b s i t e . F o r r o u t e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
b e n c h m a rk s s h o u ld b e e s ta b lis h e d a t a m a x im u m o f 1000 -
1 2 0 0 ' in te rv a ls . F o r b rid g e c o n s tr u c tio n , th e ru le o f th u m b fo r
th e c o n s tru c tio n o f b u ild in g s a p p lie s . T h e re s h o u ld be
n u m e ro u s b e n c h m a rk s a v a ila b le a r o u n d a b rid g e p ro je c t.
L o c a te b e n c h m a rk s so th e y can be seen fro m th e
p r o je c t s ite . T h a t is , a v o id s e t t i n g b e n c h m a r k s o n t h e b a c k s i d e s
o f tre e s a n d p o le s w h e re it w ill b e d if f ic u l t to u s e th e m .
Existing Objects as Benchmarks

S e le c t p e r m a n e n t a n d s o lid o b je c ts s u c h a la r g e tr e e s , c u l v e r t h e a d w a ll s , b r i d g e
a b u tm e n ts , a n d te le p h o n e o r p o w e r p o le s .
When using poles and trees, select a location for the railroad spike or boat
spike on a side where the level rod can be fully plumbed without obstruction. Drive
the spike at a slightly downward angle leaving it protruding 1 - 1 / 2 " to 2 ".
When using culvert headwalls of bridge abutments,
select a suitable corner, and chisel an "X" on the spot you are NO
using as a benchmark. Dont be overly destructive; just mark
it so it can be found if the weather washes paint or other marks
away. When using fire-hydrants, do not use the top nut as
it is a valve which moves every time the hydrant is used. Use
a bonnet bolt instead. Mark the bonnet bolt used. Do not use
manhole covers, small rocks, wobbly posts, or any other
objects that can be moved or shifted in position.
Building Benchmarks
Place When good, existing objects are not available on which to establish benchmarks
monuments ohteeKbe n.eCe*Sary t0 make y ur own- Follow the same criteria as for existing
M o w frostline.
1t . V r ? ' dig *
f?J' V
7-48
raveling ^
i
3 B e su re to p u t a d is tin c t h i* h \ i
p o in t o n th e b e n c h m a rk . R o u n d e d brasv \ ::
c a p s c a n b e e m b e d d e d in to th e c o n c re te i
o r a p ie c e o f r e b a r c a n e x te n d o u t o f th e
c o n c r e te to s e r v e a s th e h ig h p o in ,
S e le c t lo c a tio n s th a t a re n e a r th e jo b s ite
\
w h e re th e y w ill b e n e e d e d it d o e s n t
m a k e s e n s e to m a r k b e n c h m a r k s m o re
th a n o n e o r tw o s e tu p s a w a y .
Marking
, iic n t . u s n o u tu m a rk th e b e n c h m i
o f th e ir im p o r ta n c e . A s p e c if ic c o lo r o f " v* * e ':c ry o n e o n jo b site is aw are
b e n c h m a r k s . T o m a rk a b e n c h m a r k o n a H a h ? '" ? n b b n s h o u ,d b c S i g n a l e d fo r
a ro u n d th e p o le h ig h e n o u g h so it is e a s ily v i a V u ! ' tW b a n d s o f survcy rib b o n
o f th e b e n c h m a r k o n it w ith a p e rm a n e n t tm r k d * th e " u m b e r and e le v a tio n
E v e r y o n e o n th e s ite s h o u ld k n o w it is your b h '* Wth n u o rc s c c m Pa in t-
Describing
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
When it is necessary to perform a leveling application on a
jobsite such as setting benchmarks, and minimizing the possibility
o f errors, a process called three-wire leveling can be used. This
procedure utilizes all three horizontal crosshairs in the telescope
o f the instrument when reading the level rod. By systematically
recording the readings and calculating the results, blunders in
reading the rod can be eliminated. Having three readings also
increases the accuracy o f the elevations of the benchmarks. If
digital levels are not available for precise benchmark leveling,
three-wire is a simple alternative to obtain good results.
7-49
, . practices that are followed f0r
Procedureleveling utilizes the same standard
Three-wire
leveling activities. These practices include solid setups, solid turning poi , 1
balanced backsights and foresights, holding the rod plumb, etc. Three-wi
leveling is also performed identically to the differential leveling process descrih^
earlier in this Chapter. The o n ly change is conducting more readings a n
maintaining a more involved notekeeping process. Other than that, the leveli
process is the same. That is. set up the instrument and read a rod held 08
benchmark, pace the distance to the instrument, and pace and establish a turn n
point, read the rod held on the turning point, move the instrument, and repeat th'8
process as many times as needed until a temporary benchmark is established on
jo b site, and then always close the loop by returning to the starting benchmark ^
to another known benchmark. 0r
Three-wire means reading three
wires. In the illustration, observe that
the top crosshair is on 1.237. the middle
is on 0.883, and the bottom reads 0.528.
Each crosshair m u st be read carefully
as the readings w ill be averaged to obtain
an average that will be used as the true
reading on the rod. T h is is repeated
each time the rod is held for a backsight
nr a f n r e s i p h f .
Notekeeping for Three-Wire Leveling
Field notes for three-wire leveling appear complicated at first, but when studied
carefully, it quickly becomes obvious that three-wire notekeeping is a very simple
procedure. Review the notes here. Note that the headings are similar to differential
notekeepingthere are columns for the station, the backsights, the foresights, and
the elevation. The known benchmark elevation is recorded first. The three
backsight readings are recorded (1.237, 0.883, and 0.528) and are added together
(2.648). and then divided by 3 to obtain the average reading (0.8826), which is then
compared with the middle reading (0.883). If this does not compare within a
thousandths or two, the readings should be re-read and changed as needed.
The foresight readings are then taken and recorded in a similar manner.
They are also averaged and compared. If accepted, the elevation of the turning
point is then determined by adding the average backsight (0.8826) to the benchmark
to obtain the HI, and subtracting the Foresight from the HI to obtain the elevation
of Turning Point 1.
Three-Wire Leveling from BM Road to Jobsite
Sta BS FS E le v a tio n
BM Road 182.963
1.237 1.035
0.883 Checks 0.670 C hecks + 0.8826
0.528 0.305 183.8456
2.648/3 = 0.8826 2.010/3 = 0.670 - 0.670
" hhi' bu leveling ^
By following the procedures of differential leveling and reading all three

crosshairs, blunders will virtually be eliminated, and benchmark elevations will
immediately be useable.
BUCKING IN (ELEVATION)
On a jobsite where a level or laser must be set up in the same area day after day, a
common practice is to set the instrument up at the same elevation each day. This
allows the crafts, such as sprinkler head installers, to use the same reading every day
to set sprinkler heads; or the carpenters building formwork to mark on a story pole
(long narrow board) the reading that will be used on all of the forms. This simple
practice o f setting the leveling instrument to the same elevation each day eliminates
mistakes that can occur from someone inadvertently using the previous day's
different measurement.
Another variation of this procedure is to set up the
instrument at a predetermined height so that the crafts can
measure an even number to the work that they are performing.
For instance, if the mechanical contractor wants to measure 3
feet above the line of sight to the bottom of the drop-ceiling
grid, the instrument could be set up so that the HI is exactly 3
feet below the ceiling grid. A mark could be made on columns
so that the instrument could be set at that elevation each day.
7-51
7-52
Setting G r a c l6
Standard Practices
7 - 5 4
P r o c e d u r e t o r S e t t i n g Gr
ad e 7 - 5 5
SCOPE
Setting grade (elevation) may well be the most frequent use of leveling on the
jobsite. Initially, the leveling activity will be concentrated on establishing
benchmarks throughout the jobsite. After the benchmarks are placed, however,
they will then be used in giving elevations to the crafts for the numerous
construction activities that are constantly occurring. Setting grade can be performed
using a hand level, dumpy level, automatic level, digital level, laser level, or even
a total station. The choice of instrument depends on the amount of time available
to set the grade, the precision of the elevations needed, and instrument availability.
7-53
PRACTICES
STANDARD
No Mistakes!! setting g r a d e ^
r -r s r "Si-SS
,h u kIIk etc is the Sulde f
a
n readings, the notekeeping, calculating the
anChrd takes in the setup, the ^ ges, as these crafts are going to use
f ".Hons or writing the elevations on h mjstakes that reSult i
whit written to build from rt s trong elevation, or a bridge abutment being 4
high anchor bolts being at the w g fix The bottom ime ,s that when
f e l S s going .0 cos, I. ' h e ^ only one answer . .. elevations must be
it comes to construction el
100 percent right.
Try to Balance BS and FS of the leveling instrument. If possible, it
Setting grade often requires just on ^ ^ djstance from the benchmark to the
is crucial that the instrument he se v where grade is needed, are the same.
instrument, and the instrument H Unfortunately on the constraction
Remember, balance backsighis bafance
because of obstacles that are in the
site, it is often impossible to the leveiing instrument is in proper
for the procedure for checking

leveling instruments.
One very^môrtam step fo ^ n sT g that mistakes in setting grade are eliminated

iso atways sight onto two BMs in order to determine the HI of the instrument
This simple procedure will provide a triple-check o f the leveling process if the HI
is the same when obtained from two benchmarks. The three checks are.
Benchmark movement. If one of
Always obtain the benchmarks has been run over
th e HI from or moved in some way, the
2 3M's. calculated His will not be the same.
Reading check. If the rod is read
incorrectly on one o f the
benchmarks, the calculated HIs will
not be the same.
Incorrect addition. If one of the
readings is added incorrectly, the
Only when the benchmarks are undisturbed, the readings are correct, and the
calculations are correct will the H is be the same. When they are the same, setting
grade can proceed with great confidence that the HI is correct. Now, avoid
mistakes on the foresights so the grade stakes will be correct.
Double-Check Grade Sheets
A c o m m o n p r a c t ic e is to r e v ie w th *
elevations or calculate the needed clev* ,^ * 01 PUns and wri,e down thc nccdcd
m a y c o n t a i n e l e v a t i o n s t o b e e s t a b l i s h r l f n s <o n t o w ^ r a d c S h e e t ." T h e g r a d e s h e e t
or any other needed elevation Somet' F lr* work elevations for concrete pours.
s h e e t s i f c u t o r f i l l a m o u n t s a r c t o b e w ** t h e SheC ,S a r c c a l l e d c u t s h c e l s o r flW
c a l l e d , t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i s t h e s a m e if*1 *Cn l b e s t a ^ c s - R e g a r d l e s s w h a t th e y a re
fro m th e p la n s o r if e le v a tio n s a re c a l , n i *l a k c is m a d c in o b t a i n i n g a n e l e v a t i o n
in t h e f i e l d w il l b e w r o n g . A n y t i m ^ ?*e d *n c o iT e c t l y , t h e e l e v a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d
b y tw o p e rs o n s in d e p e n d e n tly m .t g r a s h e e , s a r e u s c d * th e y s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d
to s e e w h o is 00^ ^ ^ ^ ^ A " y d if f e r e n c c s s h u ld * checked
t r i p l e - c h e c k i n g b y t h r e e p e r s o n s u s i n l n r C V at, nS SUCh aS t h e t 0 p f a b rid g C p , e r *
c o n c r e t e i s h a r d , i t i s t o o t o t e t o u s e a n e f rennl " l c l h o d s s h o u , d * * u s e d - W h c n l h e
a j a c k h a m m e r i s u s e d t o e r a s e t h e m i s t a l T ' l ChCCk y Ur e l e v a t i o n s A t l h a l P i n t
e r a s e th e m is ta k e a t g re a t c o s t to s o m e o n e .
PROCEDURE FOR SETTING GRADE

,The tyr L f " ,eVatT nT ded n the jbsite vary fro m g ra d e o n e x c a v a tio n s ta k e s
to g r a d e o f o r m w o r k a n d m a n y o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e p r o c e s s is e s s e n tia l ly th e
sam e w h e n e v e r g ra d e is b e in g e s ta b lis h e d . T h a t is . th e le v e l is s e t u p . th e H I
d e te rm in e d an in te rm e d ia te f o r e s ig h t ta k e n to d e te rm in e th e e le v a tio n o f th e
g r o u n d , a n d a c u t o r f i ll w r itte n o n th e s ta k e to d ir e c t th e c r a f ts to b u ild to th a t
e l e v a t i o n . A m o r e d e ta i le d e x p la n a tio n o f s e ttin g s ta k e s f o r th e fo o tin g s o f a s m a ll
b u ild in g is d e s c r ib e d b e lo w .
S te p 1 To construct footings requires that soil

or rock be removed to be able to place
the footing at the proper location
h orizon tally and vertically. The
horizontal location of the footings will
be determined by layout techniques
described in C h a p t e r 1 9 , L a y o u t
T e c h n iq u e s , and marked with stakes that
are offset from the center of the footing.
S te p 2 Once the lcation of the footing for the

^ " building is established, elevation is
needed so that the excavation contractor
can excavate to the bottom of the footing.
On the plans, this elevation may not be
directly given. More likely, the top of
footing elevation will be given or maybe
even just the finish floor elevation will
be known. Regardless, the elevation
must be determined and a grade sheet
developed.
7-55
vol|ng
^ chapter seven
L o c a te th e b e n c h m a r k s n e a r e s t t o th e
Step 3 w o rk . If n o n e a r e a v a i l a b l e , r u n a
b e n c h m a rk lo o p fro m a k n o w n e le v a tio n
to the jobsite and e s t a b l i s h b e n c h m a r k s
BMA
around the s ite .
Step 4 S e t u p a leveling in s tr u m e n t in a lo c a t i o n th a t is a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o b e i n g b a la n c
b e tw e e n th e b e n c h m a r k s a n d th e n e e d e d f o o t i n g e l e v a t i o n s . W h e n r e a d y , ta k
b a c k s i g h ts o n tw o b e n c h m a r k s to o b t a i n a n H I ( s e e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n ) .
Step 5 D ir e c t t h e r o d p e r s o n to th e f i r s t f o o t i n g
a n d d r i v e a s t a k e in th e g r o u n d a t th e
l o c a t i o n o f th e f o o t i n g , o r u s e a n e x i s t i n g
s ta k e th a t m a r k s th e lo c a tio n o f th e
f o o t i n g . T h e r o d p e r s o n s h o u l d h o l d th e
r o d o n th e g r o u n d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
s t a k e a n d th e i n s t r u m e n t o p e r a t o r w ill
re a d th e f o r e s ig h t.
S te p 6 C a lc u la te th e g ro u n d e le v a tio n and
c o m p a r e it t o t h e d e s i g n e l e v a t i o n f o r
th e f o o tin g . S u b tr a c t th e tw o r e a d in g s
a n d d ir e c t th e ro d p e r s o n to w r it e a c u t
o n t h e s t a k e w i t h a c r o w s f o o t s o t h a t
th e e x c a v a t o r k n o w s w h e r e t o s t a r t .
S te p 7
Direct the rod person to other footings in the building. Most likely, the ground
elevations will not be the same at each footing location; therefore, an intermediate
foresight will be needed to determine the cut at each point.
Summary |
btant
POINTS
iiw>P
r i n f i l t ^ T in r m e m ^ *h e V e r iC a l d i s t a n c e a b v e b e n c h m a rk .
A n m f .n . e n u m b e r o f e le v a tio n s c a n b e d e te r m in e d fro m o n e in s tru m e n t s e tu p .
F o r e s i g h t s a r e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m th e H i ,, i
lin e o f s ig h t, a n d th e n th e y a re a d d e d * " ^ e le v a tio n is a b o v e ,h e
M e a n S e a L e v e l is u s e d a s th e d a tu m o r re f e re n c e fo r le v e lin g w o rk .
T u r n in g p o i n t s c a n b e a n y th in g a s lo n g a s th e y a re s o lid .
^ s e r ^ a n d ' h l n r i l T ' * 8 ? U m p y l e v e l s ' a u t o m a t ' c l e v e l s , d i g i t a l l e v e l s ,

e v e s c a n b e u s e d to d e te r m in e o r e s ta b lis h e le v a tio n s .
O n a n a u t o m a t i c l e v e l , a l w a y s m a k e s u r e t h e c o m p e n s a t o r is w o r k i n g b y
ta p p in g th e tr ip o d le g .
R e a d th e r o d c a r e f u lly w h e n le v e lin g a n d u s e th e h ig h e r n u m b e r a b o v e th e
c r o s s h a ir to a v o id b e in g o n e fo o t o r o n e m e te r o ff.
Following standard practices will result in consistent elevations.

Parallax has a great impact on rod readings in the leveling process and must
be eliminated for each reading.
Leveling Instruments should be calibrated frequentlyat least weekly.
The distance from the instrument to the rod for backsights and foresights
should be the same in differential leveling.
The person holding the rod should always be sure all needed sections of a
telescoping rod are extended.
The rod should be perpendicular to the line of sight. Plumb it or wave it.
It is never acceptable to have an unclosed level loop. Always, always,
always, close the loop!
An arithmetic page-check helps find notekeeping mistakes.
Follow level-note basics for any type of level project.
MISTAKES A N D E R R O R S F R O M T H E F IE L D
Reversed the foresight and backsight.

Continued to shoot elevations when the instrument lost its level.
Not "closing the loop."
Not waving the rod, and not holding the rod on a clean surface.
Busting a foot.
Not fully extending grade.
Reading the rod with either of the intermediate horizontal crosshairs.
Being so concerned about the decimal part of the reading, we read the wrong
foot mark.
Not calibrating the instrument.
7-57
a
^ c fia p te i s e v e n
H ad unev
,en sig h t distances.
> und.
N o t s e ttin g tr ip o d in s o lid g ro '
s a n d h u n d re d th s o n th e ro d .
W e d i d n 't r e a d t e n t h
m e tric a n d b a c k .
C o n v e r tin g fro m f e e t to
I m is re a d b y I fo o t.
U se d a d a m a g e d ( s h o r te n e d ) ro d s tic k .
N o t p ro te c tin g th e in s tru m e n t o r p o s itio n in g th e in s tr u m e n t o u t o f th e w a y
g o t b u m p e d a n d k n o c k e d o u t o f le v e l.
QUESTIONS A N D P R O B LE M S
1. Illustrate t h e b a s i c t h e o r y o f d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l i n g .
List t h e f o r m u l a s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e H I . a n d t o c a l c u l a t e a n e le v a tio n .
2.
T h in k a b o u t a n d id e n tif y w h e n a f o r e s ig h t w o u ld b e p o s itiv e .
3.
. E le v a tio n , D a tu m , B e n c h m a r k , B a c k s ig h t,
4. D e fin e th e f o llo w in g le v e lin g te r m s
- f-i
H e ig h t o f I n s tr u m e n t, F o r e s ig h t. T u r n in g P o in t.
D e s c r i b e w h y a c l o s e d l o o p is n e c e s s a r y i n l e v e l i n g .
5.
D e s c r ib e th e s t e p - b y - s te p d if f e r e n t ia l le v e l in g p r o c e d u r e .
6.
S ta te w h y th e d is ta n c e f r o m th e in s tr u m e n t to th e b a c k s i g h t, a n d th e in s tr u m e n t
7.
to th e f o r e s ig h t, m u s t b e th e s a m e ( b a l a n c e d ) .
F o r le v e l in g o n a s m a ll c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s u c h a s a h o m e , w h i c h t y p e o f le v e l
w o u ld b e a g o o d c h o ic e to e s t a b li s h th e f o o t in g e l e v a t i o n s ?
9. F o r e s ta b lis h in g e le v a tio n s o n a la rg e s ite w ith lo ts o f e q u ip m e n t a n d th e n e e d

to p e r f o r m th e o p e r a tio n s q u ic k l y , w h ic h le v e l w o u ld b e b e s t ?
10. If running benchmark levels on a site where the elevations must be precise,
which level(s) could be used and why?
11. Describe why selection of the instrument setup location is critical to
efficient leveling.
12. How is parallax eliminated in a leveling instrument?
13. State how a rod person could always insure that the rod is fully extended.
14. Describe the ideal turning point.
15. Describe how profile leveling is different and similar to differential leveling.
16. Describe how profile leveling is different and similar to cross-section leveling
or grid leveling.
17. Identify any standard practice ot differential leveling that is not followed
when performing profile, cross-section, or grid leveling.
18. On what type of project might three-wire leveling be used?
19. Look out a window and describe five objects that would be good benchmarks.
7-58
summary @
7-59
file l e v e l n o t e s . P r o v i d e a n a r i t h m e t i c c h e c k . Piot ^
c a l c u l a t e th e f o l l o w i n g # s c a | e o f r = 50 h o r i z o n t a l l y a n d 1 =
22 profile points on 8.5 x HP V
23. Calculate the following profile level notes. Provide an arithmetic check. Plot the
profile points on 8.5 x 11 paper at a scale of 1 = 50 horizontally and 1 = 1*.
Profile Level Notes of Camp Rotary Road
Station +BS HI -FS -ss Elev
B M 325 2 .5 6 2 4 4 1 .0 2 m
TP # 1 2 .4 3 0 3 .8 3 3
0+00 4 .6 3
0+20
5 .2 3
0+40
3 .8 2
0+55
1 .7 5
1+45
0 .5 4
TP # 2 3 .9 5 8
2 .7 7 0
1+50
1 .8 2
2+76
3 .6 5
3+00
4 .7 9
TP # 3 3 .6 2 1
5 .6 3 6
B M 325
0 .3 3 6
25. Calculate the following differential level notes. Provide an arithmetic check.
Elevations of XYZ Building Site after Excavation __________
Station +BS HI -FS -SS Elev
BM 926 2.59 620.28
TP1 4.44 5.68
A1 9.7
9.6
A2
9.6
A3
9.7
A4
9.7
B1
9.6
B2
26. The grade foreman on the utilities just called. He doesn t like decimal parts
of a foot represented on grade stakes. He wants the offset stake tops to be a
whole number of feet (XXX.OO) above foundation forms. Having gathered
the following data, how much deeper must this stake be driven until it is a
whole number of feet above the form elevation of 658.00? What elevation is
it driven to? When the stake is at the desired grade, what will be your reading
nn
* in
Top of Form = 658.0'
BM #1= 664.71 BM #2 = 665.32
BS on BM #1 =7.23 BS on BM #2 = 6.62
Initial Rod Reading on Stake = 11.34
FIELD ACTIVITIES
l. Differential Leveling - (2 to 3 persons, 3 hours) Objective: Transfer the
elevation from a benchmark to a temporary benchmark. Procedure: Locate
a benchmark and determine where a temporary benchmark is needed. U tilize
differential leveling procedures, and run a level loop from the BM to the TBM.
Close the loop. Be within the 0.05' when closing.
2. Setting Benchmarks - (Individual, 1 hour) Objective: Determine the best
location for benchmarks around a proposed construction site. Procedure:
Select any site as the location of a proposed construction project. W alk around
the site looking for permanent objects that could be used as permanent
benchmarks during the duration of the project. Mark with a crayon the
proposed benchmarks.
7-62
P ro file L ev elin g - (2 o r ^ , .
e le v a tio n s a t d e fin e d in te rv a ls a i A 3 h o u rs > D e t e r m i n e th e
o f a k n o w n b e n c h m a r k , s e l e c t t w o L m g^ n d , P r o c f k d u r * : l n l h c v i c i n ,t y
ta p e , m e a s u r e a n d m a r k e v e r y h u l t W ? 4 0 0 fCC' a p a r l U s i n * a cV olh
l i n e b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s S e t u p J L i i n * n d lh C r c h a n * c s in r a d c aU>n ,h c
te c h n iq u e s , le v e l to th e a re o f t h e r! 1?* USi" 8 d i f f e r c n l i a l e v c ' ! n *
techniques
th e l o o p
to determine the ve l'ce vv aa ut i oo nn of h n c U s n * ' evfc,
o f e a c h p o in t o n th e p ro file h n c . C lo s e
d e T u itm o ^ n o m K V 2 V 2 O b jectiv e: D e t e r m i n e t h e
Ij _ e s t a b l i s h e d P e r f C,n ' c u *a r t o a n e s t a b l i s h e d p r o f i l e l i n e . P ro c ed u re :
i el Ira n nnt t P r, ' , n e a n d P r o t l l e l e v e l i n g f i e l d n o t e s . U s e a h a n d
r , . m a ., c c v e ' * o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n s . A t e a c h s t a t i o n o n
wf in C r C 3 P e r P e r |d i c u l a r l i n e a n d o b t a i n t h e e l e v a t i o n o f p o i n t s
1 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 , a n d 4 0 l e e t a w a y f r o m c e n t e r l i n e a n d o t h e r d e f i n i t e c h a n g e s in
g r a d e to th e r ig h t a n d le f t o f th e s ta tio n
Multi-Story Leveling - (2 o r 3 p e rs o n s. 2 h o u rs) Objective: T r a n s f e r e le v a tio n

fr o m th e g r o u n d u p in to a s tru c tu r e . Procedure: L o c a te a lo c a l p a rk in g g a ra g e
o r a s i m i l a i : - o r - m o r e - s t o r y b u i l d i n g ( o b ta in p e r m is s io n ) . R u n a le v e l lo o p fr o m
a n e a r b y B M t o th e s t r u c t u r e a n d c lo s e th e lo o p . U s in g a s te e l c h a in , tr a n s f e r th e
e le v a tio n up th e s tru c tu r e . U se a le v e lin g in s tru m e n t and o b ta in an H .l.
D e t e r m i n e a n e l e v a t i o n o t a p o i n t in t h e s t r u c t u r e t o t h e n e a r e s t h u n d r e d t h .
Borrow Pit Leveling - (2 or 3 persons, 2 hours) Objective: Establish a grid

and determine the elevation of each grid point by the use of differential
le\ eling techniques. Procedure: Locate an area at least 200 feet square. Using
a right-angle prism and a cloth tape, establish and mark a grid with 25'
intervals. Locate a nearby benchmark and use differential leveling techniques
to locate a temporary BM close to the site. Use grid leveling techniques to
determine the elevation of the grid points to the nearest tenth.
chapter eight
lasers
Introduction
Standard Practi ces
Applications
Summar y
1
Introduction
Construction
The EvoI u t i o n of L a s e r s in
B e n e f i t s of Us i n g a L a s e r
T y p e s of L a s e r s
C l a s s e s of L a s e r s
SCOPE
In todays world of construction, repetitive work that requires constant grade or
alignment is best accomplished with a laser. By using a laser, the contractor
reduces costs and increases productivity. The availability o f lasers has truly
revolutionized the methods o f controlling the elevations on a jobsite. The use of
lasers is very simple: Set it up, turn it on, hold the rod on a benchmark to obtain
an elevation, hold the sensor wherever an elevation is needed, and record the
data. Although very simple to use, m istakes can be made with construction
lasers. The field engineer must be aware o f the proper operation o f the laser, its
limits, and its extensive opportunities for application in construction.
8*2
"p ro d u ctio n 0
N
n. 1/TlON OF LASERS IN CONSTRUCTION
eS A l a s e r is a l i g h t b e a m . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y i
ft* Am
A n i pp ll ii ff ii ce aa tt ii oo nn bb yy S
S tt ii m Em
m uu ll aa tt ee dd E m iis si io
o nnT > f , R (Jr
. AASF'
SER R ,s
is a n c ro n y m fo r U c h t
c o n ta in * o n ly o n e c o lo r o f th e s p e c tr u m ; th e r e fo re " * b e u m o f * " ' > <
e n t i t l e d i s c o h e r e n t ,n t h a t ,t d o e s n o t s c a t t e r T h mOT > m > m a ,ic . T h e b e a m
to s ,a > a ,m o s l p a r a ,l e l a n d d o n o t d iv e r g e lik e o rd in f U g h l in l h e te n d
l a s e r is a l s o g e n e t i c a l l y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e e l e c t r o n ^ ? **)" ln k e y i n g . t h e t e r m
la s e rs . T h e s e a r e d is c u s s e d la te r. l e v e l s t h a t u rc n o t t e c h n i c a l l y
L a s e rs w e re firs t d e v e lo p e d in
t h e l a t e 19 5 0 s a n d w e r e m o r e a c u r i o s i t y
th a n a to o l. It w a s n ' t lo n g , h o w e v e r,
u n til h u m a n in g e n u i ty b e g a n to d e v e lo p
a ho st of a p p lic a tio n s such as
c o m m u n ic a tio n s , w eapons, m e d ic a l
e q u ip m e n t, a n d o f c o u rs e , c o n s tru c tio n .
I n t h e m i d 19 6 0 s . l a s e r s b e g a n t o
be a p p lie d to s u r v e y in g . Electronic
D is ta n c e Measurement instruments
w e r e t h e f i r s t application. L a t e r , it w a s
recognized this durable tool could be used on tho ^
alignment and grade work; sewer lasers were dcveloncd N T " 0". S"C
a rotating prism could be attached to the laser and f t ' T f ni1 ,hM
created. This breakthrough in applying the laser to construeontadeTatafotbfc
for the bu.ld.ng contractor. Since then, other eons,rue,ionTpptifa io
evolved and the laser ,s the Itne-and-grade tool-of-choiee on the construction site.
Although the future is here with present day lasers, there is p r o b a b l y an
even brighter future tor construction line and grade from the lasers and sensors of
the future! Think smaller! Construction surveyors must keep up to date with laser
technology to maximize the effectiveness of lasers on the jobsite.
benefits o f u s i n g a l a s e r
There are many benefits to having lasers available on the jobsite. Here are just a few.
Ease of Use
Simple! There isnt a better word to describe the lasers of
today. They have been designed to be easy to use for anyone
with a basic knowledge of surveying instruments and the
leveling process. The operator simply rough-levels the laser
using standard leveling screws. The self-leveling system
takes over and levels it exactly. Keeping the batteries charged
is probably the most difficult operation in using a laser.
Productivity
Using a laser cuts labor costs on every reading. Because no
one has to stay at the instrument, laser leveling can be a one-
person activity. One person can perform those same tasks
which require two persons using a conventional level and rod,
freeing persons to perform other layout tasks.
8
versatility v e r s a tile a n d in e x p e n s iv e t h a t a n y c o n tr a c to r r e q u iti
P re s e n t-d a y la s e rs a re s o ^ b e h in d if , h e y d o n o t h a v e a la s e r a v a ila b u
c o n s ta n t lin e a n d g r a d e P m u n d o u b te d ly b e c o m e e v e n m o re
fo r e v e ry d a y u se. ' ^ / ' " 'o l o g y fu rth e r a d v a n c e s th e u s e o f la s e m w
p r e v a l e n t o n h e j o b s F ro m th e o r ig in a l b u lk y c o n s tr u c tio n la s e r th a t p ro d u c e d
c o n s tru c tio n a p p lic a tio . l a s e r s h a v e e v o l v e d i n t o p o c k e t l a s e r s th a t
a h o riz o n ta l p la n e o r a s tr a ig h 1 la s e r s t h a t c a n b e u s e d f o r v e rtic a l
c a rp e n te rs c a n c a rry ^ V ^ o t d ' - c a r p e n t e r s l e v e l s t h a t c a n l e v e l a n d s < S
a lig n m e n t, la s e rs t P j to o n u m e r o u s to m e n tio n . L a s e rs h av e
become the e t e c t r o n l c ^ u m b 'b o b , s t r i n g l i n e , a n d le v e l o f l i n e - a n d - g r a d e a c tiv itie s

o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite . T h e y a re d u ra b le a n d a b le to w o rk f o r h o u rs o r d a y s o n
a small battery.
Fewer Human Errors ,
Errors caused by poor communication between the instrument person and rod
person are eliminated since laser leveling is a one-person operation. Errors from
misreading numbers are reduced.
Accuracy , . , .
Lasers provide a consistent, reliable reference plane. Accuracy of the signal can
be as little as 1/16" of an inch at a distance of 200 feet.
Out-of-Level Warning Cutoff System

Most lasers automatically shut down if bumped out of level. If the laser is bumped
or disturbed while being used, it will automatically turn off and indicate with a
blinking light that it is out of level. This eliminates bad readings that might be taken.
Dependability
Lasers are rugged. They are built to withstand the harsh construction environment.
Most lasers are designed to operate from -20F to 130F. They are water-resistant
and can operate in a light rain shower. Lasers continue to work all day as long as
there is power.
TYPES OF LASERS
Visible Light Laser
The visible light laser, also known as the helium-neon laser is a gaseous type that
consists of helium and neon. These gases are trapped in a cylindrical tube and become
active when electrical current is applied, causing the neon to glow very brightly. The
cylindrical tube is constructed with concave mirrors in the ends that help focus and
concentrate the intense light which has been created into a continuous beam. This beam
emits from one end of the cylinder, becoming a visible beam laser. This type of laser
can be dangerous to the eye if stared at directly for long periods of time.
f=s= Electronic Level
The electronic level laser uses an infrared energy source that is not visible to the
-S S L observer. An electronic sensor must be used to locate the signal emitted from the
electronic level. The infrared energy is rotated continuously in a complete circle
around the instrument.
8-4
Introduction 0
Q f LASERS
jse s
Fixed
The fixed laser projects a single h...
s trin g Im e , g r a d e lin e . e tc T, - , m o f li g h t th a t c u n . ,
r rr ^ 2
typically a visible light Z S S t t g l
carp,-.,ter . arc dtscusscj here. "f n d User,. pipeline.
--------------------- ------ - P ip e lin e - T he
lasers which have fe itur '1*" f)xcd ,'cam l***ri arc the sewer
set either a positive or nee irSUCh * au,oma,ic Pdc setting to
remote control, or a hi.hiv !'*5***aulo,nalic Unc centering,
and are watf rr,^~r ' ,s'hle beam. These arc well built.
a n d a r e w a t e r p r o o f s o th e y ca,
s e w e r w o r k w h e r e the ' * 1 " * ,,,c ,n m m me
tim e . T h e g r a d e s f o r w h ic h th e s e in s tn .m . bC COVCred w u h w a , c r at a n y
- 1 0 % , w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f a b o u t 1 /1 6 " ' p e r " m T * * USCd a r e ^ c a ll y +40< * to
g ra d e a n d a lig n m e n t to b e a d ju s te d fro m * e e t R e m t e c o n t r o l s a ll o w th e
th e m a n h o le w ith th e in s tr u m e n t T hcs * 0 , c v c l a s o p p o s e d to b e i n g d o w n in
a r e a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r a n y o n e in p i p e l i n e ^ w o r i f ^ ^ r c ,ia b ,c in s ,ru m e n ts th a t
P o c k e t - O t h e r ty p e s o f la s e rs w ith m u ltip le f i x , t L , ,
t h a t a r e b e i n g c a r r i e d b y m a n y c r a f t s o n th e j o b s i t e '^ T h e ^ ^
fix e d h o r i z o n ta l , v e r t ic a l , a n d p lu m b lin e s S o m e h . v \ L ' ,c ^ a ,l ,c d c v ,c c s Pr i c e t
t h e Docket l a s e r can b e u s e d i h a v e m u l t i p l e h o n z x m ta l lines s o th a t
t, h e *p o c k e t l aisne r c a n b e u s eJ d t..........'
o la y o u t ,sHu q u ua irC
e cc oo rrnn ee rrss.. TI hh ee ss ce
la
l a sse
e rs
r s aa rr ee ss ee llff -- lle
e vv ee lin
lin o
g aan
nd <>,,,4.
d w o r k i n s t a.....
n t ,l y w h e n p l a c e d o n a
po.nt on the floor. They are typically accurate to */4 inch in KM)
feet. The beam is bright
- and --*ee**j
highly visible and no
vi-viuis. uuu detector is
uu uetector
>/T I n ix e n ____ 1 l .
needed. These instruments are built to be very durable and can
withstand the rigors of the construction site.
Carpenter s Laser - Another application of lasers is attaching them to the common
carpenter s level that has been used for hundreds of years. Because of the simplicity
and familiarity of this common tool, most
persons are comfortable with using this
laser. With the availability of these tools,
anyone has access to laser technology
for their construction projects.
Rotating
Both visible light lasers and electronic levels can be rotating
lasers. Some applications require being able to see the beam
while other applications do not. It is up to the contractor to
decide which best meets the needs of the work. The rotating
laser is typically constructed with a rotating prism that projects
the laser beam by spinning rapidly. This rapidly spinning
beam creates a plane that can be used as a reference.
The rotating type of laser is typically self leveling and
has numerous features to make it easy and versatile to use.
The laser beams now available are either red or green, and are
highly visible even in bright sunlight. On many ot the lasers
in this classification, the beam can be directed or rotated at
various speeds for a variety of construction applications- The
range of the beams is from a few feet to several thousand feet,
which creates a huge working area for the laser.
8 -5
ser*
chapter
. . o f t h e r o ta tin g la s e r is to c r e a te a h o riz o n ta l
, . p,ane - T h e m a i n PurPs . c r e a t e d w h e n a n a u t o m a t i c l e v e l is s e t
T T r t e m u l a t e s t h e horizontal pi Q() feet Uses o f this t y p e o f l a s e r a re
p ; r o r:y
v IS
is tt yy ppi ci â l' lvy a- b o u t 1 /1
t i n6 g P f m i s n i n g s u b g r a d e , f i ni s h i n g a ilVAjr
f l o o r,
T h e y in c lu d e ^ ^ n i n g a d r o p c e ilin g , a s w e ll a s p e rfo rm in g
~ * - *
o " h c o n s n u c tiM ^ e le v a tio n w o ric r f t h e r o t a t i n g l a s e r is t h a t i t c a n a ls o
Vertical P l a n e - A n a lte rn a tiv e a P P ro ( a tin g la s e r s a r e c o n s tr u c te d s o th e y can
Utility versatile o f a ll la s e r s . It c a n p ro je c t h o riz o n ta la n d

T h e u tility la s e r is th e m o p la n e s , a n d s lo p e lin e s o r p la n e s . T h is ty p e
v e rtic a l lin e s , h o n z o n t a and .Qn o n th e j o b s i t e w i t h a c c u r a c y t h a t a g a in
o f la s e r c a n b e u s e d m a t a o ^ ^ ty p ic a lly o f th e h e liu m - n e o n
The u tility laser is typically a b o u t 1 /1 6 p beam T h e y a re u s u a lly m u c h m o r e e x p e n s iv e
can do it all. C a s s , a n d e m i t a ^ * * '^ .* e ^ * a t>ea r e a v a ila b le , but have th e p o te n tia l fo r

th a n th e s in g le fu . . -t U tility la s e rs u s u a lly have n u m ero u s
f e a t u r e s t o p r o v i d e 'g r e a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y a n d u s e , i n c l u d i n g a n a u t o m a t i c l e v e l i n g o f
th e l a s e r w i t h a u t o m a t i c s h u t o f f i f b u m p e d . A c o m m o n f e a t u r e i s t h e c h a l k l i n e t h a t
s c re a te d b y lim itin g th e b e a m to a s m a ll a r e a a n d r a p t d ly m o v m g , t b a c k a n d f o r th .
T h is b e c o m e s h ig h l y v i s i b l e a n d is o n l y u s e d w h e r e t h e b e a m i s n e e d e d . A n o th e r
f e a t u r e is t h e a b i l i t y t o f o c u s t h e b e a m f o r g r e a t e r b r i g h t n e s s a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e
b e a m , o r fo r in c re a s e d a c c u ra c y . R e m o te c o n tr o l is a s ta n d a r d f e a tu r e th a t a llo w s
fo r la s e r a d ju s tm e n t fro m th e o th e r s id e o f th e j o b s i t e . U tility la s e r s c o n ta in
s o ftw a re th a t a llo w th e u s e r to s e l e c t f e a t u r e s a t th e p u s h o f a b u t t o n .
8-6
Standard Practices
. -----
Fi el d Pr a c t i c e s 8-8
M a r k i n 9 <he Si gnal 8-11

Procedure
r e c t - E l e v a t i o n Rod 8-1 2
U s 6 ' Calibration 8-13
SCOPE
The laser can be one o f the most useful tools on the jobsite. It works as long as it
has power, and it extends the ability to accomplish more than one task at a time.
Anytime a construction surveyor can do that, success will follow. This Section will
address some o f the uses of the laser and will point out common mistakes that may
be encountered.
8 -7
<*ser
chapter eight
FIELD PRACTICES
Even though the operation o f the laser is sim ple and elevations are easy to obtain
exact procedures must be used to m eet the tolerances required o f construction
Basically, standard practices used when performing d ifferen tial leveling should b
f o l l o w e d including balancing sites, plum b rod, solid setups, and solid tu r n ip
points. See Chapter 7, Leveling. H ow ever, there are som e field practices that ar
specific to the use o f lasers. They are described here.
Safetyused in surveying are typically Class 1 lase rs th at are

Lasers
low -pow er lasers th at do n o t n o rm a lly p o se a h a z a rd .
H ow ever, i f C lass 2 lasers are e n c o u n te re d , th e y a re a lso L aser R adlatlon-
Do n o t stare
low -pow er visible lasers th at can n o t c a u se e y e d a m a g e In to beam
unless they are view ed d ire c tly fo r an e x te n d e d p e rio d o f
tim e. T ypically, com m ercially p ro d u ced lasers h a v e b e e n Cl 1 Lir Productj
classified and id en tified by lab e ls a ffix e d to th e la s e r.

Warning signs may still need to be posted on the jobsite
when lasers are b eing o p erated .
Use the Owners Manual

Read the owners manual thoroughly as it contains valuable information on the f,.n
r v n o r o f /v r fU n f
utilization of the instrument. It is the understanding and skill of the op. *
,u l t ; m a f r e s u l t s Q f u s i n g a ] a s e r '
Two Lasers
One of the greatest sources of error in the
use of lasers is to have two or more lasers
Never, ever, on the jobsite at the same time. On a
have t wo lasers recent project, the caisson driller had a
on a t once. laser set up, and just 30 feet away, the
carpenters had a laser set up for formwork
elevations. The caisson driller couldnt
understand why the rebar cage was almost
a foot out of the hole. It was determined
that one of the lasers was about a foot above the other, and the caisson driller sensor
had picked up the wrong laser resulting in a hole that was a foot shallow. Always look
around well to see if there are any other lasers on the jobsite. If there are, try to work
together and use just one laser, or position them in such a way that the incorrect laser
signal will not be picked up.
Signal Reflection
One problem that can occur with laser use is to have the laser
signal bounce off of a reflective surface resulting in a
misrepresentation of the true horizontal line of sight of the
laser. The signal will act erratically as the sensor picks up a
signal in two locationsthe correct one and the false one.
The reflection might be higher or lower than the HI of the
laser causing elevations to be set incorrectly. Look around
after the laser is set up for any hard surfaces such as a plate
glass window that might reflect the beam.
8-8
standard practices 0
High Setup
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f th e g r o u n d is n o t
c o n s t a n t a s th e l a s e r b e a m p a s s e s t h r o u c h
th e a ir . T e s t s h a v e p r o v e n t h a t th e b e a m
c a n b e n d s lig h tly d u e to te m p e ra tu re
*s > d i f f e r e n t i a l s . T o a v o i d t h i s c h a n g e in
te m p e r a t u r e c l o s e t o th e g r o u n d , s o m e
m a n u f a c tu r e rs r e c o m m e n d th a t e x tr a
h ig h t r i p o d s b e u s e d s o t h a t t h e l a s e r is
p la c e d h ig h above th e g ro u n d in a ir
te m p e ra tu re s th a t a re m o r e c o n s is te n t.
Weather Impact
S tu d ie s h a v e s h o w n th a t la s e r s ig n a ls c a n b e ff
a s h e a v y r a i n , f o g , o r s n o w . W h e n th e s e ' ^ lte c te d b y w e a th e r c o n d itio n s su c h
a k n o w n e le v a tio n to s e e w h a t im p a c t t h e ^ 1 u nS. CCUr f r e q u e n t l y c h e c k i n t o
d e v i a t i o n s h o u l d r e s u l t in d e l a y i n g t h e 1S h a v i n g o n th e s i g n a l . A ny
J s e W o rk u n t , l c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e .
Pipeline Deflection
L a s e r s ig n a ls g o in g th r o u g h p ip e c a n b e d e f l e c t s a
c h a n g e s . A s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h t h i s c a n o c c u r is w o r k f ^ t h b y te m Pe ra tu re
P i p e is s t o r e d i n t h e d i r e c t s u n l i g h t a n d can o t 1 t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s u m m e r .
ground is excavated, and ho. pipeplacedTn^.he0 l0 * * ~ A " m re- A the
passes through cool a,r and then ho. air. Studies have shown
that the signal can deflect as much as 6 inches in a 20-foot
p pe. To overcome this problem, pipeline contractors will
place a powerful fan in the pipe at the laser location and force
a constant temperature through the hot pipe, resulting in a
signal that is straight and not deflected.
HI from Two Benchmarks
It was shown earlier that obtaining the instrument height from two benchmarks
is a great field practice to eliminate the possibility of mistakes that could occur
if there is a bad benchmark, or bad readings or math. This practice is so
important, it is repeated here.
Column Attachment
Often, lasers are used in the
construction of buildings. Errors can
occur when placing the laser on a metal
deck where the work is taking place.
This p la cem en t co u ld result in
automatic shutoffs and an unsteady
beam. A better practice is to attach the
laser to a column by using a bracket
purchased from the manufacturer or an
equipment supplier, or having one
made. Many persons simply make their
own bracket out o f scrap metal that is
picked up on the jobsite.
8 -9
^ chapter eight
\
Secure th e L a s e r
Due to the nature of lasers being in
extremely c l o s e p r o x i m i t y to t h e w o r k
on a c o n s tru c tio n s ite . la s e rs a re
constantly in danger of the h a z a r d s of
construction. Being b u m p e d a n d
k n o c k e d a s p e rs o n s p a s s th e m c a r r y in g
lu m b e r, s te e l, o r o th e r c o n s t r u c ti o n
p ro d u c ts is o n e ty p e o f h a z a r d . I f th e
lliliCI
a s e r f1C
a line
ls h a rd to th e s u r f a c e , i t is
p r o b a b l y o n it s w a y to t h e r e p a i r s h o p . 1
A s a s a f e ty m e a s u r e to k e e p th e la s e r f r o m f a l li n g , it is r e c o m m e n d e d th a t th e la s e r
b e tie d o f f ju s t lik e w o r k e r s . T a k e a p i e c e o f w i r e o r r o p e , i n s e r t it t h r o u g h t h e
h a n d le o r s o m e p a r t o f th e la s e r, a n d tie th e la s e r to a s o lid o b je c t n e a rb y .
H n n p fu llv . th is o u n c e o f p r e v e n t io n w ill p r e v e n t a m i s h a p .
Plumb the Sensor Rod . ..

W h e n o b s e r v in g p e r s o n s u s in g la s e r s o n th e j o b s i t e , it is c o m m o n to s e e p e r s o n s
h o ld in g th e s e n s o r ro d o u t o f p lu m b , u n a w a r e th e y a r e c a u s i n g e r r o r s in th e
re a d in g s . R e f e r to Chapter 7, Leveling , fo r a m o re th o r o u g h d is c u s s io n o f h o w
th is c a u s e s th e r e a d in g s to b e la r g e r .
Close the Work

A lw a y s c h e c k in to a t le a s t o n e b e n c h m a r k b e f o r e p u t t i n g t h e l a s e r a w a y f o r th e d a y .
S i n c e s o m e o n e i s n t n e x t t o t h e l a s e r w a t c h i n g i t a l l d a y l o n g , i t m a y h a v e b e e n
b u m p e d a n d r e s e t a t a d if f e r e n t e le v a tio n . I f th is is c a u g h t, a n y e le v a tio n s th a t w e re
s e t c a n b e c h e c k e d to s e e i f th e y n e e d to b e a d j u s t e d to th e n e w e le v a tio n .
Limit Distances
Although specifications on lasers indicate ranges of 800 meters or more, at long
distances, the accuracy of the laser will be subject to errors from curvature of the
earth and refraction of the line of sight when the distance from the laser to the
benchmark and the distance to the sensor are not the same. The same principles that
apply to standard optical leveling apply to laser leveling. If elevations are needed
two or three thousand feet away, use turning points to transfer the laser to that area.
Assure Intervisibility
Lasers require intervisibility between the laser and the sensor. On the jobsite, this
usually isnt a problem unless there is a crane or there are materials or something else
in the way. If lasers are used in the initial startup of a job where there are leaves and
bushes still on the site, it will sometimes be difficult for the sensor to pick up the
signal. When this occurs, move the laser as needed to obtain a clear line of sight.
Climatize
If wet, do not Utilize protective covers when the laser is operated in wet conditions. Climatize
5tore in closed the laser just as any other instrument when conditions
require it. If the laser gets
case. wet, do not store it in a closed case at night.
8-10
t h s ig n a l
k,NG
The laser signal is either visible or i
used. A ctual locating o f the signal I'L '**1? 1' dePending on th ,
heant is striding a w all, or it n ^ ^ * ? * * ' L
No Sensor sensor to Pick up the beam
Although the visible beam is easy to see
obvious w hen an area is lighted w t, , mark in low-lieht
sunlight conditions, the beam becom ** the visible beam laser i 1 10nS U isn t as
visible heant, manufacture" d cuU to s e t ^ i L T r 'n ^
beam, m aking it highly visible when the la* Plastic target that a b s o r b ? * " ? the
the target w il, have a notch * [
With a Sensor 0 obtain the exact line.
An e lectro n ic se n so r is used to determ ine
the lo ca tio n o f a lase r line o r plan e w ith
the e le c tro n ic lev e l, and m ay also be
MovePown necessary w ith th e v isib le lig h t laser
On w hen it is u sed in th e b rig h t su n lig h t
S ensors are v e ry ru g g ed , d u rab le, and
w a te rp ro o f fo r th e in e v ita b le abuse they
will re c e iv e b y b e in g d ro p p ed o r g ettin g
wet, m u d d y , etc. T h e y ty p ic a lly h ave a
fine (1 /1 6 " ) a n d a c o a rs e (1 /8 ") m o d e fo r detectino f*
they h a v e an a u d ib le sig n a l th a t can be tu rn ed on or o ff d e n f a th e âser- Also
A v isu a l d isp la y in d ic a te s to th e u se r w h eth er or not th PCndmg 0n the sltuation-
the sig n a l lin e . 1 r n0t the sensor ls abv e or below
Sensors are designed to attach to a level rod, a direct

e evatton rod, a 2" x 4", a lath, or are designed to be used
alone^ When used alone, the signal is picked up by the sensor,
and the tone varies depending on where the signal is hitting
the sensor. Three tones are typical on a sensor. For example,
a slow beep-beep indicates the sensor is below the lasei
signal. A rapid beep-beep-beep is emitted when the sensor
above the laser signal. A steady tone is emitted when tl
sensor is right on. In addition to the tones, the display on tl
1
sensor will show arrows that will point in the direction tl
the sensor needs to be moved to land right on the signal.
When attached to a level rod, the sensor can be- moved up andt down
1t a t. 1
to obi
rod readings. With this capability, one person can establish elevations anywhere
the jobsite. If the same elevation is going to be established on dozens of footii
a storyboard (simple board) can be used with the sensor attached to it. The nee
elevation can be set and the storyboard can be used for all of the footings.
o -M
p r o c e d u r e f=OR d ir e c ti -e l e v- a
o r LMMCU t io n
----- ROD
rn w ... . ,__ iobtaining elevations
el< on a site with a laser is with tv>a
The most efficient met monly referred to as le n k e r rods. The use of a
use of direct-elevation rods,^commo^^y ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a^ .
direct-elevation (or ) display the elevation of any point where the rod
lea kV / i l d^ g: : ^ Z -Step procedure for using a lenker rod. r d
Cfgn 1 Loosen the rod face clam p, and set the

bottom o f the rod on the benchm ark.
S te p 2 Knowing the elevation of the benchmark

(i.e., 678.35), move the rod face until the
instrument line of sight reads elevation
8.35. Remember the numbering is
inverted. This will require exact i
communication between the persons at
the instrument and rod.
i
Step 3 When satisfied that the rod face is set to
the elevation of the benchmark, tighten
the clamp bracket so that it holds the
rod face securely in position.
Step 4 Go to where elevations are needed,

hold the rod on a point so the perse
i
the instrument can read it. Thatrea,
plus 670.00 is the elevation of the p<
8-12
V
. ro any muer Point where elevations are needed

S te p ;
elevation. Record all elevations in the field book.rePea' ^ 4 * de,etmine
h the
he limits of the lenker rod are reached
The Step 1 Lcause of hilly terrain, simply
5rOd tablish a turning point. Hold the
Tnker rod on the turning point to
determine its elevation, move the
estrument, and repeat the above steps
io continue the work.
rAUlBRATlON
U LaSers should be checked frequently for proper calibration. Pipelasers, rotatinj

r lagers, and utility lasers can be field calibrated and adjusted. Many lasers art
eldom checked for proper calibration, and errors or mistakes result in the workb;
Sither not being at the correct elevation or by not being on the right line. If a lase
61 checked, is often done by pegging it like an optical level. As can be seen b
| S , at the owners manuals of various lasers, this isnt always the prope
ethod to use. The owners manual for all laser instruments describes th
m dure that is required so that the user can perform in the field. Follow th
Pr0 al exactly for the instrument that is being checked. It is beyond the scope c
maI1text to describe the adjustment procedure for each laser that is available
However in C h a p te r 10, E q u ip m en t C alibration , a generic procedure to check
rotating laser is described.
8-13
Applications
8-15 Elevations
Alignment Applications
8-15
SCOPE
The list of applications of lasers on the construction site grows longer each day, and
appears to be endless, as innovative persons come up with new methods of use. What
started as simple horizontal planes for determining site elevations, and pipe lasers for
installing pipelines, have evolved into the primary methods of establishing line and
gra e on the construction site. Having a person stand behind an instrument
constant y reading a rod is not a very productive use of an individual. Instead, a
hp iic ^ ^ aCCj ^ Ser ^ at *S creatin8 a horizontal plane or line with its signal can
the annlirfltne ZenS worêrs at the same time. Listed here are just a few of
the applications of lasers for elevation and alignment on the construction site.
8-14
V7
tio n s
fs(ot inclusive, h ere are
project. af^ a p p n ca,i0ntof|ase
r e*evat'ns on a construction
Sitework
Setting grade stakes, setting cut or fill
stakes, perfo rm in g topographic m apping,
g rid le v e lin g , m e a s u rin g ex cav atio n
depths, lan d scap e terracing.
Foundations
L ev elin g c o n c re te form s, establishing
the d e sig n e le v a tio n on a foundation,g
s e t t i n g c o n c r e t e f o rm
fo u n d a tio n s. ls > c h e c k in g
Structures
Maintaining levelness on brick or block
that is being laid, concrete column
heights, grade beam elevations.
Decks
Maintaining finish floor elevation during concrete placement, screeding subgrade,
finished floor levels, setting plumbing floor drains. 6 8 .
Finishes
Installing ceiling grids, installing HVAC and electrical duct at the design elevation,
installing sprinkler systems.
The construction surveyor will undoubtedly find many more uses for a laser
on a construction site than are listed here.
a l ig n m e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s
Some electronic levels and most utility lasers have the capability to project lines
for alignment. Alignment can be for keeping a pipeline straight, or aligning steel
in a high-rise structure. Uses of these types of lasers for alignment include:
Horizontal
Plumbing, aligning formwork, building
interior walls, constructing a pipeline,
setting cen terlin e on anchor bolts,
establishing lines on a slab for interior
wall construction.
Hum s elevator shaft, eolumns, the walls o f a building, aligning d . . l l and

partitions, plumbing bridge piers.
8 -1 5
Summary
IMPORTANT POINTS of basic leveling when using lasers.
S atoyR rstf Post*laser warning signs when required. Warn users no, ,o ,ook
or stare at the laser signal. .
. L asers are easy ,o use and increase pro d u ctiv ity on the jobstte.
. one-person line and grade can be performed wh lasers.
. A ccuracies of 1/16* of an inch in 100 fee, are ach.evable wh lasers.
. Similar to any other instrument, lasers need to be R ecited for cal,brat,on
frequently even though they are rugged and durable.
. Most lasers are waterproof, bu, check the owners manual to confirm,
. Avoid havine two lasers set up in the same area on the jobsite.
Watch out for extraneous signal reflection.
Be aware that temperature and weather can impact laser signals.
Always be sure of the elevation of the laser. Check into two benchmarks
before starting grade work.
Train persons using the laser to realize that the rod must be held plumb to
obtain good elevations.
Before leaving the worksite, close the laser back to a benchmark.
Use the direct elevation rod for fast, quick, and accurate elevations.
Check the calibration of the laser frequently.
M IS T A K E S A N D E R R O R S F R O M T H E F IE L D
Not checking for calibration.

Having more than one laser set up on a jobsite with several signals that could
be picked up by sensors. There was almost a major blunder in the establishment
of grade.
The out-of-level sensor was not working, causing the laser to stay on when it
was bumped.
Becoming too dependent on the electronic box. Becoming overconfident

about the results of the laser, and not following good leveling practices.
Not setting proper % grade for use on utility work.
Not understanding the features/operation of a lenker rod. Forgetting to
tighten adjustment clamps causing the scale to move when extending the rod.
Not periodically checking the elevation of a self-leveling level.
Interference from other equipment giving incorrect beeps.
Not checking in to known points to prove laser was accurate.
Setting dual plane at incorrect slope percentage.
Not checking the calibrations before use.
8-16
Using the different tolerance settings on a sensor a, the wrong time.
Failure to peg the level before it was used.
Failure to level the laser when required.
'h e tune
the rTmc^to sei^'un
to set up lo a in ^ aW iy ^ m lhe lascr '>ccause we didn't want to take
again.
Bumping the laser and not resetting receiver on rod.
Didn't set the receiver correctly at the start.
Extended the range o f the laser.
Didn't check into backsights when the weather conditions changed.
Considering the accuracy o f a laser, we shot too great a distance.
Checked into m ore than one backsight when we set up.
Used a manual-leveling laser.
gSflONS AND PROBLEMS

"" 1. What is LASER an acronym for?
2. L ist a d v a n ta g e s o f lasers as a co n stru ctio n tool.
3. E x p la in w hy la se rs are so v ersatile.
4. W h at b e n e fits d o la se rs b rin g to the co n stru ctio n site?
5. What types of lasers are available?
6. Distinguish between fixed, rotating, and utility lasers.
7. List the various classes of lasers and their accuracy.
8. List five uses of a pocket laser on a jobsite
9. Describe why a utility laser is such a versatile instrument.
10. Explain why having two or more lasers set up on a construction site could
cause major mistakes.
11. List five sources o f mistakes that could occur in laser use on the jobsite.
12. Under what conditions might a laser become unusable because of the weather?
13. Besides a normal level rod, what can a sensor be attached to when establishing
elevations?
14. Describe how it is possible to establish grade (elevations) with one person,
using a direct elevation rod and laser.
15. What type o f laser does not have to be checked for calibration?
8 -1 7
f ie l d a c t i v i t iICO
es
The field activities that can be perform ed are dependent on the type o f ,
il available for use. Some of the leveling activities are s.m .lar to those p r e s e t '
inn C hapter
C hapter?, becausemthey
L e ,e ,in H.oecausc
7, Leveling, o ; can also be p e rfo rm e d w ith______
-----------, a laser. Refere^
1,1
Chapter 7 7, Leveling, for - inform
o------r\n
ationnprfnrmine
on p e rfo rmthese e se lev e nr**;.,:.:
in g thlevelina lin g a c ti v U ^ 6
Differential Leveling - R o tatin g L a se r (2 to 3 p e rso n s, 3 h o u rs)- Ob' j'-'-uve;
1. u iire re n n a i - 'f*-----
r o m * a^ n
bê nh cmh m
a rakr k tot o a a tem D po rarv
te m o r a r y K^*CtiVe:
b en c h m a rk .
T r a n s f e r th e e le v a tio n h o rn d e te r m in e w h e re a te m p o ra r y b e n c h m a rk
procedure: Locate a benchmar cedures and run a level loop from
is needed. Utilize e' loop. Be within the 0.05' when closing.
th e B M to th e T B M . C lo s e th e p ^ 2 ^ o b je c tiv e ;
2. Grid Leveling-Rotating Las o fâch grid point by use of differential

a grid and d e t e r m me t he e ^ area at least 200 feet square. Using
leveling techniques. Proced - establish and mark a grid with 25'
a right angle prism and' ' and use differential leveling techniques
intervals. Locate a nearby ^ ^ sjte Use grid leveling techniques to
determine3the'elevatfon of the grid points to the nearest tenth. ^
3. . TTfii;fVLaser (2 persons, 1 hour) Objective. Determine
Vertica! Alignmen b procedure. Go to a parking garage
fn fo la c a u liP,^ a se8r within a foot or so o f the center o f a wall. Place the
laser on ds side so that it projects a vertical plane. Using a rod and sensor, take
ead ngs at one corner and then the other, adjusting the aser until the plane
k oarallel to the wall. Take the rod and sensor to each level o f the parking
garage and determine the distance from the signal to the wall at each level.
Record the data in a field book and compare your results. If the readings are
all the same, the wall is plumb. If they arent the same, determine which way
the wall is leaning.
4. Squaring a Building - Pocket Laser - (1 person, 1 hour) Objective: Use a
pocket laser and a chain to layout a 20x20-foot building. Procedure: Go to a
flat open area. Pick a starting point and place a pocket level on the ground.
Measure 20 feet along the perpendicular lines and mark a point on line and at
the distance. Move the pocket laser to one o f the points, align it to the original
starting point, and measure 20 feet again. Repeat this process going all around
the building. Check the layout by measuring the diagonals. Prepare a field
book with notes and a sketch o f the procedure and results.
8 -1 8
chapter nine
gps field procedures
Introduction
S t a n d a r d Pr a c t i c e s
Summary
\
Introduction
General
9 -3
9 -5
j o b s i t e Appl i c at i ons
9 -5
Whi c h GPS to Use
SCOPE
Since the early 1980s, the Global Positioning System (GPS) has been another tool
in the long list of equipment and instruments that surveyors have been using to
determine the location of points in their work. GPS is unlike any of the previous
measuring tools that have been used because the physical process of angle,
distance, and elevation measurement are not required. Instead, GPS determines
positions from which the angles, distances, and elevations can be determined. It
provides surveying measurement and layout with previously unheard-of capabilities
for locating and positioning points on the jobsite. In just a few short years, GPS
has become an integral part of surveying measurement. In many situations, GPS
is also a tool for construction layout. Because o f the long lengths and the tolerances
required, GPS is perfect for highway layout and control. Other types o f construction
are also quickly adopting GPS for many layout activities.
This Chapter is written from the viewpoint o f things to consider w hen using
a Global Positioning System (GPS) on the jobsite. It is beyond the scope o f this
text to cover all of the details on how GPS works and how to use the various system s
that are available. Entire books are dedicated to GPS and GPS surveying
techniques. Therefore, it is assumed that the actual understanding o f GPS and the
learning of the system has or w ill occur elsew here in training sessio n s or by
!!! ST? ^he, ,0wners manual- This Chapter will point out some suggestions for
n ar ield practices that should be follow ed to m ost e ffe ctiv ely u se GPS in
construction. J
9-2
GPS has revolutionized surveying in lhc
years since it has become available What
seemed impossiblethe location of any
point, anywhere, anytimejust fc *.
years ago is now commonplace
Measurements thut would have taken
hours, days, or weeks are now performed
in minutes. Entire jobs that would have
taken days arc now completed in hours.
Control that couldn't be closed without
weeks of fieldwork is now ready to use in
days. GPS was initially used'for high-
order control networks covering large
areas; it now has the capability of being used for
construction surveying applications. As the cost o rr m ? * * f contr l and in
and the newer units become as simple to use is n i . sys,cms continues to drop
more uses. More efficient methods win be deve o l i n T " ' 'hC,C Wi" ** nore
accuracies will be achieved. It is impossible^to r e a d * T "
be amazed at the new applications of OPS that occur ev > >H?a7.inc and not 11
persons who use OPS in surveying applications is never-ending P r o '^ s u re e ,
mortgage surveys, route surveys, mapping, and other applications ind .U g some
cons.ruct.on survey,ng acuvu.es are everyday uses. OPS ha, truly allowed Z e ms
to work alone. Refer to C h a p te r 21, O n e-P erso n Surveying. *
Overview
In a nutshell. GPS consists of 24 satellites plus 6 in reserve that operate in six
orbital planes that are spaced at 55 intervals around the earth from the equator.
Each of the satellites travels in almost circular orbits at an approximate altitude of
20000 km above the earth. Each satellite puts out its own identifiable signal as it
rotates around the earth in about 12 hours. The satellites contain very precise
atomic clocks that control the timing of the signals back to earth. On the ground,
five primary ground stations around the earth monitor the GPS system. These
stations track the satellites and assist in making available information about the
orbits and the overall health o f the satellites and the GPS system. These tracking
stations provide information to the system administrators about the systematic
errors that might be occurring in the satellite system.
A lso on the ground are the users of GPS that pick up the signals and apply
them to their application. The list of users is extensive and ranges from the
handheld units used for recreational purposes to units utilized by the military tor
navigation. In betw een are numerous other users including the GPS surveying
systems units that are utilized by surveyors for construction applications.
9 -3
tones oh. take an entire chapter of this text; however
AdVa" ?Mhe advantages o f G P S mig that precise locations can almost
Listing all th Besides th earth by anyone, GPS has
3 feWt,T h e d e n n e d anywhere on ^ fa c e ^ an(J layoM .
tremendous advantages for P ^ ons P affected by the weather; it doesn't require
,rem Gf h? iintervisibility) between the base and the
a line of sigM t or night on many types of projects;
rover; can b* cy is mainly a function of distance; it is
its positional1ac conventional groUnd surveys; and it is a
more flexible t require less personnel, and it can
time-saver. . h accuracy if proper procedures are
achieve consis ? el. GPS also has the flexibility
> or beinyg
ede wf.h a c o m m o n local coordinate system. It can be
adapted to a wide range of apphcat.ons.
Disadvantages a few disadvantages of the GPS system.

Just as with any techno gy, work when the view t0 the satellite is
These include the inability to P Qr bridges. GPS cannot be used
obstructed by buildings, jees I certain times of the day, when the
satethws are all ^ ec ise data cannot be coHected. This is
a^reat disadvantage in construction as many activities are time-critical and cannot
be delayed for hours waiting for a strong satellite signal. Because o f the limitations
of GPS in dense urban areas, time must be taken to establish extra GPS points that
can then be used by conventional surveying methods. As GPS continues to
develop, the disadvantage of no-satellites or low-satellites is being overcome by
developing land-based systems that serve to provide auxiliary signals for tracking
purposes. This will provide a network o f support signals to GPS receiving units
for continuous location determination.
There are other disadvantages of GPS. The vertical capabilities o f GPS are
limited and do not meet some of the accuracies required for construction layout.
GPS operations have a learning curve that must be overcome. GPS requires
adapting to new techniques in planning, measuring, field operations, and data
analysis that initially are time-consuming.
Although these disadvantages are significant, the great advantages o f the
system can easily overcome the disadvantages with proper training and a thorough
understanding of GPS.
9-4
JOBSITE APPLICATIONS
G P S is u s e d f o r a m u l ti tu d e o f a p p lic a tio n s o n th e c o n s t r u c ti o n s ite . I t d o e s n o t y e t
! h a v e th e a c c u r a c y a n d p r e c is io n c a p a b ilitie s to c o n s is te n tly lo c a te a n c h o r b o lts o r
w a ll f o r m s in a ll s i tu a t io n s , b u t it d o e s h a v e p r a c t ic a l a n d e f f ic i e n t u s e s in c o n s t r u c ti o n
a p p lic a tio n s . G P S c a n b e u s e d to s e t c le a r in g lim its , p r o v id e c o n tr o l f o r la r g e
p ro je c ts , e s t a b li s h e x c a v a t io n lo c a tio n s a n d a s - b u ilt u ti li ty lo c a tio n s , p e r f o r m s ite
w o r k , c o lle c t to p o g r a p h ic d a ta , lo c a te g r a d in g p la n s , la y o u t f o o tin g s , s ta k e ro a d
c e n te rlin e s a n d p ip e lin e s , s e t s lo p e s ta k e s a n d r o u g h g ra d e s ta k e s , lo c a te u tility
w o rk , e s tim a te q u a n titie s , e tc . O b v io u s ly , a p p lic a tio n s o f G P S o n th e c o n s tru c tio n
s ite a re e x te n s iv e , a n d th e re a re m o re e v e ry d a y . J u s t a b o u t a n y c o n s tru c tio n la y o u t
a c tiv ity h a s b e e n p e r f o r m e d u s in g G P S . T h e re s e e m s to b e n o lim it o n h o w G P S c a n
b e u s e d o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n s ite .
O n e u n iq u e a p p l i c a t i o n is u s in g
G P S f o r p lu m b in g h ig h - r is e s tru c tu re s .
Consider the construction of a 70-story
high rise where, rather than using
conventional means such as plumb lines,
lasers, total stations, or zenith
instruments, a sub-centimeter GPS unit
is used to check for plumb more
accurately and more quickly. GPS is
being placed on construction equipment
to control the location of the equipment
both vertically and horizontally for the
most efficient mass excavation operation.
In another application on a recent airport project, GPS was used to lay out
the paint striping for the airplanes. This simple task is made difficult by all of the
traffic from planes, refueling trucks, baggage tugs, food trucks, and the numerous
other vehicles that are in constant motion on an airport apron. It is practically
impossible to set up a total station in any location and occupy that point long
enough to stake out the 30-or-more points necessary for a typical paint striping.
The tolerance for striping was within 1/2". GPS was used to stake out the points.
It reduced by over 4 hours the time it took to lay out. One person was able to do
the layout. These are just two of many applications on the construction site. Read
the latest surveying trade magazines, science magazines, or construction magazines
for new applications.
W H IC H G P S T O U S E
There are options on the type of GPS to
use on the jobsite. The choices include
static, rapid static, kinematic (also
known as dynamic), stop and go, or
RTK (Real Time Kinematic). Each of
th ese typ es has s p e c ific uses and
applications depending on the accuracy
required, the uses o f the survey, the
equipment that is available, the size of
the jo b site, the obstructions to the
satellites, and the processing software
that is available.
9 -5
-ecurale e.o* ' e .,
capabilities of ^ ' "'construction layou, iobsite, Rapid Static GPS will likely
no, good enough i ^ control work orit J g a base station receiver on
be the method o f choice. This process invuiv^^ ,---- w__
rr'V.lc nroCCSS inVO
It
If usin g 'J
-------------
an existing control point, and moving

and movi ng a receiver to other network control
or mor e depending on conditions,
~ 20 minutes to an J ----- __________ J ^ nts-
over a period of time, zo minutes are taken. T h is method regularly
observations from four-or-more ^ ^ ay o f th e c o n tro l pomts that are
achieves relative a ccu racy of a network fo r the jo b s.te .
located. This creates ' and
To improve on this accurJ
the soeed of GPS surveying, a proce,.
1
communications, together with a rover
GPS system receiver, a
developed. This system , called
Differential GPS or DGPS, is the primary
GPS method that is used in e
construction industry today. More base rover
specifically, real-time kinematic (RTK)
GPS is used for most construction
applications.ops ^ ^ simultaneous use of a base receiver and a
receiver that are both tracking the same satellites, and of a communication link
between them. This method allows for the almost instantaneous positioning that
is required fo r construction jobsite staking. The accuracy obtained with RTK is 5
mm or less, which makes it ideal for many layout activities on the construction site.
The development of better telecom m unication links and more powerful
computer processors has extended the scope o f GPS in surveying. Typically
VHF or UHF radios have been used with good results w ith m inim al interference.
More recently, in some applications, cellular phones are being used as the
communication link between units. This is ideal in large cities w here cellular
coverage is extensive.
As mentioned earlier, there are other m ethods o f GPS such as static,
kinematic, or stop and go, that can be used. Users o f GPS should also become
familiar with these methods so that the most efficient and accurate m ethod can be
utilized. Which GPS to use depends on the type o f w ork that is being perform ed
and the results that are expected.
9-6
S ta n da rd Practices 1
General 9 -8
GPS Priect Planning 9 -9
G p s E q u ip m e n t Care 9-12
R e f e r to the O w n e r ' s M a n u a l
9-13
GPS Recording Log S h e e t s

9-14
Using GPS Data 9-15
Change Technology 9-15
SCOPE
Just as with the total station or other surveying instruments, there are some field
operations and m ethods that should always be performed with GPS to obtain the
most perform ance from the GPS system. Planning and performing the GPS survey
at the tim e w hen the greatest num ber of satellites will be available is the first step
tow ards a su c c e ssfu l and e ffic ie n t survey. Proper training will prepare
know ledgeable persons in the field crews that can identify various sources of error
such as m ultipath, im proper antenna height, ephemeris, and geometry among other
errors. The follow ing suggestions are not inclusive since new methods are being
developed continuously in GPS surveying techniques. Read the latest magazines
and stay in co n tact w ith your equipm ent representative to learn new practices as
they are developed.
9- 7
L
general . r>i*nt to instrument and application to application.
Field procedures vary from >nsru" d cedures that should be followed when
However, there are some ta.rly d ^ cdures actually start in the office with
nerforming
performing GPS surveys.
GPS surveys Good neiu -------- --details
of5*ce wth
Z o d planning. The field crew should begin D,anning
plann.ng the
the general
general details for
f0r th.
the
next project the night before visiting the site and prepare the equipment for the next
day The morning the project begins, more detailed planning should be performed
to ensure that all necessary equipment is loaded into the vehicle and that the needed
reference material has been obtained. When the crew arrives at the jobsite prepared
to work they can concentrate on the field procedures that will achieve the accuracy
requirements for the project. This Section introduces some suggestions for field
procedures that will make GPS surveying more efficient and accurate.
The rule o f thumb in GPS surveying is to keep field procedures as
simple as possible. The actual process of GPS data collection is a very simple
jrocess, once the initial learning curve for using the equipment and understanding
he theory of GPS is overcome.
Consistent and Flexible
The most important field aspect of GPS surveying is consistency. Try to standardize
procedures as much as possible for each project. Better results will be obtained if
regular procedures are followed. This should be stressed to the GPS field crew, and
they should be encouraged to follow successful practices.
Not all field procedures will be the same from day to day since different
projects will have different accuracy requirem ents. The time required for
observations may change depending on the satellite availability and the dilution of
precision factors. Field crews need to be consistent but flexible in their work.
Once a field crew has become efficient in their procedures and has achieved
accurate results with those procedures, they should probably write them down as
a reminder of what steps to follow in similar situations. Typically, this is in the
form of a checklist that will list the personal duties, personal procedures and
equipment, and the GPS procedures and equipm ent used in the procedures.
Checklists
The items that are used in GPS surveys vary from person to person. Some people
are comfortable taking a minimal num ber o f item s w hile others take everything
including the proverbial kitchen sink.
Personal - Pens and pencils, radios or cell phones, radio
licenses if necessary, hand-held GPS for quick reference, a
camera, compass, and personal protection equipm ent.
Project Information - Project specifications, coordinates of
Equipment Checklist
reference stations, topographic m aps, log sheets, a satellite
- radios availability schedule, and an observation schedule.
- chargers
GPS Equipment - B atteries (sp ares), a b attery ch arg er w ith
- in se rte r
- base unit inverter for charging from a v eh icle, the GPS equipm ent
- rover unit boxes which include the an ten n a, re c eiv e rs, trip o d s, cables
- tripods (spare cables?), tape for m easu rin g an ten n a h eig h t, and
- antenna m em ory cards.
- rod
- b a tte rie s Computer - Laptop, softw are, do w n lo ad in g interface cable,
batteries.
9-8
g PROJECT p l a n n in g
Going into the field with a rips ..

without planning is generally a w a ^ T f
necessary" ton do
- 1extensive
1may not be abso1^ for
planning
G P S on a small jobsite; however for
large jobs,tes where higher accuracy mav
be required, ,t is absolutely necessary I,
,s a g o o d p ra c tic e to p la n ev e ry tim e G PS
is b e in g u se d .
a total station ?If the p ro T e lu so T th e ^ 16 f? PS WOuld best be comPleted with

requirements for accuracy must he ^ ^ that GPS C uld be usedthe prject
for the project. The if GPS is the optimal tool
accuracy rpnnirpmp . , y e based on the objective of the survey project, the
configurations,
i nhornoi the
numr-beôfpolm
. pointsftob5
to be' surveyed,
^ GPSh 'hthe' he PrjeCt'available,
resources ** Sae' any
Ute
special characteristics of the project, and many other factors including whether or not
1S pr perly trained and equipped to carry out GPS surveys. If, indeed,
GPS is the best tool, the proper GPS techniques must be selected.
When prepai ing for GPS field operations, the application must be identified
so t e correct leld specifications can be followed. The application may require the
GPS technique to be used, the numbers of receivers, the amount of time per
observation, the number of satellites needed, the satellite geometry, the minimum
satellite angle above the horizon, the number of satellites tracked, the weather
conditions, the antenna setup specifications, and the tolerances required. This list
is by no means inclusive. It presents an idea of the large numbers of factors that
must be considered prior to fieldwork with GPS.
Reconnaissance
Initiate reconnaissance by designing a
systematic plan for the GPS survey based
on the existing control in the area, the
accuracy requirements for the survey,
and the overall jobsite size and location.
Plan to visit the site and observe the
e x is tin g c o n tro l p o in ts and th e ir
suitability for GPS work. Make sure the
points are accessible. Use topographic
maps to select ideal locations for the
point locations. of the jobslte area, it is
im portant to ensure that the receiver can acquire the satellite
signals The obstructions at a site can be plotted on a plot o
the sky as shown in the illustration. During the planning
stages decisions can be made about which satellites can be
tra c k e d at v a rio u s tim es d u rin g the day. P lace the
o b stru ctio n s on the plot so that the
be identified and alternate locations for GPS work man be
considered The manufacturer's software with the GPS
S t S S - pencil - P H * . P - T ,h'
9 -9
ntne
dal& required lor ihe plots. laser rangefinders thui cun produce distan
heights of the obstructions can be used. These plots w ill give the G Ps < k?S
a good idea on when the optimum opportunity for C*PS surveying is a -SCrvcr
Study the area around the site carefully. Based on the job * a^ e-
einents. note the
requirements, me presence
pivsnm of >i multipath
............. error-causing
- - l causing structures TV
structures; p?,Ccuracy
rar*^
. ................. --------------------- . radio.
microwave, or other transmitters that could affect the system's operation; u ^ s l0,
other natural obstructions; and the existence and condition
cond.tton of survey control poin(s po^
and azimuth marks as part of a local network. C onstder taking photos of the area that
can lx- used in the planning process. A good st.c lor GPS survey work should have
no signal obstructions above 20 degrees: no surfaces such as metal fences, structures,
or water surfaces that will cause multipathing: no nearby electrical installations such
as power generating plants, high tension cables, or radto/TV transmitters.
Base Station .. , , . .
When choosing a base station for GPS surveying, think about the location and the
coordinates. The base station should be at the highest point on the project to gain
Choose the the greatest advantage in receiving good satellite communications. The ideal base
highest point station would have no obstructions 5 degrees above the horizon. There should he
fo r a base no surfaces nearby for the signals to bounce o ff of and cause errors in the timing
station. of the signals. There should be no transmitters that could interfere with the radio
link. Finally, the station should he in the middle o f the project and at a location that
is safe and secure.
Select locations where there arc solid, permanent points. Concrete
monuments are ideal. Using leveling techniques, transfer an elevation to the point.
W ill the GPS survey be performed using existing control network or w ill an
independent network be set up? Are the coordinates o f the base station known?
Are they part o f a national or state geodetic system? If they are. the coordinates
o f these points can be found by visiting national and state websites.
Equipment
Is the GPS hardware that is needed for the survey available? Is it in good condition?
Has it been calibrated? Before leaving for the field, the equipment needs to be
checked to see that nothing is missing and that everything is
in working order. It is a good idea to develop a checklist of
the equipment that is needed to perform a GPS survey. Check
the batteries and develop a system to keep them charged.
Tripods should be checked periodically to be sure they are in
good shape and are not loose or shaky. It is very important in
GPS work to have a solid foundation. Tribrachs should be
checked for proper calibration to ensure that the unit is being
set up exactly over the control points. C alibration processes
with GPS equipment will be discussed later in this Chapter.
To obtain the best GPS results possible, the personnel who will be performing the GPS
work should be thoroughly trained in the equipment and the methods that will be
required tor the work. Training can be expensive, but it is well worth the cost since
improved field techniques and more efficient use of the equipm ent will result. Impress
on Ihe crew the requirements for the jo b and the field techniques that will need to be
followed to obtain precise and accurate data. Develop in the crew a sense o f the
responsibility that is necessary for accurate GPS work. Be sure they follow established
GPS procedures both in collecting the field data and in processing the data.
9-10
T h e p erso n s w ho are as
b *si* G P S c o n cep ts, un d erstan d p e rfo rm GPS should be know ledgable in
th e lim ita tio n s o f the G PS svstpm Urce errors in G PS w ork, and recognize
understand the requirements o f the Vari US aPPbcations. They should also
o f G P S s u rv e y s and be able to ProJe c t>be fam iliar w ith the com m on problem s
Satellites tran sfer sftw are and the m apping softw are.
T h e w h o le G P S sy ste m is d en e h
a 2 4-hour, 7-d ay -a-w eek wi nd ^ ? sat^ b te s . Although there is theoretically
som etim es, it isn 't possible e W 11 availability of satellites for G PS work,
A re th ere satellites available at th y dUC t0 receiver location and obstructions,
u su ally sa te llite s, b ut are there enouBh?* ^ *S l be Performed? There are
sp re a d o u t o r are they in a cl., u Are *hey hlgh enough in the sky? Are they
F o rtu n ate!v Z
!? ln the sam e area o f the sky?
o f sa te llite s an d d eterm m eS h r a aeom Vr ' abi'e ^ qUCk' y aSSeSS he availabiUty
T h is p la n n in g so ftw a re can DrovTn of the sateUite configuration,
v isib ilitv at a sit** n * , Provide Srapbs o f satellite availability, satellite
catellitpt:' Q7 im tu ^ n s e set tim es, dilution of precision (DOP) factors,
u U "6 ^ v a tlo n s satellite groundtrack plots, and sky plots. D evelop
an o s e rv a ion sc e ule th at takes advantage of the optim um tim e for satellite
o b s e rv a tio n s b a se d on the resu lts obtained from the planning softw are. B efore
le a v in g th e o ffic e , c h e c k the G P S planning softw are to verify if there w ill be
e n o u g h s a te llite s to m eet th e req u ired accuracy o f the survey.
T h e stren g th o f the satellite configuration is m ore precisely called the dilution
o f p rec isio n (D O P ) and is displayed on the GPS unit at the tim e of m easurem ent.
H o w ev er, w h y w a it until setup in the field to determ ine that the quality o f the geometry
o f the sa te llite s is p oor? T here are several different D O Ps that should be considered.
T hey in c lu d e the p rec isio n in position or PD O P, the geom etric or GDOP, the horizontal
p o sitio n o r H D O P , the vertical h eig h t or V D O P, and the tim e or TDOP. Review the
owner s manual for more information on these DOP's. Note that the dilutions of
precisions that are most important in surveying and construction are PDOP and GDOP.
The PDOP should have a reading of less than 6 and the GDOP should have a reading
less than 5. (The lower the GDOP/PDOP, the more accurate your reading should be.)
Poor GDOP Good GDOP
Satellites that are low in the sky (below 15) are difficult to use. Low
atellites result in large atmospheric refraction errors at low elevation angles,
/hen this occurs, it may be necessary to postpone the GPS survey. Fortunately,
- nKnup the satellites' positions are predictable and should be used in the
planning of the survey.
9-11
Signal Reception Review for satellite "spikes" before stanin.
Always monitor satellite * faj,s when ,he receiver fails or an obstruction
Spikes can occur when > when , here is bad geom etry o f the satellites. If
occurs towards a critical ^ ob(ained d urig the observation will fluctuate
any of these iKcur. Ih p . ,)O P incrcaSc is large enough that it renders the GPS
widely. D uringsontesptkes he ^ ef<Hmd^ ljs,
^ Ifh a T ^ Tbey generally rcm ain the sam e or continue to change the
same amount every dy- ^ sate|]ite do not have intervisibility betw een each
Other no signal will be received. Com m on problem s w ith this occur in urban areas
when high rise structures are nearby blocking the signal o r ,n areas w here there are
severalfrees .ha, block the signal. I f the w ork ,s tn a f o r e s , . m a y be necessary
to wait until the leaves fall.
Orientation
Facing in the proper direction when
using GPS makes it easier. I f your GPS
unit is set up to show forward/backwards
and le ft/righ t you should orient yourself
North/South and East/West. It speeds
up the establishment o f points.
GPS EQUIPMENT CARE

Accurate GPS survey results are dependent on the proper care and handling o f the
GPS equipment. The fo llo w in g discussions h ig h lig h t some im p o rta nt rules when
using instruments.
Calibrate
It is good practice to always dou b le -che ck yo ur GPS u nit to
make sure it is g iv in g you the proper coordinates. As a quick
check o f the system and settings, it is good practice to
frequently check in to tw o kn ow n p oints. Take readings on
points whose coordinates are kn o w n and compare w ith the
measured data. The inverses between the kn ow n coordinates
and the GPS measured data sh o u ld com pare w ith in the
expected tolerance. I f they don 't, start ch ecking through the
parameters o f the system fo r in co rre ct values w h ich m ight
cause the discrepancy. It w o u ld be h e lp fu l to have these
know n points close to the hom e o ffic e so the check can be
perform ed at the b eg in n ing o r end o f the day as needed.
For a more thorough check o f the equ ip m e nt, a large n e tw o rk where the
exact coordinates are know n should be used. The n e tw o rk should have a num ber
o f points at d iffe re n t distances to c o n firm that the u n it is o p e ra tin g p ro p e rly in all
situations. Distances should range fro m 50m up to 10km . B y ch e ckin g such a w ide
variety o f points, the entire system and the so ftw a re w ill be th o ro u g h ly tested.
Refer to the o w n ers manual fo r a more deta ile d e xp la n a tio n .
k r the GPS equipm ent is o f a suitable type, the measurement o f a zero
ase me w i provi e a check on the internal consistency o f the m easuring system.
npn ^ ' me servation is achieved by connecting a single GPS antenna to two
the data lo(rae!thS,k8 ^ SI>eC,aântenna ca^*e splitter. A GPS baseline solution using
tests vield b a s e / receiv^rs shou,d result in a baseline o f zero length. If repeated
equipment m an u^ r/*811 ^ more than 3mm adv>ce should be sought from the
equipment manufacturer on the condition o f the equipment.
9-12
am .iuuru practices ^
Batteries and Cables

Ju st as w ith o th e r ele c tro n ic
very fru stra tin g w h en b a t t c r y ^ w e ? ^ ! * ud^ ua,c ^ c r y pow er is essential. It is
do. o r it b a tte ry p o w er is lost in t h : S* -*us* a fcw m inutes o f work left to
is th e m o st c o m m o n G P S eu u ip m m | ^ K.Css * backing up the w ork. Loss o f power
b a tte rie s . If th ey are a v ailab le t a k . . Ure* B cforc ,c vng for the field, check the
b a tte rie s a fte r re tu rn in g to the r r ^ ,''Mras to thc ,ic 'd . Be sure to alw ays churge
A fte r b a tte rie s , c a b le s ^ C*'ar^ c d' c,n ,n ihe survey vehicle,
fa ilu re . C a b le s b e c o m e s t r e s s e d ^ * '1 " CXt mwsl com n,on source o f equipm ent
o r c o m p a rtm e n ts . T h e en d s o f ih ^ m g ro ,,cd UP and Muffed into small sleeves
fo r e le c tric a l c o n ta c t to o c c u r S ha' C d irt accum u,ation w hich don'1 aUow
a v o id r o llin g .h e n , u p in .o very tig h u 'ir e le ! H> P' aCi" 8 C" J C1,pS ' hcm nd
Security
^ P u|SUrVeyic g is that etiu iPm ent IS left Sitting alone on the jobsite. T his
P . . f emS. ^ ,rs t t*le co n struction activities during the day m ay shift
ro m e in g a r ro m t e unit to nearby. T he superintendent should be consulted
re q u e n t y to in o u t th e w ork schedule to determ ine if the GPS system w ill be
e x p o s e d to h a z a rd o u s a c tiv itie s. S econd, the base unit is typically set up and left
a lo n e all d a y . T h is c re a te s a situ atio n w here the unit may be attractive to thieves. It
is d iffic u lt to a n tic ip a te w h en so m eo n e w ill attem pt to steal a unit, and it is difficult
in so n ic s itu a tio n s to p re v e n t it from h appening. O ne-su rv ey o r reported using a
c o m m o n h o u s e h o ld a la rm th at is h u n g on a d o o r knob and puts out a very loud alarm
w h e n it is m o v e d . T h is a la rm can be attach ed to the tripod o f the G PS unit. It w ill
e m it a s ig n a l w h e n th e u n it is to u ch ed . T h is system w ill not d eter the professional
th ie f, b u t it w ill lik e ly c a u se an a m a te u r th ie f to d ro p the unit and run.
initialization
Be sure to in itia liz e your GPS receiver according to the units instructions. The first
tim e a GPS u nit is used in a new location, the unit may need up to 15 minutes to
orient its e lf. The more often the u nit is used in the same location, the faster it w ill
receive sa tellite data and record positions.
REFER TO THE OWNER S M ANUAL

Those using GPS systems should refer to the manufacturer's specifications
concerning the exact operation o f the system fo r the projected use. The manual w ill
p ro vid e in fo rm a tio n that w ill elim inate errors that could possibly occur in the field.
Some com m on ow ner's manual suggestions include:
The le n gth o f observing periods needed fo r GPS surveying. It is recommended
to c o lle c t at least 5 m inutes o f data, or more as required by the baseline length
and n um be r o f satellites available.
The n u m b e r o f sa tellites that should be com m only used for the best results.
The re a din g rate between positions.
A d iscu ssio n o f the sig n ifica n ce of

antenna h e ig h t and m ethods to be
sure it is fix e d and constant.
In fo rm a tio n a b o u t in itia liz in g the
re c e iv e rs at the sta rt o f each survey
to e n s u re th a t any a m b ig u ity has
b e e n re s o lv e d .
9-13
GPS RECORDING gps do not use log sheets t0 keep track Qf the
Afl,hHUSr P S survey they should. The log sheets used should contain a sketch of
Of their G P S s u r y. y^ ^ and/or identifie r used for each project and the
the area and must co be m aintainedi in w hlch inform a
control P0 ' " dsi,e b i g occupied and the data co llectio n process are entered
concerning J b not available, a good altern ativ e is the standard bound field
I k The amount of record keeping w ill be som ew hat d ependent on the type of
pmject The following inform ation is typically recorded:
Date and time project starts and ends.
r\Kc'f,\/prcl njimp.s and field
Control point names and numbers.
Project name and identifying information.
Equipm ent serial num bers for the base receiv er, ro v e r receiv er, antenna, data
logger, m em ory card, etc.
Start and end time of observations.
Satellites observed during session.
Antenna height in inches, feet, meters, or centimeters.
Weather and meteorological observations such as temperature, pressure, and
relative humidity.
Any problems with the receiver, battery, operator, or tracking that were noticed.
Sketch of the site showing all marks, possible obstructions, etc.
M any e x am p les o f G P S fie ld lo g sh e e ts a re a v a ila b le . S e e th e o w n e r's m an u al for

su ggested sh eets. O v e r tim e, p e rs o n a l p r e f e re n c e s w ill d ic ta te th e ty p e o f sheet
used, or one w ill be p e rso n a lly d e v e lo p e d . A s a m p le lo g s h e e t is p ro v id e d here.
Project Name: Project ID:

Company:
Crew:
Date: Day: Start Time: End Time:
Weather: Temp: Pressure:
Station Name: ID: #
Equipment: Observer:
Model: Antenna: Fixed or Variable
Receiver S/N: HI of Fixed Pole:
Antenna S/N: Satellites Tracked: Circle
Antenna Model:
Data Collector S/N: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tripod Type: Fixed Adjustable 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Cable Condition Lengths 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
File Name
27 28 29 30
Backup Yes No
Sketch on Back? Yes No
Problems Encountered:
9-14
standard practices @
N
Q pS DATA
js(NG After GPS data has been collected
provided by the m anufacturer. The raw d Wnloaded into software
dow nloaded and backed up so that the o ^ i ^ ? " eCted da should always be
pro cessin g is required. T his raw data is the " f Can alwa*s be returned to if re
n otes and sh o u ld be preserved accordinalv T ' f the old' reliable 'd book
internal m em ory o r a m em ory card that st . GPS s>stems have many hours of
sh o u ld b e d o w n lo ad ed as soon as nossihie T T , data- Hwever, in all cases, it
. Follow the owner's manual for T * feW hlnts GPS surveyingdata:
rv ! a aSmanual for downloading procedures.
Download data "ASAP. if a
fie ld so th at a b ackup is im m ediate P perform the download in the
download onto an office computer! * the end f lhe day t0
via modem to the office. pera inat a remote site>send the data
Systematically and clearly label the data.
. To prepare for the next day or next project, delete files from the receiver
memory when the data download procedure has been verified and backed up.
. Don't get caught without enough backups of the data. Download to a hard disk
or a network server; then to floppy disks.
If possible, store the backup disks in separate locations; preferably in different
buildings.
Cross-reference GPS log sheets to data files.
When the original raw data is processed, it should be done in a format that is required
by the client. The final data might be in coordinate form or developed into a drawing.
change t e c h n o l o g y
If GPS accuracy isn't within your tolerances, don't use it. Gather the information
for the survey and make the decision between using GPS or a total station. Select
the system that best meets the accuracy and productivity requirements for the job.
Too often an analysis of the best system to use isn't conducted and time is wasted
or accuracy isn't met. Economically, it is difficult to let an expensive GPS system
sit around, so sometimes it is used when a simple theodolite or total station shou
have been used.
9-15
Summary
IM PO RTANT POINTS
. Antenna-height reading errors are probably the most common Held error
affecting GPS survey quality.
. All equipment must be in good adjustment and repair and operated competently
by trained personnel.
. It is vital that the antenna height is measured correctly.
. The minimum number of common healthy satellites simultaneously observed
by all receivers required to determine 3-D position is tour.
Satellite geometry during the field survey must be sutticient to ensure
accurate results.
Comply with the GPS manufacturer's recommendations on DOP values
during observation periods.
If a receiver's firmware or the software is upgraded to a new version, the
equipment and software should be tested and calibrated.
The GPS antenna has to be kept totally still for best results.

Taking for granted the accuracy that it gives you.
Not remembering that any movement or vibration in the antenna can adversely
affect the results.
Didn't read the height of the antenna correctly.
The antennas between the two systems that we had were on the wrong units.
Not enough care was taken in setting up the tripod over the point.
Entering incorrect data about the base station into the receiver.
The field crew didn't pay attention and the system was set up next to a lake
with a glass building behind them, which caused great interference.
Our system hadn't been checked on a calibrated baseline for several months
and when it was, it was off an unacceptable amount because a setting had been
inadvertently changed.
Even though the PDOP was bad, the crew used GPS anyway. They wasted
their time as the results could not be processed properly.
On another day, the crew pushed the en velop e and used GPS for a short period
o f time with only three satellites. They had to go back and do the work again.
The orientation o f the antennas was o f f and it affected our accuracy.
1. What makes GPS unique from other measuring tools?

2. In what ways has GPS revolutionized surveying?
3. List 5 uses of GPS other than those listed in this text.
9-16
,,a,Y
4. How m.ny s,,em,es , re used in (he

5. List 5 advantages of GPS over to ys,cm *
6. Describe 5 significant d i h u ^ l^ , m , in 'echniûes.
7. Why isnt GPS used for all types of su
8. Research in a library or on th* 1 . SUrVCy,ng und construction layout?
(s ta tic , ra p id sta tic * k i n ^ " " * * - y p c s C G P S surveying
s u rv e y in g .. P and *- ><! R TK ) and their uses in
9. Describe the basic theory of DGPS
10. Id e n tify w h y good G P S su rv e v in e stnrte .
11. List 10 standard practices that will n ' ' h' "*
surveys. improve the field procedures of GPS
12. On a word processor, develop
. , P> own personal checklists for GPS surveying
13. What ,s the most tntportam par. of GPS planning?
14. Based on the items discussed in thitertao^.
prepare a skyplo, of obstructions ,ha,
1" ~ used in a
16. Visit the World Wide Web and loentp
availability times for your location. ^ dt present GPS satellltc
17. Distinquish between the various DOP's that affect the GPS survey results.
18. Locate a local baseline for calibrating GPS equipment.
19. Develop a GPS log sheet for recording the observation data.
20. What is the most important rule of thumb regarding the downloading of GPS
data?
field and office activities

1. GPS Survey (If GPS Equipment is available) - (2-or-more persons, 6 hours)
Objective: Set up and collect data using RTK processes with a GPS system.
Procedure: Follow the manufacturers instructions for the system. After the
signal has been received and the base and rover are communicating, map an
area the size o f a baseball field. Locate all topographic and planimetric
details.
2. GPS D ow nload (If GPS is available) - (2 or more persons, 6 hours) Objective:
D ow nload data collected in the previous exercise to produce a site drawing.
Procedure: U sing the data collected and manufacturers software, back up the
data co llected onto a hard drive. Export the data to a surveying or CAD
program and d evelop a site drawing ot the area.
9-
f ' \V*-eW
e a u in m C h a p te r*e n 1
q U 'P m e n t c a lib r a tio n
[m )
'Production 1 0- 2
T es,in9 f a Chain 10- 6

A n g | e - m e a ?i . r i
easur'"9 Instruments
10-10
T o ta ' Station 10-19
T n b rach and P l u m m e t s
1 0-2 1
Levels 10-24
Laser 1 0-31
Prism Pole Bubble 10-34
Hand Level 10-40
Summary 10-43
Introduction
General
Basic P r i n c i p l e s
D e v e l o p m e n t of a T e s t A r e a
Testing Requirements
SCOPE
The work of the construction surveyor depends on having instruments in proper
adjustment so results are accurate and precise. When measuring a distance, turning
an angle, or setting grade, the construction surveyor must have no doubt about the
reliability of the instruments being used. The construction surveyor should be able
to perform the tests outlined in these Sections on calibrating the chain, the transit,
and the level. The tests are simple; however, they must be performed exactly to
ensure good results. If the construction surveyor is com petent at performing these
tests, he or she will be more knowledgeable o f the lim its o f the instruments, and
confident that work will be put in place as specified.
It should be noted that the instrument tests discussed here are to determine
if any "adjustments" are necessary. Adjustments refers to the process of bringing
the various fixed parts o f the instrument into proper relationship with one another.
Examples include actually moving the adjusting screw s on the bubbles, m oving the
crosshairs, or moving the horizontal axis, am ong other things. If, after testing the
instrument, it is determined that an adjustment is indeed necessary, a decision must
be made whether to send the instrument to a repair facility or attempt to make an
adjustment in the field. That decision w ill be made based on tim e available and the
skill of the person. Adjusting can be sim ple or com p lex, depending on the
instrument. If the work is in a remote area, and sending it in w ould take several
weeks, consider reading the owners manual carefully and perform ing the adjustment
m the field. The best decision is typically to send it to a repair facility.
10-2
,w" ^
The freq u en cy w ith w hich a.li,

T hese facto rs in c lu d e the n -.r,;. .S ,men*s are rcui.ir i ,
o f the in stru m e n t, and th ^ p re c h i? ! p trtic m 0^ n m*ny A ctors.
A g o o d ru le o f thum b , ' ' l[0qi" re J for Ihe j b >"strumcm. Ihe e r e
te s te d f r e q u e n tly , b u t ad iu s a ow >s. 'S u rv ev ln o i
w h e th e r it n e e d s a d ju stm e n t o r r a r c ,*v " In testing a n stru m e n ls should he
three c o n s e c u tiv e tim e s ("trin l 001' malce certain the in ns,rum cm to determine
o c c u rs m u st he th e sam e I r r a r l n ' . t ' e d " ) * least
n eed s a d ju s tin g . T e stin g th ree e ! , ? ! !m es bcl,,re j A S j WWch
each tim e is th e o n ly w av to Wn ec u t,v e tim es with ihe an instrument
lh e c o n d i,io n * ' * in s tr u m e m .' A n " 'd lv " '" ' an

fa u lty te s tin g p ro c e d u re s . ny 'icv ia" 0 " s in the errors would indicate
W h e n in s tru m e n ts w ere n ie 'h
the fie ld . N o w th a t m o st in s tr u m e n t" ^ " ^ 1im p1,c - adi n ,e n ts were made in
s im p le , a n d a d ju s tm e n ts c a n still he m ade ta r n r ' m " nd clec,rord<;- 'hey are still
u n le ss th e u s e r h a s th e tim e an d skill send i . H ow ever, as noted earlier.
It is a ls o re c o m m e n d e d th at ev e ry o n e h a d |u s" n em facility,
th e m w h e n to c h e c k c e rta in ty p e s o f eq u ip m en t t T C ,b ra,io n w hcdule to rem ind
in te rv a ls f o r h o w o fte n in s tru m e n ts .,,i hc T ab ,c herc presents suggested
e n g in e e r s h o u ld p re p a re a ^ Kaab d
w h en n e e d e d . bc Job so 'h a t tests are perform ed
Suggested Calibration Testing Schedule
When Yearly/ New Job /High

Daily Weekly Monthly
New Seasonal Precision
Change Required
Chain, A uto and
Prism
level rod, dum py level, Total station,
pole Laser
and A L L and optical or transit/ A LL instruments
bubble theodolite
instruments laser plummets
basic p r in c ip l e s
Tests can be p e rfo rm e d ju s t about anywhere, anytime. However, there are times
and places b e tte r than others.
Avoid the Hot Sun

Test in the A v o id the h o t sun as it w ill cause bubbles to move erratically as the instrument parts
early morning. become heated on one side and then the other. Heat waves w ill make it d ittic u lt
to sight o n to the rod o r p o in t. Chains w ill expand when exposed to the sun. In areas
where there is sunshine e very clay, tests should be perform ed early in the morning,
in the shade, o r w h e n e ve r the sun won t affect the tests.
Avoid Inclem en t W eather

Tests s h o u ld n o t be p e rfo rm e d in the rain or snow unless absolutely necessary.
" b !
10-3
S e le c t " ^ n ,* ,K b su c h as h u s h e s , fe n c e s, ro ad s. c . . ,hai
5 e ,u p s - A d B '* " c*
;{H) l e d i ' n eed ed
n
DPE V P LO PM E
EN*T
' O F |riDlc
A T E..S T ..ARf E
....... A.............................. b e p e rfo rn re d o fte n a , th e sam e lo c on .
II the
ttu triple
triple testing
ic- * oi .......... ( jdevelop
e v e lo p a le st aarea
test re a th a t d
.. o e sn t need to
.................. .. be
^ SC1
wwould
ould he w wises e to ; . ^ .th. en '.m
to take K eh J * o f 2 0 0 fe fe t, an
and
d pplacc
la c e th,hr
ree concrete
U P rep e a te d ly . Kind a lev * '- ^ J ( , o t a ||o*1---
w lo.-.m.'ftst,.
r c o n c re mnnnrna...
te m onum ents.
m o n u m en ts in th e . firmly in to th e g ro u n d -
' - .......h " ' > a monument a. e a c h e n d o l th e 2 M o o t a re a and
, i u.> A tr a n s it/th e o d o litc sh o u ld he u sed at one
o n e in th e m id d le . A w ith e a c h other
e n d .0 position tiae p o ms' ^ |(X) f#e|
r ' t r r ^ n e s t c h a in in g te c h n iq u e s , a c a lib ra te d chain

^ ^ f d h e u se d .0 ...a rk th e 10 0 - a n d 2 0 0 -lo o t d ,s ta n c e s on the
m onum ents.
O n c e a lest a re a h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d , it c a n h e u sed for
p e rfo rm in g c h a in c a lib r a tio n , tr a n s it/th e o d o litc c a lib ra tio n
a n d le v e lin g c a lib r a tio n te s ts .
TESTING R E Q U IR E M E N T S
To ensure that extraneous factors do not have an adverse effect on testing, the field
engineer should check the following items prior to testing. Remember, attempting
to perform calibration tests on eejuipment that has not been maintained and is in
poor condition is a waste of time.
Chains
Do not use rusty chains. Rust on a chain is a sign o f a p o o rly m aintained tool
and should not be trusted.
Chains that are kinked cannot give good results.
Chains that are broken should be th ro w n a w ay and n ot used unless absolutely
necessary.
Leather thongs at the ends o f the ch ain sh o u ld be stro n g and lo n g enough to
pro vide a secure h old.
Tripods
B roken trip o d legs should he replaced, not re p a ire d .
Use a qpod,
solid trip o d .
The head to leg joint should be tight. Often, poor results
with an instrument can be attributed to tripods with
m issing bolts or joints loose because of e x ce ssiv e wear.
The screws which hold adjustable

legs in place should prevent any
slippage. See illustration.
Tripod feet should be securely
fastened.
Tripod legs should be waxed or
oiled to provide smooth operation.
0-4
Instrument*
. P arallax sh o u ld be elim in ated at all tim es i I'
. T he o b je c tiv e an d the eyep iece lens should be kept clean.
k v e lin ^ b a s e ,o u r ' Scrcw in stru m en ts) should alw ays be dow n on the
K o c *the
tc
w ! f h T c l o ^ w t s e in ^ C ' c r l* ^ ,c n e d! T an g en t-screw use should alw ays end
: > r- w ith a cU K k w ise tu rn to annlv 11 y pn ressu
r r e e nre
n to
... the
, o p p o sin g spring.
Eliminating Parallax
Look through the instrument at a light-

colored object: a white house, a piece of
paper, someone's shirt, etc. The crosshairs
may be fuzzy or almost not visible.
Adjust the eyepiece until the crosshairs

arc as dark and crisp as they can possibly
be. Look from end to end of the crosshair
making it the darkest and crispest at the
center.
L o o k at the level rod and move your head

s lig h tly , lo o kin g at the crosshair. I f it
stays on the same spot on the rod,
parallax has been elim inated fo r now.
T h ro u g h o u t the day, as y o u r eyes tire ,

the cro s s h a irs w ill becom e fu z z y and
p a ra lla x wall re tu rn . C o n tin u a lly repeat
th e p ro c e d u re describe d to keep
p a ra lla x in check.
10 -5
Testing of a Chain
10-7 General
P l a n n i n g for C h a i n C a l i b r a t i o n
1 0-7
P r o c e d u r e for C a l i b r a t i o n
10-8
1 0-9 Results
SCOPE
Two factors control the ability o f a field engineer to achieve precision and accuracy
at the same time. One factor is using refined techniques. This means follow ing
very closely the steps involved in measuring a distance w ith a chain. Refer to
Chapter 4, Distance Measurement - Chaining, for a step-by-step procedure for
chaining. The steps should be follow ed exactly. The second factor is using reliable
equipment. Even the best techniques w ill not produce good results if faulty
equipment is being used.
Chain calibration absolutely must be com pleted before the first jobsite
measurement. It should also be accom plished at regular intervals throughout the
duration of the project, in order to detect any variation in the chain w hich would
result in errors.
10-6
:NEp A L
T h e ch ain u sed by the field
d e te rm in e the actu al d istan ce ^ ng ,n *^r sh u ld he one that has been calibrated to
a recen t p ro je c t sta rte d u sin a a .r m ^ c mapk to the 100 m ark. Field engineers on
it to be 0 .6 feet s h o r t! T h ey i ^ nCW C^ a ' n u m ajor m anufacturer and found
only fo u r ten th s! N e e d l e n v e st,8 tetl ud found the length betw een 65 and 66 w as
o say they took it back and received a new one.
T
[ 63
- i ~64
_i ~65~ 66 r~
67
i
69
. 1 j
end marks. Broken chainc'?.!!!' li* ,a"d eml up bcinf longer <han 100 feet between
too short between end marks Nly e"g,h whe" >h^ ^P'iced, leaving them
field engineer know* th . CW' o t ' or sPleed chains must be checked so the
item engineer knows the actual length of the chain.
calibrationcan^bT a ch ^ v l^ b v filll toU Wing very riîd' very Precise criteria; or,
the s c o n e o f t h i t y c lowing a more practical approach. It is beyond
presented he ' " eXH " T " ' m re ,ha" Poetical approach. The method
which is c lo s e ' ?e "tlfy d,screPncies of less than one hundredth of a foot,
which is close enough for most construction projects.
PLANNING f o r c h a i n c a l i b r a t i o n
Look for a standard tor comparison. This may be a baseline or an invar chain. In
many cities, local surveying professionals establish a baseline for all to use in
calibrating a chain or EDM. Call a local surveyor or surveying supply dealer to see
if a baseline is available. Invar chains are special chains made of a material that
Locate a isn t affected very much by the temperature. They have been specially calibrated
baseline. and are certified to be a certain distance at a specific working temperature.
Equipment Needed to Perform Calibration
Calibrated chain or baseline
U ncalibrated chains
Tension handles
Chain knuckles
M agnifying glasses
Field book
C orrection form ulas
Personnel Needed
One person holding the zero end o f the chain
One person holding the 100 end o f the chain
One person aligning the zero end o f the chain
One person reading the 100 end o f the chain
Arrange to have four peop le available at the tim e o f calibration. This number is
necessary to perform the test properly.
10-7
p r o c e d u r e f-OR
o r CALIBH
c a l ib r a t
mi ovn i*
W hen . com parison
. twin* m ade to a c a lib ra te d c h a in , environmental condition
icisKf'i
S t a y out o f Should he controlled as closely as possible. Go indoors into a hall way or large room
direct hot sun: sn ......Wind. etc. It a large room or hallway 100-200 f ^
to avoid s u n lig h t, temperatureiparison can be made outdoors early in the morning
long is not available, the comp
Objective h chains being used on the jobs.te.

To determine the length
TO a calibrated Chain assistjng in ,he test: Two persons to hold

S te p 1 Assign specific duties to the .mb le sion. one person to altgn the 0 ends,
the ends o f the chains and apfdy P ^ #( the |0 0 . o r 200-foot ends. Lay out the
and one person to make the co! " P the chains. Assum ing the chains w ill be lying
chains. Attach the tension hand Qf |(). , 2 po nds w ill be applied. (Check
on the ground fu lly supported requjred fo r the particular chain.) The
chain manufacturer lor the have a m a g n ifyin g glass fo r more precise
persons doing the comparing s
S te p 2 With everyone in position, apply tension to the chains. Have the person at the 0
end communicate to the holders to align the 0 s perfectly. When that is ready,
communicate to the person measuring the difference between the calibrated chain
and the chain being tested. Constant communication between the participants is
the key to a successful comparison of the chains.
ZERO
\
The p erso n d o in g the comD
S te p
(estim ate to the th o u sandth of a foot?K U'd m easu~ nd
t) between n Xthe
be,w 6en UrC.iand
ol record
ends of
the ends
the difference
the chains.
1.
q te o 4 R e p e a t th e te s t at le a s t th re e tim es to nKt
Apply any correction for expansion ,n an average of the difference in length,
tem perature. Com pare the n n m i n . i ^ contract*on of the chain because of
calibrated length. a W at *en8lb fbe chain should be) to the
test.
READER HOLDER
100
HOLDER READER
ZERO
To a Baseline
The procedure for calibrating a chain when using a baseline is almost identical to
comparing the chain with a calibrated chain. Simply make the comparison to the
points on the ground and note any difference.
RESULTS
0.0 to 0.01 feet, or 0 mm to 5 mm from nominal
Chains found to be within 0.01 or 5 mm should be marked and used only for
critical work.
P e s t roy and
throw away dad
0.01 to 0.02 feet, or 5 mm to 10 mm from nominal
chains.
A chain found to be in this range from the actual length should be prominently
marked to avoid its use for precise construction layout work.
More than 0.02 feet, or 10 mm from nominal

A ny chain e x ceed in g this should be discarded.
10-9
Angle-Measuring
Instruments
nstrument Geom etry
R e vie w of I
The Plate Le vel B u b b le

T e s t One -
The V e r t ic a l C r o s s h a i r
T e s t Two -
- T h e L in e of S i g h t
Test Three
The Horizontal Axis
Test Four -
The T e l e s c o p e B u b b l e
Test Five -
SCOPE
The importance o f testing angle-m easuring instrum ents in the field cannot be
overemphasized. W hile m ost errors and m isadjustm ents can b e elim inated by
proper operation o f the instrument (turning direct and then reverse angles for
layout and measurement), it is a tim e-con su m ing p rocess that is quite often lim ited
to primary control measurements. T herefore, since proper techniq ues are som etim es
neglected, it is very important that the instrum ent be in proper adjustm ent for tim es
when only direct angles are turned.
10-10
a-^m easurtng Instrument*
Q f INSTRUM ENT g eo m etry
The Principle Lines

' *ny A(* '- M ...urina In.U um .n.
Vwticdi
Axi
R elationships and Test Objectives

The following are geometric relationships and test o b jectiv es for the angle-
measuring instruments.
Vertical
Axis
I
The vertical axis should be perpendicular

to the axis of the plate levels.
The vertical crosshair should lie in a

plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
The hue o fs ifh lsh o u K Ib .-p e rp e n d ic u lar
to the horizontal axis.
Vertical
Axis
I
T h e h o r i z o n t a l a x is s h o u l d be
p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e v ertical ax is.
The axis of the telescope level should

be parallel to the line of sight.
TEST ONE - THE PLATE LEVEL BUBBLE

An off-center bubble indicates the vertical axis is not truly vertical a fundamental
requirement when turning angles.
Objective
To make the plate bubbles center w hen the vertical a xis is
vertical.
10-12
i esi
1. L ev el th e in stru m en t so th* k u
o p p o s ite le v e lin g screw *. b ubb,' s cxuctly centered w hen over two
R o ta te th e in stru m en t 180 degrees k
T he b u b b les shouid rem ain e x ^ , , y ^
It th e b u b b le d o es n o t rem ain they arc tbe obiecl has been met.
Adjustm ent C' mer' d- P' rfo '*>' **">"* .
N o te th e a m o u n t th e b u b b le m oved fm
bubble error. With the proper tool rotatTth601^ Tbis amount *s double the total
half the amount of error towards the c t Capstan screw lo m<>ve the bubble one
and recheck the bubble. nter< Re_level the instrument, rotate 180,
Check Adjustm ent
R e p e a t te s t a n d a d ju s tm e n t ste p s u n til the h u h w
v the bubble remains centered in all locations.
If Not A djustin g at this Time
U s in g th e in s tr u m e n t w ith o u t m ak in g . *
error is balanced. That is, bring th e ^ r r o r V T " ^ P SSb,e if lhe observed tolal
screws. It win appear the instrument
uument ts is outof * not.
out of level, but it is CenCr ^ the'hC
Split 'CVCUng
difference!
TEST TWO - THE VERTICAL CROSSHAIR

1' Whf !jghting n' l point; any Pa of the vertical crosshair should be able to be
used. owever, if the vertical crosshair isnt properly oriented to the horizontal
axis, it will move off of a point as the scope is rotated above the horizontal axis.
O b je c tive
To position the vertical crosshair so it lies in a plane perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
T e st
1. Check the level o f the instrument.
2. Sight the telescope on some sharply-defined point approximately 200 feet
away.
3. Clamp both horizontal motions when the vertical crosshair is on the point.
U se the tangent screw to get it exactly on the point.
4. U sing the vertical motion tangent screw, move the line of sight up and down.
5. The vertical crosshair should remain exactly on the point. If so, the objective
has been met.
If the crosshair appears to m ove away from the point (see sketch), perform the
test tw o m ore tim es obtaining the same results before deciding to send the
instrum ent in for adjustment.
Adjustm ent
L oosen tw o adjacent crosshair capstan screws and rotate the crosshair.
If Not A djusting at this Time

The instrum en t can still be used i f the actual adjustment is not made. Use only the
part o f the v ertica l crosshair w hich is clo se to the horizontal crosshair.
10-13
TEST THREE - THE LINE OF S IG H T
When turning direct and reverse to set a point on a hub. the line o f sight af
turn should hit in the sam e place on the hub. If in stead , tw o p o in ts result fr ^ each
and reverse turning, the instrum ent needs a d ju stin g . 0rt1 direct
Objective
To d eterm ine i f the line o f sight is p e rp e n d ic u la r to the h o rizo n tal axis
Test
S te p 1 Set up and level the in stru m en t o v e r the c e n te r p o in t, "B." o f the establish
area (see D e v e lo p m e n t o f a T est A r e a . P a g e I 0 ~ 4 , e a rlie r in th is C h ap ter
-----f
A
S te p 2 Sight p re c ise ly o n to p o in t "A " w ith b o th h o riz o n ta l m o tio n s clamped and in

(plunge) the te le sc o p e to w a rd s p o in t "C ." Vert
S te p 3 S et a h u b at p o in t "C "
and very precisely mark the line o f sight "#l" on it
S te p 4 Release the lower motion and turn the instrument 180 back to sight onto point "A "
Eliminate errors
by reversing. Reverse
10-14
Invert th e sc o p e ag ain aiul si ,
Step huh. p re c ise ly m ark it ir.K U huh X \ " 11 .
the to p o f the h u h in o rd e r to .V ' SKh h i, o ff ,hehV h *'*!*' 2 hUs on ' hc
ro e r 10 the m ark h K n a, a shon board to
7
A
S te p 6 b|Jh l,n e - f-M g h t m a rk s , " p and "2." fa ||

c
h as b e e n m e t. d c x a c ,|y in ,hc smc place, the objective
S te p 7 11 tw o separate m arks result after perform ing the

test three times, the instrument
needs to be sent in fo r adjustm ent.
TRUE LINE A d ju stm en t

/ A lternatively loosen and tighten opposite crosshair capstan screws to move the
crosshair in the direction needed. This is best executed by an equipment technician.
If Not A d ju s tin g at this Tim e

The true point is alw ays halfw ay betw een "1" and "2." Split the difference to set
the actual point.
10-15
TEST FOUR - THE HORIZONTAL AXIS
This horizontal axis test is ex trem ely im p o rtan t w h e n e v e r an angle-m easuring
ins um ent is being used for plu m b in g h ig h -r.se stru c tu re s I f th e horizon,al axi8s
isn M ruly horizontal, a control line p ro jected u p w ard w .ll n o t be plum b.
m h o r i ^ n t a l axis should be p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e v e rtic a l ax is.
S te p 2 Sight onto the high point "A," locking both horizontal motions.
A
S te p 3 Lower the scope to set a hub at the base o f the object sighted on. Place a hub or
locate a spot on something solid where a mark can be made. With a sharp pencil,
mark the line o f sight "B."
10-16
S tep 4 In v ert th e te le sc o p e , release th* h
sig h t o n to th e high p o in f A " a g a r " 201" 81 m tio n rotate >e instrum ent 180, and
S te p 5 Lowe, * ,cp, d m, rk ,.gln ,c . ^ o[ ^
S to p 6 ^ t*16 two rn^rks ' B" and "C" coincide, the objective has been met. If there is a
deviation, repeat the test two more times to confirm the results. Then, if two
separate marks result, the instrument is in need of adjustment.
TRUE LINE Adjustm ent

/ Locate the capstan screws that raise or lower the horizontal axis and make the
necessary adjustment. This is best executed by an equipment technician.
If Not A djusting at this Time

Again, the principle o f double centering applies. If plumbing a column, give line
direct, and then reverse and split the difference to obtain the true line.
10-17
, c a v a ila b le to tu rn an gles ^
_ n p p B U B 1" in s tru m e n t te je s c o p e b u b b le on the
, - f - C l_ E S C O a n g le 'meaSU h a t is the c a s e , . a c c u Ia te results.
t//V O F s /G H r
LEVLfuB E
, See Levels, Pge 10-27, for an

TBSt d the two-peg or * * * * * test.
S a n ^ n of how to perform this test.
10-18
i
Tota' Station
Vert i cal
l nc| ex E r r o r
10-20
Horizontal
C o l | imation 10-20
SCOPE
M any o f the tests that apply to angle-measuring instruments apply to total stations
also. H ow ever, because o f the automatic vertical index and horizontal collimators
that exist on m any total stations, additional tests and checks must be performed.
A lthough they are set initially at the factory, these errors can change with temperature
and over tim e. T otal stations, just as any other instrument, should be checked when
new , w hen p recise w ork is to be performed, or after long periods o f storage.
10-19
1
r
V E R T IC A L INDEX ERROR
The vertical circle should read 90 degrees when the line of sight is horiv
it doesnt, any amount off of 90 degrees is the vertical index error. -j-?ntal' If
procedure for checking this will vary from instrument to instrument b *** e*act
different software within the instrument. Cau$e 0f
Test
I
I. Level the instrument exactly using
the spirit bubble or electronic level
on the instrument. 100m
2. Go to the menu on the instrument
and find the vertical index screen.
3. Aim the scope at a distinct target
no more than 5 from horizontal
at a distance greater than 100m in
the direct position, and then in the
r
reverse position. 7 t 9
o o o
4. The screen will display a vertical VIndex o
4 5" *
9 o
index value. This can be saved so Set Index? o
f 2 a
0
Q 1o
that the index error will be o o 0
A il DOT oh\moo\mhu\0IC
<J6 m m
compensated for whenever zenith itv 2 h i? ON
angles are measured.

If Test Is Not Performed
Simply turn vertical angles direct-and-reverse as many times as needed and
average the angles to eliminate the error.
HO R IZO NTA L C O L L IM A T IO N
The collimation or line-of-sight error is similar to the line o f sight being perpendicular
to the horizontal axis test that was covered in the previous Section. With the total
station, the electronics can compute this error and make an automatic adjustment.
Test
1. Sight onto a point with the instrument in the direct position.
2. Go into the software o f the instrument and locate the horizontal collimation
menu.
3. Enter the menu and follow the instructions.
4. Sight onto the point with the instrument in the reverse direction.
5. The collimation error will be displayed and can be saved.
If Test Is Not Performed
Simply turn horizontal angles direct-and-reverse as
many tim es as needed and
average the angles to eliminate the error.
10-20
Tribrach and
Plummets
l
The Circular
Level 10-22
T h e O p t i c a l PI
u nnm e t 10-22
L a s e r Plu
m mets 10-23
SCOPE
The base of the modern surveying instrument is typically a removable tribrach that
allow s for the easy interchange o f instruments, target assemblies, prisms, and other
devices. A standard system has evolved and instruments from various manufacturers
can generally be used on any tribrach. In addition to easy instrument exchange,
som e tribrachs also contain an optical or laser plummet for setting the instrument
over a point. I f the tribrach doesnt have the plummet, it almost always has a
circular b u lls-e y e bubble that is used for rough leveling. This calibration Section
w ill look at ch eck in g the circular level on a tribrach as well as the instrument, and
ch eck in g op tical or laser plum m ets either on the tribrach or on the instrument.
10 -2 1
RmLEVEL
THE CIRCULAR LEVEL
. , IKulM (bull's-eye) level bubble should be eentered when ,hc instrumen, is ^
Bull's-eye
out-ol-center
Inslrufeenl
Teat . . O Q
not level
through the procedure to c

instrument-
2 Once the instrum ent is
Bull's-eye
centered
Instrument
3. II (he bubble is cenler^ " J the ow ner's manual on how to move
level
4- bubble and center U.
R e a l t m T h e inVm m ^nt I'm U level when (he circular bubble is centered. Use
it only for close approximations.
THE OPTICAL PLUMMET J

Checking an optical plummet is performed in several ways depend,ng on where the
optical plummet is located. If it is contained w.thtn he instrument a stmpht
rotation o f the instrument is used. If it is located tn the tribrach, special methods
or adapters are required.
Optical Plummet in the Instrument
Checking an optical plummet in an instrument is very simple. Simply set the
instrument on a tripod and look through the optical plummet. Have an assistant
mark the exact spot where the optical plummet crosshair is hitting the ground with
a dot. Rotate the instrument 90 degrees and mark the crosshair location. Repeat
until back to the original orientation. If the optical plummet is in adjustment, there
will be just one dot on the ground. If the optical plummet is out of adjustment, there
will be four dots on the ground.
Adjustment
To adjust the optical plummet in the instrument, use the tool provided with the
instrument and turn the screws on the optical plummet eyepiece as needed (trial and
error) until the crosshair stays on the same point as the instrument is rotated.
Optical Plummet in a Tribrach

An optical plummet located in a tribrach
presents a different ch allen ge for
checking. A special tool called a tribrach
cylinder adapter is the easiest method to
do so. This device is manufactured so
that the ends of the cylinder are perfectly
parallel. Performing this check requires
a tripod with a tribrach on it, the cylinder
adapter, and the tribrach that is being
tested. Inside a room, set up a tripod
with a tribrach on it. Insert the cylinder
on top o f that tribrach. Place the tribrach
10 -2 2
\
to be tested upside-down on top of th
on the upside-down tribrach. Hav * cyl?nder. Look thr
optical plummet crosshair with a d ^ 9Ssistant on a ladde^m ? le. optical Pommel
in 90-degree increments, marking thl ^ the ceilin8- R e p e a l ****location of the
one dot on the ceiling, the optical Di, Crosshair on the ceiling a lhtribrach
on the ceiling, use the needed tool o " ^ ' " in sdimem If C f thfere is bm
If the snerini .. adjust the i . tbere are four spots
LASER p l u m m e t s
The use of laser plummets for positioning an instrument over a point are becoming
common on instruments and are available on tribrachs. They serve the same
purpose as the optical plummet but work by projecting a visible laser beam onto
the ground. The instrument operator can then position the instrument so it is level
and visible over the point by viewing the laser. Checking laser plummets is
performed in a manner similar to checking an optical plummet.
Laser Plummet in the Instrument

Typically the laser plummet is built into the instrument and adjustments cannot
be made in the field. To check the laser plummet, set up the instrument on a
tripod. Turn on the plummet and mark the beam precisely on the ground with a
sharp pencil. Rotate the instrument 90 degrees and mark the beam again. Repeat
until the instrument returns to the original orientation. If there is one mark, the
laser is in adjustment. If four marks are visible, an adjustment is needed. Contact
a repair facility.
Laser Plummet in a Tribrach . . . . . . . .

This is checked using methods similar to those described earlier. Use the tribrach
cylinder, drop a plumb bob, or outline and rotate the tribrach. Perform
adjustment if available or if possible, otherwise, send it to a repair facility.
1 0 -2 3
i
Levels
f t he G e o m e t r y o f a L e v e l
R e v i e w of t ne
Rubble ( Du mp y )
Test One - T e l e s c o p e Bubb
n *ni c r o s s h a i r
Test Two - H o r i z o n t a l o r
-r p m or Q u i c k - P e g T e s t
T e s t T h r e e - T w o - P e g or
P r o c e d u r e f or Q u i c k - P e g
Q u i c k - P e g by O n e P e r s o n
000 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ODD I000D0000
M M W f
v-
SCOPE
When setting grade, there should be no doubt in the construction surveyor's mind
about the expected results from the level being used. A horizontal line of sight ii
t
should exist so all points are established from the same reference plane.
Proper procedures must be used to ensure that any error in the instrument
is negated. Proper procedures include the construction surveyor performing the
tests outlined in this Section whenever the instrument is suspected of being out of
adjustment. A thorough understanding o f the principle lines and the geometric
relations within the level is necessary.
As a reminder, all tests should be performed at least three times (triple test).
The results should be the same each time, or the test itself is not being performed
properly. The same principles apply to both the Dumpy level and the Automatic
level. The Sections D iffe r e n tia l L e v e lin g and P r o c e d u r e f o r L e v e lin g , in C h a p te r 7,
L e v e lin g , should be studied before performing these tests.
10-24
\
Me g e o m e t r y o f a l e v e l
?F h,* able to otest
Relationships f a the level,
typical a thorough
level undemanding of the principal geometric
is nccessarv
n e c e ssa ry
The Principal Lines on a Level ara-
V e rtic a l a x is VIK1KVi
e L in e o f s ig h t
i i )of ,he ,evel ,ub' *oumpy

a Vertical crosshair
a Horizontal crosshair
The Geometric Relationships and Test Ob|ec.ves

. The v e rtic al axis should he
perpendicular to the axis of the
bubble (Dumpy level).
. The horizontal crosshair should be
perpendicular to the vertical axis.
. T he lin e o f sig h t sh o u ld be
parallel to the axis of the level
tube (Dum py level).
The v e rtic a l ax is should be
perpendicular to the axis of the
com pensator (automatic level).
TELESCOPE BUBBLE (DUMPY)

test o n e
Objective
Make the telescope bubble center when the vertical axis is vertical.
Test
This is identical to Test 1 in the Section on Angle-Measuring Instruments. Refer
to it for procedure.
AND COMPARE
<
1 0 -2 5
IZONTAL CROSSHAIR u u a l |y th e c e n t e r p a r t o f th e h o riz o n ta l
te s t tw o ^ U O o n to a le v e l ro d ( s to ry P ' * H o W e v e r , a n y p a r t o f th e h o riz o n ta l
* *' * ^ ,f ,he crosshair * ^

crosshair s h o u l d be a * in ,h e ro d r e a d i n g ,
p r o p e r l y , it ' " a y c a u s e
Objective s h o u ld U e in a p la n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e v e r n c a ! axis.
The h o riz o n ta l c ro s s h a ir s n o
Test . H, t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s h a i r t o w a r d s a w e l l - d e f i n e d
- a r r r , *
. dnwlv rotate the instrument about its vertical

ax^s.'using'thetan'gentscrewThe horizontal crosshair shou.d stay on the point as
Always use the
center of the
horizontal ,he 'nS Repeat'the'test several times. If the crosshair moves off of the point, the
crosshair. crosshair reticule is in need of adjustment.
T h T a lP m e n t cannot be made in the field on many instruments. Take the

instrument to a repair facility.
If Not Adjusting at this Time

Make it a point to always use the center part o f the horizontal crosshair. If this is
consistently used, any reading error will be negated.
TEST THREE - TWO-PEG OR QUICK-PEG TEST

Testing to ensure that the line of sight is horizontal has alw ays been called the two-
peg. It requires reading a rod, and adding and subtracting the rod readings to
determine if the line of sight is horizontal. It works w ell.
An alternative method of performing the tw o-peg is what has appropriately
The quick-peg
been labeled the Quick-Peg. The same theory applies in setting up in the middle
can be
performed by
between two points, and then setting up close to one o f the points. H ow ever, rather
one person. than taking readings and having to add and subtract them , NO recorded readings
are necessary. Field engineers can even set up this test so it ca n b e p erfo rm ed by
just one person in less than five minutes!
Even when the instrument bubble is level (Dumpy) or the compensator is
working (Automatic) there is the possibility the line of sight is not truly horizontal.
faulty'readings * P Sltl0ned Wlth the llne of siht inclined slightly causing
Objective
the level bubbfe' ^ D ^ u J d t i h, ^ Z0 tal *ine represented ^ the axis of

Automatic Level. axis t r o u g h the com pensator in an
10-26
h u r t u u iu r v - h 't u
edube
Find two stationary objects (utility noie
Step 1 with a clear line of sight between th*. e' bu,ldin' c.) that are 2(XV-300 apart,
,n tb*s casc' 'he light pole and the building.
S te p 2 Set up the le v e l at the midpoint between the objects, and mark the line of sight on
both objects. The mark should be permanent for later use. Hint; this instrument
setup should be a loot or two below your normal setup height.
^ chapter w
set un
Move the instrument to the proximity o f one o f the objects and
Step 3 * \ ankr sure you can see both points from this s<
S te p 4 Have a rod person hold an engineer's rule on the mark on the near object and read
the rule.
Step 5 Have the rod person go to the other object and read the rule there.
1 0 -2 8
Quick-Pc^
0 -2 5 P o s t
Trip'* T est. ncauua

Compare the readings. If the two readings are the same, the instrument is in proper
adjustment.
11 the readings are different, the line of sight should be adjusted so both
readings becom e the same. The crosshairs are actually adjusted. This is a simple
procedure and can be performed by anyone with mechanical skill. Before making
any adjustment, be sure to triple test the above procedure to confirm the results.
o Uick - p e g b y o n e p e r s o n
Pegging an instrument doesn t have to be a time-consuming burden. With a little

Planning, it can be performed by one person in about one minute. This can be set
up to be performed at the home office or at any project site. Here is what to do in
a few steps.
Procedure
StG P 1 Locate two objects that are about 250 feet apart where it would be possible to glue
" onto or nail into a 2-foot or 1-meter section of an old rod. This could be old power
poles, light poles, buildings, bridge piers, etc. Obtain permission to do this from
the owner.
S te p 2 Set up the leveling instrument exactly between these two objects, make sure it is
level, and sight towards each object and mark the line of sight on the object.
Because o f the geometry of the instrument, these marks will be the same elevation.
1 0 -2 9
cn**fna'
,<h obiect. making sure the foot or meter mart.
nail a section lhc marks placed on the object.
G lu e o r
c too 3
S te p 4 Now, whenever a leveling instrument needs to be pegged, simply set up the

instrument close to one of the objects. Sight onto the near rod face, and read the
rod. Sight onto the far rod face, and read the rod.
S te p 5 Compare the readings. Ignore the whole foot/meter parts of the reading as they
may not be the same since a different part of the rod was glued to the object.
However, the decimal part of the reading should be the same if the instrument is
in proper adjustment. If the decimal parts are different, the instrument needs
adjusted.
So, one person, one setup, two readings, and a simple comparison within a minute
or two to peg a level.
Laser
SGr C a l i b r a t i o n 10-32
SCOPE
Just as with levels, lasers must be checked so that they are in proper calibration. For
a rotating electronic level, this means that the line of sight is creating a horizontal
plane. A utility laser should create a horizontal plane and a vertical plane. A pipe
laser must have a line of sight that is horizontal when the slope dial reads 0.000%.
The ow ners m anual is again the best source of information for how to adjust
specific lasers and should be reviewed before attempting any calibration or
adjustm ent. This Section will cover the procedure to check the calibration of the
popular electronic level. Not all electronic levels are checked in this manner.
1 0 -3 1
^ chapter ten
PROCEDURE FOR LASER CALIBRATION

A* level ........ chonlil
< .1 area should he located with
with an
open distance of at least 30 meters (100
feet) from the laser setup area to a wall.
Look at the laser on the top or bottom of
it and note that it has a "X" axis and a
"Y" axis. These axes will he used to
orient the laser in the checking
Step 1 Set up a tripod so that it is solidly in the ground, and the head ofthe tripod is as
to horizontal as possible. '
S tep 2 Place the laser on the tripod. Orient it so

that the +X side of the laser is pointing Laser
towards the wall where the beam will be
Wall
= X side
marked. Roughly level the laser using
(he leveling screws by centering the Y side
circular bubble.
S te p 3 Turn the laser on and wait for it to level

itself. Go to the target wall and use a
sensor to locate the beam. Mark the
center of the beam on the wall and label
it as "X,".
S te p 4 Rotate the laser on the tripod 180 deg

aligning it so that the -X side is tow,
the wall. Repeat the process and n
the beam again, labeling this as "X
10-32
**r ^
5 M a rk th e m id p o in t b e tw e e n
S te p r e a d i n g s a s Xm. I f t h c ' , h c w o
w ith in 3 m m o r |/ g *n l? is n o t
n e e d s to b e a d ju s te d . C *a s e r
Step c a lib ra tio n s c re w b y tria l a n d e rr o r

th e X a x is u n til th e la s e r b e a m is o n
m id p o in t.
Rotate the laser to the +Y axis and

S te p 7 repeal the process described for the *X axis.
Adjust as needed.
S te p 8 If adjustments were performed, go buck to Step 3 and

repeat the procedure again.
confirming that the laser was adjusted correctly. '
If the laser is checked and has to be adjusted frequently, it should be sent to a repair
facility to determine why it is constantly out of adjustment.
Prism Pole
Bubble
10-35
10-35
10-37
1 0*38
SCOPE
It was stated earlier that the prism pole is the greatest source of error in total station
measurement. Several factors cause this. One factor is that the person holding the
pole may not be following proper techniques. Another factor is that the bulls-eye
bubble on the prism pole is not in proper adjustment. The field engineer should
check that the person holding the pole is following proper techniques. In addition,
the field engineer should check the bubble frequently to ensure the prism pole is
p umb when the bubble is centered. There are several m ethods that can be used to
perform this test.
The objective is to determine if the buhM
p lu m b . T h e m e th o d s u s e d to d e te r m in e th is w h c n l h e P r i m Pe is
p r is m p o le b u b b le is c e n t e r e d a n d th e i m u USe l h e s a m e P r o c e s s . T h a t i s . th e
a d j u s t m e n t , t h e b u b b l e w i l l s t a y c e n t e r e d w h '? r ? l a t c d l f l h c b u b b l e is i n p r o p e r
n o t in p r o p e r a d j u s t m e n t , t h e b u b b l e w i l l i r lhC P l c i s r o t a l c d W t h e b u b b l e i s
t h r e e p r o c e d u r e s f o r c a l i b r a t i n g a b u b b l ' 7 * U' f c e , U e r - P r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e Hi
P r o c e d u r e f o r U s i n g T a b l e s , P r o c e d u r e t l , . 1 ' S OUt o f a d j u s t m e n t . T h e y a r c
5
fo r U s in g a D o o r f r a m e . o r U s ,n S a W a ll B ra c k e t, a n d P ro c e d u re
for using tables
T his proced u re can be perform ed

wherever there is a solid object: a
common place is the intersection of two
desks. A dditionally, the floor should be
carpeted, or a floorm at made available p.
to prevent the tip o f the pole from i
slipping.
S te p 2 place the Prism Pole at the intersection

of the desks and position it until the
bubble is centered.
Stop 3 Very slow ly rotate the prism pole,

watching the position of the bubble.
'I P EDGE OF
DESK
1 0 -3 5
If the bubble is in proper adjustment, it
S tep 4 will remain perfectly centered as the
prism pole is rotated.
Step 5 I f the bubble is out of adjustment, the

bubble will drift slowly o f f o f center as
the prism pole is rotated. Note where it
is off center the most. That is the location
where the bubble must be adjusted from.
S te p 6 Most bubbles are adjusted by using a

screwdriver and turning screws on the d O
bottom of the bubble housing. Study
yours to determine how to make the
adjustment. Use a trial-and-error
approach to move the bubble into proper
adjustment.
Step 7 Repeat all steps until the bubble remains

centered as the pole is rotated.
10-36
rw n
gpU BE --------
The prism pole adjusting wall bracket can k-
f t*
or can be hom e-m ade. Several compames^nuum ^ from surveying suppliers
the instruct. ons that com e with the brack*. . Ure Vcr> s t e r n s . Follow
svei ana mourn i. im Ikenli/l
S c re w th e p r is m p o le in to th e to p
S to p 1 a s s e m b ly . P la c e p r is m p o le tip in b o tto m
s h o e . M o v e t h e b r a c k e t s a s needed t o
c e n t e r t h e b u b b l e . T i g h t e n th e t o p a n d
b o tto m .
r
Now rotate or spin prism pole 360. If

Step 2 the bubble is in adjustment, it will remain
centered throughout this rotation. If the
bubble drifts o ff o f center, the bubble is
not in adjustment.
S te p 3 If the bubble needs adjustment, locate

the vial adjustment screws on the bottom
of the bubble housing, and turn them
until the bubble is centered.
Repeat Step 2 until bubble remains centered in a full 360-degree rotation.
1 0 -3 7
P R O C E D U R E F O R U S IN G A D O O R F R A M E
S to p 1 Locate an out-of-the-way closet door

frame in a building. Obtain permission
to drill a l\S" hole in the top o f the
frame. Pick a sp o t that w ill he covered
when the door is closed.
Step 2 (let a small screw eye and screw it into

the hole that was drilled and suspend a
heavy plumb bob from it.
Step 3 Lower the plumb bob to the floor anc

after it settles, mark the point on th
floor exactly.
O ie p 4 Drill a hole exactly on the mark in

floor. Remove the screw from the h
in the top.
10-38
polo bubble
Get the prism pole and place .. .
Step top o f it. Put the points o f theorisin '
in the top hole and the bottom h J P le
tighten the pole. 1 ho,c
Rotate the prism pole and observe the

Step 6 bull's-eye bubble. The bubble should be
centered on the bulls-eye. If it is off of
the bulls-eye, it needs to be adjusted.
Locate the adjustment screws on the

S te p 7
bottom of the bulls-eye bubble bracket,
and by trial and error, adjust until the
bubble is centered and stays centered as
the prism pole is rotated.
\\
>
1 0 -3 9
Hand Level
Of a H a n d L e v e l
Procedure for C a I i t>r a *' 0
SCOPE
The simple hand level can be one of the most important instruments the field
engineer uses. Its uses are practically limitless in establishing rough elevations,
determining plumb locations when chaining, setting slope stakes, etc. To perform
these many activities within the tolerances required, the hand level must be
accurate. The process involved in checking the calibration of a hand level is simple
and straightforward.
10-40
g p l/B E r w r . ------- n , O N o p A Ha n
level
/ Find two M W io n a r y ^ ^ ,^
20 feet a p a r i A n e x a m p l e
i r e e a m i a l i g h t p ,* lc . u J **
C^P 3 place the hand ,cv cl c x a c tl> on the pencil

mark and sight to the other object. Center
the bubble in the hand le v e l ex a ctly and
co m m u n ica te w h ere the line o f sight
hits the o b jec t. M ark the line o f sight.
S te p 4 Go to the other obJect and hold the hand

level exactly on the pencil mark and
sight back toward the original object.
Step 5 When the bubble is centered exactly,

have a helper mark the line of sight. The BUBBLE IS
line of sight should fall exactly on the CENTERED
original sighting mark. If it does, the
hand level is in perfect calibration and
no further action is needed.
1 0 -4 1
chapter ten
-''i
S te p 6 H /ic* line-of-sight doesn't fall on the

murk, the hand level is in need of
adjustment. Study the prism or mirror
mechanism that is used. Look for an
adjusting screw. By trial and error make
an adjustment that moves the line of
sight u/> or down.
S tep 7 Repeat all steps until the hand level is in

adjustment.
Check calibration
of the hand level
weekly.
10-42
Summary
adjusted rarely.
. Avoid testing in the hot sun or in inclement weather.
instalments'65* area S thlU '* *S easier 10 regularly perform the checks on
Discard broken or non-repairabie chains, tripods, level rods, or any other easily
replaceable equipment before they cause a major mistake in layout work.
. All new chains should be checked before any work is performed.
Specific geometric relationships must exist in all angle-measuring instruments
or errors will result.
. Many errors in angle-measuring instruments can be eliminated by turning
direct-and-reverse angles.
The line-of-sight tor leveling instruments should be horizontal and checked
by pegging weekly.
Develop a quick-peg area so that levels can be pegged by one person in one
minute.
Circular bubbles on instruments and tribrachs should be checked monthly.
Setting an instrument exactly over a point is required to measure angles correctly.
Check optical and laser plummets frequently to ensure precise setups.
There are several methods that can be used to check prism pole bubbles. Use
one daily.
Don't overlook checking a hand level when new, and then periodically.
mistakes a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f i e l d
Failed to check calibration on instruments, ever!

Didn't check chains when new.
Assumed that electronics are always correct.
We didn't peg our level at least once a week.
Forgot to determine the vertical index error and only measured direct.
Used a prism pole with no bubble.
Noticed that the optical plummet drifted off the point as the instrument is
turned, but did not follow through and check it out.
Used instrum ents that have not been checked.
Used instrum ents that have been checked and are known to be out of
calibration.
1 0 -4 3
w n PR O B L EM S ...... id e a l a re a w o u ld b e f r
Q U E S T IO N S A N D P " ^ i h e c m p r .......... testtn8
' * * < e s .i S * " * i n s , r u m e n , s .

, L* sCr.t* * Kleal of (he day o Pcrform caUbration checks?
; When .s the best ''K proccSS used to calibrate a chain.
fVscrinc uv
IV-scribe hc >,CP'
4. Draw an instrum ent >iih|
and shoNV the
show the pprinciple lines
rin c ip le lin and geom
e s unu geometric
ej
p n,w an instrument a ^ ^ me|ric rc|ation is not eliminated l
5. What out-of-calibration g e o m e tric rela tio n is not cli,- f,C Pe*U(w
h. re verse procedures ? Ulated by
When p rolon gin g a c e n te rlin e on a h ig h w a y p ro ie ge0|h
7. relationship is m ost im portan t? J ct* W h]^
X. In h ig h - r is e c o n s t r u c t io n , w h ic h o f th e g e o m e tric etr,c
instrument is m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r p l u m b i n g th e s tru c tu r 9 nSfl'P s W
9. eWhen
t c ., w husing
i c h o fat threa gn seit oa sma l ê v---------
e l f o r s e t t in g g r a d e o n f o r m ^ *n
10. What special procedure m ust be p e rfo rm e d so th a t the quick
etc., which ofthe geometric relationships w ithin an instrumetabIishingelt
10. perform e c ibayl one
W h a t s ped p r o c perso
e d u r en ?m D
u sesc
t brib
e p e eor fro illu
r m esdtraste
o . tu 710,11 ,s i m ^ aiib.
9 n ^ r r i h e o r illu s tr a te
11. D escribe h o w to check the c a lib ra tio n of a c irc u la r b u b b le ** ^ q u i c k p eD ^
gCf,hb*
FIELD ACTIVITIES
Chain Calibration - (4 persons, 1 hour) Objective: If possible
l.
g a in s t a baseline or a calibrated
against
aC cai lUlilUrU chain. I Af that
wiiuiii . M Ul is not VaiJclQ|a
a v a i l s C heckachain
or more chains using proper chain calibration techniques0mPe
............n a lih ra tio n rechnin J ^ pr ^ mPare tw^
- ' V4U12
; more chainsJ and other equipment needed for chain rnm?dUre: calibration. Gobtain
n r I n r a f p a a id n v u a lb 2 ^ ' " - Go "
build in* with a 120'-long hallway or locate a sidewalk that is level. Establish
a starting point and align 0 on both chains. Follow the procedure in the
Chapter and compare the lengths.
2. Calibration Tests on a Transit or T heodolite - (1 to 2 persons, 2 hours)
Objective: Perform calibration tests to determine if an instrument is in proper
adjustment. Procedure: Establish a location to perform the tests. Set up the
instrument and check the plate bubble, the vertical crosshair, the horizontal
axis, the line of sight, and the telescope bubble. Maintain a record in the field
book of the results of the tests.
i. Quick-Peg Calibration Test - ( 1 or 2 persons, 2 hours) Objective: Determine
if the line of sight of an instrument is horizontal. Procedure: Set up and level
between two utility poles. Make a mark on each pole. Set the instrument up
close to one of the poles and read a rod held on both points. Read the rod to
the nearest hundredth. Compare readings.
4.
Setup of a Permanent Pegging A rea - (1 to 2 persons, 2 hours) Objective
Establish sections of level rod on two objects so that instruments can b<
pegged by one person in one minute. (Only perform if written permission i
obtained.) Procedure: Obtain written perm ission. Locate an old level ro
that is unusable and cut it into 2-foot or 1-m eter pieces. Follow the procedui
outlined in this Chapter and establish the quick-peg site.
Laser Calibration - ( 1 to 2 persons, 1 hour) O bjective: Use a rotatii
aser to see if it projects a horizontal plane. P rocedure: Locate an op,
descrihpH in
described aC !?arJChapter.
the lne f Sight of at least 30 m- Follow the procedu
1 0 -4 4
chapter eleven
if I
office practices
Drafting 1 11- 2
C o ns t r uc t i o n Drawi ngs 1 1 - 7
Si t e Pl a n s 11-11
Contours I 11- 16
Li f t D r a w i n g s 1 1- 2 6
Summary | 11-34
Drafting
practices
11*3
E q u i p m ent
11-3
Techniques
11-4
Lettering
1 1- 5
principle *
1 1-6 CAD
SCOPE
One of the tasks on the jobsite is to prepare layout drawings, lift drawings, site plan
drawings, or as-built drawings. The ability to visualize, understand, and
communicate through drawings is a valuable skill for the construction surveyor/
field engineer. Although it is not expected that these drawings be the quality of
those prepared by a professional, it is expected that the drawings follow some basic
principles of drafting. And, they must be complete, precise, to scale, and
representative of the work. One important reason is that they may be presented to
the owner for consideration of a change order. Drawings are completed by using
hand-drafting techniques, or by using Computer Aided Drafting (CAD). No
attempt is made in this Section to cover or even introduce CAD methods and
techniques since entire books and careers are spent learning a CAD system. This
Section briefly presents an overview of drafting principles for those instances
when someone must prepare a sketch or drawing by hand.
1 1 -2
f t * ''' P roducing a g o o d draw ing is m ore of
a knack tor drafting and can produc -''i ^ '^wn a xc*cn<-'c. Some individuals have
beautiful, while other persons druwin w well arranged, cleat, ami
crayons. Even though both individual '<kc ,hcy havc bccn P ^ u c e d with
artistic ability is different. For those fie n - UC Sttmc dr*f'in* equipment, ihc i
and for those artistic people w ho coul 1 . Cnpnenj who dw nw' hav^ artistic ability
presented here and should be follow ., i r , Up u few Principle of drafting arc
n order to produce quality drawings.
Follow Industry Standards
Just about every drafting text available i,
to
fr$c t ,cg lettering, dimensioning, sectioning use o f e " f r Unc wcigh,< linC typc*
and drawings produced will be u n d ersto o d :^ Phmen,-clc/ ' oUtlw/ h" s'nndards-
letter'"*-
anddts = : r nr
style arc key to prt.ducig TaV traet'v d'awt ' ' " 0 S " * ' Ji, c"si"nin-
^
"J
andabili,y; bi" 'lf ,hcre

Provide the Correct Information
The most beautiful drawing will be thrown into the trash if the information on it is
incorrect. If dim ensions are wrong, trash it. If the views are wrong, trash it. If the
coordinates are wrong, trash it. Check, double-check, and triple-check all drawings
for correct information. Have som eone else check it before it goes to those who
are going to build from it. It must be correct.
:q UIPMENT
The following is a suggested list of the minimum drafting equipment necessary for
a field engineer to be able to prepare drawings on the jobsite
Drawing Surface
Some type of table dedicated to drafting should be available for the field engineer.
Recommended table size is 30 x48" with a bonded vinyl drawing board cover. It
should include a T-Square or a parallel bar.
Drawing Tools
D rawing Pencils. Pencils for drawing are available in many styles and shapes.
Common wood/lead pencils, lead holders, or mechanical pencils are available.
The type o f pencil selected depends upon personal preference.
Whichever type of pencil is selected for use, it is almost certain that several types
of lead weight will be needed. Common leads used are the 4H (Hard), 2H (Medium), H
(Soft), and HB (Extra-soft). The type of lead necessary is dependent upon the drafting
techniques and skill o f the individual. Some persons do all of their work with just two
lead weights while others require all that are available.
Scales. The engineer's and architects scales are the standard measurement tools used for
liiiliiiliuiliiiil
drafting. The engineer's scale is used for civil-type construction work which includes
Architect's Scale
0 1 2 3 4
roadways, bridges, site work, etc. The architect's scale is used for architectural work
1i I i I i I i I including structural dimensions, overall building dimensions, finish dimensions, etc.
Triangle Triangles. They are triangles available in all sizes, from those that will fit into a wallet
to the ones which are as large as a drafting table. Size selection depends on the use.
Typical triangles for a field engineer are: 8 to 10 inch - 45 degree, 8 to 10 inch - 30/60
degree, and adjustable.
1 1 -3
Templates. Templates are convenient time savers. Some 3empiate
typical tem plates include a circle template, a French curve
tem plate, an architectural symbols template, etc.
Compass
Compass. Select a compass that has a layout radius o f at least 6" in orderôvT^
to plot many of the curves that will be encountered on site plans. be at>le
Protractor
Protractor. For field engineering, use a 360-degree protractor.
If points are going to be laid out radially in the field with an
instrument that will be turning angles from 0 to 360, this type
of protractor can be used effectively to plot points on paper.
Good tools
f erasers should be available to be able to erase on a variety
make drafting Eraser. Several types of erasers ^ and hard red are common. An electric
easier. of drafting surfaces. Soft ^ te erasing shield should also be available.
Sharpener. The type of sharpener selected is dependent upon the type of pencil
selected. If a wooden pencil or lead holder is used, a pointer will work well.
Brush and Drafting Powder. Maintaining a clean drawing is one of the keys to
a good drawing. Dust from sharpeners and graphite from drawing lines will soil
a drawing. Brush often and use drafting powder all o f the time.
TEC H N IQ U ES
The objective of drafting is to produce a drawing that is easy to read and follow
One of the main factors in preparing a drawing that meets these criteria is having
a good understanding of the types and weights of lines that are used on the drawing
Line Weights
There are three line weights produced by using the proper type of pencil lead and
by using the correct width of line.
Heavy, Dark. This line is produced by using a soft pencil such

as H or HB. It may be necessary to go over the line more than
once to obtain the width needed. Be consistent. This type of
line is used for outlines of objects, profiles, section cuts,
lettering, etc., to bring the object to the attention of the reader.
Medium. This line is produced by using a medium pencil

such as H or 2H. If sharpened properly, it should only be
necessary to go over the line once to make the crisp line
required. This type of line is used for elevations, sketches,
phantom lines, some hidden lines, etc. This is the standard
line used on most of the drawing.
Light. This line is produced by using a hard pencil such as

4H. Because it is hard, this pencil won't need to be sharpened
as often as the softer ones. This line is very sharp and defined.
It is used for grids, layout lines, dimensions, arrow lines, etc.
This line is unobtrusive. It doesn't bring attention to itself.
11-4
N Lfne T y p e s
M any types o f lines, in various line weight*
p articu lar item s. A few o f the mo t , ' can be used n a draw ing to illustrate
m edium line w eight. S com m u line types are illustrated below in
O b je ct Line. U sed fo r outline o f nln

p ro files, e le v a tio n s. sectl n cuts,
Hidden Line. Used for elements below a solid surface. ---------------------
opemngs'1"6' ^ f bjects>Srid system, r o u n d ---------------------
Dimension Line. Used for indicating distance from point

to point. ^ K-
Phantom Line. Used to show an objects future location.
Utility Line. Used to indicate the location and type of utility.
INC/PLES O F LETTERING
pfll The ability to letter neatly is a learned skill it tou
become good at lettering The problem wi h takeS praf lce and perseverance to
. . . . . hr.w fn i~ttf>r :t P wtth many individuals is not that they dont
know how to letter, it is thut thev donft nrartipp ,
t . . y 111 practice. Computer use is not helping
because we are practicing less. However if Kao- , 't
a u 6 .. uwever>it some. basic principles are followed,
good lettering can be accomplished.
Use Horizontal Guidelines
Always u5e Lettering that goes up and down like a roller coaster is not very attractive. It is not
g u id e d - easy to read and leaves the reader with a queasy feeling about the quality of the
drawing. It only takes a few seconds to draw horizontal guidelines to maintain
letters which are uniform in height.
Use Vertical or Slanted Guidelines
mm
Often, the primary difference between good lettering and
poor lettering is the failure to take the time to add vertical or
slanted guidelines. Drawing vertical guidelines will force
the letters to be formed so they are all parallel.
Stick with a S tandard Style

A single-stroke style o f lettering has proven, through the years, to be the optimum
in legibility, speed, and ease in the forming of letters. A simple style is recommended
for use by field engineers on drawings as well as in the field book. A sample of
standard lettering is shown below.
A0CPEFGHIJKLMNOPQR5TUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv'wxyz
1234567090
11
CAD
rin which drawings are prepared and presented
_ . n ,v revolutionized the any,hing other than ment.on that the bes,
Learn CAP nfs beyond the scope of this book to V ^ ,hrough CAD. For versatility of,he
thoroughly to
to prepare drawings ot * * * * > ,he drawing, and the ability to present the
maximize its deve opmen. of >he drawtng. change^ ^ send,ng tt v.a email around ,he
capability. plan as a blueprint, on a computer sc the length of time requtred
world. CAD can t be bear T y B , ,aken in the context of the number of
really learn a powerful CAD system^ ner persons can become proficieni
years it used to take a dratter to becom ^^ ^ how (Quse a pencl, on a drafting
in CAD in just months.
board for quick communication
SCOPE
About a dozen years ago, it was predicted that by the year 2000, blueprints would
no longer be used on the construction site. Instead, it was predicted that all plan
reading would occur by reading off of computer screens. This would save huge
amounts of paper and be more efficient. Well, that hasn't happened and it doesn't
look like it will happen any time soon. Plans are being read on computer screens
and plans are being sent via computer to jobsites, but out on the jobsite itself, paper
is still used and preferred. This Section is presented as an introduction to reading
construction draw ings. Note that experience is the best teacher when it comes to
understanding draw ings.
1 1 -7
general
B lueprints arc the method of co m m unicating from the drafting table or C *D
f S ail, on the
built the- ground. A
A blueprint is
ts a copy ot
of a fin,shed
tin.sned drawing ,ha
''
created ..... machine.
*on.. a. blueprint WithWith
machine. today's copying
today's technologies.
copy,ng blueDrim.
technologies. *** **
blueprin(s
not be Ton. a blueprint machine: they might be simply be Iron, a copy m >
The terminology remains on the jobsite, though, tha, we obtatn information f " ',
the "blueprints'or prints." A construction surveyor must study construe,^
drawings and learn all aspects o f then, to he able to common,cate to the crafts wh"
koino hnilf from the line and a.âla.1 #ht UMK
STANDARD PRACTICES
Construction drawings must be studied and studied to understand what is bei^
built and to visualize how it is going to look as it is built. Users ot blueprints n\u^
be able to interpret lines, dimensions, notes, and other information on the prints and
convey that information to others. By having a thorough understanding of th
drawings, one can locate problems before they occur. A construction survev
field engineer must be able to look at these two-dimensional representations of
structures and create a mental image of the structure. The ability to read and
interpret blueprints accurately is often the difference between a job with few
mistakes and a job with many mistakes.
Caring for Drawings . .

Because blueprints are often exposed to working conditions on the jobsite, they are
sometimes in bad shape after a few days. It isn t possible to keep them in mint condition,
hut a few simple methods of caring for the prints will help them to last longer.
Keep the prints clean by storing them inside the pickup and not in the
Keep drawing
pickup bed.
clean!
Store the prints in a clean, dry place when not being use.
Avoid using them in the rain if possible.
If the project is large enough, build a print stand on the site to protect the prints
from rain and dirt.
While using prints, do not drink coffee or other drinks that could stain them.
Only write on prints if permitted. Some jobs require prints to be turned in at
the end of the job.
Keep the prints out of the direct sunlight as they w ill fade over time.
Drawing Scales
When building a birdhouse or some other small craft, drawings are full-scale. Tha
is, the dimensions are the same as the finish product. On projects larger than ;
birdhouse, drawings must be drawn at a reduced scale so the project w ill fit on th<
paper. Common engineering scales on civil drawings might be 1" = 10', 1" = 20
or 1" = 50', or on architectural drawings 1/8 = 1 '0 , lA " = V 0", or Vi" = T 0". Eac
of these scales represents reduction in the actual dim ensions. If the project is in th
metric system, common scales might be 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, or 1:100 representing
ratio o f millimeters to millimeters, centimeters to centimeters, etc.
construction drawings @
Drawing Types
Blueprints will consist of many tvn(, ,
the various types of rnnr* : yPes of drawing
abbreviations of categories'1ofH that are ûiredm ^!?,piâl pr0êct that 'ndicate
C=Civil, S=Structural a" drawi"8s -hat wTll be W * ^ prjeCt' Some
ptc Each cate^nrv rv Architectural E=F ,e ôunt* on a project include:
construction requiremeX"Th' ' 7 * * t S aw in g s I T e e d X d " ,P=PlUmbin8
mr syoriehse,thyPeS m dra* in^ lSf~ c X l e x 1USiVe
categone there wall be numerous otheZne P?JectS' Then- der each of those
tnclude u limes, grading, landscaping s i ^ A drawin8s' C=Civil drawings might
m.ght include foundation drawings stn T,*T ' a"d plot plans- S=
framing systems. A=Architectura] dmwL CnCrete or steel drawings, and roof
drawings, sections through the structn 8S l^p ca*'y include floor plans, elevation
obviously E=Electrical, M=Mechanical a '3'' drawin8s and schedules. And
drawings that show details to thosp an ^~ûmbing drawings will include
nose respective crafts.
R e p re s e n tin g Information
Each type of drawing will show different f .
E rythM *hat; drawing, some of the information d, sPects of the project. On a plot plan
a*"*** arrow, rights-of-way, easem ents^X rteT W' U \nclude p^ y a North
niltis on th6 proposed contour lines, and topographic fern Setbacks existin8 and
fram es-
include footings, piers, f o u n d a Z S at h b , FOUndati0n draWingS Wi"
to the foundation. Other drawings win sho' details related
foundations, structural steel beams and col * '" c meS' foot'ngs and
construct the Project will be represented in some way. The smallest item, such
as a sign on a wall, will be shown or listed somewhere in the drawings so that the
building is built as planned by the designer.
Reading Guides
Reading blueprints requires an understanding of the types of lines and symbols
used to represent the various features, objects, lines, contours, sections, etc.,
shown on the drawing. Basic line types were shown in the previous Section. Tc
read drawings, one needs to recognize that guide symbols similar to road signs ar<
placed on the drawings to direct the reader to various sheets and pages that contaii
additional information. Some of these guide symbols are shown and described i
the following illustration:
Grid Line Section

Identification! Identification A-6 Sheet #
A B C D E F G H
Detail #
Direction
of view
0
d>
Door I.D. Detail Blowup 1 1

Office I.D. ___________ ______ 1 |
l
door# Sheet # A-3
Office
1 1 3 ) room # and name door V ^ liy jamb
type type
Detail
A
Match line.
Shaded portion
Revision cloud
Building section indicates the side showing change
\ A j / Drawing reference # to be considered
onic* p r a c tl^
^ OMP^
, #rtrmatlon .iruwinc. there are generally sheets of noiCs

fh#r infortn*^^ ^ symbols on a ^ vwluablc construction informin'
ami specification* thaii ' impor,ant to completely understand thc
vchcduli . * , sheets isexioi . deaLner may have overlooked on the
Kculmt: jmportant items that h orgscheduIcs. The specifications may
T u mo am sometimes placed in h jncIuded on the sheets or they may be a
V ,hc
,mpk.cly * wb o o k V i f i c a tf
wpara.o i o'hc
n s *.ml
* w r y
The cons,c,i"
page survtyw
of .he draw,gs l0
r e a d in g d r a w in g s be used to read and learn thc project

There is no step-by-step neth l melhtxl. Some persons start by looking at
documents. Everyone has her what ,he project will look like when complete.
the elevation drawings to get a c to sce t|ic si/e of thc project, while other
Others look at the foundation whefe (he structUre will be located relative to
persons start with the s i t e a n ^ aphy. There is no "magic bullet" that
surrounding s t o r e s understand al, aspects of a project, how it is to be built,
causes som eone to all ^ construction surveyor, how to lay it out.
0"d most . lhc drawings is the only way lo gam a complete
. r u .. Don't trv to learn the plans in one hour or even one
day^.udy'them for a while, lake a break and do something else and return for
more review. After a few days of somewhat leisurely plan readtng. the project will
begin to build itself in your mind and details will become clear.
Don't ever rely on memory for plan details and dimensions. Many a project
has been constructed improperly because someone was absolutely sure the plans
said the dimension between footings was X when a simple review of the plans
would have revealed that it was Y. The footings were built incorrectly and it cost
thousands to remove and replace themall because of a memory lapse.I
I 1didn't read the A

( drawings carefullyj
Site Plan
'nfor
m a t j on on
Si te Pl ans 11-12
s ampie
Slte Plans 11-15
SCOPE
Site plans a r e o f t e n u t i l i z e d b y f i e l d e n g i n e e r s to d e t e r m i n e w h a t e x i s t s o n t h e s it e ,
to d e te r m in e t h e g e n e r a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o n t h e s it e , a n d to v i s u a l i z e w h a t
th e s it e w ill l o o k l ik e a f t e r it h a s b e e n c o m p le te d . I n itia l d is c u s s io n o f a p r o je c t
o f te n s ta r ts w ith th e s ite p la n . H o w d o e s t h e s t r u c t u r e f i t o n t h e p r o p e r t y , h o w is
i t o r i e n t e d t o t h e r o a d , h o w i s t h e r e a c c e s s t o t h e s i t e , w h a t is t h e i m p a c t t o t h e
e x i s t i n g t r e e s , w h a t w i l l b e h a p p e n in g w ith th e d r a in a g e , h o w is th e s ite g o in g to
be la n d s c a p e d ? T hese and m any m o re q u e s tio n s a re a s k e d a n d a n s w e re d b y
lo o k in g a t th e s ite p la n fo r a p ro je c t. A c o n s tru c tio n s u rv e y o r m u st h a v e a g o o d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e l in e s s h o w n o n a s ite p la n a n d w h a t th e y re p re s e n t.
11-11
CITE P L A N S mnoeraphic (natural) features, as ^ el. a
INFORM ATION ON s <h,an-made>a P ^ p)an Planimetric feature, inclu<is
Existing . forn,alien, are show' Topogrophic features include tree
p lan n ed jW ' uli,ities. huildmgx- p information include the buildi:
r0adS- '''springs, existing contours.'S p o t t e d sidew alks, parking areas, road*
nrdhtT'general utility ' " " ^ o u r s . and any other tnformatton tha, w,
T Z t information related to site ac,ivies

C VeC ; Se ol a s,.e p h i - ; ; ^ , ly found on a site plan. Inform al,
s s - s t s s r s - - - * -
m n m
SIDEWALK
JA C K S O N BLVD.
Direction of North
A N o rth d ir e c tio n s h o u ld a lw a y s b e s h o w n o n s i t e p l a n s f o r
o rie n ta tio n p u r p o s e s . D is p la y in g it p r o m i n e n t l y is t h e s t a n d a r d
p r a c tic e .
Scale
It is im p o s s ib le to m a k e a s ite d r a w in g to f u l l s c a l e b e c a u s e t h e d r a w i n g w o u l d h a v e
r = 2 oo' = to b e th e s a m e s iz e a s th e p r o je c t. S o , in o r d e r t o b e u s a b l e , s i t e d r a w i n g s m u s t b e
small scale s c a le d d o w n to f it o n s t a n d a r d - s i z e d r a w i n g m e d i a . T h e s c a l e u s e d o n s i t e d r a w i n g s
is t y p ic a ll y a n " e n g i n e e r 's " s c a l e . T h a t is , d i s t a n c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n f e e t a n d
V = ]0' = te n th s o f a f o o t, a s o p p o s e d to t h e " a r c h i t e c t 's " s c a l e w h e r e d i s t a n c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d
large scale in f e e t, i n c h e s , a n d f r a c t i o n s .
T h e s c a l e u s e d o n a s ite p l a n w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e s i z e o f t h e p r o j e c t . A p r o j e c t
c o v e r in g a l a r g e a r e a w ill h a v e a s m a l l s c a l e s u c h a s 1" = 1 0 0 '. A p r o j e c t o n a s m a l l
s ite w ill h a v e a l a r g e s c a l e o f 1 = 2 0 ' o r s i m i l a r . F i e l d e n g i n e e r s m u s t b e f a m i l i a r
w tt se a es u s e d a n d b e a b le to in te r p r e t d a ta f r o m th e s it e p la n u s in g t h e g iv e n
^ m e n s o n s a r e u s e d , t h e s c a l e w i l l b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s a r a t i o s u c h
a s 1 :1 0 o r 1 :5 0 .
11-12
Scales shown on site plans arc typically shown in graphical form on the drawing,
so the scale can still he used if the drawing is enlarged or reduced. For exarnp^
if only a numerical scale is given on the plan, reduction by a copy machine **
render it useless. If u graphical scale is shown, it wo1'
100 1200 be there on the reduced copy and would be usable by t e ^
engineer to check the rough location of items on the p a
sample graphical scale is shown lo the IcU.
Legend o f S y m b o ls i
It is difficult lo show the amount of
information required on site drawings if
sym bols arc not used, a good site
drawing will include a legend o f symbols O D D
u sed , e s p e c ia lly th o se that are
n on stan d ard . U tiliz e sy m b o ls to
d e sc rib e ty p e s o f road s, b rid ges,
buildings, survey data, utility lines,
trees, etc. For a more com plete listing
o f s y m b o ls , r e fe r e n c e C h a p t e r 2,
C om m unication.
Vicinity Map
It is advisable for a site plan to contain
a large scale map o f the overall area and
to indicate w here the project is located
on the site.
Title Block
A ll d r a w i n g s s h o u l d c o n t a i n a t itle b lo c k id e n tif y in g th e p r o je c t a n d c o n ta c t
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e o w n e r , a r c h i te c t, a n d o th e r s in v o lv e d in th e p ro je c t.
Existing Contours and Proposed Contours

C o n t o u r s a r e s h o w n t o f a c i l i t a t e a n u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e g e n e ra l la y o f th e la n d .
T h e y a r e s h o w 'n a s s o l i d l i n e s o r a s d a s h e d lin e s , d e p e n d in g o n th e ir u s e a n d th e
p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e o f t h e p e r s o n p r e p a r i n g th e d r a w in g . C o m m o n ly o n to p o g r a p h ic
m a p s , e x i s t i n g c o n t o u r s a r e s h o w n a s c o n t i n u o u s s o li d lin e s . O n a r c h ite c tu r a l s ite
d ra w in g s , h o w e v e r , e x is tin g c o n t o u r s a r e o f t e n s h o w n a s d a s h e d l in e s , a n d
p r o p o s e d c o n to u r s a s s o lid lin e s . E i t h e r m e t h o d o t r e p r e s e n t a ti o n c a n b e u s e d a s
J o n g a s i t i s i d e n t i f i e d in t h e l e g e n d .
650 -
/ /'
/ /
e>oo
PROPOSED CONTOURS
11
chapter eleven
S po t E le vatio n s
In addition to providing proposed and
existing contours, it is common practice
to show spot elevations on the site plan.
Spot elevations usually showhigh points
or low points and serve as a check o f the
contours. In locations where it is known
that a structure is planned, many spot
elevations w ill he placed so that
elevations more accurate than contours
* i _
C o o rd in a te s
Coordinates o f control points or property corners are shown or referenced for use
by anyone performing layout on the site.
N 1 0 0 5 0 .0 0
D irection and Length o f L in e s

The direction and length o f property lines or control lines should be given. This
infnrmafion can be used by the field engineer to check the field measurements
between points.
N 6 5 31'E
3 2 3 .5 1 ft
Description of Monuments
All control and property monuments should be fully described on the site plan or
referenced to a field book so the points can be found w hen needed. The field
engineer should walk the site and locate all property corners and control
monuments (if provided).
11-14
D e scrip tio n o t B e n ch m a rk.
Benchmarks used as a refe
~ s * . . -
Sample: Benchmark is lo c a te
Streets. It is an "X" chisel ^ the sidewalk at thP -
chiseled into the sidew .lt COrner of Mplesidc and 2 ""
Road Names Elevation is 193.463 meters.
All roads shown on the site nl
project entrances, etc. ' " Should b<= labeled as a reference in describing
SITE PLANS
sa m ple
In addition to showing contours site d e
features such as rivers, streams ponds I k 8" may also show sPecific topographic
a ridge or mountain, and low-lying swam ^ typCS f ve 8 etatin- high points on
can be shown with a symbol so the dra ^ or Wateidads- Any feature represented
and descriptions. Som e common d tWlng doesnt become cluttered with words
Com m unication. rawing symbols are shown in Chapter 2,
In addition to the toDoennhir .
drawing, planimetric (human-made) f e a t u r e d ^ atsh ou ,ld be, shown on a site
boundaries, airports, campgrounds railroad u ^ aS roads build,nSs pipelines,
only needs to look out a window to see all theh ^ etc sh"uld be shown- 0n e
be represented to accurately convev to the d uman_made eature<' that need to
construction it is ey the d ra w ln 8 user what exists on the site. In
d ^ w in a The s tc , T that A ^L features are located and shown on the
draw ing The site plan mformation is needed so the designer can place buildings
or structures that are properly oriented to take advantage of the sun, prevailing
w inds, drainage features, existing utilities, and roadways. Provide all information
t at can e use . It is best to provide a little too much information than not enough
so nothing is m issed.
11-15
Contours
Ge ne r a l
11-17
Representations by Contours
11-17
Contour C ha ra c te ri s ti c s
11-19
Drawing Contours
11-21
Contouring Rules
11-21
11-22 I n te r p o la tio n
SCOPE
C o n to u r s a r e u s e d b y f i e l d e n g i n e e r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t o f c u t o r f i l l t h a t w i l l
b e n e e d e d o n th e p r o je c t s ite . C lo s e e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o n to u r s o n a s ite re v e a l
w h a t th e s it e l o o k s l i k e b e f o r e t h e p r o j e c t s t a r t s a n d w h a t i t w i l l l o o k l i k e a f t e r t h e
p r o j e c t is c o m p l e t e d . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f c o n t o u r s i s e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l t o a n y o n e o n
th e j o b s i t e w h o w i l l b e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s i t e w o r k a n d l a n d s c a p i n g . T h e fie ld
e n g in e e r w ill b e in v o lv e d w ith c o n t o u r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o j e c t .
11-16
g p A l-
& Defined
The term "contour" is used t0 d
a line of constant elevating dCs<-'ribc a line that i. a
if the surface of the ground w" *** ground A contour u * map lo rePresem
representation of this is the ed* 'tCrsected by a icvcl s f,ne wou'd hc formed
\.cc*ntiallv h ed8Cot the wat^r 1SUrfacc Hw example, a good
,s essentially a contour (circle) th, ng a Pnd orlake This "lake" line
elevation.
. , -But. as, field enoi * thal
CIUengineers. extends all around
we nr* aroun. 'he lake . ai ,aK c
the same
the edge ol the lake; we are interested in ! UIcrcslcd in just one contour along
ot the ground where we are going to be b u S C mUrS 'hU indica,c lhc shapc
C o n to u r In te rv a ls g
Contour maps are created to help ev
configuration of the ground. ln makin^ h"* nvolved in a Project visualize the
site in a grid pattern, or randomly Th ? k map*elevations are measured at the
points of similar elevation, contour ponts are Plotted, and in connecting
similar elevation assures that the - drawn- Connecting the points of
distance between each contour line wTmUr in*ervals <in other words, the vertical
an accurate configuration of the u r o u n c ^ u ^ T a" the way around, providing
contour interval w ill be l \ 2 -foot 1 fw -> deterrnined at the site that the
amount o f elevation detail desired ^ even more. The
intervals. If a g reat deal o f d e ta in s desired ^ ' T 8 *" sdecting contour
,,rP hp:n . , desired, the tnterval might be l\2-foot. If the
ff n e n . The h ls ? t , a rough Suide- th<=" a 5-foot interval might be
sufftcem . The best contour tnterval depends upon the degree of accuracy desired,
the slope o t e ground, and the scale o f the map. Properly located contours indicate
elevation s with a relatively high degree of accuracy.
Following are sample contour maps. The illustrations to the right are the
contour maps that appear on the plans. The illustrations to the left show a
perspective of what the contour map is depicting. Then presented are the
characteristics of contour maps, and how to create them.
^ p r e s e n t a t io n s b y c o n t o u r s
Hill
I n th e c a s e o f a h i l l o r a n is l a n d , e a c h c o n to u r h a s th e g e n e ra l f o rm o f a lo o p as
s h o w n h e r e in e a c h o f t h e t w o i ll u s tr a t i o n s . I t is a p p a r e n t th a t th e h ig h e r c o n to u r s
( c i r c l e s ) a r e d r a w n s m a l l e r a n d i n s id e t h e lo w e r c o n to u r s , a n d a re e n tir e ly e n c lo s e d
b y th e m . T h e c o n t o u r l i n e s a re d r a w n f r e e h a n d , a n d a re m a d e m o re o r le s s w a v y
to c o n f o r m t o t h e u s u a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e .
11-17
D a p ra a a io n . . . .
Contours of a depression or a hollow in the ground have the same
appearance as contours of a hill. In the case ol a depression, the lower com *Cnera|
drawn smaller than, and enclosed within, the higher ones. Ufs ar<i
If hoth a hill and a depression are shown on a contour map. it js Cu
to make an obvious distinction between the hill and the depression by
short lines perpendicular to the contours in the depression us shown here raVV'ni:
H ig h w a y Cut
In this illustration, a portion o f a hill has been excavated to accom
highway. Notice where the ground is steep (as in the cut near the date a
contours are drawn closer together. Where the ground is flatter thf* r ad), the
drawn farther apart. COntUrs are
Highway Fill
In this illustration,
a v a lle y h a s b e e n f il le d w ith d i r t f r o m a h i g h w a y c u t.
11-18
contours
\
C o m b in a tio n
The following illustrates various tonna k
a mountain saddle, a ridee P r5*Phlc features. Notice, for example, how
8 btream' and a Oa, area are shown with contour lines.
In d e x e s
Indexing contours means to draw every
fifth contour darker and more bold so
the user of the site plan can easily
follow the contour and refer to it when
trying to determine the elevation of an
adjacent contour.
CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS
P re s e n te d h e re a re c h a ra c te ris tic s
r e p r e s e n te d b y c o n to u r lin e s . R e m e m b e r
th a t c o n t o u r s r e p r e s e n t a lin e o f c o n s ta n t
e l e v a t i o n . E v e r y w h e r e o n t h e c o n to u r
lin e , th e e l e v a t i o n is t h e s a m e a s is th e
e d g e o f w a t e r a r o u n d a la k e o r p o n d .
A Contour on the Ground Closes on Itself

I f a p e r s o n s t a r t s a t a n y p o i n t o n a c o n to u r a n d f o llo w s th e p a th o f th e c o n to u r , h e
o r s h e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n to th e s ta r tin g p o in t. A c o n to u r m a y c lo s e o n a s ite
p la n as in d ic a te d , or it m ay be
d i s c o n t i n u e d a t a n y t w o p o i n ts a t th e
b o r d e r s o f t h e p l a n , a s s h o w n in th e
illu s tra tio n h e re . S u c h p o i n ts m a r k th e
l i m i t s o f t h e c o n t o u r o n t h e m a p , b u t th e
c o n t o u r d o e s n o t e n d a t t h o s e p o i n ts .
Contours are at Right Angles to the Slope

T h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c o n t o u r a t a n y p o i n t is a t r i g h t a n g le s to t h e direction o f t h e s lo p e
o f t h e g r o u n d a t t h a t p o i n t . T h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c o n t o u r a t a n y p o i n t is a t r i g h t a n g le s
to th e slope o f t h e g r o u n d a t t h a t p o i n t . T h a t i s , a lo n g a h i l l s i d e , t h e c o n t o u r s r u n
a l o n g t h e s i d e o f t h e h i l l a n d t h e s l o p e i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c o n to u r s .
11-19
^ CtiapW ei*#*'7"
Con ,?urs onfh! ground cannot cross one another, nor can contours havtng different
t u i t i o n s come* tge.her and continue as one line. However, where an overhang,ng
c tf f o a cave is represented on a map. contours on the map may cross. The lower
o r or contours must th en be shown as a dashed hue. A a vert,cal ledge or wa1 ,
two or more contours may merge. A final check should be made of a newly
completed contour map to avoid crossing or branchtng contours.
Contours Display Steepness or Flatness

The h o rizo n tal d ista n c e b e tw e en a d ja c e n t
co n to u rs in d ic a te s the s te e p n e ss o f th e
slope o f the g ro u n d b e tw een th e c o n to u rs.
W hen the c o n to u rs a re re la tiv e ly c lo s e
together, the slo p e is c o m p a ra tiv e ly steep ,
and w hen the c o n to u rs a re fa r a p a rt, th e
slo p e is g e n tle .
A ls o , w h e n th e s p a c e s b e tw e e n c o n to u r s a re e q u a l, th e s lo p e is u n if o r m ; a n d
w h en th e s p a c e s a re u n e q u a l, th e s lo p e is n o t u n i f o r m . R e v ie w s o m e o f th e
illu s tr a tio n s s h o w n to o b s e rv e v a r ia b le s lo p e s .
Contours Point Upstream

A s a c o n to u r a p p ro a c h e s a s tre a m , th e
c o n to u r tu rn s u p s tr e a m u n til it in te r s e c ts
the s h o re lin e . It th e n c ro s s e s th e s tre a m
a n d tu rn s b a c k a lo n g th e o p p o s ite b a n k
o f th e s tre a m . I f th e s tr e a m h a s an
a p p re c ia b le w id th o n th e m a p , th e c o n to u r
is n o t d ra w n a c r o s s th e s tr e a m b u t is
d is c o n tin u e d a t th e s h o re a n d r e a p p e a r s
on th e o p p o s ite s id e o f th e stream.
11-20
CONTOURS
tt* G
GPS data * 3
Qn a small si*, contours arc drawn from field da,a collected wuh total stations, or
- ' " P ^ ucc mathematical models of the ground suriacc
while crcat ng the ct ntc or map. For large areas like a county or state, contour maps
arc pros ucc rot ae in p olographs and photogrumclric processes and programs.
However,are
contours there are still occasions when contouring software isn't available and
needed.
To obtain contours for a small area, a topographic survey is performed in
the field to collect data of the location as well us the elevation of points where
contours are needed. This data is then plotted on paper, and by following a few
simple rules, contours can be drawn:
RULES
0 U R lN G
C ontour lines never m eet, end nrpn.a
Rule I cliff. The field data and notes should * * " p" n '*,ecascorn vrh,'8'"*
encountered so the c o n t o u r s T a n * b e iff> rc
C on tour lines m ust be uniform ly spaced unless there is data to the
p u le 2
contrary. I data is collected on a grid, a high spot might be overlooked unless
a spot elevation ,s taken on the high point. Field work must always locale high
and low points on the ground so the contours will be accurate
C on tou r lin es m ust be draw n so that the ground higher than the contour
Rule 3 lin e is alw a y s on the sam e side o f the contour. This was stated and explained
earlier under Contour Characteristics. An example of this is walking around
a lake. It a person walks around a lake, the ground is always higher on one
side of the person. When drawing contours, the ground must always be higher
on one side of the contour. It this rule is understood and followed, drawing
contours is an easy and fun activity.
Contour lines are drawn freehand. They are drawn to represent the gradual
Rule 4 curves of the surfaces of the earth.
IN T E R P O L A T IO N
Interpolation refers to finding values for points between the given Po-
Interpolating involves using proportional relationships to determine whe^ 18
contour is located. This is demonstrated in the procedure here. re a
P rocedure fo r In te rp o la tio n
Interpolation is the type of activity that can best be explained with an exam
or two. Presented here are the Grid Contour Example and the Random p e
Contour Example.
G rid C o n to u r E xa m p le
The first example will be a 20-foot by 20-foot grid that was created over a small are
using two chains. Elevations were determined using leveling techniques at each
the grid points. 0
S te p 1 Accurately plot the points on grid paper to an acceptable scale.
S te p 2 To get started, determine the contour A_____ B C

interval that is required for the work. In 626 629 631
this example, a 1-foot contour is selected.
630 635 633
630 634 636
S te p 3 N o w f r in te r p o la ti n g : L o c a te th e 1- A B
fo o t c o n to u r s b e tw e e n th e g r id p o in ts . 626 629
F o r in s ta n c e , u s in g g r id p o in ts A2
( 6 3 0 ) a n d B 2 ( 6 3 5 ) , th e c o n to u r s 6 3 1 ,
6 3 2 , 6 3 3 , a n d 6 3 4 w ill p a s s b e tw e e n A 2 co C
cMo cCoO tcJo-
_|co__|co__Ico cIo
and B2. T o d e te r m i n e e x a c t ly w h e r e ! 630 635
th e y p a s s , u s e a s im p le p r o p o r t io n . T h e
e le v a tio n d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n A 2 a n d
B 2 is 5 f e e t. T h e e l e v a ti o n d i f f e r e n c e
b e tw e e n A 2 ( 6 3 0 ) a n d th e c o n to u r 6 3 1
is 1 f o o t. T h e r e f o r e , th e p r o p o r t i o n a l
d is t a n c e f r o m A 2 to t h e 6 3 1 c o n t o u r is
l / 5 th o f t h e w a y t o w a r d s B 2 . A s s u m in g
th e c o n to u r s a re e v e n ly s p a c e d , th e
p r o p o r t i o n a l d i s t a n c e to t h e 6 3 2 c o n t o u r
w ill b e 2 / 5 th o f th e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n A 2
a n d B 2 , a n d th e p r o p o r t i o n a l d i s t a n c e to
th e 6 3 3 w i l l b e 3 / 5 th a n d s o o n .
11-22
Interpolate, interpolate, interpolate.
Step 4 This same simple procedure that was V
w/
used in Step 3 must be used between 626* I 629" i631
each of the grid points within the area.
This can become tedious, but it can also 63o"~*~ 635 633
become second nature, for after a while,
it becomes easy to accurately estimate
634* 636
where the contours will pass without
performing the proportional calculation
every time.
c D ra w th e c o n to u r s b y fo llo w in g Step 3
S te p 0
while connecting the dots. Pick any A B& c
elevation to start with, in this case the 1 626^" 629 \ 631
630 contour. Starting at the left, connect f \
the 630 dots. If that line is then followed 2 630 635 633
from lower left to upper right, the ground > Hlgl ter
stays higher on the same side of the
j 630 634 636
contour for the entire length. &
S te p 6 N o w > c o n n e c t o t h e r d o ts o f th e sa m e
e le v a ti o n k e e p in g in m in d th e r u le " th e
g r o u n d is a lw a y s h i g h e r o n th e sa m e
s id e o f th e c o n to u r ." T h e 6 3 5 c o n to u r is
g o in g a lo n g th e s id e s o f a r id g e lin e . I f
it is f o ll o w e d f r o m th e b o tto m a n d a ro u n d
to th e r i g h t s id e , th e g r o u n d s ta y s h ig h e r
o n th e s a m e s id e o f it.
S te p 7 D a r k e n a n d l a b e l th e in d e x c o n to u r s ,
6 2 0 , 6 2 5 , 6 3 0 , a n d 6 3 5 a n d th e c o n to u r
m a p is c o m p le te .
11-23
office
******* V
0 chtpwr atavan \
\
Random Point Contour Example
This iv tin* type of data that could he collected with a total station using to
rm iunes. or b\ using GPS. Field surveys are conducted from a control n**raPhy
points around the area to he mapped. I 'sing the total station or GPS. rand * 'Vr*c of
shots art* taken at high and low }>oinis. along ridge lines and in valleys and 8rUn<l
else there is a break that will he useful in accurately representing the coni an^w*cre
the points have been collected and recorded, they can he used to contou k
ur *ne
* ttrCjl
S te p
S te p 2 Plotting the points will generally he

done w ith the North and East coordinates
of the points, or by distance and angle
from adjacent network points. Place an
"x" at each point as it is plotted, and
record the elevation next to the "x."
S te p 3 Determine the contour interval required

for the work. In this example, locate the
even 5-foot contours.
S tep 4 Using the same i n t e n t i o n technin
e x p la in e d e a rlie r, in te rp o la te h ? q eS
a d ja c e n t ra n d o m p o in ts T h a t is "
s im p le p r o p o r t i o n s to e s tim ' " Se
lo c a tio n o f th e i n te r s i m a te
between known elevation^ Dont P mS
pi .obi nyt ;s n avwa i.l,aibnl !e .t oT he d r a w

X- S S f
b e c o m e c l u t t e r e d w ith L T * WlU
p o in ts if th e re a re J m an y . erP la,i0n
Step 5 , 4 ,VJ1*uwing Rule '

th e g r o u n d ,s a lw a y s h ig h e r o n .h e sam
sid e o f th e c o n to u r . P ic k o n e C()mf)l
a n d f o llo w it th ro u g h . O th e r c o n to u i
c a n b e l o c a te d b y f o llo w in g R u le 2
c o n to u rs a re e v e n ly s p a c e d ." S ee th
i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r th e e x a m p l e o f th i
p ro c e s s .
S te p 6 D a r k e n a n d la b e l th e i n d e x c o n to u r s a n d
th e c o n to u r m a p is c o m p le te .
11-25
Lift Drawings
General
11-27
p ri n c i P 1e s
1 1-28
information
1 1-28
Title Block
1 1-29
Checklist
Lift Drawing
11-30
Drawings
Example Lift
11-31
SCOPE
" J o b s th a t d o n 't u s e lif t d r a w in g s to s a v e a f e w b u c k s i n o v e r h e a d a r e j u s t k i d d i n g
t h e m s e lv e s ! " T h i s is a q u o t e f r o m o n e o f t h e o f f i c e r s o f a c o m p a n y . It h a s b een
s h o w n th a t u s in g l if t d r a w in g s s a v e s t i m e a n d m o n e y in t h e f i e l d b y c l a r i f y i n g t h e
c o n s tr u c ti o n a n d , t h e r e b y , e l i m i n a t i n g m i s t a k e s . L if t d r a w in g s a re n o th in g m o re
th a n a c o m m u n i c a t io n s t o o l t h a t p u t s e v e r y o n e o n t h e s a m e p a g e o f t h e w o r k i . e . ,
th e lif t d r a w in g s h e e t. C a r e m u s t b e t a k e n in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e l i f t d r a w i n g s f o r
a p r o je c t. T h i s S e c ti o n is i n t e n d e d t o g u i d e t h e f i e l d / o f f i c e e n g i n e e r i n p r e p a r i n g
lif t d r a w in g s a c c u r a te l y .
11-26
Purpose
The purpose o f a lift drawing also u
foremen what to construct. wha| 'HfC is to accurately convey
SO named because information is i f nd wherc to locate l \tt
other sources to create a single set of d r a t n m "Um?rous >">'
and w.11 serve to the foremen as a subsUtu " f o r l l ^ I T ' * be <>n * two sheets
W't ' hhe ,?XC;e,,,,on f and reinforcing0!!.0* ^ 1 ^raw'nBs pertaining to the
provtde a b.ll of material for use by the wVret "S'" Thc S w in g s also
coding, lor production reporting. and for recort0" '' 1 pour <**<> for labor
lift drawings reduces the probability of * of P2* quantities. The use of
y 01 errors or omissions
P lan n in g
The essential part ofa lift drawing is the "plan" ffh i f

to as large a scale as possible or practical "S t .. lft- The plan should be drawn
locations to illustrate the extent of all . ect,ons should be taken at appropriate
be located to show the maximum detail po^sibl^fUmeSA. Sections shou,d
should be avoided. Details should be made T . cU on \ 0ffset seclions
*C
appears on "plan" or "sections." * Uf 1Cr c arify information that
Before starting, determine the annmYimnf
"details" and chooselhe scaie f o r ^ I m g r 1" ^ ''SeC,i nS" d
Typical Layout of Drawing
P la n in u p p e r le f t o f d ra w in g .
F ro n t e l e v a t i o n , i f ta k e n , b e lo w p la n if sp a c e a llo w s.
S e c tio n s to s id e o f p la n at rig h t.
r I
D e ta ils in l o w e r r ig h t c e n te r. A i KEY
s e p a r a te d r a w in g m a y b e u s e d fo r PLAN
d e ta i ls , i f r e q u i r e d . 3
SECTIONS
K e y P la n o r S e c ti o n in th e e x tr e m e
u p p e r r i g h t o f d r a w in g .
DETAILS 1
N o te s a l o n g r i g h t - h a n d m a r g in . FRONT
T itle in t h e l o w e r r i g h t c o r n e r . TITLE
Sources
I n f o r m a t i o n f o r l i f t d r a w i n g s c a n c o m e f ro m a v a rie ty o t ty p e s o f d ra w in g s
in c lu d in g c o n t r a c t d r a w i n g s , m a n u f a c t u r e r 's d r a w in g s (s h o p d r a w in g s ) , a n d
s u b c o n t r a c t o r d r a w i n g s . I n f o r m a t io n c a n a ls o b e o b ta in e d f ro m s u p p lie rs c a ta lo g s
a n d c u t s h e e t s . T h e c r a f t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c a n p r o v id e h e lp f u l in fo rm a tio n re g a r d in g
i n s t a l l a t i o n d i m e n s i o n i n g f o r s u c h ite m s a s d r a in a g e p ip in g , e le c tr ic a l c o n d u it, e tc .
11-
p r in c ip l e s
Although hand drafting is sometimes used, lift drawings are best created on
system due to the repetitive drawings that occur. Regardless how they are d
they should meet some basic criteria: ra^n,
They should follow industry standards for drawings regarding line
line type, lettering, dimensioning, and sectioning. Wei8 ht,
There should be consistency from drawing to drawing so that ind*
who are using them will become accustom ed to the style and will und ,(Ûa^s
them quicker. naerstand
- Notes placed on the drawing should be concise and clear so there is
interpretation. " n ^ ne
Above all else, one o f the objectives
o f lift drawings is to consolidate
information from scores o f plan
sheets to just one sheet so it is easy
to read. Think about ways to
represent the inform ation in a
manner that everyone understands.
IN F O R M A T IO N
S e e e x a m p le s o f lift d r a w in g s a t th e e n d o f th is S e c tio n .
Basics
All c o n c re te o u tlin e in f o r m a tio n is to b e s h o w n i n c l u d i n g o p e n in g s , p a s s a g e s a n d
re c e s s e s , c o m p le te w ith in d iv id u a l a n d l o c a t in g d i m e n s i o n s . L if t d r a w in g s s h o u ld
a ls o in c lu d e th e f o llo w in g :
Reference Lines
E v e r y d r a w in g s h o u ld h a v e a t l e a s t o n e r e f e r e n c e l in e w h i c h is u s e d f o r a c tu a l f ie ld
lo c a tio n , s u c h a s :
c e n te r l i n e o f u n it
a n o f f s e t lin e
a p p r o p r i a t e s ta tio n
Prawing Dimensions and Elevations

Dimensions D i m e n s i o n s u s e d o n d r a w i n g s s h o u l d b e t h o s e w h i c h w i l l a c t u a l l y b e u s e d i n tl
f ie ld . A d d i t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e a d d e d to f a c i l i t a t e a c h e c k i n t h e f i e l d o r o f f ic
Field A ll d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d b e c l o s e d .
Dimensions I n d ic a te e le v a tio n s a t to p a n d b o t to m o f " s e c t i o n s ," a n d a t o t h e r i n t e r m e d k

p o in ts a s n e c e s s a r y . A ls o in d ic a te d i m e n s i o n i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n e l e v a t i o n s . D i m e n s i o
a re u s u a ll y g i v e n to th e n e a r e s t 0 .0 1 a n d e l e v a t i o n s t o t h e n e a r e s t .0 1 o f a f o o t .
Embeds
A ll
e m b e d d e d m a t e r i a l i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d b u t i s n o t l i m i t e d to -
p ip in g
p ip e s le e v e s
a n c h o r b o lts
in s e rts
fra m e s
* c o n d u it
g r o u n d w ire
w e ld in g p la te s
11-28
>
M a te rials
Each drawing has a bill o f materia,s BILLOF MATERIALS \
show ing all the item s that w ill be \ BIDITEMi L-J
embedded in the lift, plus the volume of \
\
MARK. N U M B E R _____________
ITEM DESCRIPTION
\\
,\
1 UNIT W EIGHTS, IF APPLICABLE
concrete to be placed. The k;ii r i eeT "^
\ sure
UNIT O F M EASURE * 1\\1
1 ESTIMATED QUANTITY '
materials should indicate the following- I
Finishes. Indicate finished-surface outlin .. U ------ =----- 1
or broomed as required. Indicate direction" Plan-" as wood float, street trowel
appropriate elevations on "plan" at break oni, t * floor sloPes <l give
and edges. Also indicate surface treatment, hatch frames. and other openings
Production Summary. Each drawing will h d J M flUerS 3S ret'uired-
used for coding labor on time cards and for 6 aproduction summary which is
should include such things as the Labor R e c m r T n Production. The summary
and Production Quantity. P eDescription, Unit of Measure,
R eferen ces. Reference drawings to adiar^nt 1;* c
Shade portions of adjacent lifts as shown i n the plan drawing !'ft..number.s-
back side o f the drawing if the drawing i l b e iL mlde . 1 ' Shadmg n the
except yellow is satisfactory. 8 "g ^ lM blueprints' ^ co,or
y/TLE B L O C K
E v e ry d ra w in g s h o u l d c o n ta i n a title
b l o c k t h a t i n c l u d e s b a s i c i n f o r m a tio n
s u c h a s t h e n a m e o f t h e s tr u c tu r e , th e
w o r k a r e a t h a t t h e d r a w i n g is f o r , a n d
th e n u m b e r o f l i f t s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d to
c o m p l e t e t h e w o r k . I f d i f f e r e n t d r a w in g s
a re used, th e s c a le o f each " p l a n ,"
" s e c tio n ," a n d " d e ta il" s h o u ld b e s h o w n
o n e a c h d ra w in g . T i t l e b l o c k s s h o u ld
in c lu d e a re v is io n b lo c k id e n tify in g
r e v i s i o n s m a d e t o t h e d r a w i n g a f t e r it is i n i t i a l l y a p p r o v e d . E a c h r e v is io n s h o u ld
b e i d e n t i f i e d o n t h e d r a w i n g a l o n g w i t h th e r e v i s io n d a te a n d a b r ie f d e s c r ip tio n
n o t e d in t h e r e v i s i o n b l o c k . O n c e t h e r e v i s e d l i f t d r a w in g is c o m p le te d a n d c h e c k e d
b y t h e a p p r o v i n g p a r t i e s ( P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , O w n e r /A r c h ite c t) , th e
d r a w i n g w i l l b e s t a m p e d " A p p r o v e d f o r C o n s t r u c t i o n ." T h e a p p r o v a l s ta m p s h o u ld
b e d a te d a n d in itia le d . A d i s t r i b u t i o n l o g s h o w i n g t h e r e c i p i e n t 's n a m e , q u a n tity
o f d r a w i n g s , a n d t h e d a t e g i v e n s h o u l d b e k e p t. L a s t l y , a k e y p l a n s h o u ld b e
i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l i f t s h a d e d in , i n d i c a t i n g t h e l i f t t h a t w a s t a k e n f r o m
th e l a r g e r a r e a .
11-29
l if t d r a w in g c h e c k l is t
M e c h a n ic a l
Title B lo c k Embedded Pipe
O Locator 1. Cast iron pipe and floor drains
O Scale 2. Ductile iron pipe and fabricated
O Date fittings with mark numbers
O Initials 3. Steel and others
R e fe re n c e D ra w in g s 4. Check for form clearances
O Structural Equipment Locations
O Architectural 1. Centerline location of equipment
Mechanical 2. Anchor bolt pattern
Electrical 3. Size of concrete base
C o n c re te D ra w in g s
HVAC and fire protection
O Outside d im ensions from column lines
Blockout a nd bulkhead dimensions Unistruct and embedded sleeves
Location of blockouts from column lines Exposed piping; check for additional
Formed face d im en sion s embeds
Top and bottom elevations Plumbing
Structural Electrical
O Horizontal waterstop and splices Conduit
Vertical waterstop and splices Fire protection
Finishes Lighting
1. Tops of slabs Grounding
2. Tops of walls
3.Sides of walls Production
Keyway location and dimensions Waterstop
Adjacent pours Concrete
Forming
Architectural Bulkhead forming
O Door Frames Keyway
O Floor and room finishes Piping and equipment
Stairways Joint preparation
3 Embedded frames Finishes (point and patch, floor
D Miscellaneous metals hardener)
Mark numbers consistent with plans and Hanging forms
shop drawings Cure and protect
Dimensions from column lines Steel items
Round quantities to integers
Pay Quantities
O Quantities match production
Concrete to nearest tenth of a CY
O Cement and Pozzolan to nearest
hundredth of a ton
Round off all other quantities to the next
largest integer
Re f e r e n c e d w g s
-SH T DWG # -DETAII BILL OF MATERIAI ft
S-6 45 A
S-8 47 c MK# DESCRIPTION
M-7 84 D V28 PIPE SLEEVE 20" DIA
C-3 103 A V2A EMBED PLATE 18" X 1/2"
PLAN WALLS VAULT #1

NOTE: FOR ELEV'S C&D SE SHT V-3
19 - 2 "
CMO"' 17'-6" 0'-10 r-
Q TY
4
m
1 r
1
l
0 L 3
0 '0 a
0 00 3 33
0
r >
C CD
o 1 3 * $
I
o0 12,-3", 2'-3"| 2'-3"i s 3 5
DJ oq
00 1 r ^ n n C3)
0 oi O
i 13 CO
0 s 2 ,9
op p CD
A 0
1
00 0* fti
0 \ MET. SLEEVE Wt 0
o
W.S. RING (TYP) 0
, o a>* *-i
2
a>
Oo 0 3 c/3
T
ELEV. A 1 =
19'-0'
o'
= 5
3 ft
2 3
_ ft
3 2
8 3*
cr *
18" SQ X 1/2 STL. r t-o
(EMBEDDED) 3 era
2. <t
e
a
g.
o g.
3 v<
& =r
~ rt
a- 3
2 o
ELEV. B 5
= 5,
<8

11-32
TOP PLAN VAULT NO. 1

SECTION
t drawings @
11-33
Summary
vw
IMPORTANT POINTS
Use drafting skills for sketching ideas on how to build details.
Use variable line weights to make drawings easier to read and understand
Use horizontal and vertical guidelines to improve lettering ability.
Blueprints are the tools o f communication for construction.
The ability to read blueprints is an essential skill to be successful in construed
Study construction drawings over and over until a mental image o f the proje
Follow the guide symbols on drawings to navigate between them when

searching for information.
Review the materials schedules when looking for information.
Never depend on memory for plan dimensions; look them up.
North must be shown on site drawings for orientation.
A graphical scale is needed on drawings to indicate proper relationships that
will remain in proper relation when drawings are reduced or enlarged.
Contours are used to visualize the shape o f the ground.
Specific characteristics define the location o f contours and are used to plot
contours.
Mathematical interpolation is used to determ ine where contours are located
on a site drawing.
U sin g lift d ra w in g s c a n e lim in a te m is ta k e s o f o m it ti n g d e ta ils in c o n s tru c tio n .
L ift d ra w in g s a re u se d to c o n s o lid a te in f o r m a t io n f r o m n u m e r o u s s h e e ts o f the

p ro je c t p la n s .

O m itte d d e ta il o n d r a w in g .
D im e n s io n s d i d n 't a d d u p to o v e r a ll p r o j e c t s iz e .
R e a d in g th e s ite d r a w in g s in c o r r e c tly a n d s e t t i n g g r a d e s ta k e s a t th e w r o n g
lo c a tio n s .
16 s e ts o f a n c h o r b o lts w e re la id o u t 1 Vi" o f f b e c a u s e o f p la n s th a t w e re
m is r e a d . T h e p r e - e n g in e e r e d s te e l b u i l d i n g d e t a i l e r h a d d i m e n s i o n e d h i s s h o p
d r a w in g s fro m a 1 Vi" o f f s e t o f th e c o n t r o l l in e s , a n d h e h a d n o t e d it o n th e
d r a w in g s . T h e f ie l d e n g in e e r d id n o t c a t c h t h e n o t e , a n d s o t h e e r r o r .
A b u ild in g w a s m a d e 11" l o n g e r b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a r c h i t e c t u r a l
a n d s ite d r a w in g s th a t w e r e n o t c a u g h t . T h e f i e l d e n g i n e e r f a i l e d t o c l o s e t h e
d im e n s io n s o f th e s ite p la n s .
N o t r e v i e w i n g th e s h o p d r a w i n g s to p l a n d r a w i n g s f o r d i f f e r i n g d i m e n s i o n s .
M is s e d w e ld to r e b a r b e c a u s e t h e e l e c t r i c a l d r a w i n g s w e r e n 't c h e c k e d .
11-34
N summary (J)
Errors made in reading the numherc
for 11" and l -6" was mistaken for 16". pnnts-where ' -1" mistaken
^sho^ inâc^spt^6 Spacing dimensions between a series of anchor bolt

l l o f r Z 1 1 1 V " r ran WaU forms * * didn't double-check for 2V
sp ^ er anc or bob template to center of anchor bolt template.
gT/ONS a n d pPROBLEMS
roblem s
q U
1. Review a set of drawings and observe tu ,
2. ,
Draw horizontal and vertical rve tbe hne weights and types that are used.
improve your lettering. 8 dehnes on a sheet of PaP and practice to
3.
List the basic information that should be shown on a site drawing.
4.
State why a graphical scale should be used on all drawings.
5.
building.a S**C draw*n^ an^ locate the dimensions needed to lay out the
6.
Develop a paper-sheet size poster on how to care for and maintain blueprints.
7.
Review a set o f drawings for a small commercial project, looking at the
C=Civil, S=Structural, A=Architectural, E=Electrical, M=Mechanical, and
P = P lu m b in g d r a w in g s . D e s c rib e th e sim ila ritie s an d d iffe re n c es in the
d r a w in g s .
8. R e v ie w d r a w in g s f ro m tw o d e s ig n firm s. G o th ro u g h th e d raw in g s and p rep are
a s h e e t o f th e " R e a d in g G u id e s " th a t are u se d on e a ch se t o f d raw in g s. D raw
th e s e g u id e s o n a s h e e t o f p a p e r a n d n o te th e s im ila ritie s an d d iffe re n c es.
9. D e s c r ib e th e p r o c e s s th a t y o u u s e to learn a se t o f drawings. Evaluate the
e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f y o u r p r o c e s s and identify ways you could improve your
b l u e p r i n t - r e a d i n g a b ility .
10. D e s c r i b e w h y i n d e x c o n to u r s a re u s e fu l o n to p o g ra p h ic m ap s.
11. L is t a n d d e s c r i b e th e c o m m o n c h a ra c te r is tic s o f c o n to u rs .
12 D e s c r i b e w h y c o n t o u r s a lw a y s p o in t u p s tre a m w h e n th e y a p p ro a c h a n d crosi
a r iv e r .
13. F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g g r id , in te r p o la te , a n d d ra w th e 5 - fo o t c o n to u rs.
77 80 94 92 97 102 1
1 74
77 80 99 110 99 90 91 |
92 97 94 92
76 78 96 I
------------- -------
CD
CO
100 I 85
100 102
78 88
__________
OFFICE ACTIVITIES
Review a T opographic Map (I p e rs o n , 2 h o u r s ) . Objective: O b s e r v e th e
d e ta ils o f a f a m ilia r a re a o n a to p o g r a p h ic m a p . Procedure: V .s .t th e lo c a l
lib ra ry o r c o u n ty c o u rth o u s e a n d r e v ie w a t o p o g r a p h i c m a p o f th e a r e a w h e re
yo u liv e o r a m a p o f a n a re a w h e r e y o u g o f o r r e c r e a t i o n . R e v ie w th e m a p a n d
v is u a liz e th e f e a tu r e s th a t a re s h o w n . R e v ie w th e c o n t o u r s a n d v i s u a l iz e h o w
th ey r e p r e s e n t th e s h a p e o f th e la n d a s y o u k n o w it. U s e th e g r a p h i c a l s c a le o f
fhf* m a n to d e te r m in e th e d is ta n c e to p o in ts o f i n t e r e s t .
2. Prepare a Layout Drawing (1 p e r s o n , 1 h o u r ) O bjective: D e v e l o p a la y o u t
d ra w in g o f a s m a ll b u ild in g . Procedure: O b t a in a s e t o f d r a w in g s f o r a s m a ll
s tr u c tu r e a n d r e v ie w th e s ite p la n , f o u n d a t i o n d r a w i n g s , s t r u c t u r a l d r a w in g s ,
an d a r c h ite c tu r a l d r a w in g s . O n a s h e e t o f d r a f t i n g p a p e r , d r a w t h e o v e r a ll
o u tlin e o f th e b u i ld i n g a n d lo c a t e a n y c o l u m n l i n e s . L o c a t e a n y f e a t u r e s th a t
w o u ld n e e d to b e la id o u t b y th e f ie l d e n g i n e e r a n d p l a c e t h e m o n t h e d r a w in g .
Prepare a Lift Drawing (1 p e r s o n , 3 h o u r s ) Objective: D e v e l o p a l if t

d r a w in g o f a s la b th a t is to b e b u i lt . Procedure: O b ta in a s e t o f d r a w in g s fo r
a s m a ll s tr u c tu r e s u c h a s a f a s t - f o o d r e s t a u r a n t . P r e p a r e a d r a w i n g t h a t s h o w s
th e o v e r a l l d i m e n s io n s , a n y e m b e d s , s l e e v e s , o r b l o c k o u t s , a n d a n y o t h e r
f e a tu r e s th a t w o u ld n e e d to b e l o c a t e d b y t h e f i e l d e n g i n e e r p r i o r t o a p o u r i n g
o f th e c o n c r e te . R e v ie w a ll p l a n d r a w i n g s t o o b t a i n t h e s e d e t a i l s .
4. Develop a Site Drawing Objective:
( I n d i v id u a l , 8 h o u r s o f o f f i c e w o r k ) P lo t
d a ta c o ll e c t e d f r o m th e f ie ld to p r o d u c e a s it e m a p . Procedure: U s e t h e d a ta
fro m th e T a b le s o n th e f o ll o w i n g p a g e s to d e v e l o p a n d p l o t a s i t e d r a w i n g . Use
a s c a le o f 1 - 1 0 a n d tw o s h e e ts o f 18" x 2 4 " d r a f t i n g p a p e r ( o n e f o r a r o u g h
w o r k in g d r a w in g a n d o n e f o r th e f i n i s h d r a w i n g ) . C a l c u l a t e t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of
t e t r a v e r s e p o i n ts a n d p lo t th e m o n t h e w o r k i n g d r a w i n g . P l o t t h e t o p o g r a p h i c
- I t T - features- Pl0t ,he Srid e'evations. interpolate and draw V

a n T o L ^ T 7 n b!,Symb0lSt0representfeatures- TraceP0^ -fe a tu re s ,
North a ow kuend'T * 7 7 - InC' Ude 3 border title block- graphical scale,
and point name8 I k , T'of coordmates- distances, and directions for
pent name. Use letter,ng guidelines and proper line quality.
11-36
Traverse Data
Location of Topographic and Planimetric Data (Theodolite and EDM)
H orizontal
Point A ngles Distance Description
Clockw ise
I n s tr u m e n t a t CPA B a c k s ig h t B , ( f 0 0 0 0
1 22 15 1 2 8 .3 1 C e n te rlin e o f 12 w ide p a v e d ro a d
4 3 7 13 1 2 8 .0 5 C e n te rlin e o f 12 w id e p a v e d ro a d
5 44 00 1 3 0 .8 8 C e n te rlin e o f 12 w id e p a v e d ro a d
48 46 1 3 4 .0 9 C e n te rlin e o f 12 w id e p a v e d ro a d
6
1 3 8 .3 7 C e n te rlin e o f 12 w id e p a v e d ro a d
7 53 28
1 4 3 .9 4 C e n te rlin e o f 1 2 w id e p a v e d r o a d
8 5 9 10
1 5 0 .4 9 C e n te r lin e o f 1 2 w id e p a v e d r o a d
9 62 33
11-37
Location of Topographic ana Kiammm v. W uW ,w anq EDM}
Horizontal
Angles Distance Description
Point
Clockwise
In stru m en t at CP B B a c k sig h t C , 0 0 0 0(T~~
5 3 15* 1 4 0 .3 4 T re e line "

10
5 7 10* 1 3 6 .7 5 T re e line ...

11
5 9 55* 130.00* T re e line

12
6 3 05* 1 2 4 .3 2 T re e line
13
T re e line
o
00
1 1 8 .2 5
O'
14
q
15 7 8 50* 1 1 3 .0 5 T re e line
16 8 0 (X)* 103.10* T re e line
17 8 5 10 95.00* T re e line
18 92 50 8 9 .1 5 T re e line
19 100 10* 8 5 .0 0 T r e e line
20 105 20* 8 3 .5 0 T r e e line
Location of Topographic and Planimetric Data (Theodolite and EDM)
Horizontal
Point Angles Distance Description
Clockwise
In s tr u m e n t a t CP D B a c k s ig h t E , 0 0 0 ' 00"
21 5 1 10 8 3 .5 2 B u ild in g C o rn e r
22 59 5 0 7 4 .7 8 B u ild in g C o rn e r
23 63 20 1 1 7 .0 4 B u ild in g C o rn e r
24 66 4 5 9 2 .2 5 B u ild in g C o rn e r
25 75 30 8 7 .4 1 B u ild in g C o rn e r
26 78 2 0 1 0 6 .7 8 B u ild in g C o rn e r
27 52 30 5 6 .8 1 G r a v e l P a r k in g L o t C o r n e r
28 6 7 10 8 6 .0 9 G r a v e l P a r k in g L o t C o r n e r
11-38
Location of T o p o g ra p h . h d . - , .......
I H o rlrn n ta i , ----------------- --- and EDM)
Grid Elevations
0+00N, 0+00E is Located at Point A on the Traverse Grid is Oriented North

P o in t 0+ 00E 0+20E 0+40E 0+60E 0+80E J+00E 1+20E U 4 0 E
l +2 ON 74.1 74.2 74.4 74.7 74.1 73.2 70.1 66.0
1+00N 76.4 77.63 79.4 78.8 76.8 76.8 72.5 68.8
0+80N 77.5 80.1 83.6 81.9 78.4 76.8 75.0 71.9
79.0 82.0 80.2 77.6 76.5 75.5 75.4

0+60N 76.4
78.3 79.3 77.2 76.6 75.3 75.2

0+40N 75.6 77.6
75.2 76.0 75.8 76.6 75.2 75.1

0+20N 74.0 74.2
74.4 74.9 74.9 75.0 75
0+00N 73.7 73.8 74.3
11-39
chapter twelve 11 I
math essentials
it. I
R e v i e w and F o r m u l a s \ 12- 2
m
Units and Conversions I 12-11
ill
Summary 12- 17
1
Review and F o rm u la s
Significant Figures
1 2 -3
12- 3 Algebra
1 2- 4 Plane Geometry
1 2- 5 Trigonometry
Coordinate Geometry
1 2-6
Formulas and Relationships
12- 7
SCOPE
Anyone performing construction surveying and layout should be very aware of the
basic languages of mathematicsalgebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Algebra
supplies the language, rules, and methods of calculations for the manipulation of
formulas. Geometry develops the methods of reasoning in mathematics, and
provides the rules and methods for plane and solid measurement. Trigonometry is
the detailed study of the properties of the triangle.
Layout personnel who fail to take full advantage of the power of mathematics
will make more physical work for themselves by measuring distances that could
have been calculated. A competent construction surveyor will understand
mathematical principles and will apply them every day to calculate corrections,
traverses, coordinates, curves, and volumes. This Section simply lists some basic
formulas and relationships of geometry and trigonometry that will be needed.
1 2 -2
*'* lo rm u ia s ^
,f.c a n t FIGURES
sK3N< The numbers that are recorded
be practical 11
rul r ; s ! i .....
must
was added to it. the result u exaniP*e is if aditnensi a,n s,8nlficam-rtgurc
rules, the proper result t m M k" * 74*W * F o llo w ^ " " fccl ^ ^
out 75 feet, the buildine di.n ^ ?5 kc,; however, if thc c o nsi n 1n cant' r rc
dim ensions o f a concrete dimension would he inJorreu In Wd
feet or ^45 s p 7 - o K b Were 24.55 x 10 x , 1 f nother c*aPc. if the
, , ,7 ~ 1 cubic yards. If c e r t ,in hc resuU wuld he 245.5 cubic
" e result would hc 200 cubic fee, or 2TOn7 foHowed.
concrete is ordered based on the signirie.1 n i ' , 7'4 l' hlc yarils- ln ,his ettamplc. if
for ,he slab am " sures- won', be enough concrete
hut may he practical for
fo r fie ld m e a s u re m e n ts a n d e a l c u | o ! T ^ i iCt ,c d " ' hcr scienc ore no, practical
a re s o m e g e n e ra l g u id e lin e s and nr ie t i r ,t , y 'hc l'n sm ,c iio n surveyor. Here
Hound a measurable v a L , f 2 , 7 " Si*"m C , M d
ro u n d to w h a t c a n he read in the field I yicUI " value f b78.905.14 feet,
th e n e a r e s t h u n d re d th o r 6 7 8 .9 1 t , i f lhc k n g llsh system , that w ould be to
m illim e te r s c a n be read on a ch ain r measur,n8 ln ,hc M etric system where
,o .h e n e a r e s t m illim e te r o r t o
Round at the end f a calculation process Fnier all mh ............

c a lc u la tio n s a n d th e n ro u n d th e final r * l as ,s ,m n
p la c e s n a s i th e d e e in v .i , , ' nal " I c u l a l t o n answ er to the num ber o f
p la c e s p a s t m e d e c im a l that can be m easu red .
n n ' y Wril d Wn significant numbers. C o n v e rtin g 2 4 .56125639 D ecim al

40 5 r f n ( H D D e g re e s M in u te s, S e c o n d s (D M S ) w ould yield 24 33
' ' n t0 ta l s ta tlo n y et can turn to the nearest ten th o u san d th s
o f a s e c o n d . W r ite d o w n w h a t is p ra c tic a l to m easu re in the field or 24 33 4 1 .
Round fix es to m ake the preceding digit even. T o av o id system atic rou n d in g
e rro rs b y a lw a y s ro u n d in g up o r a lw a y s ro u n d in g d o w n , round fiv es to even
d i g its . F o r e x a m p le , 2 3 4 .4 5 5 w o u ld ro u n d up to 2 3 4 .4 6 . and 234.445 w ould
ro u n d d o w n to 2 3 4 .4 4 . O n e is ro u n d e d up and o n e is rou n d ed d ow n, w hich
w o u ld s t a t i s t i c a l l y o c c u r e q u a lly .
algebra
It is e s s e n t i a l t h a t c o n s tr u c tio n s u rv e y o rs h a v e a fu n d a m e n ta l u n d e rsta n d in g o f
a lg e b r a to b e a b le to r e a d ily s o lv e e q u a tio n s fo r v a rio u s u n k n o w n s. T h a t is, it an
e q u a tio n is g i v e n a n d th e u n k n o w n is n o t d ire c tly so lv e d , th e e q u a tio n m u st be
a l g e b r a i c a l l y s o l v e d . A s im p le e x a m p le is illu s tra te d in th e e q u a tio n o t A re a =
A powerful L e n g th x W i d t h , w h e r e th e a r e a a n d le n g th o f a fig u re a re k n o w n , b u t th e w id th is
handheld n o t. T h e e q u a t i o n c a n r e a d ily he s o lv e d b y r e a rra n g in g th e fo rm u la a lg e b ra ic a lly ,
calculatorle a n d s o l v i n g f o r W id th = A r e a /L e n g th . In th e ir s im p le s t fo rm , so lv in g by s u b s titu tio n ,
required f o r o r p e r f o r m i n g t h e s a m e o p e r a tio n to b o th s id e s o f th e e q u a tio n to is o la te th e
construction u n k n o w n c a n s o l v e a l g e b r a i c e q u a tio n s . I f tw o e q u a tio n s c o n ta in th e u n k n o w n , the
surveying.
problem . H aving a good working , L ators are available with algebraic

surveying. Fortunately, good quali y solutions to the most
problem-solving capabilities and can be used to obta.n
complex equations.
1 2 -3
a iic TRY ,h .,t d e a ls with the relationships, property
PLANE G E O M E T B of mathematics th J 1 d lines. Just about everything i
Geometry's that P )f soMds. surfaces, angle
ry in s o m e w a y . W h e n e v e r a p o in t is
and tru c tio n s u rv e y o r d o e s in v o lv ^ ** r e d . a n a re a is d e te r m in e d , o r a v o lu m e is
e s ta b lis h e d , a d U u n c e ^ . d Some b a s ic d e f in itio n s a n d d e s c r tp u o n s a re lin e d .
........
Line . , The shortest distance between two points is a straightline.

a i ; : : : h n^ r : : s tra it ^ . * curved-
An an'gle is formed by tw o s , |A ^'"degrees.'" a right angle is 90. A straight

measurement for angles in the U - ^ ... acu(e An ang|e greater than 90 is
angle is 180. An angle 1 to total 90 are said to be complementary,
obtuse. Two angles that add g | g()0 ar sajd to be supplementary. If two
Two angles that add together alternate interior angles are equal,
parallel lines are cut by a I r a n s v e r s ___________________________
A + B = Complementary
Right
/ ^ X d C + D = Supplementary
Acute
-72
Obtuse
Circle
Circles are formed by a curved line,
every point of which is an equal distance
from the center. The circumference is
the length of the curved line forming the
circle. The radius is the straight line
joining the center and any point on the
circle. The diameter is a straight line
between two points on the circle passing
through the center. A chord is a straight
line inside a circle with its ends on the
circle. An arc is a portion of the circle.
A tangent is a line touching the circle at
only one point. A central angle is an
angle formed by two radii.
1 2 -4
Koiygon
A trian g le is a 3 -s id e J polygon. A quadrilateral is a 4-sided polygon and can
include: p a ra lle lo g ram s, rectangles, squares, trapezoids, etc.
T h e su m o f th e in terio r ungles o f any polygon is ( n i l \K(V where n is the
n u m b e r o f sid e s. T h e su m o f the ex terio r angles o f a polygon is 360*.
T h e sq u a re o f th e h y p o ten u se (lo n g est side o f a trian g lel o f a right triangle
e q u a ls th e su m o f th e sq u ares o f th e leg s (P ythagoreans Theorem !.
p e rp e n dTich ue la3r/4lin
/5 es.
tria n g le o r any m ultiple o f the sid es can b e used to cstablisl
t r ig o n o m e t r y
1 C o n s tr u c tio n s u r v e y o r s u se trig o n o m e try to d ete rm in e rela tio n sh ip s in tria n g le s

u s in g e s an s | j-s - B y u n d e rsta n d in g the u n iq u e fu n ctio n s o f th e sine,
c o s in e , a n a n g e n t o rig h t a n g le trig o n o m e try , an d th e so lu tio n p ro cesses u se d for
o b liq u e a n g le s , s u r v e y o rs can c a lc u la te u n k n o w n a n g le s an d d istan ces.
Right Angle Trigonom etry

R ig h t tr i a n g l e s h a v e o n e a n g le th a t is 9 0 . T h e P y th a g o re a n T h eo rem o n ly w o rk s
il a r ig h t a n g le e x is ts . T h e lo n g e s t s id e o f a tria n g le is c a lle d th e h y p o te n u se .
S in = E N
Hyp
Sin ( + ) | Sin ( + )
C o s= ^ Cos ( - ) | Cos ( + )
Adj Hyp W
Sin ( - ) 'I Sin ( - )
Q pp Cos ( - ) Cos ( + )
Tan =
Adj
O blique A ngle T rigonom etry

No angles in an oblique triangle are equal to 90. Therefore, none of the formulas
or relationships for the right triangle apply.
The oblique triangle can be calculated if at least one distance and any two
other parts are known. The other two parts can be either the other two sides, or any
two o f the angles, or any combination of angles and sides.
The law o f sines is used if an angle and its opposite side are known in
addition to one other side or one other angle.
The law o f cosines is used if two sides and the included angle are known.
Law of Cosines = c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab Cos C
12- 5
GEOMETRY (COGO) lied COGO) is a description of the combined
COORDINATE _ ,r,|jnate Geometry (commonly trigonometry, and coordinate Systems
mathematical processes of plan 8 ^ and layout data. The calculations of
H um *
h a t ssurveyors
(hat u rv e y o rs use to deierm...----- but can be cumbersome when repeated
oordinate ggeometry
coordinate e o m e try a re typically simple, but can De cuim /w 0,___ _____ _
are P ' J of calculation has been programmed into
>ver and. over. . Fortunately, this sys
Fortunately, this system ô f calculation has been large
^ of calculating programmed^-
quantities o1
alculators and computers which eases the work o f calculating large quan titie^ 0
lyout data. Coordinate geometry is more thoroughly discussed in C hapter*
" *'* fônmetrx. r
Reference:
Distance12 - (E2 ' E,)2
n 2, e 2
E2 - E1
Direction = Arctan n2 - n,
ula s a n d RELATIONSHIPS
Right Triangle*
1 2 -7
Oblique Triangle*
Lwol S e n a s . - si^B ' SiKc
Law of Cosines = c* a* + b* - 2ab CoaC

'V
ana tormulas
N
Area Computations
III
. I
1 I
1 2 -9
Volume Com putations
Units and I
C o n ve rsio n s |
General 12-12
U n i t s of L e n g t h 12-12
Angular Measurement 12-14
Volume 12-15
Area 12-16
SCOPE
A study of history shows units have changed over time as better methods of defining
measurement have become known. For distance measurement, the feet and inches
that were based on the physical measurements of the human body have been replaced
by meters that are based on one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the
poles of the earth. Although the meter has become the standard measurement unit
throughout most o f the world, it does not mean society will abandon previous units.
This is evidenced by the longevity of the English units that continue to be used in
many m easurem ents of ordinary life, especially in the United States.
Since the beginning of measurement, construction surveyors have had to
work in a variety o f units, and will continue to do so. These include degrees,
decim al degrees, feet, tenths, hundredths, inches, fractions, cubic feet, cubic yards,
m illim eters, m eters, square feet, acres, etc. All are linear, angular, area, or volume
units o f m easurem ent that are used on the construction site. At various times, the
construction surveyor may find it necessary to convert from one unit to another.
The inform ation in this Section is presented as a reminder of how to make some of
these conversions.
12-11
n v e rsio n s. e x p e rie n c e sh o w s th at c o n v e y
GENERAL . essarv to p erfo rm e o n n th e E n g lis h sy ste m and the k w *
A " hOUgh, yZo
l uni. to a n o th e r b s h o u ld be a v o id e d if a . all p o * ^
fro m o n e ty p e ,, j is prone to . ct | f a p ro je c t is d esig n e d in j '
sy stem ) is a b in th e d e s ig n units.. o l h ^ P Jf # p ro je c , is d e s ig n e d in m eters, Us;
u T n t^ u rin g to o ls that d e s ig n e d in m e te rs a n d u sin g m easrt g
m etric m e a su rin g t w ^ a sk in g to r Pô b le " ^ : c , s T w o w e re d e sig n e d in feet

,o o ls S ( h ,T a - c e n . c o n tract, th ere w e r e ^ P ^ w a s h # , f an d h # lf. ^ ^
...in p letely d e sig n e d in th e m e . utiH ties w e re m e tn c . T h e E n g lish systetn
m m u re w a s i n f e e t - b u t t h e M t c j o r p ro je c t th e s u p e rin te n d e n t gave even,
v.ts w en t w ell. O n the M e t r i c > m e tric m e a s u rin g to o ls so they w ould not
P? m cn .er an d o th e rs w o rk in g on th e ^ a tte r e v e ry o n e b e c a m e fam iliar ith
h , to do c o n v e rsio n s. T h a t PJe c w a s h a lf a n d h a l f h a d n u m e ro u s problem s
L m etric sy stem . But the p ro je c t d if f e r e n t s y s te m s . C o n s ta n tly convening
L" use of the lay o u t b ein g d o n e . ^ c u m b e r s o m e a n d e rro r p ro n e,
from o n e sy ste m to th e o th e r an d p r o je c ts th a t m ig h t b e d e sig n e d in the
A s s la te d , th e b e s t w a y to PP b c m e t r i c . u n f o r t u n a t e l y , th is isn't a
m etric s y ste m is to h a v e all m ea. ^ (h e m a te r i a ls b e i n g d e liv e re d to the site
p u re a p p ro a c h on b u ild in g p ro je , d im e n s io n s m ig h t b e m e tric , b u t doors
a re b a se d on E n g lis h u n its , t c o n f u s io n o f tw o s y s te m s c o n tin u e s even
come in - ' - . desjoned in metric.
j ,he case where a project is desig
UNITS OF LENGTH system is th e p rim a ry u n it of measurement.

In m an y p a rts o f th e world, th e Qn 1 0 -s ( i k i l o m e t e r = 1000 meters, and
It is easily understood becau c e n tim eters = 1000 m illim e te rs). In the United
1 meter = 10 decimeters become a p a rt of e v e ry d a y m easurem ent even
States, the m etric its use 0 n fe d e ra lly fu n d e d p ro jects. Thus, the
with the government ma _ 12 in c h e s ) continues to be
English system foot (1 m ile = 528U te e t, anu
USCd hemt ? c a m t r reCp r semedeCr s ' fe e t a n d in c h e s o r as fee t and tenths.
for ease ^ f 'u s e S O n the jo b s ite , som e c ra fts p e rs o n s d o n 't w o rk w ith and dont
understand feet tenths, and h u n d re d th s a n d w ill d e m a n d th a t d im e n sio n s be g.ven
L t o and L ie s . T o be c o n s e n t it is b e s t fo r th e c o n s tr u c tio n s u tv e y o t to go
ahead and list d im e n sio n s the w ay th e c r a tts p e r s o n s w is h .
Feet and Inches to Feet, Tenths, and H undredths

Mathematically, take the feet, inches, and fractio n s and co n v ert them to decimals.
That is, turn the fraction into a decim al, and add it to the inches, divide the inches
by 12 to represent the inches in tenths, add th at to the fe e t to obtain feet, tenths
and hundredths.
Example: To Convert 25' 8 V2"
1. Vi is 0.5 inches add that to 8 to obtain 8.5

2. Divide 8.5 by 12 to obtain 0.71
3. Add .71'to 2 5 'to obtain 25.71'
1 2 -1 2
F e e t , Tenths, and u .
M a th e m a tic a lly t a l ^ 7 |U n d r e d t h s t o e
b y 1 2 to o b ta in the he feet and tem h ^6' and 'n ch es
rem ain d er by 8 tn u num her o f ;n . and subtract the f
8 to obtain the n u L Ches> subtract t Ct rnultiP,y the tenths
Sam ple: To Cove r t" 6m44er0fei8h,hs mCheS ^ mu" ^
' S u b tra c t i n g I 6 fe e t = '
2. M u ltip ly in g .44 by j
s id e a n d
a e o n e SM ea n d th ;;T h: 0 n 'he<
s ^ e a n d t h e n ^ th e 'o th e r 0th e ^ ande^ Smr ply S r ^ c o n 1 temhS n nC
O r,
r > th e ffie
ie ld
ld ee nn ggin
i neee er r ' " " " U" SerVe ' he iCn v" Versi
e r s i o n" by lo
P ookkin
in gg
c o n v e r s io n s . n g In e e r -
s io n s . n S '" e e r c a n ta k e ad v a n ta g e n f u
^____ _______ c art th at lists the co m m on
Decimals of a Foot Fractions Decimals

1" 2" ofan of an
3" 4" 5 Inch Inch
083 .166 7" 8 10"
250 .333 .416 9" ip "
093 .177 583 .666
260 .343 .427 1 750 .916 0.00 .000
104 .187 270 .354 .437 593 .677
1 -760 .927 1/8 .125
114 .197 281 .361 .447 604 .687
L -770 .937 1/4 .250
614 .697
00
1/2 .041 125 .208
sO
291 .375 .458 3/8 .375
5/8 .052 135 .218 625 .708 1 .791 .958
302 .385 .468 1/2 .500
3/4 .062 145 .229 635 .718 : -802 .968
312 .395 .479 5/8 .625
7/8 .072 156 .239 645 .729 812 .979
322 .406 .489 3/4 .750
i I .083 655 .739 1 .822 .989
166 .250 333 .416 .500 7/8 .875
666 .750 ' -833 1.000 1 1.000
Feet to Meters
b y th at c o n sta n t. COnvert>sim P'y m ultiply the nu
fi W S P 'fe : Tk C nVert 25 55 feet t0 m eters, m ultiply 25 55 by

3048 to o b ta in 7 .7 8 7 6 m ete rs or 7787.6 m illim eters
Meters to Feet
C o n v e rs e ly , to c o n v e rt fro m m ete rs to
fe e t s im p ly d iv id e th e n u m b e r o f m eters
by 0 .3 0 4 8 o r m u ltip ly by 3 .2 8 0 8 .
E x a m p le : 5 0 m e te rs d iv id e d by
0 .3 0 4 8 is 1 6 4 .0 4 fe e t.
5 0 m e te rs m u ltip lie d by 3 .2 8 0 8
is 1 6 4 .0 4 f e e t
F or o th e r m e tr ic c o n v e r s io n s , se e th e
f o llo w in g T a b le s .
1 2 -1 3
L.II
*. nonversions ^ _
F ya c iu p n ir1-
C onverts E xactly to
L e n g th ------------ ----------------- ------------
12.00 meters (U.S. Survey)
39.37 feet
0.3048 meters (International)
1.00 foot
1 meter ~~~~
1000 millimeters
1 meter
100 centimeters
1 kilometer
1000 meters
1 foot
12 inches
1 yard
3 feet
Metric/English Length Conversions
By To C o n vert to
Multiply
centimeters 0.0328083 feet (U.S. Survey)
centimeters 1/30.4800 feet (International)
cubic meters 35.3144 cubic feet
kilometers 0.621370 miles
meters 3.280833 feet (U.S. Survey)
meters 1/0.304800 feet (International)
meters 0.000621370 miles
meters 1.09361 yards
millimeters 0.0393701 inches
feet 12/39.37 meters
inches 2.54000 centimeters
inches 25.4000 millimeters

miles 1.609347 kilometers
yards 0.914402 meters
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Just like lengths, angles can be expressed in more than one system. The Nor
Amencan system uses a circle divided into 360 equal parts known as DEGREE
ThehM e t de<fre,e r " ! IlU 60minutes and each minute divided into 60 seconc
with each d- r ; !fCS the CrCle nt0 400 equal Parts called G0NS or GRAr
eqfal narts c a lf H , t ' " ? ' PartS' Military SyStems divide the cle int0 64
degree or erad s T' S J'r* stations can typically be set to measure in either t
degree or grad system. Mihtary total stations are designed to read in mils.
1 2 -1 4
1 Equivalence Betw . A n n i.
;------------- -- ^ n o '*-T im I,
a hu i ------ ---- grads

Lcam w u66 Although angles are listed n -------- ^------ --------------------------
fhe functions minutes, tmd seconds (DMS). the field e T ^ " d " * ,Umed "*nnel. degrees,
0f a calculator. degrees (DD) to obtain trigonometric v alu ^V C nVert 10 <d k in ta l
calculators have a conversion key for thT t m Calculators "<* computers. Most
for the calculator to find out how to u se ,h Sme don,, Read ,he owner's m anual
calculator doesn't have this kev h ere u , lmpor,am time-saving function. If the
, y ere ,S how 1 0 make the conversions.
DMS to DD
M athem atically, divide the seconds by 3600 hum k
both to the degrees. y ~ UU d,vltle the minutes by 60, and adc
Example:
41
24' 06" - 41 + 24/60 + 06/3600 = 41.401666667
DD to D M S
Mathematically subtract the degrees, multiply the remainder by 60. subtract the
minutes, mult,ply the remainder by 60, and subtract the minutes.
Example: To Convert 35.5674932
1. Subtracting the degrees = .5674932

2. M ultiplying by 60 = 34.049592'
3. Subtracting the minutes = .049592'
I
4. M ultiplying by 60 = 03"
5. Or 35 34' 03"
VOLUME
Volumes in construction are typically represented by cubic yards or cubic meters.
O ccasionally for small quantities, cubic feet may be used. Conversion factors are
shown in the Table here.
Volume Conversions __________________
By T o C o n v e rt to
M u lt ip ly
27 cubic feet
cubic yards
0.764555 cubic meters
cubic yards
35.3147 cubic feet
cubic meters
1.30795 cubic yards
cubic meters
1 2 -1 5
twelve " , Y
AREA
The stan d ard surveying unit fo r area is acres. T h e re a rc 4 3 ,5 6 0 square feet
acre. To c o n v ert sq u are feet to acres, d iv id e th e to ta l n u m b e r o f square f an
43.560. T o c o n v ert ac res to sq u are feet, m u ltip ly th e n u m b e r o f acres by 43^ ^
A ny length unit c an be m u ltip lie d by its e lf to o b ta in an a re a . T h a t is. feet ti
equals sq u are fe e t, o r m e te rs tim es m e te rs e q u a ls s q u a re m e te rs F or * Cc*
in stan ces w hen it is n e c e ssa ry to c o n v e rt w ith in th e s a m e sy ste m , o r to ^ Se
the metric sy ste m , th e fo llo w in g T a b le w ill be o f a s s is ta n c e . er*lo
Area Conversions
By To C onvert to
Multiply
square inches 0.00694444 square feet
square inches 0.000771605 square yards
square inches 0.00064516 square meters
square feet 144 square inches
square feet 0.111111 square yards
square feet 0.092903 square meters
square yards 9 square feet
square yards 0.836127 square meters
acres 43,560 square feet
acres 4,046.872611 square meters (U.S. Survey)
acres 4,046.856422 square meters (International)
hectares 10000 square meters
hectares 2.47104 acres (U.S. Survey or

International)
square miles 640 acres
square miles 2.58999 square kilometers
1 2 -1 6
Sum m ary
btant POINTS
|MP
an.d'coordi!nale sTs ^leeded t l 8e melry ,rigonomelr^
engineer l e a successû' construction surveyor or field
U s in g mathematics w ise ly and e fficien tly can e lim in ate physical m easu rem ents.
j Um * t*1C^nter' or angles of a polygon is equal to 180 times the number
of sides minus 2.
SOH CAH TO A is a useful acronym to remember the trigonometric functions
ot right triangles. (Sine = Opposite/Hypotenuse, etc.)
Triangles with no right angle must be solved with the Law of Sines or Law of
Cosines.
Obtain the most powerful handheld calculator (computer) available to make
coordinate geometry calculations easy to perform.
Use only one system of measurement on a jobsite (i.e., feet or meters).
All measuring tools on the jobsite should be in the system being used.
If using a total station, make sure it is measuring in the correct system. Feet
or Meters, Degrees or Grads.
Errors are going to occur when converting from one system to another.
To obtain the trigonometric value of an angle on a handheld calculator, the
angle must be in degrees and decimal degrees.
m is t a k e s and errors from the field

Not checking calculations TWICE.
Using a m iscalculated angle or not converting back to DMS.
C onverting from feet to metric and back.
A wrong calculation was made, skewing the building about 15 degrees. Cost
o f about 10k to fix.
Pressed the w rong key on the calculator.
Input m istakes into com puter program.
C alculated colum n location 180 degrees off.
A building was out o f square by 3 inches. W hen the field engineer pulled his
building co rn er coordinates o ff of auto-cad, he clicked to an intersection of
nx/n linos instead o f an end point. He did not take the time to double-check his
coo rd in ates.
JESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Convert the following to feet, tenths, and hundredths.
a) 2 2 '- 5 " b) 45 4 14" c) 12T 8 %"
2. Convert the following to feet and inches.
a) 4.32 b) 56.89 c) 123.42
1 2 -1 7
math aaSemi
ais
^ chapter twelve
Convert the fo llo w ing from meters to feet.

3. 45.986m
b) 15.234 c)
a) 86.435m
C onvert the fo llo w ing from feet to m eters,
4. 1229.89'
a) 54.6 T b) 23.45 c)
C onvert the fo llo w in g from fe e t to m eters,
5.
a) 25'-3" b) 89'-7 Vi" c) 32' 2 W
6. Convert the following from DMS to DD.

a) 4523'15" b) 764512" c) 44o0719"
7. Convert the following from DD to DMS.

a) 45.6789 b) 1 5 6 .3 4 6 5 9 c) 90.00121
8. Describe why mathematics is an im portant part o f surveying.
9-12. Calculate the unknowns for the right triangle inform ation given
# Angle A Angle B Angle C Side a Side b Side c

9 40 90 55.09
10 90 45.12 23.45
11 10 90 233.69
12 90 124.34 145.89
13-17. Calculate the unknowns for the oblique triangle information given.
Oblique Triangle
# Angle A Angle B Angle C Side a Side b Side c

13 30 45 65
14 120 47.89 23.65
15 23 45 45 56 222.40
16 78 59 432.12 657.78
to
17
oo
65 95 100
18. Calculate the area of the triangles in Problems 9, 10, and 11.
19. Calculate the area of the triangles in Problems 13, 14 and 15.
20. Convert 455 cubic yards to cubic meters.
21. Convert 27 cubic meters to cubic yards.
22. If a tank holds 500 gallons, it has how many cubic yards?
23. How many square feet in 88.9 acres?
24. How many square yards in a square mile?
25. How many hectares in 90 acres?
Introduction
1 3 -3 Background
Measuring Conditions
1 3 -3
1 3 -3 Chain Conditions
1 3 -4 Condition Effects
Application of C o r r e c t i o n Calculation
1 3 -4
Correction for Te nsion and Sag
1 3 -6
13-7 Correction for A l i g n m e n t
Corrections for T e m p e ra tu re , Length, and Slope

13-7
SCOPE
Most, but not all, distances on the jobsite are measured electronically. Chains are
typically used for short distances where chaining can be performed more accurately
than with a total station. If a chain is used, it must be noted that mistakes and errors
can occur. Checking and rechecking the measurement will eliminate the large
mistakes. Recall that it was stated earlier that small errors always exist in every
measurement, and that errors in chaining are eliminated by mathematical formula
or are reduced in size by refining the measuring process. This Chapter deals with
the corrections that should be made to critical distances that are chained. Corrections
are applied to English and metric system measurements in a similar manner,
bxamples of each are presented.
13-2
Introduction ^
9,< * < * lO U N DT o u n d e rsta n d co rrectio n s and ho

n ecessary . S tudy them carefully l aPPly them some basic definitions are
Chain Length
C h a in le n g th is u sed to ex p ress the
d ista n c e m e a su re d in hun d red s o f feet
F o r e x a m p le , w h en u sin g a 100 chain,
6 6 5 .3 2 w o u ld b e e x p re sse d as 6 .6532
c h a in le n g th s . In a d d itio n , if a 50 chain
w e re b e in g u s e d , 6 6 5 .3 2 w o u ld b e
e x p r e s s e d a s 1 3 .3 0 6 4 c h a in len g th s.
T h is is u s e d in so m e o f th e fo rm u las
d e v e lo p e d f o r d is ta n c e co rre c tio n s.
Nom inal Length

Nominal length describes the length the
chain should be. That is, a 100-foot
chain has a nominal length of 100 even
if errors exist and the chain is actually
100. 02 .
MEASURING conditions
M easuring a D istance
When two points are already existing in
the g ro u n d , such as two control
m onum ents, the field engineer will
occasionally check the distance between
them. This is referred to as "measuring
a distance."
Laying Out
When laying out a building, points are
going to be set at a prescribed distance
tak en fro m th e p lan s or from
calculations. This is referred to as
"laying o u t.
CHAIN CONDITIONS
Too S hort
Too short describes the length condition
of the chain when a measurement is
made. For example, a 10 0 -footnominal
length chain found to be 99.98 feet when
calibrated, is used to measure a distance.
The length o f this chain is less than its
nominal length. Therefore, the chain is
too short.
1 3 -3
^ c h a p te r th irte e n
,,recs 5
Too Long
Too long is ju s t the opposite o f too
short. It describes the length condition
o f the ch a in when a m easurem ent is
m ade. F o r e x a m p le , a 1 0 0 -fu o t nom inal
length ch a in fo u n d to be 100.01 feet k.
when calibrated, is used to m easure a
d istan c e. T h e le n g th o f this ch ain is
g r e a te r th a n its n o m in a l le n g th .
T h e re fo re , the chain is too long.
CONDITION EFFECTS
neeording Less is m e a su re d w ith a c h a in th a t is to o long, ttle

W hen a d ista n c e b etw een two p m i ,ess th a n th e a c tu a l len g th o f the line,
d istance th at is re c o rd e d w ill le n g th o f th if ih ^
Lay Out Less

W hen a d ista n c e is to be laid o u t w ith a c h a in th a t is to o sh o rt, th e p o in t will be set
c lo ser than it sh o u ld be.
Recording M re ints is measured with a chain that is too short, the

"" eor - r e than the actual length of the line.
W hL^dism nct is laid out with a chain that is too long, the point will be set farther
than it should be.
APPLICATION OF CORRECTION CALCULATION

There are two distinct methods used to calculate and apply corrections to chained
distances One method applies the correction to the total distance immediately,
while the other method applies the correction to chain lengths and then calculates
the total correction. The method used depends on the personal preference of the
field engineer.
The easiest method to understand is when calculations are corrected in
chain lengths. It takes an extra step, but the entire chain correction process is
broken down in smaller more understandable parts. This is especially crucial when
applying the corrections.
Calculation of the amount o f correction is easy. Generally, the field
engineer uses a formula to obtain the amount o f correction that must be applied per
chain length. Actually applying the correction is the m ost difficult part of distance
corrections.
"When the chain is too long, is the correction added or subtracted?"
"When the temperature is cold, is the correction added or subtracted?"
"When measuring on a slope, is the correction added or subtracted?"
13-4
introduction ^
These are questions the field eno'

apply the corrections effectively Th lneer must answer in order to be able to
the field engineer m easuring a dista &an^ Wer to these questions is a question. Was
prescribed distance from plans? 006 between established points or laying out a
The follow ing illustrations and TnKi
Study them carefully because som t' aDles are presented to answer this question,
o f w hat com m on sense tells you tV d o S ^ SCemS the correction is applied opposite
Type o f
C o n d itio n
Effect on I Application o f
E rro r
Distance Calculated Correction
M easured to Recorded Distance
Chain length Too long
Record less Add
Too short Record more Subtract
H ot(above 68)
Temperature Record less Add
C old(below 68)
Record more Subtract
Less Record more
Tension Subtract
More Record less Add
Tape not
level Too short Record more Subtract
Alignment Too short Record more Subtract
Sag Too short Record more Subtract
M easurem ent between 2 known (existing) pts

Chain of correct length
Measured 100' 200' 300' 350'Recorded
0----------------- f ------------ i -------------- f - n ?
Actual 100' 200' 300' 350'
Length correct: Recorded perfect
Chain too long by 0.01 feet per 100 feet

Measured______100^________20' 300' 3 4 9 .9 6 5 R ecorded
0
r - f
Actual 100' 200' 300' 350'
Chain Long, Record Less Therefore, Add 0.035' to get 350.00
Chain too short by 0.01 feet per 100 feet

300' 3 5 0 .0 3 5 R ecorded
M easured 100' 200'
t-v /t
0-------------------------- L
f - T
Actual 100* 2001 300 3501
Chain S hort, Record More; Therefore, Subtract 0.035' to get 350.00'
13
*fM n * * * * . V "
Ih ir tw " I
&
, .W U d of . - P * * ---------------------------
E fto c to n H o w t o A p p ly
ry p *o f C o n d i tio n L a y in g O u t C m l c u i a f d C o n m ^ ia)
l?r*vw
CTfTVt
Too long
L*y out more Subtract
Chain length Uiy out less Add
Tot> short
H ott **"***8 '

1 av out m ore Subtract "
T em perature Lay out less Add **
C old(M ,,tt )
Lay out less Add
Less
Tension lâv out m ore Subtract
M ore
Tape not Lay out less Add ~~~

Too short
level
Too short Lay out less Add *
Alignment
Lay out less Add ~~
Sag Too short
1 point fixed & 1 point unknown (Layout)
Chain of correct length

200' 300' 350'
Layout
0 ----------- -
109,
__ZI _____ __LJ I
100' 200' 30 0 350
Actual
Length correct: Layout perfect
Chain too long (desired 350')

100' 200' 300' 350'
Layout
------
? r r - J
JV error
r i i
300 350
Actual 100' 200
Length Long, Layout L o n g : T he re fore S u b tra c t
Chain too short (desired 350)

Layout 100' 200' 300' 350'
O o o
[ f \ error
0 ------ \f f _______
200'
L
|
300'
\
350'
Actual 100
Length Short, Layout Short: Therefore, Add
CORRECTION FOR TENSION AND SAG

Normal tension is that tension required to cancel out sag and tension correction.
The field engineer should be careful to determine what the normal tension is for
each tape being used. The correction for sag and tension can be avoided by simply
applying the proper tension to the chain. If field engineers are following the proper
procedures for chaining a distance, it is likely these corrections will never need to
be made. Therefore, they will not be covered in this text. Should a field engineer
sometime need to perform a sag or tension correction to a chained distance, just
about any text written exclusively for surveying will provide the formulas needed.
13-6
af{EC TION FOR ALIGNM ENT
CP Alignment
Alignmentcorrections
corrections 5)are typicailv
a wooded area where trees and other ohs !'? '"'I'6" chainin* '" distances through
the chain was off-of-line is measured T haVe not been "moved. The amount
recorded, or the Pythagorean Theorem'3,1 3 correction >s applied to the length
alignment of the chain is not typicailv S u fr the calc>aion. Correcting for
it is not an acceptable procedure If m on ihe construction site because
the field engineer moves the entire 1* SOmetn8 *s on line, either it is removed or
The tolerances required for the layo way or tê other to avoid the obstacle,
so small it is not acceptable to la m.St po*nts on the construction project are
an obstacle. ^ Ut a Pnt that requires the chain to go around
However, if it would occur that
the field engineer needed to set a point
around an obstacle, the basic requirement
is to measure how much the chain is off-
of-line, read the distance on the chain
from the zero end to the object, and
measure the distance from the object to
the end of the chain. Then, apply the
Pythagorean Theorem to the two
triangles. By calculating the remaining
leg of the triangles and adding them
together, the straight-through distance
can be determined.
c o r r e c t io n s f o r t e m p e r a t u r e , l e n g t h , and slo pe
Temperature, length, and slope errors are unavoidable. They cannot be eliminated
by any specific procedure, although if all chaining was conducted at 68 F, then
no correction would be needed for the expansion or contraction of the chain.
However, this isn't practical, so the field engineer should know how to perform
the temperature correction as well as the corrections for length and slope. These
corrections are covered in the following Sections.
Length C orrection
13-9 General
G r a p h i c a l S o l u t i o n - 10 0' C h a i n
13-9
13-10 Layi ng Out a Poi nt
Measuring Established Points

13-11
SCOPE
Correcting an English or metric chain for length is easy to apply by calculation or
even while in the field measuring. It is simply the difference between the nominal
length and the actual length of the chain. It is that simpleto make an addition or
subtraction and have the distance. Or, if the amount of correction is known, the
field engineer can apply the correction as the distance is being measured. For
example, if after calibrating, a chain is found to actually be 99.99 feet long, the
field engineer can simply add 0.01 each time the full 100 feet of the chain is used.
If the distance is less than 100 feet, a proportion of the 0.01 feet can be applied
(assuming the error in the chain is uniform throughout its length). Regardless how
it is applied, the field engineer must be familiar with chain length corrections.
13-8
<;gNgpAL It w o u ld b e e x p e c te d th at a c h a in m ark ed n
e n d w o u ld b e 100 fe e t lo n g exactly It e " ne end and 100 on lh e o th e r
s Auctiy. it tsn t fo r a nu m b er o f reasons:
E rro rs o c c u r at th e tim e o f .
m e o t m a n u fa c tu re w h ich affect th e length.
T h e c h a in h a s k in k s in it fro m b e in g b en t o r step p ed on w hile b ein g used,
m a n u f a c tu re * S e *n g a te d fro m u se an(i *s lo n g e r th an it w as at the tim e o f
0 eTde enLyi n l e r i L e 3 r l a re HV ery SmaU and m ay b e ^ n o red fo r m ost ^ o r t d ista n c e

^ e c t e d Jo r Z a Z , i f .th e * c ritic a l, the erro r sh o u ld be
fr o m its nnm' l Jn e a s j*rf d o r o u l- T h e am o u n t th e length o f a c h a in
,n F r ,!fa ,e n g t ls d e te rm in e d by c a lib ra tio n te stin g . (See Chapter
1 0 E q u i p m e n t C a h b r a n o n , f o r a th o ro u g h e x p la n a tio n o f th is p ro cess.) W h e n
c a l ra io n is p e r o r m e , th e a m o u n t th e c h a in is lo n g o r sh o rt b eco m es k n o w n .
S o m e tim e s a o c a u n iv e r s ity , c o u n ty s u rv e y o r, o r lo c a l su rv e y in g a sso c ia tio n w ill
h a v e a s p e c ia l, c a lib r a te d c h a in th a t c a n b e u se d fo r th e c o m p a riso n . W hen th e e rro r
in a c h a in is k n o w n , it c a n b e e lim in a te d fro m th e m e a s u re m e n t.
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION - 100 CHAIN

^ cru-H/"
l a y in g out a p o in t
SE
ik
Suppose a chain was used to lay out centerline points on a two-mile length of
roadway. After the work was finished, the field engineer deeded to check that
chain at the local baseline. Upon checking, it was found the chain was actually
100 02 rather than 100.00. What effect will this have on the two miles of centerline
stakes? How far off will the stake be at the end of the line (10,560 feet away)?
Correction Per Chain Length

The difference between nominal length and actual chain length is
0.02' per chain length (C.L.).
Number of Chain Lengths

There are 105.60 chain lengths in 10,560 feet.
Total Correction
Multiplying.
^0.02'x
105.60C.L. = 2.1 T
C.L.
Application of Correction
The stake at the end of the line is 2 .11 feet from where it should have been because
the chain is 0.02 per chain length longer than nominal. Refer to the Table on Page
13-6, Layout o f a Prescribed Distance. The end stake will have to be moved 2.1 T
back towards the beginning of the line. Additionally, every stake along the two miles
of line will have to be moved because each of those stakes is also incorrectly placed.
It would have been worthwhile to have checked the chain before performing all that
work. The centerline will have to be re-staked with a more accurate chain, or each
measurement with the existing chain will have to be corrected by the field engineer.
1 3 -1 0
length correction @
SURING e s t a b l i s h e d POINTS
MgA
ill
CPT1
A chain was used to check the distance between two control points on a large
building project. The distance was measured and recorded as 600.172m. After
the work was finished, it was decided to check that chain at the location baseline.
Upon checking, it was found that the chain was actually 29.992m rather than
30.000. What effect will this have on the recorded distance? What is the actual
length between the two control points?
C orrection Per Chain Length
The difference between the nominal length and the actual chain
length is 0.008 meters per chain length.
N um ber of C hain Lengths

600.172/30 = 20.005 chain lengths
Total Correction
M ultiplying
f 0.008m A20.005C.L. = 0.160m

C.L.
Application of Correction correc,ion added or
600.172 - 0.160 = 600.002 meters, the actual distance between the

control points.
13-11
A
I
Slope Correction
Conditions
Slope C or r e ct io n Formulas
Graphical Solution - 100' Chain
Laying Out a Poi nt
Measuring Between Established Points
SCOPE
Most construction projects are not level and require the field engineer to occasionally
measure distances on slopes. Breaking chain can be performed as discussed in
C h a p te r 4, D is ta n c e M e a s u re m e n t - C h a in in g , or measurements can be made along
the slope and then corrected to horizontal. This Section deals with the various
methods used to correct distances for the effect of slope. The corrections for slope
apply in the same manner for English or metric measurements.
13-12
i t io n s
cO,N0f
Measuring a Distance
When measurements between two est,hr k
sssssr - " S is s s : s s r = s
Laying O ut a Point
When prescribed distances are laid out on a *
at less than the corresponding distance Sel pomls
SLOPE CORRECTION FORMULAS

There are several methods of correcting distances for the effect of slope for either
English or metric slope distances. Each yields the same result, but one way may be
better than another depending on the available data.
Pythagorean Theorem
If the slope distance and the change in elevation are known, the recorded or
required distance can be determined.
2
H orizontal2 = Slope2 - Elevation
ELEVATION
13-13
R ig h t A n g le Trigonometry
If the slo p e angle is known, the cosine or sine functions can be used de
whether the angle is an angle o ff o f the horizon, or is a zenith angle
For an angle o ff o f the horizon:
Horizontal = (Cosine Ang!e)Slope
F o r an an g le o f f o f the z e n ith :
Horizontal = (sin Zenith Angle)Slope
HORIZONTAL- ^
Correction Formula
If the c h a n g e in e le v a tio n is k n o w n , th e c o r r e c tio n f o r m u la c a n be u se d to deternV
the c o rre c tio n p e r c h a in le n g th . ,ne
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION - 100' CHAIN

I vuueuuQn ^
N
oU T A PO IN T
A 1 0 0 -foot chain is used to lay out
bridge abutments that are 50 feet apart.
T h e ground is sloping at the rate of 10
r 1 0 0 feet. What distance will need to
be laid out on the slope to maintain the
50 horizontal spacing?
50 50 50
Cg = 10 2 / 2(100)
Cg = 0 .5 p e r chain length

There are 0.5 chain lengths in 50 feet.
Total Correction
(0 .5 / C .L.)0.5 = 0.25
Refer to the Table on Page 13-6, Layout of a Prescribed Distance. In this case, the
effect will be to measure less than needed to maintain the interval. Therefore, the
correction should be added. The field engineer will need to set points at intervals
of 50.25 feet on the slope to set the points per the plan distance of 50 feet.
Checking by using the Pythagorean Formula:
Slope 2 = Horizontal2 + Elevation 2
The elevation difference in 50 feet would be 5 feet.
Slope 2 = 502 + 5 2 = 50.25
Slope = 50.25
13-15
MEASURING BETWEEN ESTABLISHED POINTS
A construction surveyor measured die length between two control monu
a 50-m eter chain. One point was at the bottom o f a hill and the other wa mCnts 'vitk
o f the hill. A slope measurement was made by holding the zero end of^K0 lê si<l
the center o f the instrument and reading 45.290 meters at the point A e chairj ,C
o f 75 was made to the point. /e hith angj^
HORIZONTAL = ?
Using Trigonometry
Horizontal Distance = (Sin Zenith Angle) Slope Distance

= (Sin 75) 45.290
= 43.747 meters
Tem perature
C orrection
Tomn B a c k 9round 13-18

G on F o r m u | a s
13-18
a P h i C a l S o l u t ' 0n - 1 0 0 ' C h a i n
13-19
L a y i ng Out a Poi nt
13-19
Measuring Known Points
13-20
SCOPE
Metal chains expand or contract as the temperature changes. When measuring

critical distances, this fact must be kept in mind so corrections can be applied to
calculate the corrected distances. The process for making the corrections is the
same for English or metric chains, but be aware that the formulas are different.
1 3 -1 7
BACKG RO UN D manufactured at 68 F. or 20 C. Any temperature above ,k
min to elongate. Any temperatures below
vill ca u se, he chain oeiow mese
these te
te m p e r ,^
Standard values
a im win t
...................... shorten. Th
The thermal
thermal expansion
expansion coefficient
coefficient for steel
for s
Wil, cause the Cham to ^ - t e n j ^ ^ |& ^ ch,i
m a n u fa ctu re d is 0.0(XXX)645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit, or 0.0000116 per
te m p e ra tu re o f per degree Celsius. Unit *ength
chain is 6 0 F* During measuring, the tem perature o f the chain itself is rea '
know n. Not the temperature of the air. Therefore, a thermometer must bt l
to and be in direct contact with the steel o f the chain. attached
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FORMULAS
Correction for Fahrenheit, Ct = 0.00000645(TF - 68 ) L
Where C is the correction in feet, due to temperature
T f is the temperature (Fahrenheit) of the chain during measurement
L is the distance measured in feet
Correction for Celsius, Ct = 0.0000116(TC - 20) L
Where C is the correction in meters, due to temperature
Tc is the temperature (Celsius) of the chain during measurement
L is the distance measured in meters.

s
HlCAL SO LUTIO N - 100- CHAIN
lA y i n g out a p o in t
On a cold, blustery day, a 100-foot chain is used to lay out building corners for a
250-foot by 400-foot structure. The temperature of the chain at the time of
measurement is 23 F. What distance will need to be laid out to set the points at
the prescribed distances?

Correction for Fahrenheit, Ct = 0.00000645(Tt - 68) L
= 0.00000645(23-68)(100)
= 0.03
13-19
N u m b e r o f C h a in Lengths
There are 2.5 chain lengths in 250 feet.
There are 4 chain lengths in 400 feet.
Total Correction
(0.037C.L.)(2.5) = 0.075
(0.037C.L.)(4.0) = 0.120
Refer to the Table on /> W -* o f a P r e s c r ib e d D ista n ce. In this case, ,he
temperature of the chain is colder than 68 F. Therefore the effect on the layout
will be to measure less than the nominal length. T hus, the calculated correction
must be added to the prescribed distances. The building corners m ust be laid out
of Wicfnnppc nf 950.075 and 400.120.
MEASURING KNOWN P O IN TS
On a hot, sunny day, a 30-meter chain is used to measure the distance between two
highway centerline monuments. The temperature of the chain at the time of
measurement is 38 C. The distance was measured and recorded as 499.897 meters.
What is the actual distance?
Rather than working in chain lengths, this problem is worked using the total
distance to directly obtain the total correction.
Total Correction
Ct = 0.0000116(38 - 20)499.897
Ct = 0.104 meters
Refer to the Table on Page 13-5, Measuring a Distance. In this case, the temperature
of the chain is hotter than 20 C.
Therefore, the effect on the layout will be to record less than the nominal
length. Thus the calculated correction must be added to the prescribed distances
The actual length of the line is:
499.897 + 0.104 = 500.001 meters
It is likely that these points were set at an exact distance of 500

meters. If the temperature correction had not been made, 499 897
would have been used rather than the actual 500.000.
SCOPE
W h e n a p p l y i n g a c o r r e c t i o n to a d i s t a n c e , it is t y p i c a l t h a t m o r e t h a n o n e c o r r e c t i o n
w ill b e n e c e s s a r y . C o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e m a d e in d iv id u a lly , su c h as d e te r m in in g th e
a m o u n t o f c o r r e c t i o n n e c e s s a r y , a p p l y i n g it; d e t e r m i n i n g a n o t h e r c o r r e c t i o n t o b e
m a d e , a p p l y i n g it; a n d s o f o r t h . M o re e ffic ie n tly , c o rre c tio n s can be m a d e by
d e te r m in in g all o f th e c o r r e c tio n s n e c e s s a ry , to ta llin g th e m , and a p p ly in g a sin g le
to ta l c o r r e c tio n . A p p l y i n g a t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n is a n e a s y t a s k w h e n a ll c a l c u l a t i o n s
are b a se d u p o n c h a in len g th s. D is c u s s e d h e re are p ro c e d u re s fo r c o m b in in g
te m p e r a tu r e , le n g th , a n d slo p e c o rre c tio n fig u re s, an d fo r ap p ly in g th e m as o n e
to tal c o r re c tio n .
13-21
GENERAL T/ie sam e co n d itio n s a n d fo rm u la s used in the previous Sections appiv
p e r f o rm in g c o m b in e d c o r r e c tio n s . The same thought process of
m easu rem en t o r a la y o u t, w as it to o sh o rt o r too long, did we measure m ore^ ** *
will w e ad d o r su b tra c t, is also u sed . r ess>
PROCEDURE FO R C O M B IN E D C O R R E C T IO N S
Stop 1 Calculate each individual correction.
Step 2 Co through the "A d d or Subtract" thought process to place a sign

6 on th
uie crrecti0n
S te p 3 List the corrections and add them using algebra to obtain a combined m
chain length. rrection per
S te p 4 Multiply the total correction per chain length by the num ber of chnin
obtain the total correction. nain ,engths to
Apply the total correction to the distance to obtain the corrected distance.
Step 5
COMBINING CORRECTIONS WHEN LAYIN G O U T

A d i s ta n c e m e a s u r in g 2 5 0 f e e t to a p r o p o s e d p i e r is t o b e l a i d o u t o n a b r i d g e
p ro je c t. T h e te r r a in f r o m t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t to t h e p i e r is s l o p i n g a t a 7 % g r a d e d o w n
into th e r i v e r v a lle y . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c h a i n a t t h e t i m e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t
is 4 5 F. T h e c h a i n u s e d is k n o w n t o b e 10 0 . 0 1 w h e n c o m p a r e d t o a s t a n d a r d a t 68
F. W h a t is th e d i s t a n c e t h a t m u s t b e l a i d o u t in t h e f i e l d t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d
d is ta n c e to th e p i e r ? R e fe r to th e T a b le o n Page 13-6, Layout o f a Prescribed
Distance.
250
----- = 2.5 Chain Lengths
100 y
1 3 -2 2
Temperature Correction Pr Ch.i
Cha,n Length
Correction, C,
c, = (0.00000645)(T - 68)C.L.
C, = (0.00000645)(45 - 68)100
C, = 0.015 p e r Chain Length

In th is c a s e , b e c a u se th e tem p e ra tu re '
so th e c a lc u la te d te m p e ra tu re c o i - r o t c * ^ effecl in lay *n8 out is to m gasm c
d is ta n c e to b e laid o u t. C ,on s "o u ld be added to o b tain the co rrect
pe ra ,u re C o rrection, C, = +0.01 S p e r Chain Length

Length Correction Per Chain Lenqth
T h e d iff e r e n c e b e tw e e n n o m in a l l pn ,L .
le n g th . an t a c tu a * ch ain length is 0 .0 1 p er ch a in
In th is c a s e , b e c a u s e th e c h a in len g th u i
m e a s u re m o re s o th e c a lc u la te d c h a in le n g th n S ' 1 .e e ffect ,n la y in8 o u t ' s to
o b ta in th e c o r r e c t d is ta n c e to b e la id m C rre,;" 0 n shoul<1 b c 5utl' [ a t ' cd to
Length C orrection, C, = -0.01 p e r Chain Length

Slope Correction Per Chain Length
A 7% grade means the ground is rising or falling 7 feet in 100 feet. Using the slope
correction per chain length formula,
S lo p e C o rre c tio n , CQ
100
Cg = 0-24
I n t h i s c a s e , b e c a u s e m e a s u r i n g o n t h e s l o p e m a k e s th e d e s i r e d h o r i z o n t a l
m e a s u r e m e n t t o o s h o r t , t h e e f f e c t o n l a y i n g o u t is to m e a s u r e le s s s o t h e c a l c u l a t e d
s l o p e c o r r e c t i o n s h o u l d b e a d d e d t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e c t d i s t a n c e to b e l a i d o u t .
Slope Correction, Cg = +0.24 per Chain Length
13
Sample Layout Correction
C om bined C o rre ctio n = C, + Cg + C,
C, = -0.01 p e r Chain Length
C = 0.24 p e r Chain Length
C, = +0.015 p e r C hain Length
C o m b in e d C o rre c tio n = (-0.01) + (+ 0 .24 ) + (+0.015)
C o m b in e d C o rre c tio n = +0.245 p e r C h ain Length
Total Correction
M ultiply the n u m b e r o f ch a in le n g th s by th e c o m b i n e d c o r r e c tio n s .
T otal C orrection = (+ 0 .2 4 5 '/C L )(2 .5 C L ) = + 0 .6 1 3
By c o m b in in g the c o rrec tio n s as sh o w n
and w a tc hing the signs, the m e th o d o f Control
Point
applying the c o rre c tio n to the d e sire d
distance is autom atic. In this ca se, the
correction o f + 0.613 is a d d e d a lgebraica lly
to the plan distance o f 2 5 0 teet to o b ta in
Horizontal
the distance to be laid out in the field.
D is ta n c e to be la id o u t = 2 5 0 . 0 0 0 . 6 1 3 = 2 5 0 . 6 1 3 o r a p ra c tic a l
m e a s u r e m e n t o f 2 5 0 .6 1 .
MEASURING BETWEEN TW O POINTS

In this e x a m p l e o f a s t a r t - u p o f a p r o j e c t , t w o f i e l d e n g i n e e r s a r e m e a su rin g
d is ta n c e s b e t w e e n c o n t r o l p o i n t s ( C P ) t h a t h a d b e e n s e t b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l surve yor.
T h e d is t a n c e th e y m e a s u r e d a n d r e c o r d e d , b e t w e e n C P 1 0 0 4 a n d C P 1005, was
fo u n d to be 5 0 0 . 1 7 . U p o n c h e c k i n g t h e " r e p o r t o f s u r v e y " f r o m t h e p ro f e s s io n a l
s u r v e y o r , th e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n C P 1 0 0 4 a n d C P 1 0 0 5 is s u p p o s e d to b e 5 0 0.00'.
T h e y a r e n t c o n c e r n e d t h o u g h b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n 't m a d e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c tio n s .
A t the t i m e of th e m e a s u r e m e n t , th e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c h a i n w a s a s c o r c h in g
103 F. T h e d i f f e r e n c e in e l e v a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o n t r o l p o i n t s is 2 0 fe e t. T h e
c a l i b r a t e d l e n g t h of c h a i n is 1 0 0 .0 2 '. W h a t is t h e a c t u a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the
c o n tr o l p o i n t s th a t m u s t b e l a i d o u t in th e f i e l d t o o b t a i n t h e t r u e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
th e c o n t r o l p o i n t s ? R e f e r to th e T a b l e o n Page 13-5, Measuring a Distance.
, CP 1005 t
-
CP 1004
1
r
1 3 -2 4
= 5.0017 Chain
Temperature Correction Per Chain Length

Tem perature Correction, C,
C, = (0 .0 0000 645)(T - 68)100
Ct = (0 .0 0 0 0 0 6 4 5 )(1 03 - 68)100
C, - 0.02 p e r Chain Length

In th is c a s e , b e c a u s e th e te m p e ra tu re in hr,t . k .
so the calculated temperature c o r r e c t . ^ nT "*eaf uri" g ls 1 0 rMotd lcM~
distance between the control points * 0b n ,hC
Tem perature Correction, C, = +0.02 per Chain Length

Length Correction Per Chain Length
The difference between nominal length and actual chain length is 0.02 per chain
lfn erth
In this case, because the chain length is too long, the effect in measuring is to
record less, so the calculated chain length correction should he added to obtain the
correct distance between the control points.
Length Correction, C, = +0.02 p e r Chain Length

Slope Correction Per Chain Length
To use the correction-per-chain-length method when a 20-foot difference in
elevation between control points approximately 500 feet apart is known, the
difference in elevation per 100 feet must be determined. A simple proportion can
be used to calculate the amount.
20 _ x solving for x = 4 feet elevation difference per 100 feet.

500 ~ 100 Therefore,
Slope Correction, Cg
13-
In th is case, m easuring on the slope h as the e ffe c t o f m ak '
ISKUthm. the e ffe c t is to reco rd m ore, so the c a lc u la ted slo p e co iT e"? ^ distjn
S R to c te d to obtain the co rrect d istan ce betw een th e c o n tro l p o in ts10 Sh UId be
^ - -n 08 oer C hain Length
S a m p le M e a s u rin g Correction
Combined Correction = C, + C g + Cf
C ( = +0.02 p e r Chain Length
C = -0.08 per Chain Length

y
C t = +0.02 per Chain Length
Combined Correction = (+0.02) + (-0 .0 8 ) + (+0.02)
Combined Correction = -0.04 p e r Chain Length
Total Correction lengths by the combined corrections.

M u ltip ly th e n u m b e r o f c h a in le n g tn s Dy u ic
T otal C orrection = (-0 .0 4 7 C L )(5 .0 0 1 7 C L ) = -0 .2 '
By combining the corrections as shown and watching the signs, the method of
applying the correction to the desired distance is automatic. In this case, the
correction of -0.20 must be subtracted from the recorded distance of 500.17 feet to
obtain the distance.
Actual distance = 500.17 + (-0.20)
Actual distance = 499.97

Uh-oh, the field engineers measured 499.97 and the professional surveyor
shows the distance to be 500.00. Who is right? The field engineers went to the field
and remeasured the distance. They still obtained the same results. The next step
is to call the professional surveyor to confirm the surveyors results.
IL
Sum m ary
rtant P O IN TS
|MP S y ste m a tic e rro rs can be el'
fo rm u la . m ated in chained distances by m athem atical
C h a in s are e x a c tly th eir n o m inal length
b ^ w e e n e k n o w n ap o im s .C n<*iti0nS occur ' n f 'e ld layout and m easurem ent
C h a in s c a n e ith e r be to o sh o rt o r too long.
o / c h ^ c o ^ m i o n r ad<1 r Subtract sections is the most difficult part
^ ^ l0ng r Shrt?" t0
C o r r e c tio n s c a n b e c a lc u la te d p e r ch ain len g th o r can b e determ ined as a to tal
c o r r e c tio n .
A p p ly in g c o r r e c tio n s to la y o u t situ a tio n s fo llo w s com m on sense.

A p p ly in g c o r r e c tio n s to m e a su re m e n t-b etw e e n -e x istin g -p o in ts situ atio n s is
c o n tr a r y to c o m m o n se n se .
S e v e r a l m e th o d s o f c a lc u la tin g slo p e c o rre c tio n s are av ailable.

M e tr ic c o r r e c tio n s a re ju s t as e a sy to m ak e as c o rre c tio n s to fo o t d istan ces.
S lo p e c o r r e c tio n is o fte n th e la rg e s t c o rre c tio n a p p lie d to distan ces.
L e n g t h , s lo p e , a n d te m p e ra tu re c o rre c tio n s c a n e asily b e co m b in e d and
p e r f o r m e d t o g e th e r a lg e b ra ic a lly .
m is t a k e s a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f ie l d
Failed to realize corrections were needed.

Laid out building at -10 F below zero, didn't apply temperature correction.
Steel arrived when temperature was 70 degrees. Nothing fit.
Tem perature correction was not made.
Losing accuracy due to slopes.
Not correcting for slope and keeping the chain level.
Im proper tension.
C hain was held out of level with no correction made.
A dded the correction when i, should have been subtracted.
C alculaled .he corrections oka,, bn. failed add .hen. algebra , .
Not polling the chain tight enongh.

No, accounting fo, w e a .h e r/.e m p e r a .u r . (Ancona vet,
13-27
_ AMD P R O B L E M distance b e tw e e n c o lu m n lin e s w ith a
n U E S T tO N S A N D has m easu red Ith ^ , n order to d e te rm in e the
1 i t t i c r d isc o v e re d ; ' ^ w |h e c o r r e c tio n b e a p p lie d ? ^t\l
iifince
h ce b c t n p o in ts. how hich is to o lo n g to lay o u t a fo u n d atio n
! tleid e n ttin e e r u s e W . ^ prc, c r ih e d d is ta n c e s fro m p, an s, .
j.irj,c building- H s h t . pned?
should .he correction jlding control p oin ts measured (reco rd ..
W hat is th e d i s t a n c c b eiw ee n . ^ ^ found t0 be too lon g by 0.015 n te u ^
3.
to be 75 meters it t < _^ ^ ground slo p in g W hat is the horiZo,al
\ ch ain if
distance 1 0 0 -feet ,on* ** a c e is
the slope distance is 3 0 0 .2 3 fe e t?
4.
tn h
tk n o w n to o ec 99.93
7 7 .7 f e e t) w a s u s e d to mea ,,,casure
5. A 1 w0 0 .-foot
. _ . s,ee' cha'" 'm . s. A a' d
distance
is ta n c e ooff 1147.44
4 7 .4 4 ffeeteet w was recorded
a s re ,
c o rd e d at
between
,een tw two
o bbu.ldmgpm
u ild in g p o m , v ^ d-----------
js ta n c e a ----------
f t e r c o r r e--c t i n g fr~'
o r
tem
perature
temperature ot 9
and chain length , wo points is 24.776 meters and the tenhh
The s l ^ d,s,ance bet^te ^ horizontal distance.
6.
angle is 81 1 w o points is 42.71 feet, and the difference i
7. T h e slo p e d is ta n c e b e f e e t C o m p u te th e h o r iz o n ta l d is ta n c e .
elevation between^ ^ measured along a 2% slope. Compute the
8.
A distance of 328 teei
horizontal distance. #
' t m lav out a rectangular building 25 meters wide by 40 meters
9. | ^ T r 3 0 m e ," s te e l chain being used is 29.994 meters long. what
distances should be laid out?
is required to lay out a rectangular building 75 feet wide by 100 feet long.
10,
Iflhe 100- steel chain being used is 99.97 feet long, w hat distances should be
laid out?
A concrete slab measuring 10 feet by 85 feet is to be laid out by a chain known
11
to be 100 03 feet long under standard conditions. What distances should be
laid out?
12. A 100 steel chain standardized at 99.98' was used to measure a distance
between control points of 1275.36 feet when the field temperature was 87 F.
The ground was sloping at 5%. What is this distance under standard
conditions?
13. A steel chain known to be 100.03 feet is used to measure the distance between
two building corners. If the distance between the corners is supposed to be
268.33 feet and the field temperature is 97 F, then what distance should be
laid out?
14. Two control points are known to be 487.63 feet apart. Using a 200' chain
known to be 199.96 feet under standard conditions, what distance s h o u l d be
measured when the field temperature is 78 F?
15. A distance was measured with a chain that was found to be 30.000m at a
temperature of 20 C and a slope of 0 00'. If the distance was recorded as
90.000 m, what was the actual length?
13-28
C alcu late th e actu al H orizontal D istanc
CC for the data in this Table.
Calculate the distances to be LAID n i it c f

oe out to r the fo llo w in g data.
Br
Tape Length Slope Temp. Required Horizontal
Distance
21 100.015 ft. Zenith 87 15 64F 400 ft.
22 30.003 m Elev diff 1.67 m 0C 20 m
23 99.996 ft. 3% 98 F 150 ft.
24 29.995 m Zenith 89 15 08 C. 75 m
25 100.01 ft. Vertical 2 21 32 F 350 ft.
OFFICE ACTIVITIES
C orrection Poster - (1 person, 2 hours). Objective: Develop a ledger-size
poster of how to apply chain corrections for layout and measurement. Procedure:
On a w ord processor, prepare a poster that shows how corrections should be
applied. Be creative.
13-29
i
Introduction
14-3 General
Construction T rav erses
14-3
14-4 Traverse Angles
14-5 Referencing
14-6 Fi el d Not es
Traverse Computations
14*6
Pr ocedur e for T r a v e r s e Computations
14-7
SCOPE
A traverse is a series of points established on the jo b site th at are connected to each
other through the m easurem ent o f angles and d istan ces. T h e se field m easurem ents
are used in a process called traverse co m p u tatio n s th a t d eterm in e the relative
location of the points to each other. T hese trav erse p o in ts are th en u sed to establish
the control for the project, w hich becom es the b a ck b o n e o f a n etw o rk of p o in ts that
can be used to perform coordinated layout of a p ro je c t site. T ra v e rsin g is one of the
most practical applications o f the m easu rem en t o f d ista n ce s and an g les b ecau se it
requires careful attention to accuracy to achieve the p re c isio n n e ed e d fo r construction
control. Closed traverses p ro v id e th e p rim ary m e th o d u se d in c h e c k in g surveying
field work.
14-2
Introduction (p
*1% \
& Traversing is performed in all types of surv

surveyors is to use traversing for c a lc u llti n '" ! ^ ' /lS PV uses by land
surveys require traversmg to establish connorL ? of ProPerties. Topographic
in collecting data for maps. In construction trP mts.m locaons that will be useful
around the jobsite to lay out the structures pers,n* ,s used to establish control
different, the basic traversing process is th " though he applications are
measured between points that are strateoi^n6 same~~angles and distances are
There are two types of traverse ^ o p ^ " ^ sUe'
Closed Traverse
A closed traverse involves performing
geometrically or mathematically closed fisure r.ements that wll result in a
or any polygon where the measurements beein at Z T * bC rectangle Pentagn
and close at the original point, or the measurement P*im g arUnd the figure
known location and close onto another point of knn S f ^ ^ 3 Pim that haS a
allow the surveyor to determine the Wn ocatlon-closed traverses
precision of the measurements. If the
precision is poor, it is obvious that a
measurement mistake occurred and it
will be necessary to return to the field
and re-measure some or all of the
distances and angles. If the precision is
good, tra v e rse com putations can
proceed and coordinates of the points
can be calculated.
Open Traverse
An open traverse occurs when there is not a polygon figure,
or when the measurements do not close onto a point of known
location. The open traverse is not a useful tool on the
construction site because it provides no way to check for
mistakes either geometrically or mathematically. It is only
useful as a means of providing quick, temporary points that
will not be used for critical work. It can be used only if all the
measurements that are made are repeated in an attempt to
eliminate mistakes and errors.
CONSTRUCTION TR A VER S E S
On large construction projects, traversing is typically one of the first surveying
Contact activities perform ed since control is needed right away to see where the structures
Licensed Land will be located. By reviewing the site plan, the construction surveyor will learn
Surveyor with
information about the site that was provided to the designer by the Licensed Land
any question
Surveyor. This will typically include the property lines that are defined by well-
about property
monumented corners that may be used as starting points for the layout work. It is
good practice to run a traverse around the site and include the property corners as
corners.
points in the traverse. This allows for the information on the site plan to be double-
checked prior to construction. If there are any questions at all about the property
lines or property corners, the Licensed Land Surveyor should be contacted before
the work proceeds.
14-3
tt?
,n run a traverse on a jo b site , it is a g ood idea to p ian
W henpreparing ed< R ev iew the p ro ject d o cu m en ts and plar|h^ e
the traverse points wil t,f layout has been selected , locate traverse r w ^
lT >U\ r r t mo "'efficiently be used d u rin g .h e e sta b lish m e n t o f the pro>
where t h i j e.in "it ^ h a w as long a d ista n c e as p o ssib le betw een , r . v ' r'
control. A lw ays* I jn in creasing the ac c u ra cy in the m easurem ents
points as that will P , t is a g o o d p ractice to w alk th e traverse b e fo *
I c m ^ 's e t '. inS up die in strum ent to v isu alize the w ork an d m ak e ad ju stm en t,
^ m toeations if pro b lem s are a n ticip ated ,n se tu p s o r m e a su re m e n ts.
M ark the traverse points so lid ly ----
in the ground or m ark them on hard
ground su rfa c e s. T h e p o in ts can be
wooden hubs, an "X" on a sid ew alk , a
piece o f rebar, o r an y th in g that is so lid
and well d efined. Even though they m ay
be tem porary, they still m ust be p o in ts
that will be a v ailab le w hen it is tim e to
set the final co n tro l p o in ts. K eep in
m ind the in te r-v isib ility n eed ed by the
total station w hen the p o in ts are selected .
Once the traverse points have been located, use the best techniques and
equipment available to carefully measure the distances and angles between the
points. All distances should be measured forward and back on each line, and each
angle should be turned at least two direct and two reverse to obtain the best estimate
of the true value of the angle. Setups with the instrument should be exactly over the
point as any amount, even a hundredth or a few millimeters off the point will result
in lowering the precision of the traverse. All equipment used should have been
recently checked for proper calibration. Ultimately, the traverse is going to be used
to establish the project control. This control will only be as good as the precision
of the traverse. Therefore, take the time to do it right and get the closure and
precision required for the project.
TRAVERSE ANGLES
Angles can be turned several ways when traversing. They can be interior, exterior
angles right, angles left, deflection right, deflection left, or by directions.5The type
of angle turned is based on the type of traversing that is being performed.
Interior Angles
If the traverse is being run around a jobsite and is a closed polygon, interior angles
are typically measured. It is standard practice to turn these angles dockwTse
he backsight point to the foresight point. Therefore, w hen traversing around a
polygon, ,s convenient to do so in a counterclockw ise m anner When
-
notes or on a sketch. As always, turn the
T i zzX r x r ,0,hegl
angles an equal number o f times direct
and reverse to elim inate system atic
errors and to obtain better precision.
14-4
Introduction @
N
Deflection Angles
ecân9'e If a traverse is being used for
0** , right
typically m easured. T his is b e c H S T S L " ^ * highwa*- den tio n angles are
along the ro u te o f the highw ay. A d e fla tio n Pr gresses a linear manner
right o r to the left o ff o f a prolongation 8 *S Simply an an 8le 'ued to the
m axim um o f 180 degrees. W hen n o fel^ CXtension of he previous line to a
p o sitiv e and d eflectio n s to the left as n -8 designate deflections to the right as
ch eck ed by clo sin g onto a control no' e,8atve; D eflection angle traverses can be
. 01 P ,m and si 8hting onto second control point.
Angular Closure
T he a n g le s th a t are turned for a tra v p ro n
is, sin ce fie ld m easu rem en ts contain n l usually close geom etrically. That
up, th e y w ill n o t add up to the t h e o r e t i c erro rs when the field angles are added
is d e te rm in e d fro m SUm f the anSles f a polygon. This sum
(n -2 )1 8 0
w h e re n is th e n u m b e r o f sid es nr
. orio ngles in the polygon. T herefore, the sum of the
a n g le s o f tria n g le is 180 , a square is 360, a pentagon is 540, etc.
e c a u s e tra v e rse an g les do not close, it is necessary to determ ine if the
a n g u la r m is c lo s u re is ac c e p tab le . A com m on form ula used to determ ine perm issible
m is c lo s u re is:
c = K-v/n
Where c is the amount of misclosure, K is a constant that is based on the accuracy

specified for the traverse, and n is the number of angles in the figure. Values of K
will vary from about 2 seconds for the highest precision surveys to 12 seconds for
the lowest precision traverses. If the lowest-order traverse was all that was needed
for a 4 sided traverse, the allowable misclosure would be:
c = 12-\/4 = 24 or 6 per angle
of the 4 angles of the traverse. If the highest precision were required, the allowable
misclosure would be just 4 seconds, or one second per angle of the traverse.
Obviously, very good angle-turning equipment and techniques would be needed to
achieve the highest degree of precision. Even at the lowest precision of 6" for each
of the angles, it is easy to see that good instruments and techniques will be needed.i
REFERENCINGi
It is important after the traverse points have been monumented and the measurements
taken that they are available for later use. Unfortunately, on the construction site,
it is quite possible that some of the traverse points will be removed or destroyed,
either intentionally or unintentionally. It is often difficult to keep traverse points,
control points, site work points, or any kind of points on a construction site with
all o f the activity that is taking place.
One thing that can be done is to reference the points so they can be relocated
if they are destroyed. This is typically done when the point is being occupied by
the instrum ent. Take time to measure distances to nearby objects such as fire
hydrants, pow er poles, sidewalks, etc., that can be used later to measure from and
relocate the point. R efer to Chapter 19, Layout Techniques, for a more complete
description o f the referencing process.
14-5
, lla varies from person to person and there are
. IllU>ies for traverse data v t|anientaUy. the points need to he
FIELD NOTES
The styk ot ^ h lha, can bo us ^ u> bc recorded exactly. There Can be
many correct nu 1 ces aIU| angles ^ wollld affect the accuracy of the
idCOlil The recording of the {0 thc notes should be made before
no mistake^ ha( ca possibly
data. AU checK lu d c a title o f th e p ro je c t so that this
leaving the bo fic w notes w ill . in fo rm a tio n su c h as th e d ate, who
?^ d istin g u ish ed from others- ^ n u m b e r o f th e in stru m e n t used
traverse van (he w eath er. ,u n ts p r is m o ffs e ts , p p m , instrum ent
is perform . 1 in fo rm ation ab o u t c * s e tu p in fo rm a tio n should be
T ^ r i s m p ole h eig h t end any o<l ' ^ , a b u la li p a g e (le ft sid e ) and a
height.* I . j g en erally rec o r . . f th e fie ld b o o k . D ista n c e s w in
T T o f t h l t r a v e 'e on the grid * * U c h lin e . Horizontal an d Z enith
measured and recorded forward ^ ^ ^ ^ horizomal angles, record the
angles will he ^ L
number of times the angle was turned,
first angle and the last ai t _______ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Nov. 17, 20 0 2
Keller Traverse Total S l

cool. 3 6 *, dear |
M, Crawford
2P&K MEAN PrismPol*2 f J. Crawford
OCCUPY SIGHT P R - 30mm
B 1st 4 th
A < T __W TSS 'W 70-12'20-
to7*53'09-
E
<p
C
257* 24' 00- BA121' 02"
p < 2 64-2109-
A
< 206" 2C O r
B
106- 20' 00-
32
206- 39' CO- ICellcr
Project
<
E
259 32' 20- 64" 53' 05"
64- 92' 99-
C
P S e'i=
PISTANCES
< 96-58'A
OCT 26"32'40- 96SB''0"
r _4
Line FWP Back Mean V ri S '- m trrn i
A-B 677.96 677.96 677.97
III ) - ^ r Sek
iU ! 1 1 1 ! I.. U 11T1
B-C 616.05 616.05 616.05
tittH t f44-U4-
irm
690 .8 6
C-P 690.67 690 .69
_Li_| Tt
P-E 783.33 783.31 763.32
T ;:L _
U 0M /
E-A 970.26 970.26 970.26
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
Performing traverse computations is very systematic and exact. The procedure
proceeds in a manner ot Step One, Step Two, Step Three, etc., with no steps
skipped, or the calculation will be incomplete. The process must be mistake-free
or the mistake will carry through to the end result. Therefore, checks must be made
at every step to ensure accuracy of the computations.
This systematic approach is often programmed into handheld calculators
and computers using spreadsheets or a programming language. Also, there are
many traverse computation programs readily available commercially or as shareware
on the Internet. Unfortunately, many persons rely on these programs and never
learn the step-by-step process of traverse computations and do not understand
where the numbers are coming from. The rest of this Chapter is about learning how
to do a traverse by hand so a deeper understanding of the process can be developed.
14-6
------ v u u n
fob tr a v e r se COMPUTATIONS
lCepiBE The following is the step-by-sten nnv-.,i r n tv
. .
a b rie f d e sc rip tio n o f each o f the L o s Th fW ca)cuU lm * 'ravevse. This is just
in the re m a in in g S e c tio n s o f this C h a p tlr in ch *rea' CT deXaU
Measure the^diânces and angles in the field. Use good measurement techniques
Step and re c o rd a n g le s and d istan ces clearly in the field book.
Adjust th e angles. A tte r angles have been m easured, check them to see if they
S te p re p re s e n t a c lo s e d g eo m etric fig u re. If they do. no adjustm ent is needed. If not,
th ey c a n b e a d ju ste d ra n d o m ly , sy stem atically , or from notes in the field book.
D e te rm in e s ta r tin g d ire c tio n for one of the lines. A starting direction can be
Step a s s u m e d , d e te rm in e d fro m m ag n etic N o rth , or taken from plans, etc. If the traverse
is n t p a r t o f a la rg e n e tw o rk , any d ire c tio n can be used.
C alcu late th e d irec tio n fo r all the lines. D ire c tio n o f lin es can be rep resen ted
Step in e i t h e r a z im u th s o r b e a rin g s . C a lc u la tio n in a z im u th s is the p referred m ethod
as it is p e r f o r m e d b y fo llo w in g very sim p le ru le s. B earin g s are th e p referred
m e th o d o f r e p r e s e n tin g d ir e c tio n s on d ra w in g s. A ll d ire c tio n c a lc u la tio n s m u st
b e c h e c k e d a n d c o n f ir m e d to b e c o m p le te ly c o rre c t or all o f th e fo llo w in g
c a l c u l a t i o n s w ill b e in c o r r e c t.
Determine trig fu n c tio n s of d ire c t o

. calculator or a computer and
S te p s determ ined by inputting the angle into a scient.t
requesting the trigonom etric value.
Latitude - (distance) <*'

Departure = (distance) , (9'ne (''iecl'on'
Based on the direction

departures are calculated for eacti
14-7
Calculate linear error o f closure. By
Step 7 summing the North Latitudes. South
Latitudes. Hast Departures, and West
Departures, and d e te rm in in g the
difference in latitudes, and the difference
in departures, and applying these
differences to the Pythagorean Theorem,
the linear error o f closure (LEOC) fo r
the traverse can be determined. When
calculated, the LEOC represents the MATHEMATICAL ENDING POINT
amount the distance measurement failed
rw o rm in in e the precision of a traverse gives the f ieiH

C a lc u la t e p r e c is io n . specified standards. If the precision of the f ieiH
S te p 8
engineer a rati the field work is complete. If the
e f ,d engineer will need to return to the field to remeasure angles and/
d0e^ : * J , n detefmine the erroneous measurement.
rtures If the Precision meets the specified

S te D 9 Adjust the consider adjusting the traverse to achieve exact
S te p * standards, it is common practice methods tha, are used for this adjustment.
closure ofthe polygon. T h e re ar (ions an(J (hat are highly statistical.
,;nofp Qtartins coordinates can be assumed, determined

*>to M. . * i-'.
n e t w o r k , r t . r . m j o o ordin.re. o n . bo ..rod T y p ica l!,. the
coordinates are chosen large enough so there can never be a negative coordinate.
Step 11 Calculate coordinates. Using the adjusted latitudes and departures and the
starting coordinates, the coordinates of each point are calculated. A fter calculating
around the traverse, the field engineer is careful to return to the starting coordinate
as a check. N 1632.480
Step 12
collectors ^*nates to construction. With todays technology (total stations, da
comPuters)> t h e L s t powerfu, a,
field layout data Tf p ^ 8 y Ut S using rectangular coordinates to determn
layout data ca tb e eas.lv f 1 f C mro1 * * * * * and structures are known, t
Coordinate' What is commonly called COCO
y- ThlS 18 the t0Pic of Chapter 15, Coordinate Geometry.
14-8
A r9le Adjustment
0neral 14-10
Adju
S , m e n > Option: 14-10
Procedure
' 0r A d ' u s . i n g A n g l e s 14-11
Example; T
raverse C omputation
14-11
SCOPE
When angles are turned on a traverse, it is expected there will be small errors in each
of the angles that are measured and recorded. Sometimes these errors cancel
themselves out, and other times they still exist even though exact procedures were
used by the field engineer. In traverse computations, it is common practice to adjust
those errors out of the angles so the angles will represent a closed geometric figure.
1 4 -9
/ general
A Rule from Geometry

A fte r th e in te rio r a n g les o f tra v e rse h a v e b e e n m e a s u re d , th e y sh o u ld be add
together. T he sum o f the in te rio r an g le s sh o u ld b e c o m p a re d to th e b a sic ru le f ded
g e o m e try w hich states : ^
T he su m o f th e in te rio r a n g les o f a c lo s e d fig u re w ill e q u a l (n-2)180

"n" re p re se n ts th e n u m b e r o f s id e s in th e fig u re .
F o r a th re e -sid e d fig u re , (3-2)180 = 180 d e g re e s

For a four-sided figure, (4-2)180 = 360 degrees
For a six-sided figure, (6-2) 180 = 720 degrees
and so on...
ADJUSTMENT O P T IO N S
Randomly Eliminate the Error

If the error is small, and it would not make a great deal of difference exactly how
the error was eliminated, do whatever will make the numbers work out evenly. For
example, if the error was 1'30" apply 45" to two angles, or 30" to three angles, or
any combination to make numbers work out easily.
Follow the Notes in the Field Book

If the field notes say, "the setup at Point 4 was on soft ground and the instrument
wouldn't stay level," it might be a good idea to apply all of the error to the angle
measured at Point 4. Review the field notes before m aking any adjustment. (Note:
Anytime a setup is hurried or sloppy because o f the conditions, it is probably a good
idea to come back later when a good, norm al setup can be made).
Equally Adjust All Angles
14 10
0cd&u b E por A D J U S T IN G a n g l e s
P ste p 1 sum the interior angles of the traverse.
Step 2 Compare the sum of the angles that

ru le . E x a m p le : F o r a fiv e -s id e d f Were m easu red and rec o rd e d to the (n-2)180
d e g r e e s . F r o m th e fie ld b o o k h lgU re tlle sum the an g les should b e 540
tw o a r e n o t e q u a l. n o w e v e r th e an g les ad ded to 540 00 22". T he
$ te p 3
s ,e p 4s z z ^ s z rz . Adi" seconds from

case adjust randomly to eliminate the
.angles.
m * . u .. i .
S te p 5 Sum the a n 8<es- As a final check of the adjustment made, add the angles again.
If everything was executed properly, the interior angle total should equal the total
obtained from the angle summation rule from geometry.
EXAMPLE: TRAVERSE COMPUTATION

Sketch of Field Angles
~ r >_ 15
g= f rs LOCKER *13 Nov 5. 2002

A N G LE A D JU S TM E N T t=rp s PARTY 4 cool. 44*. cloudy '
FIELD RANDOM ADJUSTED 30, CLOUDY K K. Meyer
i hl/Z| p :IIICTMFMf c | DRIZZLE" f . M. Meyer
ANC?L Al/JIU I?IMCNI ANGLE P. Jackson
107* 33' 05* -05" 107* 33'

s 1[
64* 2V l D
64* 2V 02* -02*
$ 1
206* 35'0 0 * -OO* 206* 35'
X > A * 53' OS
W _ _ _
& X
64* 53' 05* 64* 53'
Y 6 4 * 2Y02T
96* 3 8 '1 0 -1O ' 96* 38'

\ 2;06" 35' 0 0
540* 0 0 ' 22"

540*00*
S \ t B iiij i ,
96* 36' 10Z
\ l 0 ? * 3 3 '0 5 *
' ____ 1
A
-I
V : r ; i-1 iz I
B j
J General
D ir< 14-14
Proc h eC ,i n C a lc u ' a , in Ru e s 14-16
Procedure f 0r C a i . .
C a lculating Direction
s 14-16
E xa mp|e Solution
14-17
Summary 0 f Results
14-18
SCOPE
A fter traverse angles have been adjusted to represent a closed geometric figure,
and a starting direction has been determined or assumed, the direction of each line
can be calculated. This is accomplished using either azimuths or bearings. Some
field engineers prefer to calculate azimuths and others prefer to calculate bearings.
It is purely a m atter o f personal preference because they both represent the same
thing a direction. However, azimuths are much easier to calculate. Since they
are easier, few er m istakes in calculations generally occur. Therefore, although the
properties o f both bearings and azimuths will be discussed, only the calculation of
azim uths w ill be presented in this Section. It will also be shown how bearings can
easily be obtained by converting from azimuths.
14-13
k.
general
Comparison between Azimuths and Bearings NORTH
A zim ufh.s are m easured c lo c k w ise from
N o rth an d vary from 0 to 3 6 0 . T h ey
Azimuths
require o n ly a n u m erical value (3 5 . 145.
0-360
2 15. e tc .). A zim u th s m ay he re fe re n c e d
Clockwise from
to tru e N o rth , to m a g n e tic N o rth , to an
North.
azim u th taken from p lan s, o r fro m an
a s s u m e d d ire c tio n . In ad d itio n , a z im u th s
1
Bearings are m e a su re d e ith e r c lo c k w is e

o r c o u n te rc lo c k w is e fro m N o rth a n d
S o u th . T h e y v a ry fro m 0 to 9 0 a n d
re q u ire tw o le tte rs a n d a n u m e ric a l v a lu e
( N 6 0 E. S 3 0 W . e tc .). B e a rin g s m a y WEST EAST
he re fe re n c e d to tru e N o rth , m a g n e tic
N o rth , to an a z im u th ta k e n fro m p la n s ,
o r fro m an a s s u m e d d ire c tio n . B e a rin g s
m ay a ls o h e fo rw a rd o r b a c k w a rd .
Determining the Quadrant

to instantly visual'
B y o b s e r v a tio n o f th e v a lu e , th e f ie ld e n g in e e r s h o u ld b e a b le
w h e re th e b e a r in g o r azimuth is lo c a te d . W h e th e r it is in the Northeast quadran
S o u th e a s t, S o u th w e s t, o r N o r th w e s t.
N N
NORTHWEST NORTHEAST
W-------------- ------------- E
SOUTHWEST SOUTHEAST
Converting from Azimuths to Bearings
Azimuth Bearing
N
0 to 90 None
360 - Az None
90 to 180 180 - Azimuth
W F
180 to 270 Azimuth - 180 Az - 180 180 - Az
270 to 360 360 - Azimuth ;3
Azimuth = 112
Conversion = 180 - 112 = 68
Bearing = S 68 E
N direction calculations 0
Conversion = 180 + 51 = 23-1.

Azimuth = 231
Obtaining a Back Azimuth
toS l,T b k * ' >
Back Azim uth = Forward Azimuth + 180
For example, if a line has an azimuth of 75 it's back azimuth would be 255.
N
Obtaining a Back Bearing

If back bearings are ever needed, all the field engineer needs to do to change the
direction is reverse the letters. That is, N 45 E has a back bearing of S 45 W and
S 82 20' E has a back bearing of N82 20' W.
1 4 -1 5
d ir e c t io n
CALCULATION RULES
Direction calculations can be pcrforincd in either a clockwise or counte
m anner about a traverse. There air specific rules for calculating in either<tlC*C
'V'Sc
To c a lc u la te a z im u th s clockwise around a traverse: Subtract th
interior angle from the back a/im uth o f the preceding line. C ad-*uMe<i
T o c a lc u la te a z im u th s counter-clockwise around a traverse-
1 ........... to the back a/im uth o f the preceding linc Add ,lc
p r o c e d u r e FO R CALCULATING D IREC TIO N S

The fo llo w in g is th e s te p -b y -s te p p ro c e d u re fo r c a lc u la tin g a z im u th s clockw
See the T a b le o n th e fo llo w in g p a g e fo r th e s o lu tio n . ***
rw o p n iiin e a k n o w n a z im u th , a n d th e d ire c tio n that the

S te p 1 P ,a n a n d P " n a Dr^ c e e d ( c lo c k w is e o r c o u n te r c lo c k w is e ) . L ist the adjusted
c a lc u la tio n wH P a n J dravv a s k c tc h o f th e e n tir e tra v e rs e . Be sure it
in terio r an g le. d is ta n c e s s h o u ld h e c lo s e to sc a le ). Label
% a n d .h e in te r io r a n f ,e s . O rie n t .h e d ra w in ,
p ro p erly to N o rth .
S te D 2 Perform the calculation. S ta rt b y w r i t i n g d o w n th e s t a r t i n g a z im u th . A dd 180

** to obtain the b a c k a z im u th . S u b tr a c t th e a d j u s t e d i n t e r i o r a n g le to o b ta in the
a /im u th o f th e n ex t linc. II th e r e s u lt is g r e a t e r th a n 3 6 0 , s u b t r a c t 3 6 0 . W r ite dow n
the a z im u th on th e sk e tc h .
S te p 3 Repeat the calculation. F o r e a c h lin e o f th e t r a v e r s e t h e s a m e c a lc u l a t io n should

he re p e a te d . T h a t is. a d d 180 a n d s u b t r a c t t h e i n t e r i o r a n g l e .
S te p 4 Check the calculations b y u s i n g th e la s t i n t e r i o r a n g l e t o r e c a l c u l a t e th e s ta rtin g

a /im u th .
Example
C a l c u l a t e th e d i r e c t i o n o f e a c h l i n e a n d p r o v i d e a c h e c k ( c l o c k w i s e ) .
1 4 -1 6
L,
SOLUTION
m plE
C lockwise Azimuth Calculation
P roceeding clo ckw ise about the traverse.

i'll
eo*,rnary Add 180
.I
AZ Back azimuth = 530 0 ft
A z ir r iu c n
Subtract interior angle at B - 64 21

_ AZ,rr,lJt;^ 0
Azimuth BC = 105 39
Add 180 It
Back azimuth = 285 39
Subtract interior angle at C - 206 35
Azimuth CD = 79 04'
Add 180
Subtract interior angle at D - 64 53
Azimuth DE = 194 11
Add 180
Subtract
36(9 from final Back azimuth = 374 11
answer if over
360. Subtract interior angle at E - 96 38
Azimuth EA = 277 33
Add 180c
Subtract interior angle at A - 107 33
Azimuth AB - 350 00
1 4 -1 7
OF RESULTS
SUMMARY
14-18
ft
1
Latitudes and
DePartures
General 14-20
Calculating
14-20
Di stance Cal cul at i on 1 4-21
DEPARTURE
SCOPE
One o f the im m ediate goals of traverse computation is to determine the precision
o f field w ork m easurem ents. This is accomplished by breaking each line into its
com ponent parts so a m athem atical closure of the field work can be determined.
W ith a m athem atical closure, a precision ratio can be calculated that can be
com pared w ith established standards to determine if the work is acceptable.
1 4 -1 9
GENERAL . le formulas which are based on right ang\e
Using simple to ng the field distance and calculate
trigonometry ana ^ the field engineer can calculate
direction from pot nts of any line. These components
the North and bas surVeying terms as the latitude and
are also referred The North component of a line is the
departure of the i component of a line is the departure,
latitude, and the of the direction of the line are
Simple sine and c ^ to determine these values.
CALCULATING LATITUDES AND D E P A R T U R E S
Latitude
To calculate the N orth/South com ponent (L atitude) o f a line, determine the
trigonom etric value o f the cosine of the direction and m ultiply it by the distance
Latitude = (D istance)(C osine(D irection))
The direction of the line will determine

the sign of the latitude. Positive
indicates a North latitude and negative
indicates a South latitude. If using
azimuths, an azimuth between 0 and 90
or between 270 and 360 will yield a
positive latitude and an azimuth between
90 and 270 will yield a negative latitude.
If using bearings, the sign is determined
180 from the stated direction, North or South.
D e p a rtu re
To calculate the East/W est component (Departure) of a line, determine the
trigonometric value of the sine of the direction and multiply it by the distance.
The direction of the line will determine

DEPARTURE the sign o f the departure. Positive
o EAST / WEST COMPONENT OF LINE A - B
360 B indicates an East departure, and negative
N
indicates a W est departure. If using
azim uths, an azim uth between 0 and
180 will yield a positive departure, and
an azim uth betw een 180 and 360 will
yield a negative departure. If using
bearings, the sign is determ ined from
the stated direction, East or W est.
1 4 -2 0
Exam ple For Line AB
L atitude^ = (Cos 350)(677.97') = 667.6701

rounded w e
functions. D e p a rtu re ^ = (Sin 350)(677,97') = -117.7283
and3 rfp pr cedure for each line- See the Table below for a summary of the
latttude and departure computations. Even though the Table only shows the
trigonometric functions to four places, the calculation was performed with the
maximum n u m e r o p aces that can be determined. Never perform any trigonometric
calculation with just fourplaces. Let the calculator or computer use all digits that are
available.
C o n t i n u i n g E x a m p le : L a titu d e s a n d D e p a r tu r e s
Line Azimuth Distance Cosine Lat Sine Dep

AB 350 677.97 0.9848 667.6701 -0.1736 -117.7283
BC 10539' 616.05 -0.2698 -166.1858 0.9629 593.2115
CD 7904' 690.88 0.1897 131.0369 0.9818 678.3395
DE i9 4 ir 783.82 -0.9695 -759.9266 -0.2450 -192.0558
EA 27733' 970.26 0.1314 127.4838 -0.9913 -961.8484
D IS T A N C E C A L C U L A T I O N
N ote that the latitude and departure represent the legs of a right triangle. If they are
know n, the original distance o f a line can easily be determined by the use of the
P ythagorean form ula. The form ula would be:
Distance = (Latitude)2 + (Departure)2
With this data, using the latitude and departure for line CD,
D is ta n c e CD = J(131.0369]2 + (678.3395 f
Distance CD = 690.88
1 4 -2 1
Closure ana
Precision
L i n e a r Error of C l o s u r e
P r o c e d u r e for C a l c u l a t i n g L.E.O.C
Precision Calculation and Analysis
Accuracy Standards
MATHEMATICAL STARTING POINT
SCO PE
Are the measurements any good? That is the big question at this point in the
traverse computation process. The answer to that question will determine if the
fieldwork meets established standards or if it doesn't. If it meets the standards, the
calculations can continue and coordinates can be determined. If it fails to meet the
criteria, the crew must return to the field and re-measure some of or all of the
distances and angles and repeat the calculations to determine if the new data is any
good. This process of data analysis can be very basic or very complex. For the
purposes of most construction surveying, basic analysis is fine. When a project is
very large, however, and spread over a great area, more involved analysis of the
data should be used.
closure and precision (|)
error o f c lo s u r e
UMEAB
Finally, a fte r m easuring distances and mathematical starting point
angles m th e field , ad justing the angles
c a lc u la tin g d ire c tio n s o f lin es, and
ca lc u la tin g latitu d es and departures the
co m p u tatio n s are a, the im portant 'step
o f d e te rm in in g the linear closure o f the
field w o rk . T h is c a lc u la tio n is a steo
to w ard s d e te rm in in g if ,h e fieldw ork
m eets a c c e p ta b le standards.
Form ula mathematical ending point

T he fo rm u la u sed in the calculation ,
application for the Pythagorean Theorem T h " errr f S S'mply T her
in the Norfh/Snnth l a t ' t A " 1jheorem- The process of determining the closure
1 e w h ic h k u U CS dn ^ c ôsure *n the E ast/W est departures yields
v alu es w h ic h can be su b stitu te d as follow s: Reference Chap,er 12, Math
fo r m o re in fo rm a tio n a b o u t form ulas.
C2 = a 2 + b2
LEOC 2 = (Closure in Latitudes) 2 + (Closure in Departure) 2
Continuing Example: Linear Error of Closure
Latitudes Departures
Line D istan ce N. Lat. S. Lat. E. Dep. W. Dep.
AB 677.97 667.6701 117.7283
BC 616.05 166.1858 593.2115
CD 690.88 131.0369 678.3395
DE 783.82 759.9266 192.0558
EA 970.26 127.4838 961.8484
Totals 3738.98 926.1908 926.1124 1271.5510 1271.6325

926.1908 - 926.1124 1271.5510-1271.6325
Closure in Lat. = 0.0784 Closure in Dep. = -0.0815
1 4 -2 3
PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING L.E.O.C.
The priK-cdtiiv uses ihe c a lc u la ted latitu d es an d d e p a rtu re s to
Km>r o f C lo su re (L E O C ). e r|rtine the i : n
S u m the N orth L atitu d e co lu m n ( 9 2 6 . 1W 8 ). Sum the South Latitude c

Step 1 (026 1 1 24). S u m the E ast D e p a rtu re c o lu m n (12*71.5510). Sum the West Dc Un' n
colum n (1 2 7 1 .6 3 2 5 ). S ee the su m m atio n line in th e next Table.
S te p 3 I n s e r t th e d if f e r e n c e s in to th e P y th a g o re a n T h e o re m to c a lc u la te the Linear E
o f C lo su re (L E O C ) fo r th e tra v e rse .
L E O C 2 = 0 .0 7 8 4 2 + 0 .0 8 1 5 2
L E O C = 0 .1 1 3 1
P R E C IS IO N C A L C U L A T IO N A N D A N A L Y S IS
O n ce th e L in e a r E rro r o f C lo s u re is d e te r m in e d , th e p r e c is io n o f the traverse can
be d e te rm in e d . P re c is io n is a sim p le r a tio d e te r m in e d fro m th e proportional
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e L E O C a n d th e to ta l d is ta n c e a ro u n d th e trav erse.
Formula
U sin g th e L E O C a n d th e d is ta n c e m e a s u r e d , a r a tio c a lle d th e p re c isio n is
c a lc u la te d .
LEOC = _1_
Perim eter x
Procedure
Sum the distances measured around the traverse to determine the perimeter and
then substitute into the formula. For this continuing example:
0.1131 _ 1 _ 1 __ 1
373 8.9 8 ~ x ~ 330 59 = 33000
Analysis
After measuring 3739 feet, the traverse had an LEO C o f 0.1131 feet. Expressed as
a ratio. 1 foot in 3 3 0 0 0 feet means that if the field crew had measured 33000 feet
using the same techniques and precision, they w ould have been off 1 foot. By using
a typical construction total station (5-second instrum ent) and good techniques, this
is an acceptable precision for this traverse. If this w ere a traverse in which a transit
and chain were used, a precision o f around 1:5000 w ould have been expected.
1 4 -2 4
>w aim precision ^
^C U P A C Y STANDARDS
O n th e c o n s tru c tio n site, required
be b u ilt as sp e c ifie d . T h ese tolerance/*1/ ^ nCCd' ^ f h wcd so the project will
to th e n e a re st h u n d re d th o r 3 rum / Can var^ ^rorn setting an anchor bolt point
T ra v e rs e p re c is io n is a d ifferen t kin 1 ,SCtt' n ^ a s*Pe stake to the nearest tenth,
s ta n d a rd fo r th e tra v e rse itse lf T h U derancc- h *sn'l for just one point, it is a
p e rfo rm e d th ro u g h o u t the site C ^ rec' s*on needed for the type of w ork being
sta n d a rd s are lis te d as first sec / I T ' m eet specified standards. O fficially, these
h o riz o n ta l c o n tro l n e tw o rk s F n ! ' u - lh ,rd o rd er' and have bccn developed for
s ta n d a rd s is to re la te th em to t h / . ' \ c co n tro l> another way to look at these
b u t is p re s e n te d to re la te in a o r a c i ^ i * Pr jCCt' T he next T ablc is not ofr,ciaK
o rd e rs o f a c c u ra c y an d the ^ ^ Sense lhe s,7e o f P ^ je c t com pared to the
standards required for surveying consult Fr !nfora ,io"
Internet w ebsites * g. consult other surveying texts or visit government
S ize o f P ro je c t Relative accuracy

Classification
between Points
200 or more acres First Order T. 100.000
20 to 200 acres Second Order T.30,000 to 1:50,000
0.2 to 20 acres Third Order 1:5,000 to T.30,000
Higher Accuracy
The success of construction projects is based on having good construction
contro . Traverses that meet the standards shown above are a good step towards
successful layout. Proper equipment and proper technique must be used if better
control is desired. A total station that reads to 10 seconds of arc will not be able
Choose to perform first order of work. Occasional traverses with that instrument may
equipment close to a higher order of accuracy, but that would be through pure luck and
basedon technically would not be acceptable because of the lower order instrument used.
accuracy It takes first order equipment and first order procedures to do first order work.
requirements. Second order equipm ent will consistently do second order work, and third order
equipm ent is used for third order work. In other words, choose the equipment for
a jobsite based on the accuracy standards that must be met. If a construction
com pany is aw arded a large project requiring a high order of accuracy, make sure
the instrum ents are capable of the requirement. On a large project, dont use
equipm ent that is designed for small projects. The accuracy simply wont be
achieved. R esearch the standards required for the project and research the
equipm ent available. Match the equipment to the job requirements High
accuracy is expensive. The old adage "you get what you pay for" is certainly true
o f surveying instrum ents and achieving high accuracy.
14
14-27 General
A p p l y the C o r r e c t i o n s
14-28
Summary of Adj ust ed Lat i t ude a n d D e p a r t u r e s
14-29
14-29 Final Check
SCO PE
To adjust or not to adjustthat is the question. From a purely theoretical
viewpoint, traverse adjustment procedures are used for distributing error in
measurements to create a geometrically closed figure so that calculated distances
will agree from point to point. From a field perspective, adjustment creates a
situation where field distances do not match calculated distances between the same
points creating a situation that is confusing when a calculated distance between two
control points might be 499.95 and the total station displays a distance of 500 feet.
If adjustments are performed, they can be simple or complex mathematical
processes. This book presents a simple method of adjustment that is appropriate for
many traverses on the jobsite.
1 4 -2 6
adjustments @
m
From a jobsite perspective, a practioi
the rule o f th u m b th at adjustm ents are 7 " ' he dilem m a o f R u s tin g is to use
accu racy o f the instru m ent. F or exam m * V ade
m if they are ,ess <han the e
length o f a line by 0 .0 5 , w hich is bevo H a adjustm ent '"creases the calculated
m akes m o re se n se to go back to the field f 002 accuracy of the instrum ent, it
ad ju stm en t. O n th e o th er hand if an ad &n re~m easure rather than to perform an
w h ich is w ith in th e ex p ected +0 02 JUStment chan 8es the length of a line by 0 .0 1 ,
go A -h e a d an d a d ju st th e traverse aCCUrac^ instrum ent, it makes sense to
I f adjustments are to be m adP o
are several methods that are available nn raêrse how are they performed? There
to the statistical based "least sauare*- trm asimPleProPrtional adjustment,
the measurement to be considered into t h h* WS condltlons that might affect
text to present anything o ^ a ^ SCPCf ^
thorough understanding of adjustments t C e adjUStm,ent process' Fr a m ?re
deal exclusively with surveying " e " '" 8
U was stated earlier that the objective of traverse adjustment is to have a
geome rica y c ose tgure. In other words, the sum of the latitudes and the sum
of the departures should be zero. The simple adjustment procedure that is most
commonly used is called the "compass rule." Application of the compass rule
assumes the angles and distances measured on the traverse were measured with
equal precision. Thus, this rule is appropriate when similar precision equipment is
used together. If a transit and chain are used, the compass rule applies. If a total
station is used which measures the angles and distances electronically with
relatively the same precision, the compass rule is a still good choice.
C om pass Rule
The compass rule calculates an adjustment that is applied to each latitude and each
departure individually. A proportion is established that uses the length of the line,
the perimeter, and the closure. In generic form, the formula is:
Correction Distance
Closure Perimeter
.a titu d e F o rm u la
L a titu d e C o rre c tio n _ D is ta n c e

Perimeter
C l o s u r e in L a t i t u d e s
le p a r tu r e F o rm u la
D e p a r tu r e C o rre c tio n _ D is ta n c e
C l o s u r e in D e p a r t u r e P e rim e te r
1 4 -2 7
c h a p te r fourteen
6>
Calculating the Corrections
Substitute into the forniula the closure, distance for the line, and the per'
the traverse. M ake sure tlu* distance is used anil not the latitu d e o r d e p a j^ ^ ^ r of
Sample Calculations
At (0 .0 7 8 4 X 6 7 7 .9 7 )
Latitude C orrection A(, = ------3 7 3 9 9 3 ------ 0 1 4 2
^ (0 .0 8 1 5 )(6 7 7 .9 7 )
D e partu re C o r r e c t i o n AB = 4---- gQ----- L = 0 .0 1 4 8
Follow the sam e procedure for each line. Note that the procedure repeats '
each line. T o save time, some people tend to do all of the latitudes nee I *tSc^ for
change the distance fo r each line. T h ey then do the same thing for the t0-*Usl
See the Table here for a summary of the calculated correction for eachT*anUres-
~ Pyamole from Page 14-23

Correction C a l c u l a t i o n s _________________ -____ _________________________ _
Correction S. Lat E. Dep C orrection W. Dep
Litre Distance N. Lat
-0.0142 -0.0148 117.7283
AB 677.97 667.6701
+0.0129 166.1858 593.2115 +0.0134
BC 616.05
131.0369 -0.0144 678.3395 +0.0151
CD 690.88
783.82 +0.0164 759.9266 -0.0171 192.0558
DE
EA 970.26 127.4838 -0.0203 -0.0211 961.8484
Totals I 3738.98 926.1908 <Compare> 926.1124 1271.5510 <Compare> 1271.6325

Larger: Smaller: Larger:
Smaller:
subtract add subtract
add correction
correction correction correction
APPLY THE CORRECTIONS

The objective is to balance the latitudes and departures so the closure in both is zero.
Add to the sm aller and subtract from the larger.
Latitude Correction
Review the summations of the North latitudes and the South latitudes. To balance
these numbers, one must be increased and the other decreased so they are the same.
Therefore, the corrections must be added to the smallest latitude and subtracted
from the largest latitude.
In the continuing example, the total of the North latitudes = 926.1908 ant
the total of the South latitudes = 926.1124. Therefore, the North latitudes need t<
be decreased (subtract from the larger) and the South latitudes need to be increase*
(add to the smaller).
14-28
i/ c p a u u ie c o r r e c t io n
th ese n u m b e rs, o n e m u s u L 'h ^ e r s e d ^ T l T ^ W *Sl dePartures' T o balance

T h e re fo re , th e c o rre c tio n s m ust be a d d 'd ? I?1* " decreascd s0 the> a re ,h e same
fro m th e la rg e st d ep artu re. dd d *he sm alles* departure and subtracted
th e t o t a l V ^ h ^ W e s t 'd e p a r u t r e s '^ 'n ^ l '6 3 2 S ,hT h aS,fdCPart.UrpS = ' 2 7 1 '5 5 ' a" d
la rg e r a n d n se e dr to
r ;be" d"e c "re a~seda (su
' b tract from th e larger).
o f a d j u s t e d l a t it u d e a n d d e p a r t u r e s
m-
Line N. L a t 4
S. L a t E. Dep. W. Dep.
AB 667.6559
117.7135
BC 166.1987 593.2249
CD 131.0224 678.3546
DE 759.9430 192.0387
EA 127.4635 961.8273
Total 926.1418 926.1417 1271.5795 1271.5795
Closure in Lat. = 0.0001 Closure in Dep. - 0.0000
FINAL CHECK
It can be seen by observation that the summation of the North and South latitudes
IftheSUmma -s eqUai (926.1418 & 926.1417 with the 0.0001 representing an insignificant
tions are not rounding error) and the summation of the East and West departure is equal
almost zero, (1271.5795). Therefore, the adjustment was carried out successfully.
REP01
& chapte' fourteen
A d ju s t e d D is t a n c e s
a n d D i r e c t i o n s
Formula
14-31
Analysis
14- 31
SCOPE
The original distances and directions were used to obtain unadjusted latitudes and
departures for each line of the traverse. By adjusting the latitudes and departures,
the corresponding distances and directions will mathematically have changed and
will not match the'original distances and directions. If it is necessary to represent
adjusted traverse data on plans, or, for Land Surveyors, on descriptions of land, the
final adjusted distances and direction must be calculated.
1 4-30
T h e fo llo w in g fo rm u la s ca n be used
determine the adjusted distances andV' 4U*'UNlc^ latitudes and departures to
and can
WF*r
beT changed
* -r-'r+y^
to erections. They are represented for line A.B
Direction = ArcTan PParlure AB

Latitude AB
C o n tin u in g E xam ple

[fall
Direction AB = ArcTan ~117 7135
~667\6559~ = *9 59 56" = 350 00 04"
O rig in a l
L in e A d ju s te d O riginal
D ire c tio n Adjusted
D ire c tio n D istance Distance
AB 350 350 0004 677.97 677.953
BC 105 39 105 3903 616.05 616.066
CD 79 04 79 0405 690.88 690.892
DE 194 i r 194 1055 783.82 783.832
EA 277 33 277 3256 970.26 970.236
a n a l y s is
In the preceding Table, the data shows that the adjusted directions did not change
by more than 5 seconds from the original directions, and the adjusted distances did
not change more than 0.024 from the original distances. Recall that this traverse
closed with a precision of 1 in 33,000. If the instrument used was a total station with
specifications of 5 seconds and 0.02 foot, the adjustments are very close to the
capability of the instrument. With this total station, it would be acceptable to
represent the adjusted distances and directions on a site plan or in other documents.
If the instrument had been a one-second total station, the adjustments to the
directions would have been outside the measuring capability ot the instrument. It
would be best to go back to the field and re-measure.
1 4 -3 1
cn a u ^'
&
C o o r d i n a t e s
G e n e ra I
14-33
Calculating
........ ....................... T r , * rS*
14-33
SCOPE
Coordinates are numbers. They represent a method of defining the location of a
point by referencing to North and East axes of a rectangular coordinate system.
The North and East coordinates for a point represent the distance to the point from
the origin of each axis. Every point on a construction site, the control, the structure,
utilities, etc., will have a unique North and East coordinate that can be used by the
field engineer for layout purposes.
14-32
.eu ^ -
Coordinate systems on- -most 4 0 0 V building
art* typically
t'îcally onlyuunaing
* used
construction sites are
on that particular site. That
That is, rather
C O **** than having one coordinate system for
epW - nil rn
all n stm rti''" each
construction, ----u building proiec
will have Us wn coordinate system
This hasn't been a problem because over
the years there wasn't a real need to
reference a project on one side of a town
to a project on the other side of the
town. Additionally, there hasn't been a
cost effective method of keeping each
project on the same system or making
the measurements required to do it.
of Tran<^ ^ t t o J^ y ap ^ e c tPs Cu s ^ tT n ltmd'0 n ,r o lle d b y D e Par,mem

coordinates. This allows the designers to coordinme^Tojecôn h ig h w a y sld lr
one coordinate system. 3
11j * ! 8 eas'er *C1 ProJects anywhere to be coordinated together with
the use o systems. Rather than site specific or even state specific, geodetic
coordinates can now be used for any project anywhere in the world. See Chapter 9.
GPS Field Procedures, for more information on GPS, and Chapter 15, Coordinate
Geometry, for a more thorough explanation of coordinates.
CALCULATING c o o r d in a t e s o n a t r a v e r s e
Calculating coordinates for a traverse is very systematic. A starting coordinate for

a point must be known, and the adjusted latitudes and departures for each line must
be known.
Starting Coordinate
Use the most
The field engineer needs to have starting
Westerly and
coordinates for one of the points of the
most Southerly
traverse. This starting coordinate may
Point.
come from the plans, from the report of
survey by the professional surveyor, or
by just assuming some numbers for one
of the points. Often the starting
coordinates are assumed. If they are, it
is a good idea to start the coordinates
with the most southwesterly point of
the traverse and to start with fairly large
initial coordinates so there will be no
possibility of negative coordinates on the traverse. Having negative coordinates
just introduces an additional source of error in the calculations. Also, it wise for
the assumed coordinates to be very different. That is, use N 5000, E 10000 to avoid
having similar N and E values throughout the project.
Adjusted Latitudes and Departures

At this point in the discussion of traverse computations, adjusted latitudes and
departures are available for the continuing example problem.
I
[I
111
1 4 -3 3
The Formulas
The calculation of coordinates at this stage
only requires addition and subtraction. In
generic form, the formulas to calculate the
coordinates for line (i-j) are:
North + Latitude^ = North
East. + Departure^ = East
More specifically for a traverse ABCDEA

the North formulas would be:
NorthA+ LatitudeAB= NorthB
NorthB+ LatitudeBC= Northc D
Northc + LatitudeCD= NorthD
NorthD+ LatitudeDF = NorthR
NorthE+ LatitudeHA= NorthA
and the East formulas would be:

EastA+ DepartureAB= EastB
EastB+ DepartureBC= Eastc
Eastc + DepartureCD= EastD
EastD+ DepartureDE= EastE
EastE+ DepartureEA= EastA

Always return
to the starting It should be evident that the formulas for calculating coordinates for a traverse involve
coordinate. simply moving sequentially from one point to the next to the next and so forth until
returning to the original starting coordinate.
Watch the Signs

The signs of the latitude and departure must be strictly followed to obtain the correct
coordinates. Recall that North latitudes are positive and South latitudes are negative,
and East departures are positive and West departures are negative.
North (+) North (+)

West (-) East (+)
South (-) South (-)

West (-) East (+)
<>
1 4 -3 4
''M I U p iC
Given: Traverse ABCDHA with starting ,

and East 5000.000 ad the .-.Juste,
For point B
North s Latitude^ * North,,

UHK) + Wt7.(>55<> = 1667.6959
H ast v + D e p a rtu re vn = H astn
5000 + (-117.7135t = 4882.2865
For the remaining points, see the summary in the Table here
Calculation of Coordinates
A d ju s t e d A d ju s te d
L in e
L a t it u d e D e p a r tu re
P o in t N orth I:8f
A 1000.0(H) 5(HH).(HX)
AB 667.6559 -117.7135
B 1667.656 4882.287
BC -166.1987 593.2249
C 1501.458 5475.511
CD 131.0224 678.3546
D 1632.480 6153.866
DE -759.9430 -192.0387
E 872.537 5961.827
EA 127.4635 -961.8273
i-- -
A 1000.000 1 5000.000
N1632480
E6153866
1 4 -3 5
VJ*
E x a m p l e s
14-37 Example 1
14-39 Example 2
SCO PE
The following examples of traverse com putations should be beneficial in
understanding this process.
14-36
examples @
*XAm p l E 1 A traverse was run on a
using the compass rule Perfo Crr r f ^ s u r r ? ^ 1011 The Direct0^ ^ a chain-
f * B K S S S - S S i S S ^ i i :
P ,nt A are N 5 ( ^ T T he^ i n a tes
500 and E l 0 0 0 0
53 05
B
on
Field Data - Eq ual Adjustmen
t to Angles
P t.
Field Angle A d ju s tm e n t Adj. Angle Dist.
A 52:>6 -or 52 25
322.52
B 53 05 -or 53 04
265.25
C 74 32 -or 74 31
267.66
Sum 180 03 180 00
Calculation of Direction (Clockwise Around Traverse-Subtract Interior Angle)
Start 54 10 Azimuth AB
Add 180 54 10 +180 = 234 10
Subtract Angle B 234 10 - 53 04 = 181 06 Azimuth BC
Add 180 181 06 +180 = 361 06
Subtract Angle C 36106 -7 4 3 1 =28635 AzimuthCA
1 4 -3 7
i
chapter fo u rte e n
nv
14-38
gXAMPL E 2
A traverse was measured with a 3-
second, 5mm total station. Assume
angles w ere m easured w ith equal
precision. The Direction of 1-2 is AzN
330. Determine the linear error of
closure and the precision. Adjust the
traverse using the compass rule. Perform
all calculations necessary to determine
the coordinates of the points B and C.
The coordinates o f Point A are N 1000
and E 3000.
Field Data - Equal Adjustment to Angles

P t. F i e l d A n g le
A d ju s tm e n t A d j. A n g le D is ta n c e
1 119 52 51 -02 119 52' 49 286.656
2 96 16 45
to
r*
o
96 16' 43 320.284
3 135 48' 06 -02 135 48 04 352.913
4 97 05 49
to
6
97 05 47 388.215
5 90 56 39
oto
1
90 56 37 458.807
Sum 540 00' 10 540 00 00
Calculation of Direction (Counter-Clockwise around Traverse-* Add Interior Angles)
Start 330 Azimuth ,_2

+ 180 + Int. Angle @ 2 330+ 180 = 510+ 96 16 43 = 6061643
Subtract 360 606 16 43 - 360 = 246 16 43 = AZ 2.3
+ 180 + Int. Angle @ 3 246 16 43 + 180 + 135 48 04 = 562 04 47
Subtract 360 562 04 47 - 360 = 202 04 47 = AZ M
+ 180 + Int. Angle @ 4 202 04 47 +180 + 97 05 47 = 479 10 34
Subtract 360 479 10 34- 360 = 119 10 34 = AZ
119 10 34" + 180 + 9(f 56 37 = 390 07 11

+ 180 + Int. Angle @ 5
390 07 11 - 360 = 30 07 11 = AZ 5.,
Subtract 360
30o 07 11 + 180 + 119 52 49 = 330 AZ , 2
+ 180 + Int. Angle @ 1
Checks!
1 4 -3 9
14-40
E x a m p le 2 - T r a v e r s e C o m p u ta tio n S h e e t
Field Note Book # p aap #
chapter fourteen
D ire c tio n D is ta n c e C o s in e S in e L a titu d e D epartu res Adjusted 1Coordinates
A z im u th 4 p la c e s s h o w n ,
L in e or Feet u s e a ll a v a ila b le
N o rth S o u th E a st W est Latitude Departure
B e a r in g o n c a lc u la to r o r North East
c o m p u te r g
St arting Point: Coordinates = 1 1000 j 3000
1 -2 330 2 8 6 .6 5 6 + 0 .0 0 3 4 0.0027
0 .8 6 6 0 -0 .5 0 0 0 + 248.2548
2 4 8 .2 5 1 4 - 143.3253
143.3280
2 1248.2548 2856.6747
2 -3 2 4 6 1 6 4 3 3 2 0 .2 8 4 -0 .4 0 23 -0 .9 1 5 5
-0.0038 0.0030
128.8469 -128.8431 - 293.2210
293.2240
3 1119.4117 2563.4537
3 -4 2 0 2 0 4 4 7 3 5 2 .9 1 3
0.0042 0.0033
-0 .9 2 6 7 -0 .3 7 5 9 -327.0268 - 132.6554
327.0310 132.6587
4 792.3849 2430.7983
0.0046 0.0037
- 189.2485 + 338.9641
4 -5 119 10 34 3 8 8 .2 1 5 -0 .4 8 7 5 0.8 7 3 1
189.2531 3 3 8.9604
5 603.1364 2769.7624
+ 0 .0 0 5 4 0.0043
5 -1 :30 0 7 11 4 5 8 .8 0 7 0 .8 6 5 0 0 .5 0 1 8 + 396.8637' + 230.2376
3 9 6 .8 5 8 3 230.2333
1 1000.000]l 3000.0000
569.2107 0.000 1 0.0000

S u m m a tio n s 1 8 0 6 .8 7 5 6 4 5 .1 0 9 7 645.1310 569.1937 j __________________ _____
= 0.0213 D eparture C losure = 0.017
L a titu d e <
C lo su re
L in e a r E rro r o f C losure = 0.0273 Precision = 1/66300 J
Sum m ary
OPTANT POINTS
IMP
"T ra v e rse s" a re th e tool used tn
A tle control together on a jobsite.
A traverse can be checked if i, is closed
Open traverses cannot be checked.
Contact a licensed land survev-
surveyor for any property corner questions on the jobsite.
precision Travises3"** measuring techniques are required to obtain higher
leaving th e ^ e M 780" Sh U'd close geometrically and be checked before
Angles can be adjusted randomly, equally, or from field note descriptions.

Directions can be represented by azimuths or bearings.
Azimuths are easier to calculate than bearings.
Latitudes and departures are the legs of a right triangle.
Precision is a simple method of determining if the traverse measurements are
any good.
Accuracy standards are guides to use in determining the methods and
equipment needed for various sizes and types of construction.
To obtain higher accuracy, use better equipment.
Adjustments can be used to mathematically close a traverse.
The Rule of Thumb is that traverse adjustments should not exceed the
measuring capability of the instruments or methods.
Add to the smaller and subtract from the larger when applying adjustments.
The goal of traverse computations is coordinates.
m is t a k e s a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f i e l d
Failed to close my traverse. Resulted in coordinate problems.

Used a 10-second instrument for weeks trying to achieve accuracy that was
impossible for that instrument.
Calculated the traverse with unbalanced field angles.
Adjusted the angles incorrectly and didn't add them up as a check.
Didn't check the direction calculations by recalculating the initial starting
direction.
Placed the latitudes in the departure column and vice versa. Resulted in
coordinates that were way off.
Didn't calculate the precision (that was terrible) and used the bad data and got
bad coordinates.
Applied the adjustment wrong and didn't check by adding the latitudes and
departures to see if they equaled zero.
Used similar starting North and East (N1000, E l000) and got the coordinates
mixed up because they looked the same.
1 4 -4 1
QUESTIONS a n d p r o b l e m s
I. What is the
2. U sing the angles in the p rev io u s p ro b le m , h o w m u ch a d ju stm e n t is need h

each an g le? e d f*
3. U sing adju sted angles from a b o v e, an d a d ire c tio n fo r lin e A B o f 274
is the direction fo r each lin e? W ork c lo c k w is e a b o u t th e trav erse. What
4. P rovide the back azim u th fo r th e fo llo w in g a z im u th s :
a) 232 1 2 '0 7
b) 156 5 2 17"
c) 31 3 2 42"
5. C onvert the fo llo w in g a z im u th s in to b e a rin g s:
a) 251 4 3 '5 2 "
b) 111 3 2 59"
c) 336 3 2 5 2
6. Given two successive azimuths of a traverse 69 21 followed by 220 111

is th e c o u n te rc lo c k w ise in te rio r a n g le b e tw e e n th e m ? w ^ at
7. Given tw o su c c e ssiv e b e a rin g s o f a tra v e rs e N 4 1 3 5 ' E fo llo w e d bv N S7 0

E, w hat is th e in te rio r a n g le b e tw e e n th e m ? y N
8. A 441 O' line bears N 68 11' 07" E. What is the latitude and departure of the line?
9. A 956line bears S 32 53' 42" W Wh*t ic t h ~ ^ J
A traverse was run on a small ' h
equal precision. The Direct J bsite- Assume angles were measured with
error of closure and the precision a a - 1S AZn 114 12 Determine the linear
Perform all calculations neceîr T V * the traverse usinS the compass rule.
B and C. The coordinates of p,! V a determine the coordinates of the points
nates of Point A are N 5000 and E 10000.
Field Data
14. A traverse was run on a large jobsite. Assume angles were measured with
equal precision. The Direction of WX is AzN224 56'. Determine the linear
error of closure and the precision. Adjust the traverse using the compass rule.
Perform all calculations necessary to determine the coordinates of the points
X, Y, and Z. The coordinates of Point W are N1000 and E 5000.
Field Data
P t. F i e ld A n g le A d ju s tm e n t A d j. A n g le iD is ta n c e
w 121 1741
107.865
X 78 2306
172.849
Y 79 5027
152.471
Z 80 2838
131.948
360 00
Sum .L____________
,, A f o l d e d closed .-averse A BCD ha. .he following . g ,
A = 88 31)' A B = 262.56'
BC = 955.63'
B = 90 22*
C = 87 00* CD = 244.10'
D = 94 08' DA = 944.73'
The direction of AB is an azim uth o f 88 .

a) Perform a check for angular closure m easured with equal precision.
b) Compute the direction for all sides. (A zim uths)
c) Compute the latitudes and departures.
d) Compute the linear error o f closure and the precision ratio.
e) Using the com pass rule, com pute the adjustm ents for latitudes and
. _____
tui v-.j nnniv
r r thp adjustm
- ents.
f) Assuming coordinates o f N 1000 and E 5 0 0 0 for point A , compute the
coordinates o f B. C. and D.
D ire c tio n D is ta n c e
C o u rs e
MN N 0 r 0 0 ' 0 0 .0 " E 6 6 4 .1 5 0
NO N 7 9 " 5 1 ' 5 8 .0 E 3 1 5 .2 0 0
OP S 37 5 9 04 0 E 5 9 2 .4 7 0
PQ S 58 0 8 4 4 0 W 4 5 6 .1 6 5
QM S 87 3 7 0 2 .0 " W 2 8 7 .6 3 5
a) W h a t a rc th e c o r r e c te d d e p a r tu r e s ?
b) W h a t a re th e c o r r e c te d l a t i t u d e s '1
c) W h a t is th e e rro r o f c l o s u r e 1
d) W h a t is th e a p p r o x im a te p r e c is io n
e) A s s u m in g s ta r tin g c o o r d in a te s o f \ 1 0 0 0 0 a n d E 5 0 0 0 f o r p o in t M . w hat
a r e th e c o o r d in a te s o f th e o t h e r t r a v e r s e p o i n t s ?
17. I s in g th e d a ta fro m P r o b le m 13. c a l c u l a t e th e a d j u s t e d d is ta n c e s a n d d ire c tio n s

fro m th e a d ju s te d la titu d e s a n d d e p a r tu r e s .
IS. I s in g th e d a ta fr o m P r o b le m 14. c a l c u l a t e th e a d j u s t e d d i s t a n c e s a n d d ire c tio n s

fro m th e a d ju s te d la titu d e s a n d d e p a r t u r e s .
19. F o r th e c lo s e d tr a v e r s e A B C D . a n s w e r th e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
C o u rse B e a rin g L e n g th L a titu d e D e p a rtu re
AB S 7 7 4 8 F. 76 1 6 .0 6 7 4 .3
BC S 68 14 ' W 135 5 0 .1 1 2 5 .4
CD N 10 2 6 ' W 42 4 1 .3 7 .6
DA N 67 0 3 ' E 6 3 .7 1 2 4 .8 5 8 .6 7
iwicu aepartures
b) What are the corrected latitudes?
c) What is the error of closure?
d) What
v./ '*i is the
me approximate precision?
e') Assuming *>
e) Assuming starting coordinates of N 1000 and E 1000 for point A, what
are the coordinates of the other traverse points?
20. For the adjusted latitude A
C o u rs e L a titu d e D e p artu re P o in t
N IE
A
AB S 350 E 160
B
BC N 310 E 120
C
CA N 40 W 280
OFFICE A C T IV IT IE S
1. C alculate a Field Traverse - (1 person, 3 hours) Objective: Take traverse

data from a field book and calculate the traverse. Procedure: Assume a
starting coordinate for the most Westerly point. Assume a starting Direction
from that point, use a compass or map to aid in selecting the direction. Balance
the field angles based on the field notes, calculate the directions, latitudes, and
departures, LEOC, precision, adjustments, and coordinates.
2. M easure an d C alculate a Field Traverse - (2-3 persons, 6 hours) Objective:
Close a traverse to a precision of 1:20000. Procedure: Using a total station
and good field techniques, measure the angles and distances of a closed 4-
sided traverse. Assume a starting coordinate for the most Westerly point.
Assume a starting Direction from that point. (Use a compass or map to aid in
selecting the direction). Balance the field angles based on the field notes,
calculate the directions, latitudes, and departures, and the LEOC and precision.
If the traverse does not close as specified, return to the field and re-measure
the distances and angles that might not be accurate. Repeat the calculations
and measurements until 1:20000 is met. Adjust and calculate the coordinates
when the traverse is acceptable.
1 4 -4 5
c h a p te r fif te e n
c o o rd in a te g e o m e try
Introduction 1 15-2
Inv e rsi n g 1 5-7
Intersections 15-13
Re- Section 15-19
La you t Data 'I 1 5 - 2 4
Areas 1 5-30
Summary I 15-34
Introduction
Background
ew
Rectangular Coordinate System Revi
Wh e r e to Use C o o r d i n a t e s
Coordinates in C o n s t r u c t i o n
S e t u p of a C o o r d i n a t e S y s t e m
SCOPE
Coordinate geometry has become a powerful tool of those in construction layout.
With the proliferation of total stations, programmable calculators, and computers
in all aspects of surveying, and with most projects using coordinates for layout,
almost everyone working in surveying must be well-versed in Coordinate GeOmetry
(COGO) to be successful. There are many COGO software packages available
commercially. One only needs to look at one of the surveying trade magazines to view
advertisements for dozens of packages. They are available for all types of computers,
calculators, personal data assistants, and mainframe computers. Some packages do
everything including CAD, while others are small programs that perform the basics
needed for field layout.
Using coordinates makes the job easier for the layout person, but more
susceptible to making large mistakes if great care is not taken in coordinate layout.
A thorough understanding of coordinate systems, and an understanding of how one
wrong number can cause an entire project to be wrong, are necessary for those
using coordinates. If proper procedures are used with coordinates, near perfection
in the layout of simple-to-complex projects can be achieved.
This Chapter does not attempt to teach any of the software programs nor is
there an attempt to cover all aspects of coordinate geometry. A simple of review
of the basics of these calculations and where the numbers originate is presented.
Coordinate geometry calculations are performed identically to English units or to
metric units.
15-2
In tro d u c e
^C K G R O U N O
The use of co
d e s^ ib e T h e r CVer T Coordinates
Nile river , at' n of * point de,ei"ed need to
the location ,de System of coordina^''"' Egypt' alonS w
located i 0t ProPerty describe
Coordi"16 yeatly n ods- S S *hey CUld be
WheiVe l0C^ " ^ h r surfacty T u "* t0 deteine their
hers used coordinates to de. f ** earth' Columbus and
discovered. The system t Z ' T * "* 'OCa,ion <* ^ hey
oordinate system called latitud is a geodetic
represents 0 latitude and Cr ^ d l0ngUude- The equator
ongitude. Every point on T V England-rePresen,s
longitude. That system w, has a unillue latitude and
heir exploration of the We"t T t f ^ aU w and'Clark in
observations gave them h A J heir da,ly astronomical
maps of the M isso u d ld r 7 ? a" wed ,hem "> develop
This geodetic data is now read ! d Co urnbia Rivers.
can read out locations that are sub c i r ' ' 11' n GPS sys,ems' Precise GPS
opportunity to use geodetic coordinates position- GpS gives us the
However, for ease of calculation and choose on the construction jobsite,
avoided in favor of state or local systems" "t 7 ' n8 ge detic coordinates are
uses of GPS, refer to Chapter 9, GPS Field Pro^durel" ^ CnStruCtion-site
RECTANGULAR c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m r e v ie w
Because most construction sites are limited to a relatively small area, the coordinate
system that we utilize is based on a plane. That is, we assume the area of the earth
w eret e project is located is theoretically flat. Even though we all know the shape
of the earth is spherical, for all practical purposes, we assume we are working on
a plane. We work from a rectangular coordinate system rather than the geodetic
one that explorers and travelers on GPS use.
The rectangular coordinate system as we know it was first developed by a
French mathematician in the 17th century. He devised a system which consisted
of two geometric axes perpendicular to each other on a plane to locate a point. In
mathematical terms, a horizontal axis
and a vertical axis were used to describe
MATHEMATICS
the system . Again mathematically,
USES X,Y
coordinates of points are represented by
listing first the horizontal component 6,8
and t hen t he v e rtic a l com ponent.
Coordinate pairs of 4,5 indicate a point
that is 4 units to the right of the origin
4,5
and 5 units above the origin. Another
way o f stating this would be 4 columns
to the right o f the origin and 5 rows
above the origin. If another coordinate
pair such as 6,8 is known, equations of 0
geom etry and trigonom etry can then be
a p p lie d to d e te rm in e d ista n ce an
direction betw een the points.
15-3
In surveying, one axis is oriented N 10,000-] SURVEYING
to N orth and the other to East. T he USES N.E
origin is where the tw o axes in tersect.
T he origin is represented b y N o rth 0 .0 0
and East 0.00, resp e ctively. T y p ic a lly
th e NO.0 0 , E 0 .0 0 o r ig in is o n l y a N 7200
E 7000
th e o r e tic a l lo c a tio n a n d is n e v e r
p h ysica lly occu p ied or used in th e fie ld .
I f coordinates are to be a ssig n e d to a N5000
project, large n u m b ers such as N 5 0 0 0 ,
E 5 000 or larger, are u sed as s ta rtin g E5000
c o o rd in a te s to e n s u re th a t n e g a tiv e
co o rd inna'
ateseS w ill
m n e v e r e x is
ist.
t. a re a v o id e d is to elim in ate anothet
">ocnn nee
c rdi The" m ain rea so n n ef ' " " - ^ c o o r d i n a t e s d o e x is t w h e n u sin g coordinates
f p o ten tia l erro rs. I f n eS c a lc u la tio n s , th e r e m u s t b e s tric t adherence
source o f P c o o rd in a te g e o m e try g. A lth o u g h th is isn t difficult, it \s
andthePerf
to rmo ff aalgebra
rules l g e b r a ^regarding neg
f a\c u la ti1 ss8that
on process6 th a tcould
c o u ldresult
r e s u ltininadding
ad d in ginstead
insteadofIf
t0sstthe
ju rmore
t one m o re step
ste p in
siep^ in ^the
t calculation
u is EOo d Pp ra c tic e to
to avoid
a v o id sources
s o u rc e s ooff mistakes
m istak es inin the
the
: " S w o r k w h e n e v e r p o s s ib le .
A d v a n ta g e s ,ar c o o rd in a te s c e n te r a r o u n d th e ir e a s e o f use. They

T he a d v a a ta g e s tra ig h tfo rw a rd m a th . T h e y c a n b e u s e d a n d e a sily adapted to
o nly req u ire s P1 g h o r iz o n ta i c o o r d in a te s tr a n s f e r v e rtic a lly . T h a t is, the
S T I S * ~ >* " ' <' *

the to p o f th e c o lu m n .
Jeofre c ta n g u la r
saZ
T
A c o o r d in a te s is th a t th e y a re n o t e n tir e ly understood
by all jo b s ite p e rs o n n e l. It c a n a ls o b e d if f ic u lt to d e te c t m is ta k e s i f sp e c ific checks
are n o t u sed .
WHERE TO USE COORDINATES

A n y w h e re . C o o r d in a te s c a n b e u s e d o n a n y j o b s i t e , b u i l d i n g , r o a d w a y , b rid g e , etc.
Coordinates can C o o rd in a te s c a n b e u s e d o n la r g e o r s m a ll p r o je c ts . H o w e v e r , th e y s h o u ld only be
be used u se d w h e n th e y a re th e b e s t m e th o d f o r th e j o b . L a r g e c o m p l e x j o b s sp re a d over
anywhere! a la rg e a re a le n d t h e m s e lv e s v e ry w e ll to th e u s e o f c o o r d i n a t e c o n tr o l a n d lay o u t
to tie a ll o f th e p r o je c ts to g e th e r . S m a ll b r id g e s m a y a ls o u s e c o o r d in a te s v e ry w ell.
S m a ll b u ild in g s s u c h a s g a r a g e s , s m a ll h o u s e s , e t c ., m a y n o t n e e d c o o rd in a te s . It
is th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f th e f ie ld e n g in e e r to s e l e c t t h e b e s t m e t h o d o f la y o u t fo r the
s ite c o n d itio n s .
Considerations in Coordinate Use

T h e s iz e o f th e p r o je c t
T h e c o m p l e x it y o f th e p r o j e c t
T h e p r o je c t s c h e d u le
T h e ty p e s o f s u r v e y i n g i n s t r u m e n t s a v a i l a b l e
T h e ty p e s o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t a v a i l a b l e
15-4
'uuvilUll
o Bd in a tes in c o n s t r u c t io n
C The uses of coordinates in -
enginee/toTtermTne'whethI*perfoedby u siU g c o 'T lo ,ist- Jus>

examples are presented here"'C 0rdi are ,he best
Buildings
Rectangular buildings irreoni .
etc., are all adaptable^ ^ u,arly shapedbuildings builHi u
F JD,e to the use of coordinates ,bulld,nSSWIh curved surfaces.
Bridges
B r id g e s c o m e in a ll s iz e s a n d s h a p e s . S o m e are p ra c tic a lly on the su rface o f the
w a te r a n d s o m e a r e ta ll e n o u g h f o r la rg e sh ip s to go u n d er. S o m e span sm all creeks
o r r a v i n e s a n d a r e le s s th a n 5 0 fe e t lo n g , w h ile o th e r b rid g e s c ro ss large b o d ies o f
w a t e r a n d a re m ile s lo n g . A ll b rid g e s a re u n iq u e , b u t at th e sam e tim e, they all are
e a s ily a d a p ta b le to b e in g c o n tr o lle d by a c o o rd in a te sy ste m .
15-5
chapter Utteen
i i\r m iles and c o n ta in curves and k.' .

*w * ,he r"u,c * + * ' ets
__ can *h
Coordinate
U tilitie s c o n stru c tio n , h ig h w a y c o n s tru c tio n , sitcw ork. c

U tilities arc part ot out t e o v e ra )| proj e c t c a n be u s e d to lo cate utilities
Coordinate systems deseioptu
from any control point on the project.
Sltework c a tch b a sin s, e tc ., a re all p a rt o f th e o v e ra ll construction

S idew alks c u r b . . ^ ^ c a s i|y d e s c rib e d b y c o o r d in a te s an d lo cated by
coordinate layout dam by the field e n g in e e r.
SETUP OF A COORDINATE SYSTEM
Designed into Plans . . .. , .

Todav m any if not m o st, p ro je c ts a u to m a tic a lly h a v e a c o o r d in a te sy s te m because
o f C A D d esig n . In so m e c a s e s , it is e v e n p o s s ib le to a s k th e d e s ig n e r fo r the
co m p u ter file o f th e p ro je c t to b e a b le to in s ta n tly " s n a p o n " p o in ts a n d h av e the
c o o rd in a tes im m e d ia te ly d is p la y e d a n d a v a ila b le f o r c a lc u l a t io n o r la y o u t. In this
case it is e v e n p o s s ib le to d o w n lo a d th e s e le c te d c o o r d in a te s in to a d a ta co llecto r.
N.E
Not on the Plans

II th e c o o rd in a te s o f p o in ts o n th e p r o je c t s t r u c t u r e s d o n o t h a v e c o o r d i n a te s on
th e m , it w ill ta k e c o n s id e r a b le c a lc u la t io n e f f o r t to e s t a b l i s h t h e m o n th e p r o je c t.
In o n e la rg e b r id g e p r o je c t a fe w y e a r s a g o , it w a s d e c i d e d t o u s e c o o r d i n a te s to
d e fin e th e p o in ts a n d f o r la y o u t. B y th e e n d o f t h e p r o j e c t , o v e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o o r d in a te
p a irs ad b e e n c a lc u la te d f o r a ll o f th e p o i n ts o n t h i s 5 m i l e s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n b r id g e s ,
o r tu n a te y , a c o o r d i n a te g e o m e t r y p r o g r a m w a s a v a i l a b l e t o d o t h e c a l c u la t io n s .
pnnrrr by hand WOU,d have been n e a rly impossible. When calculating

trinle-rhp6^ be sure to bave built-in checks that will double-check or
control network011 ^ C00rcbnates from multiple locations on the coordinate
15-6
i
In v e r s
D r e c t i o n
D e t e rm i n ing th# 15 - 8
Di r e c t i 0n 15-10
I n v ers
Distance 15- 1 i
SCOPE
T h e t w o m o s t b a s i c t a s k s o f c o o r d in a te g e o m e tr y c a lc u la tio n s a re d e te rm in in g th e
d is ta n c e a n d d ire c tio n b e t w e e n tw o p a ir s o f e x is tin g c o o rd in a te s . D is ta n c e is
o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g t h e d i s t a n c e f o r m u la f r o m m a th e m a tic s , a n d s u b s titu tin g N o rth an d
E a s t s u r v e y i n g c o o r d i n a t e s i n t o th e f o rm u la . D ir e c tio n is q u ic k ly s o lv e d b y id e n tify in g
t h e r i g h t t r i a n g l e t h a t is c r e a t e d w h e n th e c h a n g e in E a s t a n d th e c h a n g e in N o rth a re
c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e t a n g e n t f u n c t i o n f o r th e c a lc u la tio n . T h e s e s im p le c a lc u la tio n s
a r e e a s i l y p r o g r a m m e d i n t o m a n y p r o g r a m m a b le c a lc u la to r s b y u s in g s p re a d s h e e t
f u n c t i o n s o n a c o m p u t e r , o r a p r o g r a m m i n g la n g u a g e o n a c o m p u te r. O r, m o re
c o n v e n i e n t l y , t h e y a r e f o u n d o n a ll C O G O p a c k a g e s . T h is S e c tio n g o e s o v e r th e
b a s i c s o f h o w t o p e r f o r m t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s b y h a n d s o th e r e w ill b e a n u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g w h e n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e b e in g p r o c e s s e d b y th e c o m p u te r.
15-7
Departure
point wit*1 Cl->f he applied D ire c tio n = a r c t a n L a titu d e "
ei'lrdila,' 0ponietry to ^ " W ld
A c tio n ^'''P'y a'H! rT dial layout of
s sls -will
r scaicu.
s s
points fiaily-
coordinate5 daily-
coordinates a- lations are based is the horizontal
_ M ath em atics f m which ca c differences between the
Fr0 ,"th S c s . l h e P rimar^ ; ; eSd t o d eterm in e_cng n the x and , directions
"ixis The coord in ates a ^ rectangular dtf ^ triangle. This calculation
X rtive coordinates. adiacent sides tê opposite and adjacent
s e t * o 7 s r * *
S S . . < - > > -
seconds can
O pposite
tan 0 = Adjacent
V2 -V 1
tan 0 =
x2 -* i
V2 ~ Vt
0 = arctan
X2 x1
Example
10,11
11-3
0 = arctan
1 0 -4
= 53 07 48
15-8
in S u r v e y i n g
The same formula as in mathematics annlie ...
that is used is different and the names <5 thP Cyin& emulations, but the axis
Sorth axis is the reference d ir e c t in g T ^ 'Y T
i. Again, the coordinates are used to determ^ S calcul ions tc based "(f "f
!t i optnrec'i hetwppn r etermine rectangular differences (.latitudes
and dep spective starting and ending points of the line. These
rectangu ar i ces in e orth and East directions correspond to the opposite
and adjacent sides of a right triangle. The same right angle trigonometry formula is
used where the opposite and adjacent sides of the triangle are used to determine the
value for the tangent function of an angle. When that is known, the direction in
degrees, minutes, and seconds can be determined. This is illustrated here.
Opposite
tan a = -----
Adjacent
tan a = E g -E i
N g -N i
Departure
tan a =
Latitude
e2 - e,
a = arctan
n 2 - n.
Example
a = arctan 200-1500
N
a = arctan 00
-1300
a = 8 44 46
)0 + q 44 46 i
Azimuth Direction = 180c
Az Direction = 188 44 46
Bearing Direction = S 8 44 46 W
15-9
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION
Rule of Thumb: To be able to determine the correct quadrant tu
in, always subtract the starting coordinate from the endine the
8 COor<*inate
e 2- e ,
n2 - n ,
As discussed in Chapter 14, Traverse Computations th

m ust be very carefuJ to o b serv e the q u a d ra n t in w h ic h th e direct" & f*eId en&-
The q u ad ran t can be d e te rm in e d by o b s e rv in g th e s ig n s o f th e r 10n,Was calCU] ^
N2 -Nr For example, if E2 -E, is p o s itiv e , a n d N 2 -N , is n e c a t i t l ^ f
SE or an a z im u th b etw e en 90 a n d 180. M a n y c a lc u la to r s aur ^ directio
the correct d ire c tio n s for th e field e n g in e e r. T h e n e x t i l l u s t r a ^ ^ 1^ diSt! ! is
presented to help in determining th e c o r re c t r e s u lt. n and Table ay
e are
N
E2 - E 1 = ( - ) 1 E2 - E , = ( + )
N2 - N t = ( + )
+
II
CM
Wr
LU
uJ
LU
LU
II
CM
+
II
1
2
II
N2 - N , = ( . )
10
y E R S E d is t a n c e
IN
P a rt o f th e p o w e r o f c o o rd in a te s is b* w
p o in t w ith c o o rd in a te s and any oth 6 * determ *ne distance betw een one SV
c o o r d in a te p a irs c a n be a p p lied to th h P ! nt WUh coordinates. D ifferences in
to d e te r m in e d is ta n c e s q u ick ly F i Id aS-C Pr nc^ e Pythagorean T heorem
w ill c a lc u la te d is ta n c e s fro m c o o r d in a t8 lneers perform ing radial layout of points
ill
Dis,ance=
D istan ce =
From Mathematics
T h e f o llo w in g c a lc u la tio n is b a s e d on the d istan ce fo rm u la from m athem atics. T he
d is ta n c e f o r m u la is u se d w ith a re c ta n g u la r c o o rd in a te system to determ ine
r e c ta n g u la r d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e re sp e c tiv e co o rd in ates. Since, by defin itio n ,
th e a x e s o f r e c ta n g u la r c o o rd in a te sy stem s com e to g eth er at a right angle, the
P y th a g o r e a n T h e o r e m is u se d to d e te rm in e th e d istan ce betw een points. T h is is
illu s tr a te d h e re . AV
D is ta n c e = J(X2- X - i ) 2 + ( Y 2 Y-i )
= V(7^ 3)2 + (4 - 2)
= t/ 1 6 + 4
= 4.47
o f th e lin e is a lw a y s s u b tra c te d fro m

R e m e m b e r , t h e c o o r d i n a t e a t th e b e g in n in g
t h e c o o r d i n a t e a t t h e e n d o f th e lin e .
15-11
in S u r v e y in g . ;cs ap p lies in su rv e y in g c a lc u la tio n s, but the a
The same formula as in ma,l^ names o f th e c o m p o n e n ts are d ifferen t. The y ls
that is used is different and the n ^ su rv e y in g so th e c a lc u la tio n s are based *
N orth axis is the r e f e r e e d 're determ ine re c ta n g u la r d iffe re n c e s <latit*
the axis. The coordinates are sta rtin g a n d e n d in g p o in ts o f ,he
ad departures) betw een dm P N or(h an d E a s t d ire c tio n s correspond ,0
These rectangular d i f f e r e n t tria n g ie . T h e sa m e P y th a g o re a n Theorem !
opposite and adjacent s des sid e s o f th e tria n g le a re u sed to determi **
Example
depar tu r e ___
N2 A
:
N2 - N t <y
Ni
El E2 - E 1
Distance = / l \ l 2 -N 1 ) 2 + (E2 -E-j)2
Distance = /(Latitude)2 + (Departure)2
Distance^ - /2222.22-1300)2 +(2243.73 ~ 1500)2
= 1184.75'
15 12
inter sect i<ons @
In t e r s e c t io n s
D is'a n c e /
D ' s , ance
D i s t a n ce / ln ,ersection 15 - 14
D i r e c t i on
: l n t e rsection 15-16
D i r e c t i 0n /
D i r e c t i 0n
ln tersection 15-17
B ( N, E = ? )
s c o p e
W h il e c a l c u l a t i n g la y o u t d a ta , th e fie ld e n g in e e r w ill o c c a s io n a lly e n c o u n te r a

s i t u a t i o n w h e r e n e e d e d d is ta n c e s o r d ire c tio n s to a P o in t a re n o t k n o w n . O fte n ,
t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s c a n b e s o lv e d b y th e u se o f in te rs e c tio n s . T h re e ty p e s o f in te rs e c tio n
p r o b l e m s a r e p o s s i b l e : d is ta n c e /d is ta n c e , d is ta n c e /d ire c tio n , a n d d ire c tio n /d ire c tio n .
U s i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t io n , th e L a w o f S in e s o r th e L a w o f C o s in e s, a n d
t r a v e r s e c o m p u t a t i o n t e c h n iq u e s , th e u n k n o w n d is ta n c e s a n d /o r d ire c tio n , a n d th e
c o o r d i n a t e s c a n b e d e te r m in e d .
15-13
$ chapter fifteen
jg T A N C E INTERSECTION ^ if the field en g in ee r has two kno^

DISTANCE ^ it u/inc situation may he enco ^ if(J p o in t but no d irectio n s in which fl
The H h e plan* and distanecs to a{ion fo r ,h e k n o w n and unkno^
P;"';a e the coordinates. See ^ rections, tw o p o ssib le so lu tio n s are possib n
information. Because t ^ a r e , ^ calcu,ations t0 o b ta tn th e d estre d results. '
Steo 1 Sketch the problem and list what is

P known and unknown. Determine which
sV
intersection-solving method should be
v^ .
used and proceed with the solution. \
\
\
\
B .!
Nb = ?
Na =1300 Eb = ?
Ea =850
S te p 2 In v erse b e tw e en th e k n o w n c o o rd in a te s ^ = J (1800-1 300)2 +(900 - 850)2

fo r A and C. v
Distance AC =502.494
(900 -850)
Azimuth Ac =arctan
(1800-1300)
Direction AC =5 42' 38"

> Intersections @
S M 3 ^ o f c o S in e t0 so lv e fo r
cos fs(s-a)
2 1M bT~
Angle = 48 45 06
Step U se the d ire c tio n o f the line AC and th

c a lc u la te d an g le a. A to determ ine he
d ire c tio n fro m A to B. ne
F o r th is ex am p le, adding the
d ire c tio n a n d an g le to g eth er w ill obtain
th e d ire c tio n fro m A to B. T hat isn't
a lw a y s th e ca se. R efer to
T r a v e rs e Computations, fo r the process
to u se.
S te p 5 U s in g th e k n o w n d ista n c e and d irectio n

o f lin e A B , c a lc u la te th e latitu d e s and
d e p a rtu re s fo r th e line.
Latitude AB =250.00
Departure AB = 430.116 sin 54 27 44"
DepartureAB =350.00
S te p 6 U s in g th e c o o r d in a te s o f P o in t A an d NorthA + Latitude AB =NorthB

th e la titu d e a n d d e p a rtu re fo r lin e A B ,
c a lc u la te th e c o o r d in a te s o f P o in t B. Kl iU
NorthB =1550.00
EastA + DepartureAB =EastB
EastB =1200.00
S te p 7 C h e c k th e c o o r d i n a te s o f P o in t B by North B = 1550.00
p e r f o r m i n g th e s a m e c a lc u la tio n s fro m
P o in t C . I d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s s h o u ld b e East B = 1200.00
o b ta in e d .
15
& chapterfifteen
a c t i o n in t e r s e c t io n red if the field engineer has

nas two
two k
l
^^rfrrming these ca g ( N, E ? )
for A and C.
Step 3 U se the b a c k a z im u th o f lin e A C a n d th e

d ire c tio n o f lin e C B to c a lc u la te th e
in te rio r a n g le a t C . F o r th is e x a m p le ,
the d ire c tio n o f C B is s u b tr a c te d f ro m
the d ire c tio n o f A C . A g a in , th a t is n 't
a lw ay s th e c a se . R e f e r to Chapter 14,
Traverse Computations, f o r th e p r o c e s s
to use.
S te p 4 W ith th e a n g le a s C , a n d th e d is ta n c e s
Angle B = 81 29' 51"
A B a n d A C , u s e th e L a w o f S in e s to
s o lv e f o r th e a n g le a t B .
S te p 5 A d d th e a n g le a t C a n d th e a n g le a t B
Angle A = 48 45' 23"
a n d s u b tr a c t f r o m 1 8 0 to c a l c u l a t e t h e
r e m a in in g a n g le f o r t h e t r i a n g le .
15-16
intersections @
Step Use the remaining angle and the Law of Distance = 1 0 0 0 .0 0

Sines to determine the distance CB. CB
Step 7 Knowing the distance and direction of

line CB, calculate the latitudes and LatitudeCB = -754.71
departures for the line.
Departure^ = 656.06
S te p 8 Using the coordinates of Point C and the

latitude and departure for line CB, NorthB= 745.29
calculate the coordinates of Point B.
EastB= 1256.06
Q teO 9 Check the coordinates of Point B by

^ performing the same calculations from Check calculations
Point A.
P IR E C T IO N / DIRECTION INTERSECTION
The following situation might occur when the field engineer is in the field and
wants to etermine the coordinates of a point that cannot be occupied. Using a
theodo ite, the field engineer turns angles to the point from two known points. See
the illustration here for the known and unknown information. Be careful when
performing these calculations to obtain the desired results.
B ( N, E = ? )
KNOWN KNOWN
N,E N,E
Direction/Direction Example
C a l c u l a t e th e c o o r d in a te s o f P o in t B fo r th e g iv e n situ a tio n .
NA= 1083.00
S te p 1 S k e t c h t h e p r o b l e m a n d lis t w h a t is
A EA= 760.00
k n o w n a n d u n k n o w n . D e te r m in e w h ic h
i n t e r s e c t i o n s o l v i n g m e th o d s h o u ld be
u s e d a n d p r o c e e d w ith th e s o lu tio n .
15
the known coordinates DistanceAC= 857.01
Inverse between
Step 2 for A and C. AzimuthAC = 157ft 42 52"
g fffn $ Use the calculated direction of AC and Angla A = 37 26' 14"

the known directions to determine the
interior angles of the triangle. Angle B = 81 26' 48"
Anale C = 61 06' 58"
857.01 _ AB
With all three angles known and one
S te p 4 sin 81 26'48" sineÔ & ii"
distance, use the Law o f Sines to solve
for distances AB and C B .
Distance AB = 758.84
Similarly.
Distance CB = 526.83
S te p 5 U sing the c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t A a n d LatitlideAB= -382.595

the la titu d e an d d e p a rtu re fo r lin e A B .
ca lc u la te th e c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t B. DepartureAB= 655.33
NorthB= NA + LatAB
NorthB = 1083.80 + (-382.595)
NorthB= 700.40
EastB= EA + DepAB
EastB= 760.00 + 655.33
EastB= 1415.33
S te p 6 C h e c k th e c o o r d in a te s o f P o in t B b y NorthB= 700.40
p e r fo rm in g th e s a m e c a lc u la tio n s fro m
P o in t C . I f th e c a lc u la tio n s are EastB = 1415.33
p e r fo rm e d c o r r e c tly , th e s a m e v a lu e s
s h o u ld b e o b ta in e d .
15-18
Re-Section
K4U*t*&
DiS,ance Re-Seotion 15-20

A n9 'e Re-Section 15-2 1
A v e r y u s e f u l p r o c e d u r e o n th e j o b s i t e is a p r o c e s s c a lle d " re - s e c tio n " in w h ic h an

i n s t r u m e n t is s e t u p a n y w h e r e , a n d h o r iz o n ta l a n g le s a re m e a s u r e d f ro m th a t
l o c a t i o n t o t h r e e c o n t r o l p o i n t s w ith c o o r d i n a te s . T h e c o o r d in a te s o f th e p o in ts a re
u s e d to s o l v e f o r p a r t s o f th e c r e a te d t r ia n g le s fro m w h ic h th e c o o r d in a te s o f th e
o c c u p i e d P o i n t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . N o te th a t th is ty p e o f r e - s e c tio n in v o lv e s j u s t
t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f h o r i z o n t a l a n g le s . T h is p r o c e d u r e is a ls o r e f e r r e d to a s " T h r e e -
P o in t R e - s e c tio n ."
S o m e p e r s o n s a l s o u s e th e te r m r e - s e c t i o n w h e n a to ta l s ta tio n is s e t u p a t
a n y l o c a t i o n , a n d d i s t a n c e s a s w e ll a s a n g le s a re m e a s u r e d to tw o o r t h r e e c o n tr o l
p o i n t s . S o m e C O G O p a c k a g e s o r t o ta l s ta t io n s o f t w a r e c a ll th is " f r e e s ta t io n " o r
s o m e o t h e r t e r m . In t h i s S e c t i o n , th e y w ill b e c a ll e d " D i s t a n c e R e - s e c t io n " a n d
" A n g le R e - s e c tio n ." N o m a t t e r w h a t it is c a l l e d , it is v e r y u s e f u l o n t h e j o b s i t e to
b e a b l e t o s e t u p a n y w h e r e , a n d w i t h i n m i n u t e s d e t e r m i n e th e c o o r d i n a t e s o f th e
in s tru m e n t lo c a tio n .
C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f th e in s tr u m e n t lo c a tio n is s im p le i f a s o f tw a r e
p a c k a g e i s a v a i l a b l e . S i m p l y i n p u t th e c o o r d i n a te s o f th e k n o w n p o in ts , in p u t th e
m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d w i t h i n a s e c o n d th e lo c a tio n is d is p la y e d . If s o f tw a r e is n t
a v a ila b le t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f ic u l t, b u t th e y a r e r e l a ti v e ly tim e -
c o n s u m i n g . T h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h is S e c ti o n a s a r e v i e w o f th e p r o c e d u r e in v o lv e d .
1 5 -1 9
d is t a n c e r e -s e c t io n
Two or three points whose coordinates are known are located (three
The instrument is set up so that the three points are visible. Sight onto^h bett<
exactly, and measure the distances to each o f the points, and the angles bet Points
points, direct and reverse repeatedly to obtain the best possible averag ^ eenthe
The calculation process is outlined here and shown by an example. ^ an8 les.
P ro c e d u re
In the p ro ced u re here, ju s t tw o p o in ts
will be used to calc u late the lo catio n o f
the in stru m en t. F o r ad d itio n al a c cu ra cy
and as a ch eck , an a d d itio n a l tria n g le
should alw ay s be used. S ee Example 2 ,
on Page 14-39 , in Chapter 14, Traverse
Computations. In this e x p la n a tio n a n d
exam ple, th e in stru m e n t is set u p on the
jo b s ite , an d a d is ta n c e o f 3 1 0 .4 4 is
m easu red to P o in t 1, and a d is ta n c e o f
324.55 is m e a su red to P o in t 2. T h e a n g le
betw een the tw o p o in ts is m e a su re d a n d
re co rd e d as 5 3 3 6 56".
S te o 1 In v erse b e tw e e n th e c o o rd in a te s o f tw o k n o w n p o in ts to d e te r m in e th e d ista n c e at
Hire
d c tio n s. T h e c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t 1 a r e N o r th 1 0 0 0 a n d E a s t 3 0 0 0 , an d tl
c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t 2 a re N o r th 1 2 4 8 .2 5 1 4 a n d E a s t 2 8 5 6 .6 7 2 0 .
Distance = 248.2514 -1000)2 + (2856.6720 - 3000)2 = 286.6560
, (2856.6720-3000) A OOA0
Direction = -----------------------f = AzNorth 330
(1248.2514-1000)
S te p 2 U sing th e m e a s u re d d ista n c e , th e in v e rs e d d is ta n c e , a n d th e m e a s u r e d a n g le fro m tl

in stru m en t setu p , c a lc u la te th e re m a in in g a n g le s o f th e t r ia n g le u s in g th e la w o f sin e
Substituting, - g - 866560 = g g l ^ = 31044

Sin 53 36' 56" Sin Z1 SinZ2
Solving, Z 1 = 65 42' 37" and Z2 = 60 40' 27.5
Step 3 U s in g th e in v e r s e d d i r e c ti o n b e tw e e n t h e p o i n t s , a n d t h e c a l c u l a t e d a n g le s o f t
tria n g le , c a lc u la t e th e d i r e c ti o n s f r o m t h e k n o w n p o i n t s t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t lo c a tic
Calculation of Direction 2 to X (Counter-Clockw ise Pt 1 1 o y>

j ' '
A z im u th 1-2
15-20
re-section ^
Start 330
i__ ^ 2 1 _ ^ t h f r o m , to 2 ........... ....
Subtract Angle 1 330-
*>4 17 23" = Azimuth 1 toX
Step U sin g th e d ire c tio n s an d distances f ,

departures of Line 1 to X and Line 2 to X f points calculate latitudes and
Latitude ,_x = 3 1 0 .4 4 Cos 264
Departure. Y = JO.8823
Latitude 2 J = 324 5 , r ^ 1?' 23 = - 322" 99
2-X 3 2 4 .5 5 Cos 2 1 0 4 0 ' 2 7 .5 = - 2 7 9 .1 3 9 3
epar ure2_x = 324.55 Sin 2 1 0 4 0 ' 27.5 = - 1 6 5 .5 7 1 5
S te p 5 C a .c u .a te th e c o o r d in a te s o f th e in stru m en t ioca.ion X from Points . and 2.
From Point 1, N 1 0 0 0 + (-30-8823) = 969.1117

E 3000 + (-322.9395) = 2691.1005
From Point 2, N 1248 2514 + (-279.1393) = 969.1121

E 2856.6720 + (-165.5715) = 2691.1005
It c a n b e s e e n th a t th e c o o rd in a te s fo r P o in t "X" c h e c k alm ost exactly w hen
d e te r m in e d f r o m tw o d iffe re n t p o in ts. F o r g re a te r c o n fid e n c e in the co o rd in a tes o f
th e in s tr u m e n t lo c a tio n , u se m o re p o in ts.
ANGLE r e - s e c t io n
T h r e e p o in ts w h o s e c o o r d in a te s are k n o w n are lo c a te d . T h e in stru m en t is se t u p so
th a t th e t h r e e p o in ts a r e v is ib le . S ig h t o n to th e p o in ts e x a c tly an d m e a su re th e
a n g le s d i r e c t a n d r e v e r s e r e p e a te d ly to o b ta in th e b e s t p o ssib le an g les. T h e
c a lc u l a t io n p r o c e s s is o u tlin e d h e r e a n d is s h o w n b y an e x a m p le .
Procedure
T h is p r o b le m is b a s e d o n th e C o n tin u in g D
Chapter
P r o b le m t h a t is u s e d th r o u g h o u t
14, Traverse Computations. T h e
i n s t r u m e n t w a s s e t u p in th e m id d le o f
th e t r a v e r s e a n d a n g le s B X C = 6 8 4 3 10
a n d C X D = 6 1 0 5 4 4 " w e re m ea su red
to P o i n t s B , C , a n d D . S e le c t a tria n g le
to s o l v e e i t h e r B X C , o r C X D . F o r th is
e x a m p l e , X B C is u s e d .
v e r s e b e t w e e n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f th e th r e e k n o w n P o in ts B , C , a n d D to d e te r m in e
Step 1
. d i s t a n c e a n d d i r e c t i o n s b e tw e e n B to C , a n d C to D .
DirectionBtoc -105 39
DistanceBtoc -616.050
DirectionctoD =79 04'
DistancectoD =690.880
15-21
r
Use the directions to calculate angle BCD betw een the lines connect!
Step 2 a* <he three
Points.
Start - Direction BC 1105 3 9 A zim uth B to C
Add 180 105 3 9 + 180 = 285 3 9 "
Subtract Direction C to D 285 3 9 - 79 0 4 = 206 3 5 = A o^ T bcd ^
Step 3 Subtract the m easured angles XI an d X2 an d a n g le B C D as shown fro

obtain the com bined an g les at B and D o r (B + D ). 360 to
B + D = 3 6 0 - ( Z B C D + ZX1 + Z X 2 )
B + D = 3 6 0 - 2 0 6 3 5 ' - 6 8 4 3 ' 10" - 61 0 5 ' 4 4 "
B + D = 2 3 3 6 '0 6 "
S tep 4 C a lcu late th e an g les at B an d D u sin g th e se e q u a tio n s :
B= tan ~1 cdsinZ X I sin (B + D)
D = tan --------------------- -----------------

cd sin ZX1 + be sin ZX2 cos(B + D)
D = tan~1--------------- 616.050 sin 61 0544 sin2336'06"
D = 1 0 4 4 38"
Sp 5 g B and the l h BC. , H
Calculation of Direction B to X
S ta rt
105 3 9 Azimuth B to C
Add Angle B
118 3 0 2 7 - n i 7 c~------------------
------- -------------------- 1 _ 1 _ 0 MJ - 7 = D ir e c tio n f ro m B to X
15-22
re -s e c tlo n ( g
Step 6 C alcu late the length o f R v .
calculated. Observe that a ?S,ng the law of ,
hat A ngie BCX = ZA a T ' he daa >ha h
_B>L = _CX Bc A -Angl ex,
SinC
F rom S u b s titu tin g

8. distance BX = 653.999-
S te p 7 Using the calculated direction

d e p a rtu re o f lin e B X . Bnd d ,s,an from A to X. calculate the latitude and
Latitude^* =653.999 cos118O30, 27"=-312.1366

D e p a rtu re =653.999sin118o30, ^
S tep 8 Using the Coordinates of B and th 1

c o o r d in a te s o f X . C at,tU(ê and departure of BX, calculate the
The coordinates of Point X are, N 5667 .6 7 0 1 1 + ( - 3 1 2 .1 366) = 5 3 5 5 .5 3 3
E 9882,27174 + (574.7047) = 10456.976
S te p 9 C o n firm th e c o o rd in a te s o f X by calcu latin g using triangle C X D . U sing this triangle,

th e c o o r d in a te s c o m e o u t to N x = 5355.531 and E x = 10456.974. N ote that there are
sm all in s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s. M o re precise angles w ould m ake these differences
s m a lle r.
T h r e e P o in t r e - s e c t i o n is a v a lu a b le to o l, an d is c e rta in ly g o o d fo r m any la y o u t
a c ti v i t i e s o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n site . I f re a lly c ritic a l w o rk is b e in g p erfo rm ed , th re e -
p o i n t r e - s e c t i o n c o u ld b e u s e d , b u t it sh o u ld b e re p e a te d to o th e r co n tro l p o in ts as
a p o s itiv e c h e c k .
15-23
Standard Practices
Sample Dat a S h e e t
Duplicate Data
Commercial Software
Layout Data E x a m p l e
P r o c e d u r e to C a l c u l a t e Layout Data
SCOPE
T h e p r im a r y u s e o f c o o r d i n a t e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e is t o u s e t h e m f o r la y o u t.
A s s ta te d e a r l i e r , c o o r d i n a t e g e o m e t r y is t h e t o o l t h a t i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h i s la y o u t
d a ta . A l t h o u g h s i m p l e i n v e r s i n g t o o b t a i n d i s t a n c e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s is t h e m o s t u s e d
o f th e c o o r d i n a t e g e o m e t r y f o r m u l a s , t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s s u c h a s
i n te r s e c ti o n s a n d r e - s e c t i o n s t h a t a r e p e r f o r m e d . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ,
e re a re a f e w s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e s t h a t a r e u s e f u l in m a k i n g s u r e t h e d a t a is c o r r e c t
an c o m p l e t e . T h i s S e c ti o n p r e s e n t s s o m e t i p s t h a t w i l l b e u s e f u l i n o b t a i n i n g a n d
u s in g c o o r d i n a t e - b a s e d l a y o u t d a t a .
15-24
p r a c t ic e s
gfA
w will he in nine in8 standard practices when working with data, systematic
c^ ec the Hat* u ' ^ mistakes wiU be eliminated. Develop rules that will
result in the data being listed and shown the same way, every time. Here are some
ideas to follow . A sam ple data sheet appears after these suggestions.
Title
Provide a title for the work that i k
for8 ep roiectCUXlaiIOn' B e'^ P? * ,his title *P * *
nstead, say "Layout Data f c P n t say c ordinate calculations
Number f r Bu,ldinS One on Project X."
N u m b e r th e p a g e s (d a ta sh e e ts) as the . -
W h e n th e c a lc u la tio n s are en tered ! h and lay u> data are com pleted,
e a c h s h e e t o f d a ta , liste d as P an e s r ^ and ' nscrt l^ e total num ber o f pages on
n t . T. 8 5 f 2 0 o r 5/ 2 0 , or som e sim ilar form .
Date and Time
T h e d a te a n d tim e o f th e w o rk sh o u ld h
e s p e c ia lly im p o rta n t i f th e c a lc u la ti * P 3Ced on each data sheet. T he tim e is
p e r s o n re v ie w in g th e w o rk w ill be re "p erform ed b ecau se o f a m istake. A
c a lc u la tio n s i f th e tim e is liste d * eterrnine l^ e m ost recen t version o f the
Resources
^ m e n s ^ o n s T a n d ^ r e ^ e f e r e n c e d ^ o 'f ie ld ^ o r k ^ T h * ^ f WaS.calcala,ed from plan
pSr o b lerm ; is te n,a

c oshe,et
u n te r e dd in
ther can te
th e d ata. r
Setup Location
T h e d a ta s h o u ld c le a r ly s h o w w h ic h C o n tro l P o in t th e in stru m e n t w ill be se t o n fo r
th e la y o u t. T h e c o n tr o l p o in t m a y s e e m o b v io u s, b u t w h a t seem s o b v io u s to o n e
p e r s o n m a y b e c o n f u s in g to so m e o n e e lse . C le a rly s ta te "In stru m en t at C o n tro l
P o in t 4 o r s o m e th in g s im ila r. A n y in fo rm a tio n k n o w n ab o u t th e c o n tro l p o in t
s h o u ld b e l is t e d o r r e f e r e n c e d to a v a ila b le fie ld b o o k in fo rm a tio n .
Backsight
J u s t a s i m p o r t a n t a s th e in s tr u m e n t lo c a tio n is th e b a c k s ig h t. M an y p ro je c ts h a v e
b e e n l a i d o u t c o m p l e te l y w r o n g b e c a u s e a n in c o rre c t b a c k s ig h t w as u se d . O n th e
d a ta s h e e t , c l e a r l y la b e l th e b a c k s ig h t to b e u s e d a n d fu lly d e s c rib e it. A n y
i n f o r m a t i o n k n o w n a b o u t th e b a c k s ig h t p o in t s h o u ld b e lis te d o r re fe re n c e d to
a v a i l a b l e f i e l d b o o k in f o r m a tio n .
Initial Angle
In a d d i t i o n t o k n o w i n g w h e r e th e b a c k s ig h t is , th e in itia l a n g le s e ttin g o n th e
i n s t r u m e n t s h o u l d b e b o ld ly s h o w n . In m o s t in s ta n c e s th is w ill b e 0 0 0 0 0 0 " . In
s o m e s i t u a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , d ir e c tio n s r a th e r th a n a n g le s w ill b e tu rn e d , a n d th e
i n i t i a l a n g l e m i g h t b e 3 5 3 6 ' 4 4 " o r s o m e th in g s im ila r.
E S S J S X - - - - - >* * * * ,le
h e a d i n g - r i g h t o r l e f t , c l o c k w i s e o r c o u n te r - c lo c k w is e , o f f o f th e b a c k s ig h t.
15-25
chapter fifteen
Calculated
Whoever By
is developing .
the layout data needs to he identified on the data sheet
way. if a problem is encountered, that person can be contacted to check t h e i r * * *
LCahyeo cu kt edata
d B isnt
y alw ays checked, but it should be. If it is, the person who
the layout data should provide his o r h er nam e to th e sh eet to co n firm that th Cks
is correct. N ote that som e com panies do not use any lay o u t inform ation if C?ata
checked by som eone. 11 sh't
The
It Data
is im portant w hen recording d ata to w'rite it d o w n in a m a n n e r that w ill h
to all persons using the inform ation. T he d a ta sh ee t sh o u ld h av e a sim ple f C^Car
that show s ex a ctly w here the in stru m en t is to be lo c a te d , o r w h e re the ba V riT,at
o r w hether the angles are left o r rig h t, etc. W hen p re p a rin g a d a ta sheet h *s
be used by o th ers, k eep in m ind to keep it simple. T h e sa m p le d ata sheet ^
exactly w here th e in stru m en t is set. w h ere th e b a c k s ig h t is, th e d ire c tio n th * S^ Ws
are turned, th e p o in ts that are to be laid o u t, an d th e la y o u t d ata j fC an.8,es
accom panied w ith a d ra w in g o f the area w ith th e p o in ts lo c a te d on it m ist' i / hlS .'S
becom e o b v io u s and w ill be elim in a te d . alces will
C o o rd in a te s
In addition to lis tin g the an g les an d d is ta n c e s to th e p o in ts th a t are bein
it is very h e lp fu l to list the c o o rd in a te s o f th e p o in ts . T h is allow s8 f U1,
calcu latio n o f d ista n c e s b etw e en p o in ts th a t c a n b e u s e d a s an a lte m a t- F f,eld
<->i-k</'L- th/y vvnrk n ativ e way to
SAMPLE DATA SHEET

T here are m any w a y s to re c o rd la y o u t d a ta . I f p e r fo rm in g th e c a lc u la tio n s by hand,
the fo llo w in g sa m p le m ig h t be u se fu l.
Layout Data for Building One on Project X

D a te: 9/26/ Time Page 5 of 20
Reference: Sheet S-2,3, Field book 1, Calculated by:

Drive H: bldgone.xyz
All angles turned Clockwise off Checked by:

of backsight
Instrument at E with a Backsight on A with OCTOOOO" set on the instrument

Sighting Direction to Points Angle Right off Distance from E
Point from Setup at E of Backsight on A to Point
1
2
3
4
5
|
6
I
------------
,c At e data
V pO P m addilion t the layout data from ,h
calculations should be performed so (hem S" P PoiM and backsight Point,
backsight location for the layout of m 'S ,eas< alternative setup and
materials might he in ,he way or a P,' k P? JeC, This is in case construction
be complete information to check the t hM been destryed- Also, there needs to
t
^ m m ercw . SO FTW A BE
U When selecting coordinate geometrv
p rin to u ts o f th e la y o u t d a ta I f it is * SOIlware, review the input process and
o u tp u t is e a s y to u n d e rsta n d and m e e t ? Z ? Z ? m easurem enls' a n d iflh e d a ta
d is c u s s e d p re v io u s ly , th e so ftw a re is m o b ki Z C" ,e n a for cla" ty ,h at WaS
C O G O s o ftw a re h as n o w b een around for 7 g ? ? S ' T his can be said because
th a t th e r e is n 't m u c h th a t c a n be done , , ? * b a sm a tu rc d to ,h e p o 1 " 1
competing for customers and must have all of the basic features and functions to
even e consi ere or purchase, it is safe to assume the commercially available
software will perform just about any computation that is required. The one feature
that separates the various packages is the input/output of the data.
Be sure to select software that leaves no room for misinterpretation of what
to input or how to input it. Do the angles have to be converted to degrees decimal
before being inputted into the software? If so, that is an extra step that could be a
source o f a mistake. Can angles be entered right or left, or only right? When
choosing software, pick something simple but powerful.
LAYOUT d a t a e x a m p l e
U s in g th e i n f o r m a tio n o n th e s k e tc h h e re , c a lc u la te th e lay o u t d ata to rad ia lly
s ta k e t h e b u i l d i n g c o r n e r s i f th e in s tru m e n t is se t at P o in t E w ith a b a c k sig h t o f
0 o n to P o in t A .
Building Coordinates
N E
1100 52 0 0
1
1 0 4 7 .4 5 1 5 5 9 6 .5 3 3
2
1 2 4 5 .7 1 7 5 6 2 2 .8 0 8
3
1 2 9 8 .2 6 7 5 2 2 6 .2 7 5
4
15-27
6? ..........
_ , ay o u t d a t a
s p o o r s TO C A L C U L A T E L A .............. .ho b.U .n*. < * * ,
uM0|, bs *t* -nJ the *"***, l*C

*** m * no***
. J, - .I .L*
v* ..............
J S T S T T t^ * W 0 0 5 9 6 1 )*
* * * Ot*** ' '
. 795 06
, 5200 5961 8 2 7 e 20 6 3 r 2 r
^ I W W V ' s r c ," = "00 872 537
,1047 J M 872 5 3 7 1 -'.5 5 9 6 5 3 3 5961 82 7 )'

!nV0 f &6 0*S-t3nOf ; \
t. 405 012*
5596 533 5961 8 2 7 _ 2Q5. ^ ^
Inverse DreclK>nf ; - ^ 4 7 451 8 7 2 53 7
RopM, to. each port .0 bo layout. Tho d.recbons from C P T .0 .ho

building comers is shown
A *1
3<
5 'r-
37-pa*
277 3256'
Bac*.sgftt
S fep 2 Calculate the angle lo be measured off of the backsight This is done by using the
direction to the backsight and the direction to each building point. A sketch of the
data usually helps to usuali/e vshat is needed.
In this c a se w ith a b a c k s ig h t o n to A w ith 0 (H) 0 0 " s e t o n th e in s tru m e n t.

hv \ ,r^ U n u< ^ ro n t E to A . th e a n g l e s rig h t a r e d e te rm in e d
Of r r J ! l C r ' T ? ' d ir e c ,io n s N o ,e h a t t h i s w ill n o t a lw a y s b e th e m eth o d
m o c , f J * . ,h e t a k u a " n R e fc r lo C h a p te r 14. T r a v e r s e C o m p u ta tio n s . fo r
m ore in fo rm a tio n o n c a lc u la tin g d ir e c tio n s .
Direct>0 0 ^ , - Direction*, = Angle Right
15-28
n Record in a la y o u t d ata sheet.
S te p J
Layout Data tor D iscovery Buildinn

Date: 10/7/2002 Time 10:40 Page 1 of 1
R e fe re n ce :
C a lc u la ted by: W G C
All a n g le s tu rn e d C lo ck w is e C h ecked by: AM C
Instrument at E Backsight A OO'OOOO" Direction 277*3256"

Sighting Direction to Points Angle Right off Distance from E 1
Point from Setup at E" of Backsight on "A" to Point 1
A 2 7 7 32' 56" 0 | 970.236 l
1 2 8 6 37' 28" 9 04 32" | 795.060 I
2 2 9 5 35 11" 18 0 2 15" 405.012 \
3 3 1 7 44' 46" 40 1V 50" \ 504.180 i
4 3 0 0 03 42" 22 30 46" \ 849.872 |
15-29
A r e a s
G e n e r a l
G e o m e *r V
fo r A r e a by
procedure Coordinates
for A r e a by
procedure
N 1632.480
E 6153.866
SCOPE
N o w t h a t c o o r d i n a te s h a v e b e e n c a l c u l a t e d , f i e l d e n g i n e e r s c a n b e g i n t o u s e t h e i r
p o w e r. O n e o f th e s e u s e s is t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a r e a . T h e a r e a o f t r a v e r s e s , c r o s s -
s e c tio n s , o r a n y o t h e r i r r e g u l a r s h a p e c a n e a s i l y b e c a l c u l a t e d i f c o o r d i n a t e s a r o u n d
th e f ig u r e a r e k n o w n . T h i s p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s u s i n g a v e r y s p e c i f i c m e t h o d o f l i s t i n g
th e c o o r d i n a t e s , a n d a s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d o f c o m p u t a t i o n s .
15-30
Calculating area is fairly easy if tho k
fo rm u la s a rc k n o w n . Sue C ha p l^T
" T r> > o n . in w hich g e m .,,ic
h Sh" P es- o w e ^ * < "" '* . for a sum m ary of
m u c h m o re d if f ic u lt to o b ta in an area e ! 15 itre 8>- b b ec o m e ,
b ro k e n d o w n tn to s m a lle r fig u re s Som '> e s an irregular shape can be
fo r m u la s . B u t, th a t is a very tim e -c o n rrn ^ now n shapes and area
s e v e ra l m e th o d s th a t h a v e b e e n d e v e l o n a n^ lab o rio u s task. T here arc
A ll a re b a s e d o n th e m a th e m a tic s o f h r k - f c a | c u ' at' n 8 arca by coordinates,
tr a p e z o id s a n d s y s te m a tic a lly d e te r m '* ' ^ *^C *rrc g ular shape into a scries of
in v o lv e a s e e m in g ly c o m p le x lis tin g of th'8 a r C a Somc of 'be methods
m u ltip lic a tio n s a n d s u b tra c tio n s A * e P 'n ts an d k eep in g track o f num erous
c o o r d in a te s is p r e s e n te d h e re s ,m ple m eth o d o f d eterm in in g areas w ith
cBOu r e f o r a r e a b y g e o m e t r y
p flO N17, E16
T h is m e th o d is b e s t e x p la in e d th ro u g h
th e u s e o f a n e x a m p le p ro b le m . T h e
f ig u r e a t r i g h t s h o w s a s im p le sh a p e
w h e r e th e a r e a is e a s ily d e te r m in e d by
th e c o m m o n g e o m e t r ic fo r m u la s . A re a
1 is a t r i a n g l e , a n d a r e a 2 is a s q u a re .
T h e t o t a l a r e a o f t h i s f i g u r e is
d e t e r m i n e d b y c a l c u l a t in g e a c h a re a
a n d t h e n a d d i n g th e a r e a s to g e th e r .
a 1=
Areal bh (6)(3)_Q
2 2
Area2 = bh = (6)(4) = 24
Total Area = 33
T h i s c e r t a i n l y i s n 't a d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m to s o lv e g e o m e tr ic a lly , b u t it c a n e a sily

s h o w n h o w t o d e t e r m i n e th e s a m e a r e a u s in g c o o r d in a te s .
15-31
Always repeat
the firs t
coordinate.
Remember to
divide by 2.
15-32
areas (g
ppc t DURE fO R a r e a b y c o o r d in a t e s
B y fo llo w in g the area-by-coordinates procedure, calculate the area of this figure:
S tO P 1 ^*st r *-
coordinates in a TnM
coordinate. >e similar to the next Table. Be sure to repeat the first
Step 2
sr:r Mp,r N1667.656
E4882.287
N1632.4
E6153.8
--* I
Step 3
N1501.458
E5475.511
AREA = ?
S tep 4 T . k , H e d iffe re n c e b , ,n \A Ej
s u m m a tio n s. N1000 NB72
E5000 E596
S tep 5 D iv id e th e d iffe re n c e by 2 to obtain the

area.
S tep 6 D iv id e by 4 3 5 6 0 to o b ta in acres. If
in m eters, divide by 1000 to obtain hectares.
Continuing Example: Area by Coordinates

P o in t D o w n L e ft N o r th E ast D o w n R ig h t
A 1000.000 5000.000
\
B 8 3 3 8 2 8 0 .0 0 = 1667.656 * y 4882.287 = 4882287.00
\
C 7 3 3 0 5 4 3 .9 9 = 1501.457 * A 5475.511 = 9131268.77
\ /
D 8 9 3 8 6 6 2 .2 0 = 1632.480 * X 6153.866 = 9239765.18
E 5 3 6 9 4 7 5 .7 8 = 872.537 * X 5961.827 = 9732563.34

\ /
A 5 9 6 1 8 2 7 .0 0 = 1000.000 * X 5000.000 = 4362.685.00
Sum = 3 5 ,9 3 8 .7 8 3 .9 7 37,348,569.29
D iffe re n c e = 37348569.29 - 35938783.97
D iv id e b y 2 = 1409785.32/2
A re a = 704892.66
A c re s = 16.18
T h is m e th o d o f c a lc u la tin g a r e a b y c o o rd in a te s is v ery q u ic k an d sim p le .

C a l c u l a t i o n s c a n b e p e r f o r m e d b y u s in g a h a n d h e ld c a lc u la to r, o r th ey c a n be
p r o g r a m m e d e a s ily in to a n e le c tro n ic s p re a d sh e e t. T h is ty p e o f c a lc u la tio n sh o u ld
a lw a y s b e p e r f o r m e d tw ic e to b e su re th e c o rre c t re s u lt h a s b e e n o b ta in e d .
15-33
'-^metry
^ c h a p te r fifte e n
S u m m a r y
im p o r t a n t p o in t s
0 C o o rd in a te g e o m e try is the tool that is used to work with coordinates n the
jobsite. basic c o o rd in a te c a lc u la tio n s are perform ed i,

' essentiaô^trulyUnderstanding coordinate geometry.
Aftera basic understanding o f co o rd in a te c a lc u la tto n s ts d ev e lo p e d , co o rd iate
Calculations are best perform ed w ith so ftw a re.
. Although based on rectangular systems, coordinates can be used on any ,ype
of construction project, including curved lines.
. If a co o rd in ate system d o esn 't e x ist o n a p ro je c t, it ca n be d e v e lo p e d through
extensive calcu latio n s.
. Negative coordinates cause m ista k es. If d e v e lo p in g a c o o rd in a te system f0r
a jo b site , ch o ose large co o rd in a te s so th e re w ill n o t b e n e g a tiv e coordinates.
I f d ev elo p in g a co o rd in a te sy stem fo r a p ro je c t, p ic k c o m p le te ly d ifferent
N orth and E ast c o o rd in a tes so th ey d o n t lo o k th e sa m e .
In v ersin g is a p ro c ess th at uses c o o rd in a te s fro m tw o p o in ts to d e te rm in e the
d istan ce and d irec tio n b etw een th e p o in ts .
T o o b tain the c o rre c t d ire c tio n o f a lin e , a lw a y s s u b tr a c t th e c o o rd in a te o f the
startin g P o in t fro m th e c o o rd in a te o f th e e n d in g P o in t o f th e lin e . O th erw ise,
the d ire c tio n w ill be b a c k w a rd s.
T o o b tain the c o o rd in a te s o f in a c c e s s ib le p o in ts , in te r s e c tio n s c a n b e used.
R e -s e c tio n a llo w s th e in s tru m e n t to b e s e t a n y w h e r e o n th e j o b s i te to lay out
th e p ro je c t.
W hen u sin g re -s e c tio n , a lw a y s tu rn th e a n g le s m u ltip le tim e s to o b ta in th e b est

v alu e fo r th e a n g le .
F o r e x tre m e ly im p o rta n t la y o u t, r e - s e c tio n s h o u ld b e p e r f o r m e d to m o re th an

th re e p o in ts to d o u b le -c h e c k th e in s tr u m e n t lo c a tio n .
W h e n u s in g c o o r d in a te s to o b ta in a r e a , a lw a y s r e m e m b e r to r e p e a t th e firs t
c o o rd in a te b e fo re c r o s s - m u ltip ly in g .
Nonh. D irections w ^ r e i n ^ )^ :d, req 'l' r e d l h a l E a s l ' ' ' in Pu l l e d firs t,a n d th e i
- --------- p r o g r a m f o r l a y i n g o u t u t i l i t i e s , c a u s i
su c o n tr a c to r s to in s ta ll th e i r u n d e r g r o u n d r o u g h - i n i n t h e w r o n g lo c a tio n .
F a ile d to p u t n u m e r o u s b a c k s i g h t s i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d d i d n t p r i n t o u t t
c o o r m a te s e f o r e le a v i n g in th e m o r n i n g t o a v o i d d o i n g t h e m a t h i n t h e f ie
15-34
summary @
. C a lc u la ti n team m issed a quadrant n h ,n

b ein g w rong, and a three-colum n . f e o n a b e a n n 8 resuUinginco'>rd ' nate
w as o u t o f p o sitio n by seven feet * f r cast' ln"place box S 'rder brid8e
S ev eral d rille d shafts for
d u e to an c o o rd in a te calculation e r ro r ^ inCOrreCt locaU n
h p a H n f eh e c a i i ^ atSh C nStr!lCteCi n a N /E b earin g instead of the correct N/W

b e a rin g b e c a u se the co ordinates w ere calculated wrong.
T r a v e r s e Computation Sheet
T h e fo llo w in g c o m p u ta tio n sheets can be used in keeping calculations organized
w h ile s o lv in g m an y o f th e p ro b lem s in this C hapter.
15-35
c h a p te r tin e e ii
PROBLEMS
G iven th e N o rth a n d E a s t c o o r d in a te s o f P o in t A (4 0 0 , 100), an d P
the North and East ^ ' " ^ r i n g from A to r
1 4G7iv
0 ),
en th e N o rth e d is ta n c e a n d b e a r in g fr o m A t o B ?
w h at a re th *nt B
ha. are the distance and ^ ^ R (234.567 1343.334) and
G iv en th
thee N orth' and E a s t cco
East o oo rrd
dmin a te innt cRe a( 2n 3d 4a z557
^ s ^ o f dPiso ta im u th^ fro m R tQ ^
P o in ts ^ ' ~ a m - * . V 3 -33
2. of (556.987,990.495), .U ustration, w h at are th e distance
and
For the traverse ^ p r o c e e d c lo c k w ise starting w ith P oint G .
3. direction of each line, t-
N. 2213.67
. CO
N 1966.73
E 1526.81
4 For the traverse shown in the next illustration, w hat are the distance and
direction of each line? Proceed clockw ise around the trav erse starting with
Point A. Calculate the area by using coordinates.
N 2213.10
E 2403.86
N 2268.60
E 2333.36 N 2288.10
E 2472.11
N2132.85/a
E 2273.36c
e\N 2045.10
E 2485.61
N 1988.10
E 2351.36
The next two questions are based on the information in the following Table. The
athletic department has decided to construct a tunnel from the basement of the new
athletic building to the arena. The distance and direction o f the tunnel are needed
for design purposes. Given the following open traverse information, calculate the
length and bearing for the tunnel from Point Basement to Point Arena.
Side Direction Distance N S E W
Arena - 1 N 75 20 E 165.0 41.78 159.62
1-2 S 75 15' E 110.9 28.23 107.24
2 - Basement S 59 15' W 280.0 143.16 240.63
Bsmt - Arena unknown unknown
Totals
15-36
5. W ha, fa the direction from basem
6. W hat will ,he length o f tk emem to arena?
8,h o f the tunnel be'<
T r a v e r s i n g a n d I n v e r s ln g - T h e foil
1000
- -
4 4 E U sing the foMo ' T he direct on o f ,h ,W,n8 has a cord,na,c of N
8 the fo llo w , g il,ustrati an sw e fo " ne fr m CP ^ to CP 1 is N
answ er q uestions 7 , 8 , and 9 .
X *,
\
7. Calculate the coordinates for the building corners and interior columns.
8. Determine the coordinates o f the control points.
9. Calculate the layout data (angle right and distance) to each of the building points
if an instrument is set on CP4 and back sighted with 00 00' 00" on CPI.
Traversing and Inversing -Answer questions 10,11, and 12 by using the previous
building illustration. Change the starting coordinates to North 2500.East 7500 for
Control Point 1. Use direction from CPI to CP2 an Azimuth North of 75,
10. Calculate the coordinates for the building corners and interior columns.
11. Determ ine the coordinates o f the control points.
12 Calculate the layout data (angle right and distance) to each of the building points
'" if an instrument is set on CP4 and back sighted with 00 00 00" on C P I.
1 5 -3 7
13. Determine the coordinates of the corners on both of the abutments and the pier.
14. Determine the coordinates of the control points on centerline and the offset
Points A and B.
15. Calculate the layout data (angle right and distance) to each of the bridge Points
if an instrument is set on Point A and backsighted with 00 00 00 on Point B.
J
T he re m a in in g q u e s tio n s are h
in c lu d e tra v e rs in g , i n v e r t , , ased n the fn .
a z im u th s o r b e a rin g s . A ll l a y o u ^ * 0 " 8* T hese Problem s
o f the d e s ig n a te d b a c k sig h t. g les sJl u ld be nS* L ist directio>ns as
as angles to the right
rie off
N 1790
E 2100 1
I
N?1800 7 N 1950
E7 2970
E 3350
I 6 a
N 1000 , Bldg 2 400'
100' F>agpole
E 2000 ,
A '
N
i 15 11 150
Ei 6 2457
Bldg 110' Bldg
4 3
100- 18 12 --------- - N 800
N1 2 830
Jobsite Sketch Ei 2 2770 E 3000
Not to scale
E N 700
E 2500
16. Whatare the distance and direction from Control Point A to

17. Whatare the distance and direction from Control Point B to O
18. What are the distance and direction from Control Point C to
19. What are the distance and direction from Control Point D to E?
20. What are the distance and direction from Control Point E to A?
21. If the instrument is at Point "E" with a backsight on "A" with 00 00' on the
instrument, what layout in formation (angle right and distance) will be measured
to locate Points 1.2 . 3. 4. 5. and 6 for Building 1? Place your answers on the
following form, listing standard field layout data.
Instrument at E" with a Backsight on A" with 00 OOOO" set on the instrument
Sighting Direction to Points Angle Right off of Distance from E to

Point from E" Backsight on A Point
l
15-39
V- *tch i f t h e in s tru m e n t is a t P o in t " c *
* - - f TO- <
* * w r . ..... no- 00 00 set on the ln * u m ^
at off <* Dtotone. from Cio
, a iarge site, the field engineers decided

In the process of establishing the con r ilable backsight. While setting on
o use an existing F lagpole as a .onvu ^ an ang,e of 83 28' 48 to th e Flagpole
Point E. they took a 00 BS onto A . d k a 00 BS onto E and turned an
,FP|. They m oved their m strum enl to u
rtf 7^ 1S19" to the F lagpole.
a., W hat is the d ire c tio n fro m E to th e F la g p o le ?

24. What is th e d ire c tio n fro m D to th e F la g p o le ?
25. What is the distance from E to the Flagpole ?
->6 What is the distance fromD to the Flagpole ?
27; u sing Traversing, what are the Latitudes and Departures from E to FP. and D
to FP?
28. What are the coordinates of the Flagpole when calculated from E?
29. What are the coordinates of the Flagpole when calculated from D?
Since the coordinates of the Flagpole must be absolutely correct, the field
engineers decided to set up on other control points and check the coordinates of the
Flagpole. They set up their instrument at Point C and took a backsight onto Point
D with 00 00' 00' and turned an angle of 23 40' 26" to the Flagpole. They then
moved the instrument to Point B and sighted Point C with 00 00' 00" and turned
an angle of 47 00' 47" to the Flagpole.
30. What is the direction from C to the Flagpole?

31. What is the direction from B to the Flagpole ?
32. What is the distance from C to the Flagpole ?
33. What is the distance from B to the Flagpole ?
34 ^ Sppg, Traversing what are the Latitudes and Departures from C to FP, and B
sum m ary
35. W h at are th e c o o rd in a te s o f the p .

36. W h a t a re th e c o o rd in a te s o f th 8Pe When c a lc l i from C ?
a re the c o o rd in a te s r
37. C o m pPare lagpole
* F lag B?
p o le w hen calcu lated fro m B?
r c l t T 28 an d 2 9 - Are they 35 and 36 < * calculated in
g p e as a c o n sta n tly available m t accePtable tolerance for using the
38. T his p ro b lem is based o h Ura aclcsight from any spot on the jobsite?
~ * SCt up inside the c n m '^ S/cetcfl, P a g e 1 5 -3 9 . A total station was
-593 w as m easu red to Point r F ,t ravrse on the jobsite. A distance of
o in t C. U sin g d istan ce re-serti an(? a d *stance f 845.102 was m easured to
lo c a tio n . T he an g le m e a s u r e 1? Ca Cldate the coordinates o f the instrum ent
39. A s a lw a y s, a c h e c k w as m d P intS is 127 ,0 ' 7 ''
p ro b le m . W h ile set up a u h e 6 f th^ ocat*on o f the instrum ent in the previous
to P o in t D , and a d istan ce o f s f o f i i i im &distance o f 853.688 was m easured
re -s e c tio n , c a lc u la te the coo d Was m easured to Point A. U sing distance
to th e c o o rd in a te s determ i i h mat^ s t*le instrum ent location and com pare
b e tw e e n th e p o in ts is 75 04 * j .. e prev,ous problem . T he angle m easured
40. While laying out Buildino 9 tu
th e b u ild in g fo o tp rin t T he 6 *n strum ent was set up on a hub that w as inside
e n g in e e rs q u ic k v m e / " " rdm ates f he hub w ere unknow n, so the field
th e I T d i s a ^ e s T f ? ^ o o ,StanCeS t0 each o f he bu ild in g corners. From
t o P o i n t s 7 8 9 , , V '0 0 0 2 6 2 4 8 8 2 7 7 .3 0 8 , and 192.094 w ere m easured
where the i n L m:m i! ser PeCtiVely- What are the COOTdi"ates f the hub
set unaHft tbe Jobsite S ketch , P a g e 15-39. The ins

and R V r - 7 8 w middle of the traverse, and angles AXB = 89 36 46"
, r u . weremeasured. Using three-point re-section techniques,
solve for the coordinates of Point X using triangle AXB. What are the
coordinates of Point X?
42. Using the data from the previous problem, solve for the coordinates of Point
X using triangle BXC. Compare the coordinates for Point X from both
- solutions.
43. On another day, the instrument was set up at a different random location on
the same jobsite sketch. Using the following measured angles for a three-
point re-section, calculate the coordinates of Point Y. The instrument was set
up at Point Y in the middle of the traverse and angles CYD = 108 07 31 and
DYE = 34 37' 38" were measured. Using three-point re-section techniques,
solve for the coordinates of Point Y using triangle CYD. What are the
coordinates of Point Y?
44. Using the data from the previous problem, solve for the coordinates of Point Y
using triangle DYE. Compare the coordinates for Point Y from both solutions.
45. Calculate the area of the traverse A,B,C,D,E by coordinates.
46. A traverse has coordinates consecutively around it of Point 1 - N 1000.000,
E5000.000; Point 2 - N 1103.008, E4968.015; Point 3 - N 1119.981, E5140.019;
and Point 4 - N 967.986, E 5 127.995. Calculate the area.
47. A traverse has coordinates consecutively around it of Point W - N 10000.000,
E5000 000; Point X - N 10059.063, E5255.830; Point Y - N 10991.557,
E5046.824; and Point Z - N 10925.777, E4811.754. Calculate the area.
48. Using the data from Problem 3, calculate the area by using coordinates.
4 9 . Using th e d a ta fro m P ro b lem 4, c a lcu late the area by using coordinates.
50. What is the purpose o f coordinate geometry?
15-41
chapter fifteen
FIELD AND OFFICE ACTIVITIES

I iCoordinate
(N im uiiM r Geometry
i i r w w r i i j .Software (I perso
.-">* -' o 1 n . vUiiM
nknow hours) Ok
io w n flours) O b l^ .
I earn
cam a o>onmatc
ciHuduuiie geom geometry softw are package. P ro c e d u re :. Use
etry softw I ] a*n.y1C(*
bJ*c,iv*:
g**nic...
K eom etn softw are package
...........r ------- c- for a .personal co m p. u ter, or a COG
-----------W UOD nrr,
a. hhandheld calculator, and solve all ol '*--------M-----
an d h e ld calculaf...........' the p ro b lem s-----------
p re se n te d* in t h r*~ for

'om pare the results
Com resu lt with the answ ers that w ere o b ta in e d by hand *S ^**Pter
without software.
>iihout softw are. c*Jcul$|j0
B uuild
i l d iing
n f i ll a
ayyo
ou I) ata - ( 2 -3 perso n s. 6 h o u rs) O b je c tiv e : C alcul
u tt D
ita for
data fo r a building
budding .and locate it in thec tie
field
Ml tn to uusin
s in gg ra
ra dd ia
ia ll lay
layout ^ yout

o u t technique*
, ,o. a o uUse
Procedure
ocedure u u .nthe
g an
ihi* a to c a icrvoinfv
lr.'iu,rvt> ' e s ,ab lish e d1. m e a su re d , a*n d calculated
................. bS u c* i
CPhro a pc te
e dr u14re From
U se ththat
e data, d ev elo pp ccoooord
rdin
inaate
tess ftor
o r aa 1100-foot
0 0 -fo o t by bv IOO.f(K' n
' w* d 3 ,a - h e re in s id e th e tra v e rse . C y UlKflrw.
aleulate the
building that w ill be ' ' d c b u i,d in g fro m e a c h o f th e c o n<c. tro lr points.
i~ ... Take ,0o>
layout data needed to las o u t p r e v io u s ly e s ta b lis h e d c o n tro l p o in ts and l
the data to the field a n d , hePc o ,r o l p o in ts. C h e c k th e la y o u t hy m oving
out the building from one oi th e b u ild in g a g a in . R e c o rd in a field
to an o th er co n tro l o f th e c h e c k .
b-k th e p ro se urc on5 hours) O b je c tiv e. Calculate layout

Bridge Layout I>ata - U - I it in the field using radial layout
data for a bridge *truc 11 brijo C in Problem s 13. 14. and 15 under
techniques. Procedure. ction. In an open field, establish a control
Q u estio n s and P ro b ej 1. o n tro | tllat s u rro u n d s th e b rid g e a b u tm e n ts and
netw ork th at is sin u a r la y o u t d a ta c a lc u la te d in
p ic r. M o n um ent b rid g e u s in g r a d ia l la y o u t. A fte r th e p o im s
Problem 15. set up a n d lay u t th e h r g *> a n d c h e c k lh c lo c a t,0
s r . S i " - > - *
c h a p te r s ix te e n
r iz o n ta l c u rv e s
Introduction 1 6-2
Formulas 1 6 -7
Deflections and Chords 16-14
Layout by D e f l e c t i o n s 16-2 1
Layout by C o o r d i n a t e s 1 6-30
Moving up 16-35
Offset Curves 16-43
S u m m a ry 1 6-49
In t r o d u c t io n
General
T y p e s of C u r v e s
P a r t s of a H o r i z o n t a l C u r v e
Geometric Relationships
D e g r e e of C u r v e
SCOPE
The original roads were built along ancient animal trails, and follow ed the easiest
and most comfortable route. They had very sharp turns because o f the slow speed
of the carts and wagons that were used at that tim e. Early autom obile travel was
also very slow, and road builders at the tim e still fo llo w e d the original wagon paths.
Later, as cars began to go faster, curves were designed into the highw ays for safety
and to accommodate the increased speed.
This Chapter is intended only as an introduction to horizontal curves in their
most asic form. Curve term inology, basic form ulas, and field w ork applications
remdrln / 6 disûssôn - If a deeper understanding o f m ore com p lex curves is
required, please refer to books that only cover curves.
1 6 -2
.g N E f l A L
N o ro ad can be p e rfe c tly st
,;rr s ,ru c ' u' th at m u f, be " ev ^ " > ^ u r e s such as m ountains or rivers
y g o in g aro u n d o r alo n e mount ^ urves l^ a t turn right or left to fit the
p a rt o t e v e ry h ig h w ay o r railroad 7 W avoid im portant landm arks are a
p ro v id e a sm o o th tra n sitio n betw een the horizontal curve is used to
T h ese c u rv e s can also be part o f h in iH -^ 18^ stretches o f highw ay called tangents,
an d a lso are o fte n d e sig n e d into *u il8 pr jects as they are used in the sitew ork.
C u rv e s are c u rv e s w heZ r i bU" ding
sam e w h e n th e y a re laid out on th m etric units or E nglish units. C urves look the
T h e c a lc u la tio n p ro c e sse s are / 8round th eir units ju st happen to be different.
re g a rd le s s o f th e u n it u sed. O nl ^ ^ the layout Processes are the sam e
th a n th a t, m e tric c u rv e s are ^ m *n or ô rm u ' a is sp ecifically d ifferen t. O th er
p e rfo rm e d in th e s a m e m a n n e r ^ CUla,ed ex actly the sam e and layout can be
T h e s im p le c irc le is w h it '
h ig h w a y d e s ig n . In h ie h w h *S USCd aS the basis o f the horizo n tal cu rv es in
tw o ta n g e n t ifn e s i n i ^ the C ird e " d w here lhe
d o n e so th a t a lin e d ra w n fro m th at n ! ? plaCed S il tOUcheS a tangent 11 lS
to o r a t rip h t a n o i^ u ldt pom t to the c e n te r o f the c irc le is p e rp en d icu lar
le t h ? n , f ' ; 6 ,a n g e n t lin e ' T h is >>e also rep resen ts the rad iu s o f the
s m i t H ^ l J ,7 T, WS 6 b asic th e o ry nsed to d e fin e the re la tio n sh ip o f the
o e w o ta n g e n ts . A ll c u rv e s w ill be p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e ta n g en ts.
ty p e s o f c u r v e s
There are many types of curves that might be encountered on a highway project.
They range from simple to more complex transitional curves including simple
curves, compound curves, reverse curves, broken-back curves, and spiral curves.
Simple Curve
The simple curve that connects two tangents is the one that is most often
encountered and is the foundation of all other curve discussion. For most
applications, simple curves are all that are needed to provide the transition from
tangent to curve and back to the tangent. When more difficult situations are
encountered, the following curves can be used.
Compound Curve
The compound curve is composed of two or more curves which have different
radius values that are connected to each other on the same side of the route. This
type of curve is sometimes encountered on highway interchanges where an exit or
entrance ramp all o f a sudden gets sharper because of limited space for the
highway. Compound curves should only be used where there is low-speed traffic.
Reverse C urve
The reverse type o f curve is sometimes referred to as an "S" curve due to its shape.
The centers o f the curves are on opposite sides of the route. These curves are used
:o provide alignment changes such as moving a highway from one side of a valley
;o the other side. Again, this type of curve must be very gentle (flat) or only used
n low -speed travel.
16
siraig"......
eDiral Curves nml>d atc h ig h -s p e e d tra v e l. S p irals are tranS',ti
f m n l curves are used l r . fro m c u rv e to m a x ,n tu m C l *
curves that p rovide a th c b e g in n in g . a s ra ilro a d c a rs w o u ld fall off
R ailroads have had sp irals sine ^ m # x im u m c u rv e . M an y hig h w ay s do
uLa ckk if the railro ad w ent
en . f r or mo " m e eeddss.. InlC
I n ters
rsta
tate
te hhig waayyss,, hhowever
ighhw o w e v e r,."
^'
need^spiraled curve^ ! ^ safelyâ<xommodate high-speeduavehlfinterslate.'i^
dCT ^ s d , ^ have " p i r ^ to p -h e a v y v e h ic le s w o u ld fin d d iffic u lt to stay *
the road.
p a r t s 0 F A H r f a ' l I t b Lh f th a t a re u se d in c a lc u la tin g h o r iz o n ta l c u rv e s.
P o in t o f I n t e r s e c t i o n - T h a t p o in t w h e re the tw 0
PI
ta n g e n ts in te r s e c t.
Angle at the PI - T h is is th e d e f le c tio n a n g le m easured
o f f o f a p r o lo n g a tio n o f th e b a c k ta n g e n t to th e forw ard
ta n g e n t. T h is is a ls o c a lle d " D e lta ."
BT
Back Tangent - T h e s tr a ig h t ta n g e n t e x te n d in g tow ards
th e b e g in n in g o f th e p r o je c t.
FT Forward T angent - T h e s t r a i g h t ta n g e n t ex ten d in g

to w a r d s th e e n d o f th e p r o j e c t .
PC Point of C urvature - T h a t p o i n t w h e r e th e tan g en t

e n d s a n d th e c u r v e b e g i n s .
PT Point of T an gency - T h a t p o i n t w h e r e th e c u rv e ends

a n d th e t a n g e n t b e g i n s .
R R adius - T h e d i s t a n c e f r o m a n y p o in t o n th e c u rv e to
th e c e n t e r o f t h e c i r c l e .
0 Center of the C ircle - That point which is equal

distance from all parts o f the curve.
Tangent D istance - The distance along the tangent
from the PC to the PI, or from the PT to the PI.
Length along the C urve - The distance along the
curve between the PC and the PT.
LC Long Chord - The straight line distance between the
PC and the PT.
E E xternal - The distance from the PI to the center point
on the curve.
MO M iddle O rdin ate - The distance from the center poinl
on the curve to the center point on the long chord.
1 6 -4
g e o m e t r ic r e l a t io n s h ip s
A t the PC anrl DT
TPerpendicular
he PT h ra d iu s and la n cn t a
o r is in m ? !' botw=en <*>e tan g en t am i th e lo n g chot

orig in atin g at the PC or PT is equal to one h a lf o f T
1 6 -5
d e g r e e OF cu rv e
Arc Definition
, "D " stan d s fo r th e D e g re e o f C u rv e , A r c D e r
is used fo r h ig h w a y s d e s ig n e d in th e E n o y ^ ' ^ n a
sy ste m o f m e a s u r e m e n t. D e g re e o f q * ^ (fon
100
a p p lic a b le to m e tric c u rv e s . It is d e fin a b le a? t *s o
at the c e n te r o f th e c irc le s u b te n d e d by an n r , i he
on the c u rv e .
on m e c u . - . ffe re n t a s y o u tra v e l o n them . So
C u rv es are o b v io u sly ^ e a s e w h ile o th e rs req u ire t
y o u c a n trav el ^ b ly in o r d e r to sta y o n th e pavement.
y o u slo w d o w n c o D .. an(j th e r a d iu s (R ) are used
Y
inhe g eea bolyf cU1
te rcdheagnre ib e a n im p o r ta n t p ro p e rty o f the
Chord Definition (>fCurve

, C h o r d D efinition
"D f " s ta n d * !a iir o a d s . I t is d e f in a b le as th e angle at
a n d r is
e nutes er dott oa c n th a t s u b te n d s a c h o r d o f 100 feet.
.. .liehtly different from the Da highway

. Note that *hl ' m8e n , f o n e d . as " D c" is e n c o u n te re d
Whenever work is performed on railroads.
F o r m o re in f o r m a tio n , c o n s u lt a ro u te
s u rv e y in g
re fe re n c e .
100 Relationship to Radius

The sharpness of a curve can be described by the
Degree of Curve (Da) or the radius (R). That is, the
sharper the curve, the larger the "Da" and the smaller the
radius.
100
The flatter the curve, the smaller the "Da" and the larger
the radius
1 6 -6
F o r m U | a S 1
l a
Tangent , j 16- 8
L o n 9 Chord, LC 16- 8
L e n 9th of C u r v e , L 16- 9
External , E 16- 10
M i d d I p o r w;
O r d i n a t e , MO 16- 10
D e g r e e of C u r v e , Da 16- 11
Stationing 16- 12
Example 16- 12
There are num erous formulas used for horizontal curve calculations. For some
parts o f the curve, as many as half a dozen different formulas can be found in
various books. A ll o f the formulas are good and useful, however, for the presentation
o f the sim p le curve that is the objective o f this Chapter, typically, just one formula
type is listed to avoid confu sion o f what to use. These formulas are presented and
d ev elo p ed to sh o w that they are generally based on a sim ple right triangle or on the
sim p le circle. B y ob servin g the geom etric relationships and applying right angle
trigonom etry, the form ulas can be easily developed.
1 6 -7
tangent, t On the illustration, it is shown that the
radius is perpendicular to the tangent,
and that a line can he drawn from (he
center o f the circle to the PI. This
creates an angle that is one-hull' the I
angle Reter to the shaded triangle.
Using basic right angle
trigonometry, the triangle we have
created has the following known and
1........
Known
1. A right triangle.
2. One-half of the central angle. 1/2
3. The radius, R. which is the adjacent side for the triangle.
Unknown
I. "T" which is the opposite side.
Developing the Form ula fo r T
QPP
tan 6 =
adj
Substituting known terms

. I T
tan =
2 R
Solving for T
T = R tan 2
LONG CHORD, LC
On the illustration, the long chord is
bisected and a right triangle is shown.
Solving for the parts o f the triangle
results in halving o f the bisected long
chord. Simply multiply by 2 to get the
long chord length.
Known
1. A right triangle
2. One-half the central angle, 1/2
3. The radius, R, which is the hypotenuse
o f the triangle.
Unknown
! L C /2 which is the
o p p o s ite s id e o f th e tr ia n g le .
D e v e l o p i n g t h e F<>r
m u ,a 'o r L c
s in 0 - o p p
h yp
S u t >stifutjng k n
s i n I = (L C /2) n ,6 r m s
2 R
S o lv in g f0 r L c
- 2 R s in _L
2
leng th o f c u r v e , l
Da i
10 0 = L
Solving for L
L = 10 0 - L
Da
Metric Curve Formula
E n g lish o ^ r i c C u r v e ) f CUrVe " not known (for an
L = R (I times E_)
180
16-9
EXTERNAL, E
the external.
Known
1. Right trian g le
2. O n e -h a lf the c en tral a n g le
3. R ad iu s
Unknown
]. H y p o te n u se
Developing the Formula for E
adj
cos = -
hyp
Substituting
1 R
cos =
2 R+E
Solving for E
R
E= -R
MIDDLE ORDINATE, MO
On the illustration at the right, it is show n
that a right triangle exists to the long
chord. Using the know n parts, the long-
leg o f the triangle can be ca lc u la te d .
Subtracting the leg o f the trian g le fro m
the radius yields the m iddle o rd in a te.
Known
1. R ig h t trian g le
2. O n e -h a lf the c e n tra l a n g le
3. R ad iu s
Unknown
!. T h e le g o f t h e t r i a n g l e
1 6 -1 0
Developing the Formula tor MO
1 = ----
cos R -M O
--
2 R
S o lv in g to r M O
MO = R - R c o s
2
,Eg r e e o f c u r v e , d a
' T h e d e g re e o f c u rv e is ty p ically u sed in
th e E n g lis h sy s te m o f m easu rem en t and
is d e v e lo p e d fo r an arc o f 100 feet. If
th e r a d iu s ( R ) is k n o w n in m eters, the
ra d iu s a n d c u rv e c a lc u la tio n s w ill need
to b e c o n v e r te d to fe e t to u se th e form ula.
The d e g re e o f c u r v e is
d e t e r m i n e d b y s e t t i n g u p a sim p le
p r o p o r tio n a l re la tio n s h ip . B y definition,
th e d e g re e o f c u rv e c an b e rep resen ted b>
th e r a t i o D a / 1 0 0 . T h e t o t a l a rc is
r e p re s e n te d b y c irc u m fe ren c e 2 P i R w itl
a to ta l a n g le o f 3 6 0 in a circle. Similarly
th is c a n b e re p re s e n te d as 360 / 2 P i R.
D eveloping the Formula for Da and R
Da 360
100 2nr
Solving for Da
5729.58
Da =
R
Solving for R
5729.58
R =
Da
1 6 -1 1
^ c h a p to i s i x t e e n
' Mr*H
S T A T IO N IN G
Now that formulas are available to calculate the parts o f the curve, the station f
PC aiK, f t can be obtained. When the PI was ongtnally established, a stat r i^
calculated for it from the m easured distances. This station can now be used to
the stations o f the PC and PT. The m ethod used is to w ork backw ards from t h 1**
the PC. The natural tendency then is to w ork from the PI to the PT, but that d C ^
represent the centerline o f the route. T herefore, after the PC station is known ^S
add the length o f the curve to represent the PT station on the centerline.
PI Sta. i
PT
P I - T = PC
P C + L = PT
EXAMPLE
G ive n any two parts of a horizontal curve and the formulas for the c
remaining parts of the curve can be determined. That seems like a prc tt * ^
statement. It is, but it is true. It may take some manipulation of formula'"*
graphical solutions to obtain answers in some situations, but it can be ,. ,an<
Generally, though, from the project plans, the field engineer is given the I
the Radius, and from that he/she calculates the Tangent L e n g th i
External, Middle Ordinate, and the Degree of Curve. ' ^0r<i
In this example, an I angle of 44 and a Radius of 400 feet are tiiven
set of plans. In the following Table, the parts of the curve are calculafed.
1 6 -1 2
T = R tan 1/21 = 400 tan 4 4 7 2 = 161.6V
C o m p u te th e D a
D a = 5 7 2 9 .5 8 /R D a = 5729.58/400 = 14.324
C o m p u te th e L en g th
I I = 100 I/D a = 100(44 /14.324) = 3 0 7 .1 8
C o m p u te th e L o n g C hord
4
L C = 2 R S in 1/2 = 2(400) Sin 4 4 7 2 = 299.69'
C o m p u te th e E xternal
5
E = (R /C o s 1/2) - R = (400/C os 4 4 7 2 ) - 400 = 31.41
C o m p u te th e M id d le O rdinate
6
M .O . = R - (R C o s 1/2) = 4 0 0 - (4 0 0 C o s 4 4 7 2 ) = 29.13
C o m p u te th e S tatio n s o f th e P C and P T
7 P I S ta tio n - T = P C S tatio n P C S tation + L = PT S tation
1 2 7 2 .1 8 - 161.61 = 1 1 + 10.57 1 1 1 0 .5 7 + 3 0 7 .1 8 '= 1 4 + 17.75
16
SCOPE
Staking a curve on the ground so it can be used for the construction of the roadway is
a simple process of measuring angles and distances. The methods that are primarily
used to do this are deflection angles, and short or long chords, or by radial layout of the
coordinates of the curve points. For many years, the deflection angle method was used
exclusively because of the ease in calculating the data and the straightforward layout
procedure. The radial method o f using coordinates has only recently been used because
o the power to calculate the data and the availability of the total station. Each method
ts used daily on construction sites. This Section presents the deflection angle method,
and the next Section discusses layout by coordinates.
1 6 -1 4
C a lc u la tio n o f d e fle c tio n s and
fo rm u la s a n d a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd nr ^r 'I '0 ' ay ul o f curve uses very sim ple
o f w h e re n u m b e rs c o m e fro m is K C dure Som e basic term s and an u n d erstanding
p ro c e s s . s b efo re d escrib in g the actual calcu latio n
Station Interval
T h e firs t s te p in th e p ro c e ss is for ihr. r ,,
th e s u p e rin te n d e n t, th e in terv al i !_,eld e n Snccr to d ecide, by con su ltin g w ith
th e s ta k e s n e e d to b e 25' 50' J curve lhat nceds to b* *<* Thut is ' do
stations where stakes will heTu . apan? nce thc imcrval is determined, the
w.ii be placed can be listed on the calculation sheet.
Arc Length
12400
C a lc u la tio n s o f th e d e fle c tio n s are based
o n a f o r m u la th a t re q u ire s in p u ttin g the 11*50
a rc le n g th to e a c h s ta tio n . A rc len g th is
th e d is ta n c e in te r v a l a lo n g the cu rv e. 11 + 10 57
For exam ple, from station 11 + 10.57 to
station 11+50, the arc length is 39.43
feet, and from station 11+50 to 12+00 is an arc length of 50 feet. Obtaining arc
length is determ ined by sim ple subtraction of stations. Arc length values between
the in d ividual stations on the curve will be listed on the calculation sheet as well
as the total arc length from the PC of thc curve.
Deflection per Foot of Arc
Preliminary calculation of the deflection for one foot of arc creates a constant that
the field engineer can use to easily and quickly calculate the deflection for any arc
length. In the deflection angle formula that will be presented later, simply insert
"one foot" for "arc length" to determine this value.
Chord Calculations
Calculation of the short or long chord is based on the same formula that was used
to calculate the long chord for the entire curve. The angles used in the equation are
the deflection angles that are calculated for each station. The equation is first used
to determine the short chords for the curve. The equation is
12 13+0 then used to determine the long chords from the PC to each
----- station on the curve. Long chords will be needed especia y
. - - - tvTwp; c h o i f a n D M is b e in g u s e d t0 la y o u t th e c u rv e .
D eflection Increm ent

D eflection increment is a term that is used in the calculation process to describe
the amount o f deflection between each station. There will be an increment for
the arc length from the PC to the first station on the curve, for the standard station
interval on the curve (50 feet), and for the closing distance into the PT at the end
o f the curve.
When calculating a curve, if the deflection increment for 50 feet is known,
it is sim ply added to each successive station to obtain the total deflection of the
next station. For exam ple, if the deflection for station 12+00 is 6 24' 17", adding
the deflection increment for 50 feet of 3 34' 52" will obtain the deflection for
station 12+50 o f 9 59' 09".
16-15
f
W ORDING DATA rno,epad for listing the calculated curve data. Seetheh,eadii
RECO set up a field book: or no* V = Deflect,onS. lt>8s
o the exam ple below . __________ _____ ________________ _____ _
Write from the

bottom up.
Start with the PC station at the bottom of the page and list the stations u
from it. Listing ro u te s u rv e y in g information this way is a common field ^ Page
T h e fie ld e n g in e e r u sin g the notes can then stand at the PC and look Pfactice.
in crea sin g sta tio n s in the fieldbook as well as looking ahead at increas aêad at
on th e g ro u n d . T h is is done for practicality as well as convenience T^ Statin$
calculation page the parts of the curve if they have been previously calcT]0*1tlie
e q u a t io n s
There are several formulas that are commonly used to calculate th
angles needed for the layout. The most useful equation is one th dCflectin
commonly known radius. These equations yield an answer that * ^ USes the
d e g re e s p e r fo o t o f arc. 1S ln deciihal
Deflection
, ^ 90
Deflection angle, d = -
7tn
d is in degrees
Chord
Since the length of each chord is slightly less than the length of the arc it subtends,
the chord lengths must be computed.
Short Chord = 2R sin (Incremental deflection)

Long Chord = 2R sin (Total deflection at a curve point)
1 6 -1 6
AND CHORDS
v lO Compute thr> ,l.n ,
lections and chord lengths tor a curve.
Calculate fiv.
------- wjHgms Subtract each successive station on the

curve to determine the arc lengths.
T otal Arc Lengths
D e fle c tio n increm ent for the M ultiply the deflection/foot by the arc
tirs t statio n beyond the PC length from the PC to the first station on
the curve.
S ta n d a rd d eflectio n increm ent M ultiply the deflection/foot by the station
p e r statio n interval interval (i.e., 50 feet or 20 m eters or
w hatever is needed for the project).
D e fle c tio n c lo sin g into the PT M ultiply the deflection/foot by the arc
____ length that closes into the PT.
T o ta l d e fle c tio n fo r each M ultiply the deflection/foot by the arc

s ta tio n fro m the PC lengths from the PC to each station on the
curve.
U se the short chord equation and the
8 S h o rt C h o rd s d eflectio n increm ent to the first station,
th e stan d ard interval, and the last station
to d eterm in e the short chords.
U se th e lo n g ch o rd equation and the to tal
Long Chords d e fle c tio n fro m the PC to each statio n to
c a lc u la te each long chord.
CHECKS
The calculation for the last deflection from the PC to the PT will use the length of
curve and if no m istakes have been made, will equal one half the central angle. The
calculation o f the last long chord to be used for the layout will equal the long chord
from the PC to the PT.
16-
vjx'
CALCULATIONS
Using the formulas for deflection/foot, short chord, and long chord, multiply to
determine the values for the curve. The answers appear in the Table which follows
these calculations.
Deflection per Foot

d= = 0.071620 / ft.
tt400
Deflection Increments from the PC (1150.00 - 1110.57

To 11+50 which is 39.43 feet along the curve
39.43')
(0.071620)(39.43) = 2.823966 = 2 49 26
16-18
For the 50 foot station intervals,
MRM (0.071620)(50) = 3.580986 = 3 34 52
For the closing arc from the last station on the curve 14 + 00 to the PT at 14 + 17.75
(14 + 17.75' - 14 + 00 = 17.75)
(0.071620)(17.75) = 1.271250 = 1 16 16
Total Deflections
@ 11 + 50 = 2 49 26
@ 12 + 00 = (89.43)(0.071620) = 6 24 18"
@ 12 + 50 = (139.43)(0.071620) = 9 59 09"
@ 13 + 00 = (189.43)(0.071620) = 13 34 01"
etc., to the end of the curve
S hort C h o rd s
T o 11 + 5 0 , o r th e f ir s t s ta tio n fro m th e PC ,
S h o r t c h o r d = 2 (4 0 0 )s in (2 4 9 2 6 ") = 3 9 .4 1 4
F o r 5 0 f o o t in te r v a ls o n th e arc ,
S C = 2 ( 4 0 0 ) s in (3 3 4 5 1 .5 ") = 4 9 .9 6 7
F o r t h e c l o s i n g a rc in to th e P T ,
S C = 2 ( 4 0 0 ) s i n ( l 16 1 6 .5 ") = 1 7 .7 4 8
Long Chords
@ 11 + 50 = 39.41
@ 12 + 00 = 2(400) sin(6 24 18") = 89.244
@ 12 + 50 = 2(400) sin(9 59 09") = 138.725
@ 13 + 00 = 2(400) sin(13 34 01") = 187.665
etc, to the end of the curve.
16-19
CURVE LAYOUT DATA
T a b le o f R e s u lts
La yo u t by
Defl actions
Pro
c e d u r e fo r S h o r t
C ho rd
Pro Layout 16-22
c e d u r e for Lona
Chord Layout
Pr 16-26
o c e du re for
P 3 d i a 1 Li nes
16-28
One o f the most satisfying aspects of construction route surveying is the development
and layout o f a circular curve. This Section introduces the field engineer to the
actual field process necessary to stake a horizontal curve. All standard layout
practices should be follow ed to reduce the possibility of errors in the measurements.
16-21
v urv,
^ chapter s ix te e n
procedure fo r s h o r t c h o r d l a y o u t
The following is the step-by-step procedure for Deflection Angle Layout ,*
Chord M ethod). Refer to the Table o f R esu lts on 1 6 -2 0 for the curve da Shh
in this procedure. auSed
Set ud the th e o d o lite over the point o f intersection (P.I.). Sight at a noi
m n the
S te p 2 M e a s u r e th e t a n g e n t d is ta n c e a lo n g th e b a c k ta n g e n t to s e t a h u b a n d ta c k at the
p o in t o f c u rv a tu re (P .C .).
1 6 -2 2
S te p 3 Turn the "I" An |e
the required "T" a n J A nting n the n
angle tow ard the P . / (n : ' T ' ature- invert >e scope, and turn
v irect & Reverse).
Turn angles
direct
re v e rse -
JSS
PC
S te p 4 Set a hub at the P.T. A lo n g th e lin e o f sig h t, ag ain m e a su re th e ta n g e n t d ista n c e

to s e t a h u b a t th e p o in t o f ta n g e n c y (P .T .).
/ ~
1 6 *2 3
S teD 6 Measure th e d e fle c tio n s h o rt c h o rd d is ta n c e . T u r n th e c a lc u la te d d e fle c tio n angle
P and m e a su re th e s h o rt c h o rd d is ta n c e fro m th e P .C . a lo n g th e lin e o f s ig h t to the first
p o in t on th e c u rv e .
11+10.57
16-24
S te p 7 set the firs, p,,!
m easu re the d ls, , c e " 1' hub al thc c,
' acc a ,ttck at the point **'ace hue on thc huh anti then
the
errrer
S tep 8 Set additional points. R e fe r tn tho u

Measure the shon chord h t ^ lT s S T ^
1 6 -2 5
^ chapter sixteen
DT C o n tin u e th is p r o c e s s u n til y o u r e a c h th e P T . Y o u r la s t ^
S te P 9 ^ r ' n d ^ ' s u r . , ........s t a n c e s h o u l d ti e i n t o th e P .T . w i t h i n a c c e p t , b le to J f
PROCEDURE FOR LONG CHORD LAYOUT

If using a total station to lay out a curve, the short chord method would not be very
efficient as the instrument would have to be set up numerous times. To avoid this,
a layout from one setup at the PC is achieved by using the long chords that were
calculated. Refer to the T able o f R e s u lts on P a g e 1 6 -2 0 for the data used in this
procedure. In the procedure illustrated here, the PI, PC, and PT have been located.
Set up the total station exactly over the PC. Sight the instrument at the PI and set
the horizontal circle to 00 00* 00".
0 00 00"
16-26
layout by deflections
S te p 2 Turn the instrument until it ^

instrument. Direct the prism J S lll*he rs( Reflection angle, and Camp the
ee rom the instrument. Use hand ^ a on8 (his line of sight approximately 40
ro person hold the prism on line S1^na^s or oral communications to have the
S te p 3 Press the measuie button on the total station and obtain a distance to the prism.
Compare this reading to the calculated distance of 39.43 to the first point on the
curve. Move the rodperson as needed and repeat the process until the measured
distance equals the calculated distance. See Chapter 6, Total Station, for a more
detailed description of setting a point. Set a hub on the point.
16-27
, w anale in the data Table and direct the prism ,
S te p 4 KHhaU^ne o f sight a^d'the'distance required. Repeat the previous steps uMil
is set.
Steo 5 Repeat the process for all o f the points on the curve. Check by measuring the an
the distance to the PT o f the curve. For this small curve, the check should be * 4
fi.W hundredths of line and distances. 'Vlthin a
PROCEDURE FOR RADIAL LINES

On a set of plans, it shows that a culvert must be installed on a line that is radial to the
curve. That is, the line must be directed towards the Radius Point of the curve. Aline
radial to the curve can be determined for any point on the curve. For this description
of the process, the continuing curve example, and the curve notes from the Table of
R e su lts on P a g e 1 6 -2 0 will be used.
If a line radial to the curve is needed at station 12+50, the instrument is set
up at that point.
A backsight is taken onto the PC with the 00 00' 00" set on the instrument
16-28
layout by deflections @
S te p 2
The instrument turned to the deflection angle of the point where
1SS* Kng; / 09 for 12+50. With this angle on the instrument,
will be defining a line that is TANGENT to the curve at 12+50. me line oi sigm
S te p 3 By adding 90 to the deflection angle of the point where the instrument is sitting, or
9 59 09", in this example, a total angle off of the backsight to the PC or 99 59 09"
is turned. This line of sight now represents a line that is radial to the curve at 12+50.
This process can be repeated for any point on the curve. If the point is one that has
not yet been calculated, go through the process to calculate the deflection angle and
chord distance to the point and establish it from the PC. Once it is established, go
through the previous steps to establish a line that is radial to the curve at that point.
1 6 -2 9
V
s chapter s ix te e n
r ~ ~ 7 L a y o u t b y
l ______ ___ J C o o r d in a te s
General
16- 3 1 rdinate Ca l c u l a t i o n s
P r o c e d u re f o r C o o
16-32
16-34 La yo u t Data
SCOPE
The radial method of using coordinates for curve layout has only recently been used
because of readily-available computers to calculate the data and the total station. With
t is pwer, curves can be laid out from any control point on the site if the coordinates
e curve points are known. Many software programs calculate the coordinates of
h/r,P01TKn 1 e curve automatically, while other programs require special routines to
the defip r mCt i^ *n Prg rarn calculates the coordinates may be by using
the radin? 1 h ^ ,0ng cJlords ^rom tlle f the curve, or it may be by using
the rad,us and the degree o f curve increments from the origin o f the curve.
16-30
yuui oy coordinates @
GgN EBA L
If
| I
.. a j0rn,. laP te r 14, T ra verse C o m p u ta tio n s, that a starting point with

coor in a e s , an a istance and direction to the ending point are needed to calculate
t e cooi m ates o f the ending point. In the case of calculating the coordinates on
a curve, the coordinates o f the P is will likely be given on the plans. From these
coo rd in ates, the direction between P is can be determined by inversing. With the
d irectio n from the PI to the PC known, and the Tangent distance of the curve
know n, the co o rd in ates o f the PC can be calculated. Once the coordinates of the PC
are know n, the d eflection and long chord to each curve point can then be used to
d eterm in e co o rd in ates.
N 16,917.458
E 43,781.054
POT^ - ^ "
1 6 -3 1
p r o c e d u r e f o r c o o r d in a t e c a l c u l a t io n s
EDURE FOR c o u n u m r * ---------
PROCEU the PIS, in this c
G t* n 1 Calculate the direction between the Pis. In this continuing example, the dir*
P from the PC to the PI (by inversing between the known coordinates) is a ecti<>h
North of 77" 44* 10 . ^
4 4 7 5 8 .2 3 4 -4 3 ,7 8 1 .0 5 4
Inverse Direclionpc _P, = arc,an 1 7 1 2 9 .8 7 3 - _16 9 1 7 . 8
= 77 44' 10
S te p 2 Calculate the coordinates of the PC by traversing from the PI to the Pc w- .

known distance and direction. In this case, the Back Azimuth must be used ^
from the PI to the PC. 80
S te p 3 Calculate the direction to the points on N

the curve. In this case, the deflections
are turned to the right off of the direction
from the PC to the PI. Therefore, the
deflection angles will be added to the
known direction. This can easily be
understood if a sketch of this is drawn.
The results of these calculations are
shown in the following Table.
Reference Deflection Direction from PC to Curve

Station
PC to PI Angle Right P oint (Azimuth North)
11+50 77 4 4 jo 2 49 26 80 33 36
12+00 I T 44' 10 6 24 18 84 08 28
12+50 77 44 10 9 59 09 87 43 19
13+00 77 4 4 jo 13 34 01 91 18 11
13+50 77 44 10 17 08 52 94 53 02
14+00 77 4 4 jo
20 43 44 98 27 54
14+17.75 PT 77 44 jo
22 99 44 10
S te p 4 W i t h t h e k n o w n d i r e c t i o n s t o . k
d is ta n c e s , a n d th e s ta rtin g c o o rd in J ^ *> ' n ts o n t h e c u r v e , t h e l o n g c h o r d

(c a lc u la tin g la titu d e s a n d d e p a r t u r e w 6S th e P C ' th e m e th o d o f tr a v e r s in g
d e te r m in e th e c o o r d in a te s o f e a c h f J 0 !^ e to e a c ^ P ^ n l s *s u s e t i t o
a re s h o w n a n d th e re s t o f th e j - 1 e P * n t s - T h e c a lc u la tio n s to th e f ir s t p o in t
_______ in e c o o r d i n a te s a re lis te d -
L in e D ire c tio n
D istance Dep.
P C to :
1North East
PC 1 7 0 9 5 .5 4 5 4 4 6 0 0 .3 1 2
11+50 80 3 3 36
3 9 .4 1 6 .4 6 4 3 8 .8 7 6 1 7 1 0 2 .0 0 9 4 4 6 3 9 .1 8 8
12+00 84 0 8 28
8 9 .2 4 9 .1 1 0 8 8 .7 7 4 1 7 1 0 4 .6 5 5 4 4 6 8 9 .0 8 6
12+50 8 7 4 3 19
1 3 8 .7 2 5 .5 1 4 1 3 8 .6 1 0 1 7 1 0 1 .0 5 9 4 4 7 3 8 .9 2 2
13+00 91 18 11 1 8 7 .6 6 - 4 .2 6 8 1 8 7 .6 1 2 1 7 0 9 1 .2 7 7 4 4 7 8 7 .9 2 3
13+50 94 53 02 2 3 5 .8 7 - 2 0 .0 8 1 2 3 5 .0 1 4 1 7 0 7 5 .4 6 3 4 4 8 3 5 . 3 2 6
14+00 98 27 54 2 8 3 .1 6 - 4 1 .6 8 3 2 8 0 .0 7 5 1 7 0 5 4 .1 0 2 4 4 8 8 0 .4 2 3
14+17.
99 44 IQ 2 9 9 .6 8 -5 0 .6 7 9
75 PT 2 9 5 .3 6 4 1 7 0 4 4 .8 6 ( > 4 4 8 9 5 . 6 7 6
1 6 -3 3
n -r a lavout data from sny point on the it0
LAYOUT d a coordinates are 15 and 16 on the jobsite were being ^
^ e ermlned. In .his ^ ^ wan.ing .o move the i n s t a n t , these***
for the layout of a nearby bu,ld"f tal curve. The radial layout data sheet here W
R o u s e d to * - - 2 angle, and distance to the curve point, **
the control points and the
LayoutoHj2J[i22!2!^
IPage 1 of 1
Date: 9/26/02 Calculated by:
Reference: C P 15 N 17000, E44500, C P
16 N 17200, E 44800.
Direction from CPI 5 to CP 16 -
56 1 8 3 6
All angles turned right (Clockwise) off Checked by:
of backsight
Instrument at CP 15 with a Backsight on CP 16
in s tru m e n t
Direction to Points Angle Right off of ^

Distance from CP
Sighting Point
from Setup at CP Backsight on CP 15 to Point
15 (AzN) 16
46 23 40 350 05 03 138.533
PC 11+10.57
53 45 46.8 357 27 11 172.566
11+50
61 09 39.7 4 51 04 215.914
12+00
67 04 21.9 10 45 46 259.416
12+50
13+00 72 24 37.4 16 06 01 302.045
13+50. 77 19 01.7 21 00 25 343.712
14+00 81 54 21.1 25 35 45 384.251
14+17.75 83 31 51.1 27 13 15 398.211
x 'CP16
/
/
16-34
B a s ic s 16-36
P r o c e d u r e for M oving Up
16-36
SC O P E
In th e p r o c e s s o f s ta k in g o u t a c u rv e , it is co m m o n fo r the fie ld e n g in e e r to be u n a b le
to la y o u t th e e n tir e c u rv e fro m o ne in stru m e n t setu p at the PC . T his m ay o c c u r fo r
a n y n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s in c lu d in g th e le n g th o f c u rv e b ein g very lo n g or o b sta c les
th a t p r e v e n t s e e in g fro m th e P C to th e PT . T h e m e th o d u sed to m ove up on a cu rv e
is a s im p le o n e th a t a llo w s th e fie ld e n g in e e r to c o n tin u e to use the o rig in a l la y o u t
n o te s T h a t is n o a d d itio n a l c a lc u la tio n s a re n e e d e d to m o v e up on a sim p le c u rv e .
16-35
BASICS is a description of how to move up on curve and continue the o rig j^
The following
notes.
S etu p (usually, the last point established).
sT t uTon any poin. on .he curve
Backsight
Backsight onto any other point on the curve, with the deflection angle
that is sighted on, set on the horizontal circle. (Follow the rule of th f ^ Pirt
backsight a n d short foresight to re d u c e the effect of sighting error1111**1
n n i n t farthest a w a y on the curve.) s>a , , d sig ^ t
Plungethe telescope to
Plunge to face
face iin
n th e d i r e c t i o n t h e l a y o u t o f t h e c u r v e i s p r o c e e d in g .
Turn the Angle to tM Next1 Poln^ ^ ^ (he instrument t0 read the angle
" *
Continue the Layout c u r v e js r e a c h e d o r a n o th e r obstacle i s
C o n tin u e th e la y o u t u n t.l th e
encountered.
T S Z S S Z - * - * * '
Nte "as is" if short chords are being used to lay out
/-.n ttriiip d
chords are being used, additional calculations of new long
chords from the new set-up point will be require .
PROCEDURE FOR MOVING UP

Refer to the notes for the curve calculated in the previous Section. The Table of
Results for that curve calculation is repeated here for ease of use.
Table of Results from Page 16-20
Arc in Deflection Total Total Short iLong

Station
Feet Increment Arc Deflection Chord Chord
14+ 17.75 PT 17.75 1 16' 16" 307.18^ 22 00' 00"y 17.75 299.68/
14 + 00 50 3 34' 52" 289.43 20 43' 44" 49.97 283.16
13 + 50 50 3 34' 52" 239.43 17 08 52" 49.97 235.87
13 + 00 50 3 34' 52" 189.43 13 34 01" 49.97 187.66'
12 + 50 50 3 34' 52" 139.43 9 59 09" 49.97' 138.72
12 + 00 50 3 34' 52 89.43 6 24 18" 49.97' 89.24
11+50 39.43 2 49'26" 39.43 2 49'26" 39.41' 39.41'
11+ 10.57 PC 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 -3 6
moving up 0
Step 1 After laying out st, ti
fteid engineer from es, , blis^ fmn, ,he PC.. , ge bush prcvcMS <hc
-''0 a n d the rest of the curve.
S te p 2 The field engineer moves the instrument to 12+00 and sets up over the point.
11+50
Step 3 The field engineer decides to backsight on the PC (Longest Backsigh
0 00 00" on the instrument. O and^
Always obtain
the longest
backsight.
S tep 4 After backsighting, the field engineer plunges the telescope to sight in ,h
the curve is proceeding. F Igm ln the direction
BACKSIGHT TO
fur th estPOINT
ON THE CURVE
FORESIGHT IN
d ir e c t io n c u r v e
is p r o c e e d in g
vu
S te p 5 w -------- x g m a i n o t e s , t h e .
a n d d ir e c ts th e h e a d c h a in to n g in e e r tu r n s th e in s tru m e n t to 9 5 9 0 9 "
12+50. U re s h o r t c h o r d o f 4 9 .9 7 t o e s t a b l i s h P o i n t
S te p 6 Referring to the original notes, the field engineer turns the instrument to 13 34'
01" and directs the head chain to measure the short chord of 49.97 to establish Point
13+00. If long chords are being used, the field engineer uses the chord formula and
calculates a long chord of 99.74 to measure from the instrument setup.
1 6 -3 9
. , -I4.S0 another bush is in the line ot sight and prevents iay-
r ja r
. . , ^ s n and sets up over v
The field engineer backsights on the previous setup point at station 12+00 (longest
S te p 8 backsight) with the deflection of 6 24' 17" on the instrument (The deflection of the
point sighted on!).
Moving Up ^
S te p 10 Referring to the original nor
* * - - r r r r r ^ r . 43. .
49,97 ^ establish Point
a*
s ,.p . - s s r a a - r i s s r - ^ . <
' ' " , " " . l|J. t '. . i r is
1 6 -4 2
T e rrninlogy
T h e o r y a n H /-n 16-44
Off Observations 1 6 -4 4
et ( ) C h o r d E a u a f
t cluations 16-45
C o n , i n u i ng E x a m p l e
16-46
f , set Cur v e I
pr . L a y o u t Da t a 16-46
P r o c e d u r e f or Of f s e t r
, b e t C u r v e Lay o ut
16-47
SCOPE
When a field engineer is laying out a route, it is good practice to locate the control
points outside the construction area to avoid the points becoming obliterated as the
c le a r in g , cut and fill, rough grade, and final grade work are performed. Offsetting
right or left o f the limits of construction can provide a safe location for this control.
Along the straight areas o f the route, offsetting is a simple process of running a line
parallel to the centerline. When a curve is encountered, it is again a simple process
o f running an offset curve line that is parallel to the centerline. With the exception
o f calculating and measuring different chord lengths, the same procedure described
for laying out a curve along the centerline is followed.
16-43
T E R M IN O L O G Y
To describe the direction the curve is
being offset, several terms can be used^
As the route increases in stations, offset
right is used to describe establishing
control to the right of the centerline.
As the route increases in stations,

offset left is used to describe establishing
control to the left of the centerline.
Other terms used to describe the

direction of the offset are "in" and "out.
Offset in occurs when the

curve is being offset toward the radius TO END OF
PROJECT
point o f the curve and the length o f the
radius is shortened. As a result, the
smaller radius used in the chord formula
has the effect o f decreasing the chord
lengths used in the layout.
Offset out occurs when the

curve is being offset away from the RADIUS POINT
radius p o in t of the curve and the length
of the radius is le n g th en ed . As a result,
the larger radius used in the chord
formula has the ef f ect o f increasing the
chord lengths used in the layout.
On the construction site, the symbol is used to designate a oi,
offset point. This symbol is used on stakes as well as in the field book p 3n
that is offset 20', simply write 20' on the stake. L * * 3 Pint
THEORY A N D OBSERVATIONS
The Fundamental Change is the Radius

The only real change from the standard horizontal curve is
that the radius and the chord lengths change for the offset
curve. The deflections stay the same, and the stationing stays
the same. Calculations are simple and only require the
calculation of new short and long chord lengths.
The Offset Curve is Radial

In route layout, stations on the offset line are used just as the)
were on the centerline. That is, when a curve is offset, the
original stations are used even though the new arc lengths 01
the offset line are larger or smaller than they were originally
This occurs because the curve points are being offset radiall
from the radius point o f the curve. Refer to the illustration fc
these relationships.
16-44
offset curves
T he S ta tio n in g S ta y s th e
Because the offset curve is Co -h*
engineer can use the same to he radial ,
Ihe layout of the offset curve ni"8 hat is used on the crn,the, Centerl'ne- the field
_ _ _ tne centerline when performing
The Deflection Angles Stay th q
Recall that the formula used to cairn? . 6
curve layout deflection angles i!
radius and the arc length. When a cu ve
,s offset, the radius and the arc length
w ill change proportionately Th
deflection angles used to lay out a
offset curve remain the same as the?
were for the centerline layout y
The Original Noteform is Continued

Because the stationing and the deflection an*i
the original note form can be used by simnl 8 ^ Stay the same for the offset curve,
and long chord lengths to be measured P Vaddmg columns that list the new short
o ffset ( ) CHORD EQUATIONS

There are several methods used to calculate the long and short chords for offset
curves. One is to calculate by using the same formulas used earlier for calculating
the centerline chords. The other method is to use a proportional relationship factor
that is determined from the radius.
Changed Radius
In these formulas, the offset is added or subtracted from the radius depending on
whether or not the offset is out (+) or in (-).
Short Chord = 2(R)sin(lncremental Deflection)
Long Chord = 2(R)sin(Total Deflection)
S I based oa P Z S Z 2 Z Z
or long chords.
Radius . Multiplier
Original Radius
16-45
C O N T IN U IN G EXAMPLE
Using the example t h a t is used throughout this Chapter, I = 44 ^ _
Sta = 12 + 72.18, calculate offset curve data for an offset of 5o> out
Table o f Results on Page 16-20 for previously calculated deflections^61"to^
Using the chord equations, calculate a sample short chord and 1 chord
Short Chord for 50' Station = 2(400 + 50)sin(3 34' 52")

Long Chord to Sta. 12 + 50 = 2(400 50)sin(9 59 ' 09, =^156.06'
^
450
U s in g p ro p o r tio n s , th e m u ltip lie r is 4Q Q = 1 .1 2 5
F o r th e s h o r t c h o rd o n a 5 0 ' , u s e th e o r ig in a l c e n te rlin e s h o rt c h o h
t h e m u l t i p l iie
e r . 4 9 . 9 7 t i m e s i1..i1z2o5 = 5 6 . 2 2 o r t------------------------------------------
h e s a m e a n s w e r a s a b -- o v e- F
F o r a n y lo n g c h o r d o n th e 5 0 '
~ , m u l t i p l y t h e o r i g i n a l' c- e- n t e r l-i n
c h o r d t i m e s; tt hh ee mm uu lmt i pp l1 1i Ve/Xr .. F o r t--------

M. W
h e -----l o_ n wg c h o r d t o 1 2 + 5 0 , 1 3 8 . 7 2 t i m e s
156.06', or tt hh ee ss aa m m ee aa ss tt hh ee pp rr ee vv ii oo uu ss cc hh oo rr dd ee qq uu aa tt ii oo nn .. 125 =
O FFSET CURVE LAYOUT DATA

T h e T a b l e of Results for th a t c u r v e c a l c u l a t i o n is r e p e a t e d h e r e f o r c a s e o t use
Table of R e s u l t s _______________________________________________
50' O ffs e t 50 O ffset
D eflection T o tal S h o rt Long
S h o rt Long
Station D e fle c tio n C h o rd C h o rd
Increm ent C h o rd C hord
14 +17.75 PT 1 16' 16" 22 00' 00" 17.75' 299.68 19.96 337.14
14 + 00 3 34' 52" 20 43'44" 49.97' 283.16' 56.22 318.55'
13+50 3 34 52" 17 08' 52" 49.97' 235.87' 56.22' 265.35
13 + 00 3 34' 52" 13 34'01" 49.97' 187.66 56.22' 211.12
12 + 50 3 34' 52" 9 59' 09" 49.97' 138.72' 56.22 156.06
12 + 00 3 34' 52" 624 17" 49.97' 89.24 56.22 100.4'
11+50 2 49 26" 2 49' 26" 39.41' 39.41 44.34 44.34'

11 + 10.57 PC 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 6 -4 6
s
Y
' a hub and tack at [nat

thaT;*SUre
point
16-47
chapter sixteen
Step 3 Move the instrument to the offset PC, set up, and level over the point. Sight onto k
centerline PC with 90 degrees on the instrument, and turn to 0 degrees to creat ^
offset line parallel to the back tangent o f the centerline. Or, preferably, go as f 6 *n
is visible on the back tangent and set an offset point. Sight onto that point fro ^ 38
Long^S 5 offset PC. This follows the principle of "long backsight and short foresight
Short F.S.
S te p 4
Refer to the offset curve calculation T able o f R e s u lts on P a g e 1 6 -4 6 and follow the
procedure for laying out a horizontal curve. Turn the same deflection angles and
measure the new chord distances.
16-48
ouiuiuary ^
N u m m a ry
iMPo r t a n t p o in t s
" z r r ves are used - an types of co , .

construction: roadways, bridges,
Horizontal curves are bas,a
The radius and tangent are " 3 SmP'e C'rCle-
The angle between the tan PerPendCUlar at the PC and PT.
Degree of curve is defined diffan<1 'he n8 Chord is half of the 1 an8le-
Many of the curve formulas Crent^ ôr highway and railroad curves.
The radius and deere^ ^ n the simple circle and right triangles.
c . * '" a-
with coordinates. 10ns and chords, or by using radial layout
Deflection per foot is a useful
curve points. constant in calculating deflection angles to
Curves are not laid out by measuring arcs; they are laid out by measuring chords.
w h h T to ^ eaSi6St
Perform any checks that are possible when calculating or laying out a curve.
Record curve data systematically so it is easy to follow and to lay out the
curve points.
Moving up on a curve is used to avoid obstacles.
Offsetting curves puts the stakes out of the way of the construction equipment.
Simple proportions can be used to calculate offset curve data.
The curve was supposed to be to the left, but it was laid out to the right.
An incorrect I angle was entered into the computer.
The degree of curve was used instead of the I angle in the formulas.
Failure to divide the I angle by two when it was used in the formulas.
The curve was for a light rail system, and the wrong definition of degree of
curve was used resulting in a slightly wrong curve layout. It had to be
removed.
The errors in chaining accumulated and the curve didnt tie into the PT within
an acceptable tolerance. ,
W hen laying out the curve, the arc length was used rather than the chord
When* offsetting the curve, . shot. ^ - * - * -

further and further off as we set points.
1 6 -4 9
. The d e f l e c t i o n a n g le u s e d w h e n s ig h tin g b a c k o n th e c u rv e d u rin * a
was u n*ng. causing th e c u r v e to g e t f la t. Up
T h e o ffs e t s e le c te d w asnt e n o u g h , a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n e q u i p m C nt
th e s ta k e s .
U s in g t h e w r o n g b a c k s i g h t w h e n l a y i n g o u t a c u r v e b y c o o r d i n a t e s
,, p i (d> l Q 4- 87 "I" angle = 42 14', R = 900; compute tangent (T), the
length of arc (L), and compute the stationing of the PC and PT.
1 7 r.iven PI @32 +43, "I" angle = 7 29, Da = 9 , compute tangent (T), length
of arc (L), and compute the stationing of the PC and PT.
13 Given- PI @ 5+555, "I" angle of 22 , R= 770 meters, compute the parts of the
curve. T, L, LC, Da, E, MO, Stationing of the PC and PT.
14. Given PI @35+ 24.776, "I" angle = 33 54 , and R = 800 feet, compute the
deflection at every half-station.
15. Given PI @ 17 +59.424, "I" angle = 15 52'12", R = 288 meters, compute the
deflection at every 20 -meter station.
16. Given Da = 3.22 degrees, L = 632.62', and PC = 19 + 73.42, find the remaining
components of the curve.
17. Two highway tangents intersect with a right deflection I angle of 21 35 00
at PI sta. 12 + 12. A 04 30' 00" horizontal curve (Da) is to be used to connect
the tangents. Compute R, T, L, E, LC, and MO for the curve. Compute in
tabular form the deflection angles to lay out the curve at half stations.
Compute the short and long chords.
18. If a simple circular curve has a length of curve 410, and the degree of
curvature (Da) is known to be 21.000, and the station o f the PI is 155 + 75.42,
what is the central angle of this curve?
Two parallel highways 650 apart are to be joined by a reverse curve made up
ot two circular curves of equal radii. These curves are to have a (Da) of 3.
Determine all parts of these curves.
wo parallel highways 1000 meters apart are to be joined by a reverse curve
of 7 n n^ , tW ?jrcu'ar curves f equal radii. These curves are to have a radius
t 700 meters. Determine all parts of the curves.
1 6 -5 0
summary @
21. A 30-foot wide street is

5+78 45 hasn b| ,h Sides of'th e ^ e M 8 Sbdivision and staked 2 feet back
witt, o f f s e t i angle of 22 44' w7,h \ CUrve to the with a PI of
a a ôr both sides of the* * radlus 525'- Calculate the curve
2 2 . G -e n the fonowingcoordin; iesf ;oheStree-
PI=N 1609.70306, E 1602 29 Q7 S ^ m a subdivision:
PC =N 1500, E ISOO pL5 21+46.95
RP - N 1253.02658, E 1764.84659 1614,93798' E 1752.20838
a) Calculate the parts of
b) Calculate the layout d ^ ^ LC L T PC & ^ Station*
stations) for this curve ^ ^deflectlons and long chords for 50-foot
c)
Calculate the +40-foo, offset layout data for the curve.
d)
Wh 3 6 * 6 3~foot offset layout data for the curve.
e)
a are t e coordinates of the stations on the centerline of the curve?
f)
hat are the coordinates of the +40 Offset points on the curve?
g) at are the coordinates of the -30 Offset points on the curve?
23. Given the following coordinates for a curve in a subdivision:
PI = N1502.69181 E5148.33000
PC =N 1224.23000 E4987.56000
PT =N1617.92144 E5448.51345 RP=N770.23041
E 5773.91155 Sta of pi = 6 7 + 89.76
a) Calculate the parts of the curve: I, R, Da, LC, L, T, PC & PT Station.

b) Calculate the layout data (deflections and long chords for 50-foot
stations) for this curve.
c) Calculate the +40-foot offset layout data for the curve.
d) Calculate the -30-foot offset layout data for the curve.
e) What are the coordinates of the stations on the centerline of the curve?
f) What are the coordinates of the +40 Offset points on the curve?
gg)) What are the coordinates of the -30 Offset points on the curve?
24. The azimuth along the tangent from the PC of a curve to the PI is 123 37. The
coordinates of the PC are N2332.34, E6909.87. If the curve has an I angle of
41 22', R = 475', and the station of the PI is 56 + 89.44:
a) Calculate the curve parts Da, LC, L, T, PC & PT Station.
b) Calculate the deflections, and long chords for 50 Stations.
c) Calculate the coordinates of these curve points.
25 On a large highway project, Curve #12 has a PI at 160 + 34.58 and PI
. f xj 1476 89 E 6749 56 Curve #13 on the route is at PI station
coordinates of N 1476.89, b 0 / 4 * 7 W Q0 Curve #13 has an
17 4 + 25.89 and PI coordinates of N 1867.36, E 7335.90. Curve
I angle of 2123 and a radius of 350:
a) Calculate the curve parts I. R. Da, LC, L, T, PC ft PT Station.
a)
Calculate the deflections, and long chords for 50 stations.
b)
Calculate the coordinates of these curve points.
u c) a l lavout data if an instrument is set on project control
d) Co1ntULTm beVcP25 (N1800, E7700), with a backsight onto the PI of
Curve 13.
16-51
. . #,r r . . r v e # 4 o n t h e h i g h w a y h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d a n d
26 A ^ v7 / . t h e P C o f t h e c u r v e i t i s s e e n , h a ,
,h e T ; 'b 'fd ' , a m l I, w ill b e i m p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c u r v e erU iJ ! t> t
h 'Cm l a v o u t w ill r e q u ir e " m o v in g u p o n th e c u r v e f r e q u e n tly . T h e * N >
^ ^ i e d n n d P o in ts i U a n d H W O w e re lo c a te d b e f o r e * . * * *
e n c o u n te re d .
D eflection Total S h o rt
Station A rc D eflectio n
Long
increm ent C h ord
Chord
PT 20+64.! 5 14.15 02 15* 07 30 45* 15 14.15 18400^*
20 + 50 50 07 57* 28 28 30* 05 49.839
' OJ
20 + 00 50 07 57* 28 20 32* 37 49.839
19 + 50 50 07 57* 28" 12 35* 09 49.839
19 + 00 29.08 04 37 41 4 37* 41 29.048
29.048
PC 18 +70.92 0 0 000 00* 00 0.000 ôJon
a) If the instrument is moved to 19+50, what angle will you set cm tu

if you BS the PC? the circle
If vou are set a. 19+50, what angle will you turn to set 20+00?
r t impnt is moved to 20+00 and and the BS is on 19+50, what will
C) l a ^ r o ^ e c i::,: before turning to the deflection for 20+00?
d) I f you are at 20+00 and you turn to a line that is tangent to the circle, what
angle will you read on the circle?
e) If you want a line radial to the curve at 20+00, what angle will you turn
to on the circle?
f) If a line radial to the curve is needed at Station 19+75.23, what deflection
angle and long chord will be needed to set that point, and what angle will
be turned from a setup at that point to establish the radial line?
g) Finally, you have a clear line of sight to the PT and prepare to shoot it in.
What long chord will need to be measured from your setup at 20+00 to
the PT?
h) What is the chord length or an arc o f 100 feet on this curve?

FIELD ACTIVITIES
1. Layout of a Horizontal Curve (2 or 3 persons, 1 hour office, 2 hours field)

Objective: Stake a curve using deflection angle and short chords. Procedure:
With an I = 31, an R = 600, and a PI station o f 69+34.50, calculate the
deflections and short and long chords to lay out the curve at full and half
stations. Select a spot in an open field to lay out the curve. Locate the PI and
PC and turn the I angle to locate the PT for a curve to the right. Set up on the
PC, and turn deflection angles, and measure chords to locate the points on the
curve. Check into the PT within 0.05'.
16-52
summary (g
2. O ffsetting a Curve (2 or 3
Stake a curve that is offset 50'om fr'' hour office, 2 hours field) Objective:
curve in the previous exercise 1 , m the centerline- Procedure: Using the
up on the PC, sight onto the P i^ ?U ate new shon and long offset chords. Set
50 to locate the offc^t - or bac^ tangent, turn * on - ---------------
3. Moving Up on a Curve (2 or 3 n
curve when an obstacle is encn persons 2 hours) Objective: Move up on a
data for the above exercise Untere(*' Procedure: Using the curve and curve
attempting to lay out station 6*9+50 eJ hat !! obstacle was encountered when
use "Moving up on a C n rv - , u Mve the ,nstrument to station 69+00 and
retaining the original notes. eChmques t0 continue the curve layout while
4.
O bjective L av^ m * Rad'aUy (2 or 3 Persons, 3 hours office, 2 hours field)
In the center nf l ^ *rom any contro1 point on a jobsite. Procedure:
a random c & fle d assume coordinates of North 1000, East 5000, for
ro oint A. Establish a Point B - 300 feet away in the general
t*1C Lcate the PC if it has coordinates of North
y b to y . East 5111.11. Set up the instrument on Point A, sight on B, and turn
the angle and distance to the PC. Using a direction N 45 E to the PI, and the
coordinates of the PC, calculate the coordinates for a curve with an I angle of
14 10 and a Radius of 400 for 50-foot station points on the curve. Calculate
the distance and direction from CP-A to each point on the curve. Calculate
data to lay out the curve from CP-A if the instrument is backsighted onto the
PC. Locate all points to the nearest 0.01.
16
c h a p te r s e v e n t e e n
v e r t ic a l c u r v e s \ '
I ntroducti on I 17-2
Gr a d i e n t E l e v a t i ons I 17-4
E l e m e n t s and Pr oper t i es 17-9
Curve Elevations 17-12
U n e q u a l Length C u r v e s 17-16
Hi gh and Low P oi nt s 17-20
Layout 17-23
Summary 17-26
I n t r o d u c t io n
1 7-3 General
Elevations
Vertical Curves are
1 7-3
SCO PE
Vertical curves are used in design to provide a sm ooth transition between t'
f Cy ! Fe ,USed extensively in highway design to provide a comforta
for r ay S high-speed travel- Vertical curves are also used on site w<
1andscape^dr she8entrance ^ T h l PUrp SeS When designin an elabo1
curves anH îe d engineer should be fam iliar with verti
curves and how they are calculated as well as staked in the field.
17-2
Introduction 0
5e N * L
Vertical curves are entirely different
from horizontal curves. Vertical curves vc * Vertical Curves
lie in a vertical plane whereas horizontal
curves are in the horizontal plane.
Vertical
VC.
* w-i uv.al curves
vui vcs usually exist in the same
area o f a highwav as a
area o f a highway as a horizontal curve w w *
think about looking at abridge that k . ? ' n g v ls u a li a venica' cutve-
boats to pass under it. The bridge starts out It a T * a"W sal'
* ,a ,o rrtc t h e t o r t An n , u . , e s la rls o u * a t g ro u n d le v e l a n d c u rv e s u p w a rd
a l e d on fhe O^h n mV he t0p **begins * downward. As the bottom
,s reached on he other s.de o f the river, it gently transitions into the roadway. In
,h,s scenario
and one at thethree
end. vert,cal curves were used. One at the beginning,
e e one a, the top,
v e r t ic a l JRVES ARE ELEVATIONS

A vertical curve is represented bv elevations . . . , . ,,
calculations that are based on aradiems r 7 . eleva,l"s are determ,ned by
ntkarcf-rtinn thf A f 8 adients (slope) on both sides of a vertical
mtersection, the elevatton at the intersection, and the designed length of the
vertical curve. Unlike hor.zontal curves, there are no deflections or chord
distances to measure to locate a vertical curve. In fact, at the time the vertical curve
is established in the field, there should be no measurements required. Simply
subtract the profile ground elevation from the calculated vertical curve elevation
to get a cut or fill to write on the stake.
Summary of Calculating a Vertical Curve
1 Obtain vertical curve design data from the plans.
2 Calculate the elevations of the design gradient.
3 Calculate the rate of change "r" of the vertical curve in percent per station.
4 Calculate the vertical offset - "y".
5 Calculate the Curve Elevation.
17
Chapin' % r
G r a d ie n t
E le v a t io n s
De f i ni t i ons
Cal c ul at i on of t he G r a d i e n t f r o m PVl to p V|
Ca l c u l a t i ng E l e v a t i o n s on t h e G r a d i e n t
Example
Summary Table
- i i - 1---- 14- - I - -1- - I- 4 - I - 4 - 4

_ l _ J_ _ l _ J_ _ l _ J_ _ l _
djwi Up I I I I I I
+- -I - 4 ^ ^ 4 - |- 4 - 1- 4 4
i i_ i i
I--- I - 1 i -t- - i - -i i r - i - - r 5^ p v i 3
- j _ l___I _ L 1 4 . 1 A. I 4 J 4 L
i 1I 1I 1| 1l 11 11 11 l I 1l ll 1l
r i -
pV n [ r 1 T 1 T I 1 ~"i t r
i i _ 4 ! 4- . 1 4 .- 1 - 4 - - 1 4 L
615 i i i i i ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
STATIONS
SCO PE
Before actually calculating the vertical curve elevation, the field engineer will
need to calculate elevations along the gradient. Even before that, the field eng
will have to understand and be able to calculate gradient. This Section offe
overview of gradient calculations and provides an exam ple of the calcula
needed to determine elevations along the gradient.
17-4
oep in o N S
Slope
T h e te rm s lo p e is u s e d to d e scrib e the
ra tio o f th e ris e in e le v a tio n to th e ru epness f a line. M athem atically, it is the
a n d s h o w n by : n in h o rizontal distance. T his can b e expressed.
U s in g c o o r d i n a t e s , th e s lo p e o f th e lin e is d e fin e d by:
SL O PE O F A R = f j I S E _ y b ~ Y a 6 -2 4
RUN Xb - X a 9-4 5
Gradient or Grade
In road design, the term g ra d ie n t is used instead of slope to describe the profile of
the centerline. In practice, either a gradient is expressed as a ratio of feet per foot,
or as a percent.
For exam ple, a gradient that has been calculated as + 0.0453 ft/ft can be
converted to a percent by multiplying by 1 0 0 .
(+ 0 . 0 4 5 3 f t / f t ) ( 1 0 0 ) = 4 .5 3 %
or 4.53 feet per 100 feet or per station, and converting back:
4 .5 3 /1 0 0 = 0 .0 4 5 3
M ost highw ay plans w ill express the gradient as a percentage. There are several
additional pro p erties associated with gradient that must be understood.
P ositive G ra d ie n t
A positive g ra d ie n t is a line that rises as stations increase.
B
30 + 00
ELEV 650.00
6 5 0 -6 2 5 25 0556V
G R A D IE N T = 30 0 6^ 2 ^ = ^ A / *
A = + 5 .5 6 %
25 + 50
E L E V 6 2 5 .0 0
6 > ch a p te r s e v e n te e n
C ^|
N yr
Negative Gradient as statio n s in crease.
A n cc .iti\ v g ra d ie n t in a lin e th a t falls
B
30 + 00
ELEV 650.00
C
34 + 25
GRAD,ENT = l i r a m = M = - 0176% ELEV 642.00
= -1 .7 6 %
Zero Gradient
A zero g ra d ie n t is a line that n e ith e r rise s n o r fa lls as sta tio n s increase.
ft ------------------------------------------- D
C
34 + 25 38 + 75
ELEV 642.00 ELEV 642.5
_ 6 4 2 .5 - 6 4 2 .5 0 A ft/
g r a d ien t - 3875 3425 450 0
Point of Vertical Intersection

A point of vertical intersection (PVI)
occurs where grade lines intersect. From
one PVI to another PVI, the gradient
lines are straight, and the grade change is
constant. When design conditions are
known, a vertical curve is inserted at
each PVI on the centerline to provide a
smooth transition between gradient lines.
CALCULATION OF THE G RADIENT FROM PVI TO PVI

The following is a road centerline from PVI 1 through PVI 2 to PVI 3 . The first
step in vertical curve calculations is to determine the gradient between the PVls
The sample calculations show the method to determ ine the gradient from PVI 1
station 21+50, elevation 626.34; to PVI 2, station 26+00, elevation 655.06; and
Irom PVI 2 to PVI 3 station 29+25, elevation 643.54.
PV I 2
17-6
gradient elevations 0
Solution PVI 1 to PV| 2
Gradient = - 6?r r>A
*tOVJ
= 0.0638 of constant change from PV\ A to PV\ 2
= 6 .3 8 %
Solution PVI 2 to PVI 3
v t j
0.0354 % of constant change from PVI 1 to PVI 2

= -3.54%
C U LA T IN G E L E V A T IO N S O N T H E G R A D IEN T
CAL
When the gradient is known, or has been calculated, elevations along the gradient
from one PVI to another PVI need to be determined before elevations on the
vertical curve can be obtained. Because the gradient is constant, the elevation for
any station between PVI's can readily be calculated as follows:
Calculation of Gradient Elevations
1 Determine the distance from the PVI to the first full station.
2
Multiply the distance in stations times the gradient, in percent, to obtain
the change in elevation.
Apply the change in elevation to the known elevation at the PVI to obtain
3 the elevation for the first full station. Add for positive gradient; subtract
for negative gradient.
Repeat for each full, half, or quarter station, or any other point until the
4
next PVI is reached.
exam ple
PV I2
26+00
PVI
21+50
6 2 6 .3 4 +( 0.50)(6.36) = ELEV 2 2 + 0
6 2 6 .3 4 + 3 .1 9 = E L E V 2 2 + 0
6 2 9 .5 3 = ELEV 2 2 + 0
17-8
Elem ents and
Properties
* Of t h
* V*
Cutv
o l *b V I T t(l
r , , c C u * v
1 T-t I
* X = 1.5 Station
* s Gradient Elevation = 651 87
T he v e rtical c u rv e is com pletely different from ihc h o n /o n u l curve Kccall the

h o rizo n tal c u rv e is based on the simple circle, and there ate numerous formulas and
c alc u la tio n s req u ired to calculate the parts and layout information for it Ihc scrotal
c u r v e is b a se d on the sim ple parabola uhi ch has one scry basic formula It must be
v i s u a l i z e d that v ertical curves lie in ihc vertical plane Surveying in ihc vertical plane
re lie s on e le v a tio n s ; therefore, vertical cu rses arc based on clcsai.on calculations.
ripAi C U R V E oarts of the vertical curve. Abbreviations
THE VERTICAL to j escribe the p ^ be taken to distinguish between
PARTS OF
have also been
have'^'so6^ " " ôevc,vr -
^ ^noôgy3^ ^ 6**^ *1 r' Z0I' ta* ^ * **
the vertical curve terminology
terms are similar).
Elements ooff the VerticalCurve
the Vertical C urveM . ' ,
Point o f vertical intersection. The point where the two gradients mee^
PVI -'*rcec
Back gradient. This represents the slope of the connecting gradient ~
from the PVI back towards the beginning of the project (ft/ft or %)
gl Forward gradient. This represents slope of the connecting gradiemf "
the PVI towards the end o f the project (ft/ft or %). rortl
Beginning of vertical curve. That point where the vertical curve begi
IEnd of vertical curve. That point where the vertical curve ends ~~~~~~
ILength o f vertical curve (in stations; in all formulas!). ThisJsa

horizontal distance.
One half the length or distance from the BVC to the PVT ori:lVCtothe
PVI. ----
I Ordinate from the P.V.I. to the vertical curve (feet).
yi (Deiween uiv ------

Horizontal distance from the EVC (stations) to station point.
Ordinate distance at any station between the EVC and the PVI (feet).
y2
17-10
* and properties
,gftTlS O F T H E V E R T IC A L C- UnRVE
C
pfK*" A n n +n f a r l -
As stated previously, the vertical curve is based on the parabola. The curve is not
based on a whole parabola but rather a small part of it, }ust as we only use a small
part of the simple circle for horizontal curves. See the illustration here:
PVi
S ym m e try
tfthe theory was not sm u ^ s ^ ^ r c u ^ l T v m nt CO" 'dhbecome rather difflcult

curve fans before the Pvl and
vertical curve calculations simple. Note, however, that sometimes non-symmetric
vertical curves are encountered. They are simply converted to two equal length
vertical curves. This will be discussed in a later Section in this Chapter.
Lj6 horizontal.
Sag C urve
A sag curve is a vertical curve that occurs
when a negative gradient is followed by
a positive gradient.
C rest C urve
A crest curve is a vertical curve that
occurs when a positive gradient is
followed by a n e g a tiv e gradient.
17
C u r v e
E le v a t io n s
E q u a t i o n s of t h e V e r t i c a l C u r v e
17-13
Calculation Process
17-14
Example Vertical C u r v e C alcula tio n s
17-14
17-15 Sum m ary Table
PVl
26 + 0
SCOPE
Just like horizontal curves, vertical curves are designed into the roads we travel to
provide us with comfort and safety. Without vertical curves, there would be abrupt
up-and-down changes as the highway followed the terrain. This would not be
practical for our high-speed travel.
Many factors must be considered when vertical curves are designed. These
include: vehicle speed, height of vehicles, passing-sight distance, stopping distance,
rider comfort, drainage, and appearance. These factors, as well as the difference in
gradient, control the calculated values of each vertical curve.
This text is not concerned with these design factors. An expert in road design
will provide the vertical curve information on the plans. We will take the plans and
calculate the data needed to stake the vertical curve in the field. In the field, a vertical
curve is defined as a series of elevations along a center line.
As stated earlier, the simple parabola is the geometric figure used to describe
vertical curves used in road design. The parabola is used because it provides a
gradual change in direction, is convenient to use, and is simple to calculate.
17-12
e q u a t io n s o f t h e v e h t
"* SitnP ^ t C ^ ' - o n l V

; tr^ l oUrVe
Wf,ere ^ he Usedhas*been d chanes '

y _ , een derived fro
la TOfromPWioou(vs
Tile calculation o f v n
dIcuiation process.e can be used as a the

e x a m p le
PVI= 26+0
EL 655.06
r . (9i ~92) _ (6.38-(-3.54))

21 2(4)
17-13
^ L C U L A T I O N P B C E S S . rflea| c u r v j^
CAL C & S 2Z2S ? * * ---------------------------
----- - r ^ i ^ P ^ v c ' EVC> and *
----------------:------- : .
n rc v io u s ly ^ ^ ^ slo p e in p e rc e n t p et Matron,
Calculate y >s the venica' disu^T

c S S ^ j ^ '- i r ^ S S S * -
EwcS
calc u la tcsfro m th e_ ------- - - v T ^ ^ a d i e n t e le v a tio n to obtain the
- r^ T S tS T d ^ ta n c e y 1 e s t c u r v e , s u b tra c t "y " from the
gradient--------- ^
P P T IC A L C U R V E c a l c u m a tte r o f a p p ly in g w h a t is know n to
EX A M PLE VER fo rm a tio n c o v e re d , it is a s m P T h e fin a l c o m p u ta tio n is to
rcan be accomplished
- * -y * * * for the parabo,a: y - *
.. taken from the plans.

This information is taken _ . Q6
P V l = 26+00 Elevatton = 655.06
3.54%
g) = +6.38% 2
L = 4 stations
Sample Calculation
y = ryf
at 24+50
y = 1.24(.52)
y = 0.31
This computation is performed at all stations on the v ertical curve.
17-14
curve elevations @
SUMMARY
r
07
Unequal Length
C u r v e s
Genera
17-17
u l a l i n g an U n e q u a l L e n g t h Cur y,
procedure f 0 r Calc
17-17
SC O PE
transition th 10nS H 20 eC*Ua' ' en 8 tb v ertical c u rv e w ill not provide th

reasons or h ers et' veen 8 racl*e n ts. T his m ig h t o c cu r b ecause o f economi
W hatever the case* t f ' 6 nly Way a curve can be d e sig n e d to fit the situatioi
to calculatL a S r" CCUrS the calc u la tio n s re q u ire d are alm ost identic
cr - " *
i , i "
7-16
unequal length curves @
general
The illustration shows the geometry of an unequal length vertical curve.
that the length from the BVC to the PV1, and the length from the PV1 to ic^
are quite different. To convert this type of curve into two equal-lengt are
curves, points are established half way from the BVC and EVC to the neV/
designated as PV1Aand PVIBrespectively. A line is then drawn between ^ ^ e\ed
pVIs. This line becomes a common gradient for each of the curves an ^ point of
gAB. A point vertically above the original PV1 is called the C or
Compound Vertical Curvature.
BVC
PR O C ED U R E f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a n u n e q u a l l e n g t h c u r v e
With the geometry of the two vertical curves shown, some preliminary computations
are required before the vertical curves themselves can be calculated. For the
following data, calculate the elevations of the points on the curve.
Example curve
Given:
PVI, =686.45 g =-3.34% g2=+1.23
PVISTA = 44+00 elev 1
L, = 600 feet L 2 = 400 feet.
Calculate the station of BVC, PVIA, PVIBand the EVC.

Step 1
The given PVI is 44+00.
BVC = PV I - L, = 44+ 00 - 600 = 38+ 00
EVC = PV I + L2 = 4 4 + 0 0 + 4 0 0 = 4 8 + 0 0
P V IA = PV I - L ,/2 = 4 4 + 0 0 - 6 0 0 /2 = 4 1 + 0 0
P V IB = P V I + L / 2 = 4 4 + 0 0 + 4 0 0 /2 = 4 6 + 0 0
S te p 2 Calculate the Elevation o f the BVC. PVIA, PVIHand EVC. Jn ^
' curve. PVIclrt +Gradient (in percent) multiplied by Distance (in station9)* f lhis
BVC = 686.45 + [(3 .34)(6 )] = 706.49 ^

P V iA = 686.45 + [(3 .34 )(3 )] = 696.47
PVIB = 686.45 + [( 1.23 )(2 )] = 688.91
'lx + rn . 23 )(4 )] = 691.37
tu r~ _ fi86.45
^
S te p 3 Calculate the gradient gAB between PVIAand PVIfJ

4AD RISE 696 .4 7 - 688.91
Gradient AB =------= ------------------- -- -1.51 %
RUN 4 1 0 0 -4 6 0 0
S te p 4 Calculate the station and elevation of the CVC. Working from PVIA.
696.47 + f (-1.51) (3)J = 691.94
S te p 5 Calculate the rate of change "r" for curve 1 and curve 2 .
Recall, r=
2L
-3.34-(-1.51) _ ,0 1525
2 (6 )
-1.51-(+1.23)
2(4)
17-18
Step 6 u s i n g th e d a ta , calcu l
ate vertical curves.
Vertical Curve Data
Curve 1 Curve 2
oo
+
oo
CO
- 1
o o
+ o
o o o o
+ o o
o o o +
CM + o
CO T4- +
+ N-
CD
^ 4 ^ lO
1 M- J .
1 1 1
1 7 -1 9
High and Lo w
points
GSnera f 0 r the or t o w P o i n t
EqUa" ^for Calculating a Low Point

procedure
SC O PE
When traveling a highway after a rainstorm, it is easy to determine where catch
basins were not located properlywater is puddled up in the low spot of the road.
The catch basin isnt draining water away because it is located higher than the low
spot. The field engineer who is working for a paving contractor on highway
construction projects or even on building sites may be the one who was responsible
for calculating where the low point is to locate drainage structures. This is a very
simple calculation and is based, again, on the formula for the parabola.
;ENEBAL
The determination of the lo
so^hat'the tafa'ti'* 3 by "heêsi'gn r 'OWP 'nt *S general|y performed at
plans. However ? " I T ^ are Parf d
on the Dians th 1 me lnstances the lnrai- 6 t*etermiI>d and located on the
measurement'"3t ^ etermined by Tfield

, ^ calculation
" ^ * *
and
n a curve the fff*ir|enCOUntered wên locating the low point

9i the necessary calculations^ ShUld be PrePared to perform
Igl > igi
Igl = absolute value the general lorat*^011*0^ tbe 8 rad*ents of the vertical curve,
can be estimated n f l 1 PiM before OTafer *be PVI
O - low point (indicated hi, i i\ Slng ttle a^slute values of the gradients
of a vertical?!?! Sh U'd be " * d he high or tow point
If g is iar 6 occurs on the side of the smallest gradient.
igl > igl they

they are
are th? ^ &v
the same, the the
lowloW point
point occurs
occurs after
at the the PVI- If
PVI.
EQUATION f o r t h e h i g h o r l o w p o i n t
The formula given below was derived
The hi^h r lolv f r o m the basic equati on for the
point occurs on parabola. The way it is set up, the
the sido of the calculation of the distance to the high
smallest or low point is determined from the
gradient. BVC of the vertical curve. Therefore,
"x" can fall before the PVI or after it!
x = lL
9i 92
x Distance from BVC to the high or low point
L = Length of vertical curve in stations
g, = back gradient
g 2 = forward gradient
W hen perform ing the calculations necessary, be sure to watch algebraic signs to
obtain the correct results.
procedure F O R C A L C U L A T IN G A LOW POINT

D eterm ine w hat is given and draw a
S1
sketch labeling the known values.
g, = - 2 %,
g2 = +1.6%,
L = 8 Stations
PV I @ 87+00 PVI Elev. = 743.00
17-21
chapter seventeen
-MrV
S te p 2 O b serv e an d m e n ta lly n o te i f th e lo w
p o in t is b efo re o r a fte r th e P V I.
S te p 3 U sin g the low point form ula, su b stitu te r - (- 2 )(6 )

k n o w n v alu es a n d s o lv e fo r the d ista n c e
(- 2 ) - ( + 1 .6 )
fro m th e B V C to the low p o in t "x".
x = 4.444 stations
S te p 4 D e te rm in e the station o f the low p o in t. BVC Station - 8 3 + 00

8 3 + 0 0 + 4 .4 4 4 4 = Station ot Low Pojm
Station of Low Point = 87 + 44.44
S te p 5 D eterm in e the g ra d ie n t e le v a tio n at the In this case, work from the PVI at
low point.
87+00 for 44.44 feet to the low point
location. 743.00 + 1.6(.4444 stations)
Elevation of gradient at low point =
743.71
S te p 6 Determine the "y" tangent offset at the

low point. Calculate needed information to
solve for y. Distance from the EVC
to the low point is 3.56 stations.
Solving for r = -0.225
y = -0.225(3.56)z
y = -2.85
Step 7 Calculate the elevation o f the vertica

curve at the low point. Low Point Elevation = Gradient
Elevation -y
Low Point El. = 743.71 - (-2.85)
Low Point El. = 746.55
Layout
pro c e d u re f o r L a y i n g Out and S f u- General 17-24

a k ' n 9 " Vertical Curve 17-24
i
I
SC O PE
The calcu lated curve elevation represents the elevation of the finished grade. The
field e n g in ee r w ill have run profile levels and the existing ground elevations along
the c en terlin e. Stakes w ill be set at the centerline with the difference (cut or fill)
w ritten on them . T his provides the contractor with the information necessary to
p e rfo rm the w ork on the project.
1 7 -2 3
\
,he field, the field en g in eer needs curve elevation,
GENERAL a vertical curve in the r ca lc u iated usin g the procedures 0mii M
T nd elevations' The 7 ? ^ n " are o b tain ed b y p ro file leveling t e c h ^
ground eie ground elevati PieVatio n b e tw e e n gro u n d " and V
- this j t s * or . a o u t
elevations, the m ay a ls o b e u se d fo r se tt, n g slo p e stakes if *
centerline. Thlsg" ,
1 OUT ANO STAKING A VER TIC A L CURVE

PROCEDURE FOR LAVING ^ io u w w w . d l a y i n j o n . and . - k i n , , , , m
The following is the p
SKP1
S te p 2 Obtain the calculated curve elevations for the vertical curve.
Vertical Curve Elevations

-
P o in t S ta tio n C u r v e E le v a tio n
BVC 24 + 00 642.29
24 + 50 645.18
25+00 647.44
25+50 649.08
PVI 2 26 + 0 0 650.1
26 + 50 650.52
27+00 650.28
27 + 50 649.43
EVC
28+00 647.97
17-24
\ayout
D evelop a cu t/fill sheet and determ ine the difference between the profile gro
Step elev atio n s and the designed curve elevations
C u rv e G ro u n d
S ta tio n Cut / F ill l
E le v a tio n E le v a tio n
24+00 6 4 2 .2 9 6 5 0 .8 C 8.51 \
24+50 6 4 5 .1 8 6 5 0 .5 C 5.32 1
25+00 6 4 7 .4 4 6 5 0 .2 C 2 .7 6 l
25+50 6 4 9 .0 8 6 5 0 .7 C 1.62 \
26+00 6 5 0 .1 0 6 5 2 .6 C 2 .5 0 \
26+50 6 5 0 .5 2 6 4 2 .2 F 8 .3 2 \
27+00 6 5 0 .2 8 643.1 F 7 .1 8 \
27+50 6 4 9 .4 3 6 4 5 .4 F 4 .0 3 1
6 4 7 .9 7 6 4 5 .3 F 2.67 \
28+00
4 G o to th e fie ld an d m a rk th e c u t or fill on th e stakes.

S te p
S u m m a r y
IM PORTANT P O IN Ti sS .
Vertical curves are used to provide a sm ooth transitton betw een gradients
Vertical curves are based on the parabola.
Rise divided by run is used to determine the grad.ent m percent or feet per foo(
Equal length vertical curves are symmetric.
The location of the low point of a vertical curve is needed for drainage.
Unequal length vertical curves are calculated by converting to two eqal
length vertical curves.
. Vertical curves are laid out by writing a cut or fill on a stake.
M ISTAKES A N D E R R O R S F R O M T H E F IE L D
Didnt check calculations TWICE.
Forgot to put the negative sign on the gradient.
Failed to check the gradient elevations by calculating to the next known elevation.
Added instead of subtracted the vertical offset "y."
Calculated the V value and didnt use the signs properly.
Wrote cut instead of fill, and fill instead of cut on the stakes.
Q U E S T IO N S A N D P R O B L E M S
1. Sketch a vertical curve and label all of its parts.

2. Compute the gradient between each PVI of a highway profile and the
elevation of each full station on the gradient.
ft
P o in t S ta tio n E ie v a tio n
PVI 25+00 623.09
PVI 31+20 600.45

PVI 35+70 612.98
PVI 39+30 595.76
PVI 44+10 606.78
3.
Determine the gradient elevations at 5 0 -fo ot stations between the points on
the follow ing highway profiles to three decim al places.
PI = 20+50 E L = 501.00
PI = 22+70 E L= 516.87
PI = 25+60 E L = 506.00
17-26
___ _ tne gradient elevations at 2 0 -meter intervals b
the following highway profiles to three decimal places.
P l= 1 + 0 0 0 .5 7 3 E L = 8 18.356
PI=2+300.453
EL=792.657
PI=4+110.758
EL=811.857
PI=5+125.342 EL=819.236
Given the following information, calculate the vertical curve and provid
curve elevations at half stations.
6 . Given the following information,

curve elevations at half stations. calculate the vertical curve and provide
P o in t S t a t io n
E le v a tio n L e n g th
PVI 14+50 602.35
PVI 19+00 611.32 500
PVI 25+50 598.76
Given the follow ing information, calculate the vertic:al curve and provide
curve elevations at half stations.
P o in t S t a t io n E le v a tio n L e n g th
PVI 19+00 611.32
PVI 25+50 598.76 700
PVI 33+23 614.59
8. A +1.5 1 2 % grade meets a -1.485% grade at station 33+50, elevation 535.00.

Vertical curve = 400 feet. Calculate all parts of the vertical curve at half stations.
9. A -3.168% grade meets a +1.405% grade at station 11+50, elevation 745.00.
Vertical curve = 800 feet. Calculate all parts of the vertical curve at half
station intervals.
1 0 . G iv en th at L = 800 feet, g = -2.333% , g 2 = +1.667% , PV I at 36+20, and
e le v a tio n = 4 4 2 5 .2 3 , d eterm in e the location and elevation of the low point and
e le v a tio n s on th e cu rv e at even stations.
G iv e n th e fo llo w in g v ertical curve data: PV I at 5+ 440.793; L = 300 m eters g,
1 1 .
= + 1 .6 1 2 % ; g = -1 .4 4 0 % ; e lev atio n o f PV I = 722.12 m eters, calculate all parts
o f th e v e rtic a l c u rv e at 2 0 -m eter station intervals.
0 cha p te r s e v e n te e n
, , , , * grade at station 63+00 elevation 3, s

A
12. ^ _5.23% a "ooTfeet.
grade_ meets a + '-43' all and
parts of the vertical curve
elevation. ^ at Ml
r
V
st
VCrl'nsl C alculate the loW p % grade at station 118+50. elevati
A
station-^ meetS goo feet. Calculate all parts of the vertical cUrv*
13. A +- 12v; r[fcal curve = poin, of the curve.
a, ?ull stations- Calculate at station 415+00, elevation 3312 (
at tu* , a + 1-332 ' f 11 mirts o f the vertical curve at w ,
14. Ver,Ca'
A -2-6-7 cufve = 700
Calculate thefeet- CaJand
station ^ Ovation o f the low point of the entv* *
stations.
VC,
. n -2 432% grade at station 12+00, elevation
, 5 . A -1.153% grade m t Calculate all parts of the vertical curve at
Vertical station and elevation of the summit of the curve? U
a f 2 353% intersects a grade of -1.212% at station 77+70 whos*
16. A grade of - the distance back to the BVC is 600 feet, and tk
d!stancento the EVC is 450 feet. Compute the elevations of the full station,
on this u n eq u al length v e rtic a l c u rv e .
17 A orade of +5.343% intersects a grade of -1.012% at station 53+30 whose

elevation is 882.25 feet, the distance back to the BVC is 300 feet, and the
distance to the EVC is 600 feet. Compute the elevations of the full stations
on this unequal length vertical curve.
18 A grade o f-3.421 % meets a + 1.243% grade at 5 + 600 and elevation 243.439.
The lengths of the unequal curve are LI = 2 0 0 m and L2 = 100 m. Calculate
elevations on the curve for 2 0 -meter stations.
19 A mile long coaster that is advertised as the biggest and baddest ever designed
is being built. Going up the first hill, the gradient is +60%, and going down
the hill is -75%! The elevation of the intersection o f the gradients is 650.00
at station 15+00, and the length of the curve is planned at 600 feet. The profile
of the ground under the proposed coaster track is: (Station, Elevation) . . . ( 1 2
+ 00, 455.5) (13 + 00,450.0) (14 +00, 443.8) (15 + 00,437.1) (16 + 00, 425.0)
(17 + 00, 420.0) (18 + 0 0 , 412.3).
a. Calculate the station and elevation o f the BVC and EVC.
b. At 50-foot stations, calculate the gradient elevations.
C. Calculate the curve elevations.
d.
Compute the height of the coaster above the ground from the profile
information given.
e.
At what station is the high point on this roller coaster?
2 0 . Develop a spreadsheet that can be used to solve vertical curves.
FIELD A N D OFFICE ACTIVITIES
Vertical Curve Stakeout - ( 2 - 3 persons, 3 hours) Objective: Calculate and

stake a vertical curve. Procedure: Profile at 5 0 -fo o t intervals a 600-fooi
straight line that goes across a sm all stream o r ditch. D eterm ine the statioi
and elevation o f the stream . Plot the profile. S elect th e stream or ditch as th<
n f? h,e P V L ^ se i = -2.an d g 2 = + 1 .7 5 %
4u0 teet. C alculate the vertical curve. D ev elo p a c u t/fill sheet that lists th>
ation, Ground E levation, C urve E lev atio n , and the C u t/F ill fo r each station
If available, w rite the cu t/fill on stakes at each c u rv e point.
17-28
c h a p te r e ig h te e n
q u a n titie s
Introduction
Area
Average End-Area Method
Grids and Contours Method
Summary
introduction
General
18-3
SC O PE
obstruction surveyors (field engineers) are p erso n s w h o can m easure distances,
? C eât*on^ anc* are also relied u p o n to p ro v id e areas o f pavem ent or
concretpUmeSHHveart CUt r rock cut o r w a te r c ap acities, or yards of
is deD endenf I r ,0 0 1 0 m any th er ^ u a n t^tie s *T ^ e m e th o d o f co m p u tin g quantities
ch T f o l , T T " " * , t a t avail able. I f , d e fin e d geom etric figure
i t If the fien r, , 0 r eadi l y a v a i l , l i e to solve the
be required The H aS n 'v c l i;lc,"le(i g e o m e tric s h a p e , th e n o th e r m ethods may
and d , e , Z ' * ' d' f Id e n titie s is n e e d e d b e fo re th e p ro ject begins,
%" * Ph . d a s a s -b u ilts a . th e e n d o f t i e p ro ject
18-2
introduction 0
ot
T o c o m p u te jo b s ite q u an t'
involve d e te rm in in g the e l l v 'f * ' fie,d Measurements
d ista n c e s w ith a ch ain or . *l, ns f points by levelin bc raadc' This May
d ista n c e s as w ell as the l? Station r the use o f r m T * ^ 5** or by measuring
v o lu m e. It is th e r e s p o n s i b i r l ^ 'n.ales o f Points can be ,S,m p,e clevons d
m eth o d o f fie ld m e a su re ' y * tlle field engineer t , Uscd to determ ine area or
A re a s r e ^ ^ g T 'd ">* E ? * * * " * " **
len g th , w id th , a n d h e ig h t to be c n ! ! ^ a " d Volumes require
m ig h t not be a v a ila b le in such c l Z T ^ ' ^ da,a av**Me
n e c e ssa ry to o b ta in so m e ad d itio n . aS th ese' ,l be
th e n e e d e d d a t a f o r th e * CT Temenls to obtain
M e a s u re m e n ts fo r a re a and volum e Ume C a,cu la tio n .
a p p ly in g b a s ic d is ta n c e an d ele v r * n th ' ng More than
d e te rm in e th e lo c a tio n s and e le v .t " m easu rcm en ts to
v o lu m e is to b e d e te rm in e d ft S u u ^l* * Whcre ,he
th e tim e to c o lle c t d a ta e v e ry w h e re .h > " l practlcal to bike
e le v a tio n . T h e r e f o r e , i,
c a lc u la tio n s do not g i e c ,h al v o lu H
approximations must be made and-.ver.i , yp, cany
fie ld e n g in e e r w ill a n a ly z e t h e I T , ' Je ,c rm in ^ - T h e W
re s u lt in th e best esti Volume = LWH
If th e p r o je c t is a ro a d w a y , c ro s s - s e c tin n i .
th a t is n e e d e d to c a lc u la te v o lu m e . If the p ro je c t fs T ,he daUl
b o r r o w - p i t le v e lin g c a n b e u se d to d e te rm in e J 1 ex cav atio n for a building,
th e v o lu m e . F o r m o re in fo rm a tio n on r e v a ions o f grid points to calcu late
r e f e r e n c e Chapter 7 , L e l Z g c ~ c t i o n m g and b o rro w -p it lev elin g .
GPS is
becoming the
primary method
GPS has become an ever-present tool for determining quantities. GPS
of quantity
systems are attached to pickup trucks or to all-terrain vehicles, and constant
measurement.
readings are taken as the vehicle is driven across the jobsite. Real-time data is
collected for thousands of locations and recorded for use in calculating the
elevations and coordinates of the points. This data is then automatically loaded into
softw are that w ill prepare three-dimensional models of the area. Design elevations
can then be entered and the final elevations of points on the site computed. This
inform ation then becom es part of the site layout data and is easily located with the
GPS unit or w ith a total station.
It should be mentioned that sometimes volumes can
be determined by using no field measurements at all. For
instance, the contractor may be paid for the number of
truckloads removed. This isn t a particularly accurate method
since the soil that is removed expands or swells and takes up
a larger amount o f space than the undisturbed soil. It is
sometimes accurate enough, however, depending on how the
p ro ject is bid.
18-3
Area
e a llity to determ ine area on the jo b site is im p o rta n t fo r sev eral reasons. Many
ma erta s are purchased based on area such as o n th e sq u are fo o tag e o f forming
constnirVSC*Uare S0C*. .SC*uare fe e t d ry w a ll, an d on num erous other
Quantities1 0 1 1 S' In additio n to n e ed in g th e a re a fo r d eterm in in g materials
quantities, area is the key to vo lu m e calc u la tio n s.
s-rgflMlNlNG a r e a
& T h e re a r
T here are m any m ethods o f Here
here. ol determ ining area a r
ew are illustrated and described
Counting Squares
P lo ttin g a fig u re to scale o
sectio n al p a p e r a n d counting ,h Cr SS'
can d e te rm in e approxim T,- K qUares
E ach sq u are
square feet. Incomplete M I1 b" of
the edges of the cross-V cT a'0ng
visually combined and averaged *
Planimeter
d eterm in in eth p haniCai digital planim eter is a quick method of

sh aP~ f w n t o ? ! 'rre 8u lar|y - t>aped figures. The ^regular
outlin e o f the <jh 6 and the plam m eter is used to trace the
resu lts in a ^ nputh n g a scale factor into the planim eter
resu lts in a digital readout o f the area.
Digitizer
The area of any shape can be determined
quickly by the use of an electronic
digitizing board and a special pen A
scaled drawing of the shape is placed on
the board and, by touching the points,
the pen is used to obtain the coordinates
of points. The drawing is then digitized
and the coordinates can be used to
determine the area of the figure.
Computer
Programs are available with formulas and methods that can calculate area quickly on
a computer. Standard geometric formulas or coordinates of points may be used to
determine standard shapes or irregular areas with the computer. The method used
will be dependent on the field data that has been collected. If a total station has been
used, it is likely that coordinates are available and a simple spreadsheet can be
developed to determine the area if specific surveying programs are not available.
G e o m e tric F o rm u la
Area = b ( h! + h2 Although a shape at first may seem irregular, it is often

[ 2
possible to break it into smaller regular shapes such as
b
squares, rectangles, triangles, or trapezoids, etc., that w ill ll
k ____ J allow the use of standard geometric formulas to determine the
area. This method may be cumbersome because of all the
;
bxh shapes that may need to be calculated.
^ Area = -
2
18-5
^ chapter eighteen
Cr0 ss-Sec..on Coord.naes a(a j

When cross-settto rapjd and
^3yrr5=
information for P coordinates u .
These
These points used as comjne ^the area> follow the procedure described i
p o m t s can be u
,o determine area To See (he fo,|owing Table for an example of this

Chapter 15, Coordina e contains both cut and fill areas. In this case, part 0f
p r o c e s s f o r a cross-section r)ine and part is to the right. When this happens>
the cut area is to the letopositive ( t 0 the right of centerline) and
) cross-section coordinates.
Area oy u o u ru iu c
Left of Centerline Right of Centerline Right of Centerline

Cut Area 1 Cut Area 2 Fill Area
120 117
92 X 92 X 90 * T -
O
90 X 5 90 X 20
8
90 X 20 90 X 0 85 X 25
100 X 25 92 X 0 87 X 15
X
m
O
oV"H
o
90 X 5
120 X 40
117 X 19
95 X 10
92 X 0
^ 1 5 ,5 0 5
X 450 X 5675
\ 14.500 \ 4 6 0 \ 5760
Difference = 1005 Difference = 1 0 Difference = 85
Divide by 2 Divide by 2 Divide by 2
Area = 502.5 sq.ft. Area = 5 sq. ft. A rea = 42.5 sq. ft. of
Fill
Total Cut Area = 507.5 sq. ft.
1 8 -6
area
Trapezoidal Rule
Q u ite o fte n , the area o f irreeu lar u
m lh,t . bre .f 0 r d e *e rm in ing the a m o u n t " ,he co" >" site. This
u r e g u la r sh ap e f p aving. A lthough it is DO k, required f r landscaping to the
o f irre g u la r sh ap es, ty p ically , co rap l b,e t0 de,e ^ almost exact areas
c a lc u la tio n p ro c e ss to ob tain the made in the measurement and
fo rm u la u se d fo r irre g u la r shapes is the " a" accePable range. A standard
a re a s fro m a co m m o n b aselin e into e a u a ltraPezo'dal rule." This essentially breaks
by th e a v e ra g e o ffse t fro m the baseline , fervals and then m ultiplies the interval
in te rv a ls a re u se d . T h e trap ezo id al formula 1 -8reater accuracy is needed, smaller
Area = x ( ^ l i ^ + h 2 + V i )
m e a s u r e m m if fro m !h ^ " terv a l b etw een the offset lines, "h" is the offse
m e a s u re m e n t fro m th e b a se lin e to the lim it o f the irregular shape, and "n is th
n u m b e r o f o ffs e t m e a su re m e n ts.
T h is illu s tra tio n show s w here sod
m u st b e p la c e d on a p ro ject. U sing the
d a ta in th e illu s tra tio n , an d the trapezoidal
fo rm u la , th e a re a o f th e irre g u la r shape is
c a lc u la te d a n d sh o w n here.
T h e r e a re th e p rim a ry m eth o d s
o f d e te r m in in g a re a o n th e jo b s ite . A ny
o f th e s e c a n a n d a re u s e d su c c e ssfu lly
s o m e w h e r e e v e ry d a y . P ic k th e o n e th a t
fits th e d a ta th a t is a v a ila b le .
2 +0
Area = 10( + 5.1 + 6.0 + 8.3 +10.5 +10.1 + 7.7 + 3.1)
2
Area = 518 sq. ft.

A v e r a g e E n d - A r e a
M e t h o d
18- 9
1 8 - 1 0
Example
18-10
L / AREA 1 + AREA 2'

VOLUME =
27 ' 2
SCOPE
Most volume calculation formulas contain within them the form ula for an area,
which is simply multiplied by the height to determ ine the volum e. For instance, the
area of a circle is pi times the radius squared. The volum e o f a cylinder is the area
of the circle times the height of the cylinder. If an area can be determ ined, it is
generally easy to determ ine the volum e.
In road construction, the shape o f the g ro u n d m u st be changed to remove the
ups and downs of the hills and valleys for the p lan n ed roadw ay. O ften, mountains
of dirt must be moved to create a gentle grade fo r the roadw ay or to create an
a ignment that allows for high-speed travel. If soil and ro ck are m oved, payment
ts required by the ow ner to the contractor. P ay m en t fo r th e rem o v al and placement
irt is typically on a unit-cost basis and th e c o n tra c to r w ill be paid p er cubic yard
determinaf^6 Wl11 be 3 separate Price Per c u b ic y a rd o f r o c k . A c c u ra te
w a n ts a n Jn . * 6 v o u m e m o v e <l is c r i t i c a l t o t h e o w n e r a n d c o n t r a c t o r . E a c h
w a n ts a n a c c u r a te v o lu m e s o p a y m e n t f o r t h e w o r k is c o r r e c t .
18-8
1
average end-area m ethod (JD
GgNEPAL
F o r h ig h w ay an d o th e r route
su ch as ra ilro a d s o r c a n als projects
are th e p rim ary
the v o lu m e o f c u t o r fill In ! f 'nin8
p ro je c t is lo c a te d b y c e nte r l l d the
fro m w h ich c ro s s-s e c tio n s are m S' akes $A/
to th e rig h t a n d le ft o f th e ^ l T " excavated
SOIL &
GPS O n 7an d K P6' ,0taI ROCK or
G P S . O n la rg e r jo b s , p h o to g ram m etrv
(m e a s u re m e n ts fr o m ae rial p h o t o s ) ^
u s e d to d e te r m in e th e c ro s s-s e c tio n
efficiently. Regardless of the method ....a
f in l c r
o s s - s e c t,io n
used, the original ground is cross-c f
s e c tio n e d th ro u g h o u t th e p ro ie c t anH Ctlone(* b e fre the p roject begins, cross-
C o m p a ris o n s o f th e fin a l cross-sections'"toss-sectioned at the end of the project,
d e te rm in e th e v o lu m e m o v ed . e n g in a cross-sections are used to
In fa c t, a tte m p ts a r e m a d e to m atbhemaCficaH n h f | IIS Whe" 3 p r jeCt S co n stru cted -

th a t a ll th e s o il th a t is c u t is u s e d a s T f i ^ a H * am Unt f Cut and fi" so
a v a ila b le , b o r r o w p its w ill b e do o b .a .IT h ^ ^ " " 0 t e " Ugh SOi'
shows several <uatinnc , o o b tain th e so il th a t is needed. T his F ig u re
s h o w s s e v e r a l s ta tio n s o n a ro a d w a y a n d illu stra te s c u t and fill sectio n s and the
transition
. from fill to cut. This tvne or
of tra n s it^ f
transition is typical andj occurs constantly
o n r o u te s th a t a r e u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n .
centerline
As cross-sections are taken in the field and plotted, the areas of the cross-
sections are m ost easily determined by using the elevations of the points and their
locations from the centerline. These become the cross-sectional coordinates. See
Page 18-6, earlier in this Chapter, for a discussion and example of calculating area
by coordinates.
wuLifnrm
. s
1 8 -9

^ r r tO O ,umc is computed by us\n&^

a REA voWO.vhc VJ method uses the end art^
g N t> AB action* * * ; aVCrngc nd* 2 L average is then muVtipH*
. s u,.iwccn \ L
.( ^ 4 ^ )2 7
V ^ ,He cross-sectional end-
volu ^ lC^ E(inr 0 - - ; : X u b ,c feet in one
,u M d '^ ncellc n ts the rds.
- rcpresen^tn 27" rep**' s to cubic
* Kr * ^ i r c S f ' M j i t o n
^ A' d . " d diVidi" 8 A A
cubic >r J - .A r t ^ l j L
volume(c u b c * * ^ ' = V 2 , cctions in meters, and the areas

,h b e tw e e n th e ^
L is .b c 'c " ? 'hbC
in u"
ihisform" '
rnetets-
are a.so
* als , f average end-area for one
.rates the mcthbd ,h section of cut or ftU. When
-ample d em ons js used lor eac delermined.
The fo..o,n^ y This same wU| have to
*"0nt T a 2 i o ^ b0thC
there is a <ran
100 153 + 250.

Volume 2
V o lu m e = ^ ( 2 0 1 .5 0 )
V o lu m e = 746.3 cu. yd.
10
G r id s a n d
C o n to u r s M e th o d
General 18-12
B o r r o w Pi t 18-12
Contour Areas Method 18-14
SCOPE
A method known as borrow-pit leveling can be used effectively to determine
volume where a grid is more easily used than cross-sections. This might be for a
building excavation, a pond, or anywhere the volume from an excavation is needed.
It can also be used when the shape is a mound of dirt or some other material that
is piled up, and the volume is needed. If there isnt time for field measurements,
volume estim ates can be made from topographic maps using contours. This Section
covers the two methods that are used to determine volumes in concentrated areas
on a jobsite.
1 8 -11
GENERAL When the fill or excavation shape con form s to a common solid sh
cube, cylinder, or a prism , common geometric formulas can be used*? SUch a
is irregularly-shaped with variable d ep th s, then the borrow-pit or
method works very well. When contours of an area are known ^
volumes by contour-areas can be used for quick estimates. The best ^
depends on the sp ecific project co n d itio n s w h ere th e volume is to hmet^0<l toi.0f
and on the measurement information available. The engineer m ^ deterîo **
situation and select the method that will yield the most accnro* $t ana,y?e I?
shortest time. rate rults ^
In any m ethod that is used, the intervals between gridlines *
intervals, are important for accuracy. The greater the distan F tbe cntou
gridlines, the less the accuracy o f th e v o lu m e s that are computed Cp betWeen lb
the interval betw een g ridlin es in th e b o rro w -p it m e th o d in hilly te * CXamPle
m any elevation changes will be o v e r lo o k e d . I f th e in te rv a l is 10 f rnUn *S l0 fee/
terrain, the g reater d etail w ill p ro d u ce better results I f th e Sr ^ Ver the $am
contains num erous elevation changes, a smaller grid interval w h t u F U^ and
achieve a cceptable accu racy in the v o lu m e computations be needed
B O R R O W P IT
. nprforming grid leveling or borrow-pit leveling was described
The procedure tor pert wasn>, discUssed there was that the grid must be
in Chapter 7 U v e M * because it will need to be used in the future every time
monumentedandrer this is performed several times during the
vo'umes are require ^ ^ , paymen, can be made to the contractor for the
material moved Of course, the grid will also have to be re-established at the end
fthePWhen the'grid hesTabtished, standard leveling procedures are used to

determine the electio n of each of the grid intersections The borrow-pit method
0 volume computations is based on knowing the area of a grtd and the average
depth of the excavation for the specific grid. By using the average height formula
shown here, the volume of soil removed from each grid area can be determined, in
formula form for cubic yards:
_ A re a f h i + h 2 + h 3 + h 4
V o lu m e ( 0 Ubic Yards) 27 I 4
Where Area is the grid area in square feet, "27" is the number of cubic fee
in a cubic yard, and "h" is the height of the calculated area of the grid square. Ai
example is demonstrated following the next paragraph.
If the metric system is used, the areas will be in square meters and the heigh
difference will be in meters, so no conversion w ill be required. The formula fc
metric borrow-pit volumes is:
V olum e(Cubic meters) ~ A re a +h2 +h3 +h4 x

4
Note that this method works accurately for only one grid at a time. If sev
grids and the height differences are com bined, the accuracy o f the volt
calculations will become unacceptable.
18-12
9rtds and contours method @
Example
Area = 5 0 f3 4 0 ] = i 750
Volume =
Volume = -lZ50- f P + 0 + 10.1+ 9 5

27 t 5----------
Volume = 1 ~ ? .(4 g)
Volume = 317.59 cu. yds.
95.0
96.2
Area = (50)(50) = 2500

2500 193.5 - 86.2) + (97.2 - 88.4) + O S j ^ S M + j g li^ S ^ )
Volume =
27
' 7 3 + 8.8 + 13.2 + 6.9

2500
Volume =
27
2500
Volume = - ^ r - ( 9-05)
27
Volume = 838 cu. yds.
18
CO N TO U R A R EA S M ETHOD
If volumes are needed quickly, and the only informat.on that ts available cosisls
of contours from a topographic map, the "method of contour areas ' can be used.
This involves identifying on the topographic map the area that will be cut or filled
and determining the area of the contour that will be enclosed. The area of each
contour that will be covered will need to be determined. To obtain the volume, the
areas of adjacent contours are averaged and multiplied by the contour interval.
The formula that is used is similar to the average end-area formula.
Ai + Ag
Volume = C
Where "C" is the contour interval, "A, is the area of enclosed by one
contour, and "A," is the area enclosed by the next contour. This formula applies to
both the English and metric systems as long as the units are consistent. If using feet,
dont forget to divide by 27 to obtain cubic yards. For greater accuracy, use a
topographic map with closer contours. For example, the following contour map
shows a depression that will be filled. The key is to be able to determine the area
of the contours that will be covered with the fill. An electronic planimeter was used
to find the contours that are shown in the following Table. The contour interval of
2 meters is used in the formula to determine the volume between contours.
C o n to u rs
C o n to u r (m e te r s ) A r e a o f th e C o n to u r (m 2) V o lu m e (mi3)
122 125
202
120 77
109
118 32
52
116 20
30
114 10
Volume = 393 m3
1-14
Summary I \
|MPo b t a n t p o in t s
Quantities of all kinds are constantly required on the construction site.

. Standard geometric formulas can be used on standard shapes.
Irregular shapes require the use of special formulas and methods.
If the coordinates around an irregular shape are known, the area can be easily
determined.
To obtain more accurate quantities, use smaller intervals.

Cross-sectioning and average end-areas are the most effective method of
determining volumes along a route.
Grid elevations are most effectively used to determine volume for concentrated
areas.
Area is the key to volume computations.
MISTAKES a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f ie l d
Assigned negative coordinates to a cross-section.

Used negative coordinates when calculating the area.
D idnt separate out the cuts and fill volumes, and added them all as cuts.
Field crew recorded the wrong grid size for the borrow pit.
A benchmark was off and the cross-sections for several hundred feet were wrong.
Forgot to divide the volume by 27 to get cubic yards.
Skipped a cross-section, and used two non-adjacent cross-sections resulting
in volum es that were way off.
QUESTIONS A N D P R O B L E M S
1. For the cross-section shown, use
geometric formulas to determine
the area.
2. For the cross-section shown, use

coordinates to determine the area.
18-
3.
irregular area shown.
4.
r the irregularly shaped pavem ent

5.
own, calculate the cubic yards o f ___ 15.
ncrete if the depth o f the co n crete 20
10 10
4 inches.
30
20
a) What is the volume of cut between 57+50 and 58+00?

b) What is the volume of cut between 58+00 and 58+50?
c) What is the volume of cut between 58+50 and 59+00?
d) What is the volume of fill between 57+50 and 58+00?
e) What is the volume of fill between 58+00 and 58+50
f) What is the volume of fill between 58+50 and 59+00
g) What is the cross-sectional area of fill for station 58+50?
h) What is the cross-sectional cut area for station 58+50?
i) What is the volume of fill between 58+50 and 59+00?
j) One of the objectives of road design is to balance the amount of cut and
fill. Is there enough cut in this area of roadway to supply the amount of
fill needed here?
18-16
7. If station 22+00 has an end area of la s
area of 334 square fe e t vu+o. u 45 sciuare feet. and station 23+00 has an end
8. For the illustration shown, what is
the volume removed from Grid 1?
the volume removed form Grid 5?
12 W hat is the total amount of cut for
the figure shown?
13 Compute the volume of cut if the top of a hill is completely removed from
above Contour Level 650. The areas of the contours were determined using an
electronic planimeter. Use the data in the following Table:
E le v a tio n 650 655 660 665 | 670 | 675
A re a (ft2) 8903 7590 5024 3123 '1 1489 1 150
14. For the figure shown, what is the volume of soil, and what is the volume of
rock that will be removed?
25
15. D eterm ine the amount of concrete in the abutment shown in the following
illustration.
1 8 -1 7
\
AND OFFICE ACTIVITIES

1 . Irre g u la r Area - (2-3 persons, 1 -2 hours) Objective: Determine the area
field
an irregular shape. P ro c e d u re : Locate a straight sidewalk bounded bv J
irregularly-shaped area of grass. Select a starting point, and measure and ma_?
5-foot intervals along the edge of the sidewalk for a distance of up to 1 00 f* f
Using a cloth tape, m easure o ffsets to the limits of the irregular shan
perpendicular to the sidewalk at each 5-foot interval. Using the trapezoidJi
rule, calculate the area o f the irregular shape. ai
2. Calculate Volumes from C r o s s -s e c tio n s - (2-3 persons, 6 - 8 hour
Objective: Cross-section and calculate volume for a proposed roadway
Procedure: Go to a field and establish the centerline o f a 300-foot-long road
at 50 -fo o t stations. Determine the centerline elevations by profile levelin
Cross-section each o f the stations at intervals o f 10, 20, 30, and 40 feet to th
right and left o f centerline. P lot the cross-sections on grid paper at a horizontal
scale o f 1 " = 10 feet, and a vertical scale o f 1" = 1 foot. Start the grade of th 1
proposed road on the ground at centerline at 0 + 0 0 with a slope o f -2 % towards
the end of the project. Calculate the grade elevation for each station. Assumi S
a base o f 2 0 feet, and side slopes o f 1 to 1 , plot the base and slopes on ea h
o f the cross-sections. Using coordinates, calculate the area o f each cross
section. Calculate the volume in cubic yards for the proposed highway
3. C a lc u la te V o lu m e s f r o m a B o r r o w P i t - (2-3 persons, 4 . 5 ^
O b je c tiv e : Perform borrow-pit leveling and calculate volume. P ro c e d u re *
If
possible, locate an area where there is a slight depression. Grid the area in 10
by-1 0 -meter sections. Mark the intersections with lath or flags. Run a le 1
loop from a benchmark and establish a TBM in the area of the grid. Follow the
grid-leveling procedures described in Chapter 7 and determine the elevations
of the grid intersections. Assume that the ground is to be cut to 10 feet belo S
the elevation of the TBM. Calculate the h for each grid intersection. Use the
borrow-pit volume formula and calculate the volume o f each grid. Add the
volumes to determine the total volume to be removed.
1 8 -1 8
chapter nineteen
layout techniques ^ ^
Introduction l 19-2
Control 'l 1 9 - 9
Methods 19-21
Line 19-36
Grade I 19-46
Vertical Alignment I 19-56
Sticks and S t r i n g s l 19-61
Summary 19-69
I n t r o d u c t i o n
1 9* 3 Plan
19-5 Rules of L a y o u t
19-7 C h e c k the L a y o u t
19-8 Learn from M i s t a k e s
SCOPE
This entire text has been written to prepare persons to perform surveying tasks oi
the jobsite. Topics to this point have concentrated on basic surveying measurin;
skills and calculation processes. This Chapter is written to bring all of thos
activities together into the common activity of layout. There are many surveyin
me; "dsulhat can usec* t0 lay out points on the jobsite and there is no exa<
u/h h 1 at ust used. Time, equipment, and experience are factors in decidin
1 1 7 ? T f r the layout' The Principles and practices presented hei
hiehwavs C^ n ^ 6 US6d 'R al' tyPes layout such as for buildings, bridge
tr~ p ia n ts u tin tie s
encountered. SometopicswillL^n aPP'y * whatever layout Problem
. ...e
1 9 -2
Although there are many ways to
perform layout of a building, there is
one common theme that is the most
important part of every layout-
planning. All aspects of the layout
should be well thought out. This
includes the jobsite conditions, the
project plans, the equipment available,
the skills of the layout personnel, the
location of control, conflicts with
utilities, etc. Planning begins with the \
very first activity, with the very first . about the last stake or
thought about the project layout, and with the last t oug ôccut with fe
last mark that is placed. Make planning a habit an ay \avout person
mistakes and errors. Plan, Plan, Plan. The mS'.împortance of P'an"'nv vn
are those individuals who have discovered 0ui ways t
preparation in their careers. The following paragraphs p
planning for the layout work.
Visualize the Project beginning

Q g , Familiarize yourself with t e p > . d wHat the
P e,< ion, to f t e >..< . '
-fa u o o W to . * "
and learning the p l a n s a te f
h sketches of
M a n y a m ista k e m sk etch es
t i h e avow ed ^ U o t , e .o r k .
relationship5 m ,8
ss-
X i,r - > ' ' ' *>" . z
. iu*r * *" r '* |4tUh. %k other* whoh*v ^ J ?
NV- r . ,hc> r r WMM,'hc<* l h c * * * * *
o r u n Uy **? w iling u ^
,NC.| . , %MpcitnK nacm W iih ih * Uyow ^
.........,. , h . . ... * ' * " > * TV

rneincci riMV check * u h o h
VIM the Job site

V imi the mc and walk around H and
over it Be ob<er\ant of .ill that exi<t<-
Start your project field Nook now h\
drawmp a detailed *Kelih of what you
wee Be aware of factors that may
a /leit layout tru ludinp obstructions
sin h as hills, trees, or buildings (as
well as the structure not yet built') Look for secure locations where
" s .. .........
could he placed and not, disturbed
t.vturhcd Search tor m
S earen for the ....... that
e property corners .. .eVOn,rl
shows
could he placed and not * amj condition if any appear to
*..... *' ,h,,r location and condition if any appear to he ** * he disturb**
on the site plan R eco rd t u ^ jn , hc tlcs)?n of the project. Record in your
Locate the benchmark tha w ijl be locating when establishing the
fie|d book any n a t u r a l backsights tnat yi
P lan th e O ffs e ts
Come up w ith a plan o f how you are going to establish your offsets. Two to four
le t everyone
fCet inside the column line are common offsets. Keep control towards the outside
know what the
peri meter o f the floor so you don't have to interpolate to obtain control outside your
Standard
lines (or even worse, have som ebody else interpolate your marks!). Communicate
offset will be.
h/* i r>l;in to evervone on ,h,> i^bsite.
B e F le x ib le
Remember, not all your m easurem ents or the actual construction w ill come out
exactly as planned. For whatever reason, as-bu ilt d im en sion s may be o ff slightly
from plan dim ensions. If this is found early in the project, adjustm ents may be
necessary. It w ill be up to the field en g in eer to make the layou t work out by
readjusting o ccasion ally. For ex a m p le, if a w all isn't built ex a ctly on line or to
the tolerance required, it must be q u ick ly d eterm ined if the w a ll needs to come
out or if there is enough flex ib ility in the rem ainin g co n stru ction to be able to
com plete the project to the new d im en sio n s. S m a ll ch a n g es can be m ade with the
approval of the superintendent and the su bs that are a ffected . If the changes are
large, there may be no other op tion than to tear d o w n the w a ll and rebuild it to
the correct d im en sio n s.
1 9 -4
Introduction ^
Id e n tify c ritic a l
lines.
Avoid Cumulative Errors

A v o id When laying out consecutive distances,
cum ulative for example, 25-foot column lines across
errors'. a building, it is not a good practice to C u m u la tiv e E rro rs
individually measure 25' increments.
That is, hold zero and measure and mark
25 feet, hold zero and measure and mark
25 feet, and so on. That process
notes introducing errors that will
up and cause a large error in each
essive point located. It is a better
tice instead, to hold zero at the
, and use the increments on the
n to locate and mark 25 feet, 50
75 feet, and 100 feet. This practice
s to prevent cumulative errors from
ing problems in the layout.
f V too cfc***t* *< ** PorMtffM*
n s ., u m p lr v ,H .s i l " * K . k * > * h - m l * h o t ^ M > h h J u W|! ,
f vx, .nt ** MW * **h*" ,* ^ MI h *** *<* dlw^ * 1 w
... -*< .ml . .Ic.Uvsl in .ln.il l.in * th* t h|MCI TKu
.l .i Kr in s iliitir*
Curround th Sit* with C "" sure ,ha, tong Y-eMt**' amt .turn Iokm^
he MIC - h .tw y * on the ouuutc of Ihc pmjeo ^
- rc *j;Cbktigh^ wm.utomatic.lly occur
longct
Always fo u r
Place Four Point* to a Linhodon ayout. always place four monument***^
p o in ts on a
b aselin e . :,r ...
in greater
discussed * * . . 1 1 . . . c W ^ ' e'
^ ^ <m Tkrtw
w o rk to P ractical T o ,,r "" * * jec, , , cc if any tolerance, have hecn hvted V
Review .he specifications fi > P ^ ^ ore and perform the w k to tho*
,hev have been, make a m . idcd, u is assumed that Mandard cotlMtttctk*
vpwifications. It no lolci t J V |n r corccr and you don't know tolerance,,
tolerance will he followed. I ^ fid d cnginecrs w ill not understand tolerances
ask someone who does. m te n . > * kKating everything to a few thousandths or
and will take inordinate a although caisson s have to be correct, laying them
a millimeter or two. For exam p . im e when lhe drilling rig cannot generally
out to less than a hundredth is ^ (jme by locating to within reasonable
tolerances.
Be C o n s is te n t
It has been stressed throughout this text that quality measurements are required for
effective construction surveying. This can only be accomplished if there is
consistency from measurement to measurement. However, consistency is not only
important in obtaining good measurements, it is also important in establishing
good layout. This includes:
Consistent Offsets - Maintain consistent offsets. Do not have a variety of offset
distances. If one offset is 2 feet and another is 4 feet, it wont be long until
something will be built that will be
off exactly 2 feet. It is understood
that sometimes having an unusual
offset is needed because of the
building conditions. Every effort
should be made to communicate this
unusual offset to the crafts so that a
mistake will not be made.
1 9 -6
Introduction @
M arked* b e c o t a k in ~ Stakes
T heirments P!acedr cdemark of he?rKlb?!!atUre The way ,hey are P'a d and
a n d c anm e,h 0 d s - e r eCa" ta" d Surveying- he *yP* " f
e a s ily fo ll^ c n sstent cn f surveyors from a century ago.
a n > StalCCs P laced ^ tlle irfo ts te n s T ^ eyors of today recognize their work
a ttitu d e o f th e inn a c n structfon T he sam e should be able to be said about
C n s is te n t p i !VldUal w ho PlacedThem 1^ Sh Uld reflect the Care and
im p o r ta n t Tf a^***8 T h is i
th e c o lo r o f thp I ery 0 n e k n w s thaMho 6 having a color-coding system is so
im p r o v e a n d la UrVeyin8 rib b o n fo lln Ca r f p ain t the color o f chalk, and
C on* . y o u t w i>l be m ore 1 O a d,stin ct sy stem - com m unication w ill
C o n s , s t e n t M e a SU rin * eas,ly understood.
h a v e stresT ed Sf riing te c h n i< ^ e t th w h a ? easu r' n g ' an 8le m easuring, and

o b ta in e d A llo w in g stand a ^ aVe ^ een Pre se n ted th roughout this tex t
c o n s i s t ^ d re s u lt s - T h is is J p ra c t*c e s or e stab lish in g co n sisten cy , to
v o u r Cnt in y o u r m e a su rin e im p o rtan t in layout activ ities. B e
r n e a s u re m e n ts w ill hav C ?,d s and êw er m istak es w ill b e m ade, and
111 h av e sm a lle r erro rs.
CHECK T H E L A Y O U T
Always it was stated earlier that nl

triple-check! im portant is checking th e T 11^ WaS ^ m St *mPortant Part of layout. Equally
unchecked; nor should the h a^?Ut' ^ ls never acceptable to leave a layout
for the same mistake is Yk ln^ Process repeat the same measurement process,
change. Either chang th e ^ to made again! To check properly requires a
increased productivity nfn? eqUlpment or chan8e * e method or both. With the
check c, e new instruments, time is available to provide a proper
check. Some suggestions on checking are discussed here.
C h an g e Technology
W ith today s extensive use of electronics for every type of measurement, it is
essentia that checks of measurements be made. The best way to do this is to
change technology." In the case of distance measurement with layouts with a total
station, change to a chain, and check distances between established stakes. If
points are being established with GPS, check some of the distances between points
w ith a total station. Any time a series of measurements is made, it is good to change
to an o th er system of measurement to check.
"Mi
Chang* Method
W hen chocking, it is im perative that an altern ativ e m ethod be us
check a layout by using the sam e p ro ced u re that w as used to perfo e
C h an g e the m cthinl o r the eq u ip m en t o r ch an g e c o n tro l points and
from a d ifferen t p rin e s s o r from a d ifferen t d irectio n . If the l a y o rf nt>a 1
u sing m ethod A B C D then ch eck it u sin g m eth o d W X Y Z . If c o n tro l *S
used , then g o to co n tro l p o in ts C D to start th e ch e c k . ^ ^
w ' x'
Check fo r Design E rro rs
W h e n th e la y o u t is c o m p le te , c h e c k th e o v e ra ll s c o p e o f th e p ro je c t and
th e s tr u c tu r e th a t w a s la id o u t c o m p a re s to o th e r s tru c tu re s o r site w ork
d e s ig n e r r o r s th a t c a u s e th in g s n o t to fit, o r c a u s e th e m to lo o k u n u su a l W hat 1 *r
g o o d o n th e p la n s m a y n o t lo o k g o o d o n th e g ro u n d . Im m e d ia te ly inf 0 ^
s u p e r in te n d e n t o f a n y d is c r e p a n c ie s . m
LEA R N FRO M M IS TA K E S
Everyone makes mistakes in layout. Mistakes have been another topic that has
been a constant theme throughout this text. Everyone recognizes that mistakes will
be made in layout. What is more important is that persons learn from the mistakes
to avoid making them again.
1 9 -8
C o n tr o l
General 19- 10
n , a , t he p T he Si t e 19*10
r ot
ssional Surveyor
Se| 19-H
ect the Layout Method
19-11
Designing the Control
19*12
Monumentation
19-13
Horizontal Control
19-14
Vertical Control
19-16
Preserving Points
1 9- 1 7
Referencing
19-18
SC O PE
The most important layout procedure completed during the course of a construction
project is establishing the control to be used for the work. It is absolutely critical
that care is taken initially to produce control points that are exact. How well the
initial control network is planned and laid out will be a major factor in the
progress o f the project, and will affect the perception others have regarding the
com petence o f the construction surveyor. This Section discusses how to establish
the various types o f control, designing the control network, and the tolerances
that m ust be achieved. Before this control network may be utilized, a thorough
understanding o f its origin, and of the network's relationship to the property and
the project m ust be developed.
1 9 -9
\jy
GENERAL
parallel to the s tw c w re . * ^ ^ 7 " b a s ic a lly n o to le r a n c e f o r p rim a ry o r s e c o n d * ^

c ^ r ^ p o i n l s m u st b e lo c a te d a s a c c u r a te ly a s th e m e th o d s a n d e q u lpm ^
can ach iev e. I ^ . S 3

P lan n in g is the k ey to su c c e ss
w hen estab lish ing p rim ary an d se c o n d a ry
control. P lan y o u r w o rk , fo llo w y o u r
plan, update y o u r p lan . P la n n in g h e lp s
to en su re the su ccess o f y o u r la y o u t,
y o u r p ro je c ts, and y o u r c o m p a n y . T h e
ab ility to plan w ell se p a ra te s th e e x c e lle n t
fie ld e n g in e e r fro m th e a v e ra g e o n e.
W h en p la n n in g p ro je c t c o n tro l, th e f ie ld e n g i n e e r m u s t c o n s id e r th e ty p e 0f
p ro je c t th a t is b e in g b u ilt. Is it a m u lti- s to r y b u i l d i n g ? I s it a o n e - s to r y b u ild in g ?
A re th e re m u ltip le b u ild in g s ? Is it a b r id g e o r a w a s t e w a t e r tr e a t m e n t p la n t? T h is
lis t c o u ld g o o n fo re v e r. Id e n tif y th e ty p e o f p r o j e c t a n d d e te r m in e , b y v is itin g th e
s ite a n d b y r e v ie w in g th e p la n s , th e b e s t m e t h o d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a n d th e n
c o n tro llin g th e s tru c tu re .
THE SITE
Is the site urban or rural? If it is an urban
location with limited and congested
access, it might be difficult to find a spot
in the vicinity of the site that will be
undisturbed during the construction. If it
is rural, it is likely there will be unlimited
space to place control away from the
construction site so it is protected.
The terrain must be considered when locating control. If the project is a
bridge, consideration must be made about locating control close to the work, but
avoiding the flood plain if the bridge is over a river. Other considerations include
soil conditions, utility locations, site access, frost-line depth, intervisibility between
points, excavation limits, etc.
If dimensions do It is good practice to verify the site plan dimensions. Your measurements
not match,
between property corners in the field must match the site dimensions and descriptions
c o n ta c t a
found on the site survey. Use your best standard surveying techniques to measure
p ro fe ssio n al
all distances and angles. Situations have occurred where the site dimensions were
surveyor.
not what was shown on the site plan and the project simply would not physically
fit the site as designed. If there is any significant discrepancy between the site plan
dimensions and what is measured in the field, it may be necessary to contact the
licensed surveyor to compare results.
1 9 -1 0
CONTACT t h e control @
sLu0 "8 bcforf (^ ^ AL SURVEYOR

bo^ndar'S"1 * licens'<
site. Do* and 8eoiHetrv *bllshed the
^ o r m ation" ^ Pfoceed * & *
=nsÛct,on surveyofê
documentation f a"d requ*.
monuments piaceri , the property
and a 'R e p d :;^ Ch comer d the
describes in detaU how th SUrVey" hat
Hire a to Dhvr ? d e tc ' Be sure th d sn perform ed- *yPes of equipment used, problems
th e i;~ 3 y recreate the site have provided enough information for you
p r o f e s s io n a l f o r
ensed surveyor and crew *^ ^ ead l^ e rePort of the survey to determine what
any legal Was P rovided for additin accom Plished on the site. Review the legal survey
su rv ey in g . T h e property m a n*es ahout the site,
m a rk e d an d easily id e n tif ia h f ^ T f stablished by the land surveyor should be well
ic e n se d su rv e y o r or a renre* ^ dlere *s a clu esd on about a m onum ent, have the
lic e n s e d su rv e y o r's w ork i entatlve corne t0 the site to explain. The checking of the
r is c lo s e to the property ^ CSpeîa^y critical w hen the project's building line is on
is a lic e n s e d su rv ey o r th t ^ ^ ven ^ a m em ber of your construction firm
s e rio u s ly d a m a g e th e ** ^ erSOn sboidd n ot perform the site survey. A law suit could
s ta tu s Alwavc hi m 6^ n ty tbe com pany, its ability to operate, and its financial
y ftlre som e n e else to assum e liability fo r the site survey!
SELEC T THE la y o u t m eth o d
b a ^ orouSh understanding of the scope of the work and the site, as well as
equipment and personnel that will be available to perform the layout, the
o o layout can be now be discussed and decided. Consultation with the
superintendent and construction foremen is essential in this process as they are
the ones who will be building the structure and they will have decided on the
construction procedure that will be used. The objective is for the construction
and layout methods to be compatible.
For any project, any of the main layout methods- radial, intersections,
baseline offsets, or 3/4/5-could be used. Some methods may be more efficient
Radial? than others for various types of projects. For example, even though intersections
In te rs e ctio n ? m ight be the best method for a rectangular building, the site conditions may be
b a se lin e ? lim iting, and baseline offset becomes the method of choice. Or, a bridge layout
3 /4 /5 ? may be best performed as a centerline offset, but the conditions are such that
radial layout is best suited for the situation.
The superintendent may have strong feelings about the type of layout that
is used As an example, on a project in which 25 buildings were to be built, radial
layout would have been an excellent layout method because of the widespread
location of the buildings. However, the superintendent for the project had had a
bad experience with radial layout on a project and didn't like that method. He
w a n te d to be able to look at the layout and line up offset stakes and be able t Pu
w anted to dc check the work. He required that the method of
L te rse c tio n s'b e used for .he l.y o .l o f e .c h building. That worked great. but iook
iwice radial, intersections, baseline or centerline

o f f s e t l X i . 1 * described in derail later in this Chapter.
1 9 -1 1
xiyouv
- rO N ^ , h. , K<* *.*MkC ^ the |*v)evt i. n>mm

neS*0NlH *** ,*- * u*,,'r', ihc *"*''* *v*UWc ****
... ....... - c ,-..r
k-nk1m_v1*
.>**> .t
O'*"'"1 " . ||Mr .onvuucvion ph*c **Vm*Mv>
m*" iu,Bl ****' ^,u* ^ du,n>1ic >pcof fonowoc*h r n w ^ ,
r s s * ,t,; : ^ ** - * ^ u .^ t v g o .n ^ o b c ^ h .t ^
K ^ I |v |<H W4 | f |kli'
%t* * ,11 hJ>* ,"*,\ T ,. ,>c crc' lc< ncc the yob *' " P*'***^
*".VTw- <<*<**
.<*""I1
Z "' r â,'"pn,al
, ,. obstacles*" ''" cnpc'
list*of
h'ch
thinits ' constde,
pn., ^ ,,,r
* * ' * ? : : > . he * . - * * * ' " u,''" 'cw 'T * dvCTc
n'" " n; r. (r,< obstacle * -h ot in (he area Of control potms.
: L kp * "f m*,cr, ; the structure throughout -be protect.
Jb pro ^"a"pC tee. or a flood P<'"
! , ,.bcr re..od snow ^ Wghwaycrews pave over points o , demoUtinn
' J * ^ f d e s t y" * *n ,,d' 7 hlC m o rk . c a ffo \d tn g .t. lb o x e s .,n iV n ,
fo n stru c....... ^
temporal o f the consinict'on F ^ * * round obstructions and pian
. Safety tn al for worktng through r vVew. E ec(Vve
r a t n ," l V ^ h a s a . teas, t - ^ e r u . n t r o , P< ^ ^ comro> ^
^ r iflv rz ^ n
^ andimeunessof>outwo*m,h
a mi H sj
1 9 -1 2
^ M E N T A T IO N
= s cpcrmane*W
i,r .so\d
easilv identir. s 06 tr uJ^ r
T h fJ m ^ K b c a n d W cU m a r k e d . . r w \ t b o r vxU H oat
* T ^ n c r e l e P t a . c o n c r e t e m o n u m e n t s , p i p e * o r re^ * ' v e m e n t . T h e
b r a s s c a p s , 4 b y 4 p o s ts . 2 b y 2 w o o d e n h u b s , o r i t m a y b e a n a il tn p a le n g th
type of monumentation is dependent on many factors. This may >= avaliabie.
o f the project, the setting (urban or rural), the type of soil, the materia .
beIow the the weather/temperature conditions, or many other factors.
If setting a monument in soil, it
fro s tline! is important to place it below the local
frost line to prevent it from heaving
upwards if the ground freezes. It is
convenient to have abrasscapavailable
to place in the concrete to mark the
point. Wooden hubs are also frequently
used, however it is critical to check
these points frequently because traffic
and rain can easily move the hub
rendering it useless.
Tools and Supplies n essaty materials and

When it is time to establish a monument,have pKmtils (name of a nat
available. These can be lengths of rebar and P P hubs. Eqtnpment
by surveyors), brass caps, bags o concrete, o ^ ^ chisel, sledge,
include a post-hole digger, shovel, backho ,
Reference .
Record the locations of all controlpoints
using physical d e s c r i p t i o n s of the
locations. Each monument should b
referenced to three other permanent r ----mvui
objects,
ret with distances and descriptions
th distances descriptions
of the oobjects shown on a reference report.
b j e c t s shown
Recording several taped distances to the the
point from nearby permanent landmarks irks
will aid in finding the point at later
date. Referencing is described iin detail
at the end of this Section.
Protection
Protect control as well as possible. This may include placing
concrete traffic barriers around the point to keep everyone away.
The most successful ways are to keep it away from traffic,
make it highly visible, and cover the point to keep it free of
debris. A good field engineer will very carefully establish
control points so they will last as long as possible; hopefully,
until the end of the project. To ensure that points are permanent
requires using methods that are permanent. More specific
monumentation suggestions and protection to preserve points
are found later in this Chapter.
1 9 -1 3
~ mT R O L mmonly identified as primary, second
HORIZONTAL CO N TR on the jobsite is c contro, is the most accurate and mos;
HO Horizontal cont hierarchy is that prim y ^ ,ess accurate and less permanent.
and working-
permanent, dary and working
and seconua.^---- in the overall control of the site
Although primary control is the most important in me uwa wumu,, or lft .
control area where it is established. And
Althougn Pcontrol is just
secondary i important for the area where it is established
iust as
w o rk in g control is very important to the craftspersons who will be using h to h '*!*
walls, forms, etc. These types of controls are more specifically described h ^
. outer limits of the site or even off 0f the

P n m a ^rneans
primary means permanent.
P^ ^ ^ It is aat possible from possible
s m u c h as p o s s i D ^ ^ ^ ^destruction
^ end ofand
M easure as
clo se as
possible w ith
th e equ ipm e n t
available.
will be made every uay ai uit, a<uuv< ----- t, us

used when building an 1800-foot pier out into the ocean. To
use the point, only the instrum ent had to be taken to the field.
The shape of the tribrach was etched in the top of the tripod
and labeled so the instrum ent could be attached, and it was
instantly level and ready for work. This seems like a costly
point, but in the overall scope of a hundred-million-dollar
project, a couple thousand dollars for an immensely valuable
i -----V> tVio- mnnPV
OCl/V/l iuui J
Secondary is semi-permanent. Attempt to establish secondary within a chain
Secondary
length (100 feet or 30 meters) of the work. Set it even closer than that if the
control is close
construction activities allow it. Secondary control should be well planned with an
to the work.
effort to have it last for weeks or months instead of just the days that they may
actually be needed. With a little luck, it may even last the entire duration of the job.
Secondary control should be established as close as possible with the equipment
that is available. Measure to less than 100th or less than 3 mm when establishing
the secondary control monuments.
1 9 -1 4
Control
be k a y S(oC " 'iary c o n(rfQ|r Pr,rnary control* 'B an* V 0"8 ,hne' cons,ruct concrete
c o n tro l, 1 - rebardriveP0,"!s' fthe control^ b ards or 4 "x4"'s < >*> be
P o in ts s o t h e y d e n b u b s . ^ in to th e g r o u n d ' fo T " * * b ' te m p o ry .U m a V
y c a n e a s ilv k u sin g Davpm ' ^ o r v e ry te m p o ra ry se co n d a ry
W o rk in g y b e fo u n d . p m e n t o r s id e w a lk s, sc ra tc h an d p a in t
â l m o nt st r'a 1, ymoay
i on s u8Lc 'h u lema ea"
v e .t very
Ity ^ P o r . ^ ^ rem oved or
p o in ts . W o r k i n g ' it from tnoZP by the work as * Close

Ui t. I f tlle w ro1 is really critical .lrection and using different control
T h u m b f o r w o r k in S COntro1 is wrong th 1 >S Where the structure is going to be
y u * T h a t is if * 8 COntro is to a c h t hC ' t/ ucture be wrong. A R ule of
e n g in e e r s h o u ld sete thPeCfication c a l|s for form 1.eSS. of w h a t is com ing b e h in d
b e c a u s e th o s* , * tbem to the near* . orm s to be w ithin Vi inch, the field
c o n s tr u c tio n s Wh0 f Uow ay tak e 1 r *e ss or h a ,f of the F r a n c e
p o in ts w ill s tilirh e y r sh o u ld alw ays place n o ' T ' f ' nCh' philosophica" y the the
in still b e c o rre c t if o t h m T ' " tS closer th an the tolerance so - that
^ a rd s , can fuH to,erance a,,owed

b u b s a re u s e d , th ey o u l l f " , 8 I f
aass nnecessary
e c e s s a r y to
to the
th e w
w oo rk 38 dTo s*e
* 'O fte n w
control only lasts a f ' .ten>working
lines are placid mmutes as the
and cover the r d the crafts come in
put i n X e I With th Wrk they
spray them with varnish. PraCt'Ce l
Check, Check, and Re-Check
operation * âve P0 mistakes. While establishing primary control, repeat every

m in d 'll I f aS* * re e l m e s ' Check differently each time. The subconscious
TT Cn t0 maê same mistake if similar circumstances are encountered.
se 1 erent routes. Use different chains. Turn angles to the left instead of to the
right. Do whatever is necessary to eliminate all errors!
VERTICAL CONTROL
A plan should be developed in establishing a system of benchmarks on site. Often,
the elevation on the plans is some distance from the site. Or, there are two
elevations listed. If more than one benchmark is listed on the plans, run a level loop
betw een them to confirm that their elevations agree. If there is any discrepancy,
contact the designer to confirm which benchmark was used in the design.
W hen establishing temporary benchmarks, follow the best procedures for
d ifferen tia l leveling, i.e., establish or place solid turning points, eliminate parallax
in the instrum ent, balance backsights and foresights, hold rod vertical, and close
the loop. W hen setting benchmarks, consider the following:
P l a f . o t o t o c t a T k ? n o more .h.n 200 fee, a ,.,, in orde, have w o

benchmarks visible from any instrument setup.
1 9 -1 5
T
^ chapter nineteen )
Benchmarks Should Be Solid

B e n c h m a rk s m a y he th e to p s o f sta ke s,
lir e h y d ra n t h o lts , ivbur. a n c h o r h o lts .
h i h /H unts o n s id e w a lk s , e tc . Review
j,,*l walk the site to locate
tli<* Vlll*
S e t a n d M ark B e n c h m a rk s
Paint the objects that were located during the planning phase. Be careful to avoid
Always close
wild, careless markings. Respect the property o f others. Dig holes and pour
level loops.
concrete around rebar if solid, permanent objects are not available in the immediate
area. Place a guard stake to warn others o f their existence.
Always, always, always close a level line onto a known benchmark
elevation. There is no excuse for leaving a loop open-ended. There are too many
possibilities for mistakes and blunders that could rem ain unnoticed if the loop is
left open.
1 9 -1 6
p fi e s e r v i n g co n tro l (J)
be able tQ Us^
p rf f ^ . h e duration or .he
v id e Prot6 , lces "* poin. preservation should
The *> pro,ect? ',0n
fla g g in g Und l<Mh, ng reh

discourageannd Paining ^ eP in>s d
. e Persons fv ne re b a r tr*
to th e m w ith a v e hipl m d riv in 8 close
T f r Chn - ' ^ b e 1; , Tl*
affic barriers around USe Concrete
f the control points he. m st critical
ar ter to place primarv 1 Was Stated
ln ,OCations where th t0ntro1 Points
construction at all wiU be no
P la c e o n C o n c re te ASAP
Move horizontal and AP
placepoints on onto the building or bridt"""3' C nro1
concrete right soon as possible8 Imm structure as
away, first concrete is PouT d t e t y a fr the
elevations should be 1 * 7
building. As soon as the f e . c "
establi'shed h riZ
estab!I shed on it. n,al
This U" e down the
nails
final location of the structure. The
control will undoubtedly still be used
or m any layout activities, but the
perm anent location is now final.
Preserve Line of Sight

hen developing secondary and working controls, be sure to consider how, where,
an w en they are to be utilized. Avoid conflicts with sight obstructions and work
activities which may interfere with the line of sight on layout work. Be sure
w orking lines are clearly labeled and are explained to all crafts so there is no
contusion with adjacent column lines.
ts such as
BEFEBEN C , n r -C
laterd!lne Who might want s to

byanyon to referen Doing
it is neC nermanent obJeCt .. ated
^ S f v e f i e l d ^ U y - u n d e r s t c - d measure
a"
an ^ r e fReferencing
e r e n c in g >s aan 'f t for
. objects that P Qf the location and distances
have referenced^]? cannot, it y

establish a po w n c ing to? Is there a fire hydrant,
K"- 2 5 S S S s
^ R pferences , uut preferably four permanent ox
E s,aB ' isl; a: i : t ,o c f post, A ., s * * .
U\
1 9 -1 8
c o n tro l ( f )
Reference In all Directions from the Point

Here are c o m m e n t s regarding t h e b e s t d i r e c t i o n
to reference.
Ideally.refer-
ence from three
POWER
POLE
directions. CX ^
120 decrees STOP N "* "w-
apart.
.. / ^
light
POLE not w ell-
d e f in e d VERY DISTINCT
N o t in th e s a m e d irect* p le
direction, there is a larp ^ When arcs are swung from references in the sam e
to relocate a point w 'th ^ 63 Wêre actual point can be. It would be difficult
direction. any ^rtainty if it was referenced from one general
A ll d i r e c t i o n s . W hen
very small, distinct are swung ^rom references in all directions, there is a
reestablished with a**ea where the point could be. An obliterated point could be
a degree of confidence in this situation.
R e fe re n c e to D efinable P o in ts
DoinK A T a1^ co'Tlirion references that are used by field engineers to reference
points A few are hsted and described here.
f. 7 ra " 1 ^ referencing to a fire hydrant, select the bonnet bolt that is nearest
pom an mark it. Field engineers generally spray-paint the particular bolt on the
y ran t ey are using. (Don't violate local ordinances by defacing property.) In
your notes, state1 ~ you "have measured to
1Iavc uicasureu io the center oi
me cenier of the
me bonnet
uonnci bolt
uuu painted
Fouubu red."
ooo
o d een
n pole.
p o le . If measuring to a wooden power pole, drive a nail in it. Some field
engineers will put a washer or nut or other item on the nail so it can be distinguished
from any other nails in the pole.
Sidewalk. If measuring to a sidewalk, consider driving a PK nail in a crack and
using it as the reference point.
Tree. Measuring to a tree might seem to be a good reference. But was the
measurement to the center or the face of a tree? Be sure to be very specific in your
field notes. Trees are not good references because there is not a definable point on
the tree. There could be if you drive a nail in them, but many people frown on that.
Thus, trees are generally a second choice as far as using them as a reference object.
Fence. Fences are good references, but care must be taken to properly describe the
particular post being used. Identify it with markings and describe it in your notes
by saying, "the 5th post from the north end.
Building. Corners of buildings are excellent references. Be sure to describe which
corner of the building is being used. Ask permission to make an unobtrusive
identifiable mark if needed. Dont spray-paint a big "x on a building.
Sign post. There are many sign posts along highways. Be sure to clearly identify
the one that is being used.
1 9 -1 9
-Hues
^ chapter nineteen
Stay Within One Chain Length

If possible, stay within one chain length of the point when referencing
one tape length introduces the possibility of additional errors in the me SUreiHeiu
re
o n e t a p e i c i . 5 - ..........
Measure to the H u n d re d th ^ ^ p o in ts to th e n e a re s t 0.0! ft. so the
Measure
point c t t n ^ to
e r the
e l o c aHundredth
t e d a c c u r a t e l y if n e c e s s a r y .
record the distanc
Draw a Clear, Com plete S ketch y ^ ^ ^ a good one if the sketch Q{ ^
The b e s t-re fe re n c e d p o - n t m ^ th e fie ld n o te s h e re ,
r e f e r e n c in g is p o o r .
Field Notes j | e d ssketch

,ow a detailed k e t c h or
Qf eeacn
ach p o i n t i-------
n d i c a t i n g t h e t y p e oorf
T, hI1eCf-------------
ie ld n o te s s h o u ld s h d owire c tio. n to
t o tthe
h e objects
o b j e c t s being
b e i n g referenced.
r e f e r e n c e d . Describe
D e s c r i b e ;all
n n r i th e . d i s t a n c e a n d d i r e c a ^ ^ o in p p r to u se. v o n r
PertTnem1nformadonn that would allow another field engineer to use your reference
notes to locate the point.
MEYER A 171
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PHER
FOKD
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STEV E N S O t S RI PGE Sunny
; 12" rcinperosa
PINE (SLAZEP)
T CUTIK IU
tK. PAINT IV.
I RC
1 >/

U- I xy/
fg t- 7 .. j L__ ___ V -------------
:
1
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1
1 a/ A WESf ffl
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1 ___ 1 | 4 " CONCjCYL V
1 t j X" CUT III TOP
_______ 1 4 Tff-
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NW SRIPGE PAlNTEP
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methods ^
Meth o d s
General 19-22
u
Sln9 the 3/4/5 19-22
^ a dial Layout 19-26
a s e lin e 19-30
r C e d u r e f or B a s
e , ine O f f s e t 19-31
P r c e d u r e for 'nt6rs^ tio n s 19-33

US' n 9 l n t e r S e C ti ngL in e s
19-34
SCO PE
Oiu of the reasons why layout is so interesting is that there are so many unique
structures to lay out and different methods to perform the layout. Over the course of
history, residential structures of all sizes and shapes (square, rectangular, triangular,
and round), along with commercial buildings, 100 mile canals through mountains,
5-mile bridges over bays, thousand-foot tall buildings, irregularly-shaped stadiums,
mulfi-lcvel highw ay interchanges, railroads across countries, and thousands of other
distinctive projects have challenged the layout personnel on jobsites. These projects
are all different in design and unique in shape, but have in common that someone
must figure out a way to lay them out. No matter what the project is, someone has
to put stakes in the ground that allow the project to be constructed as designed. The
chalienee is to useethe best method of layout for the type of project that will be
constructed This Section discusses several common methods of layout.
1 9 -2 1
GENERAL
Some methods of layout have been used since the beginning of time and othe
only recently been used because of newly-available technology. The
surveying may have changed with the new instruments, but the layout m of
used in the field still have their roots in history. Techniques that were
ancient times are still used throughout the world today. Modern instrument^
methods may be used on modern projects, but in many areas, old-world m k
are still used to lay out buildings, irrigation ditches, and roads. No matt ds
method, old or new, someone still remains responsible for the layout. So ** ^
still has to make decisions on the best way to place stakes in the ground mCne
USING TH E 3/4/5
t hnilders o f G re e c e and E g y p t, th e 3/4/5 relationship
S in ce .h e d a y s o f .h e " i te s to e s ta b lis h o r to c h e c k p erp e n d ic u la r

The 3 /4 /5 is h as b een u se d o n cons.ruc o n s . fo o (s te p s o f th e a n c .e n t b u .ld e rs whenever
used every day T o d a y 's fie ld engineer fo llo w s r$ in a ll ty p e s o f c o n stru c tio n -re sid e n tia l,
fo r construc th is re la tio n s h ip is u sed . h ie la * 3/4/5 u s e fu i f o r q u ic k c h e c k s to confirm that
tion layout. c o m m e rc ia l, in d u s tria l, e tc .- - n e v e n w h e n u s in g th e m o s t p re c ise surveying
a tru e 9 0 a n g le h a s b e e n e s ta o th is re la tio n s h ip c o n sta n tly to square
equ|pme;;evIntoCpTumbwl.ls In obstruction, the 3/4/5 is probably the mostused
o f all geometry principles.
tiy using common geometric and trigonometric formulas, the fact that the
3/4/5 is a right angle can be proven. A mathematics text should be referenced foi
more information.
M u ltiples o f th e 3/4/5
To use other triangles similar to the 3/4/5, simply multiply
each side by the same
constant. Some examples are shown.
8
6/8/10
15/20/25
30/40/50
m ethods @
Other Triangles
I t c irc u m sta n c es wa
u se d to o b ta in a rig h t a n ii*t / ^ ere are odlcr com binations of integers that can be
5 /7 .0 7 , IO /IO / 14 . 14 , etc 8 i i ! f n 8le They lnclude* 5/12/13,8/15/17, 10/24/26,5/
r% ndoubtedly, there are many more that could be used.
W ith
The rem
py-th ago re a n . a n g le , th e P y th a g o re a n T h l ^ a.^ et0 use any distanccs to lay oul or check a r' 8' lt
any triangle can a n d 3 2 .5 , in p u ttin g th e o re m is th e to o lto u s e . If the sides of a building are 26.5
be used- hypotenuse o f 41 9 3 -T-vf nund)ers *nto the Pythagorean form ula will yield a
a n g le e x is ts . Recall* 6 e n ^ neer can use this distance to be sure a right
c 2 = a 2 + b2
3/4/5 Requirem ents

U s in g th e 3 /4 /5 is a very sim p le p ro cess, ho w ev er, to achieve the expected results,
th e m e a s u r e m e n ts m u st b e ex act. T h a t is, follow proper chaining techniques
c a r e f u lly . A n y e rro r in th e m easu rem en t o f the distances w ill result in not
e s ta b lis h in g a rig h t a n g le as d esired . O r if an estab lish ed 90 angle is b ein g
c h e c k e d , in a c c u r a te m e a s u re m e n t m ay cau se th e fie ld engineer to m ake an
a d ju s tm e n t th a t is u n n e c e ssa ry .
If u sin g th e 3 0 /4 0 /5 0 -feet triangle, calculations show
th a t b e in g o ff justO .O l in the m easurem ent of the 50 hypotenus
results in an angular error of over two minute*
words, the planned right a n g l e will be 8958' or90 02 d^P
on whether the distance is 49.99 or 50.01. If Sorter distances
such as 3 , 4 , and 5 feet are used, an error o fO O ljh e n
measuring the 5 foot hypotenuse results t
almost 15 minutes! It cannot be je s s e d enough t o
measurements are necessary to o tain 9 0 ang\e.
using the 3 /4 / 5 method of laying out or checkmg
Com m on Uses of the 3/4/5 . be laid out or a 90

The field engineer can use the 3/4/5 anyttme a 90 angl
angle is being checked.
OFFSET BATCBBOABDS MINIMUM
5-.0 FROM EXCAVATION
Layout
The 3/4/5 can be used when laying out the corners of a building, offsetting
at 90 to a highway centerline, and squaring up footing formwork. 8 a pint
Laying out the corners of a 30 x 40' building can be performed usin
The method shown requires 3 persons to hold a single 100 chain at the p o in t^ 5.
Establishing a 90-degree using the 3/4/5
D eterm ine the location o f the point

and the baseline o ff o f w hich a 90
line is to be established.
baseline
M easure 30 feet along this line,

p lacin g a h ub and tack ex actly on
the line and distan ce.
One person holds zero on the

original point while another holds
100 on the point 30 feet away. The
remaining field engineer will take
the chain and will loop and hold 40'
and 50' together. The chain must be
pulled tight in two directions at the
same time. The exact intersection of
the 40' and 50 is 90 to the baseline.
S e t S ta k e / r 1*
and T ack
A stake and tack are set and the
measurements are checked to 50 Check
confirm that a right angle was
established.
30
g | Repeat this process for the other

corners of the building. 40 \ / ' v
\4 0
\ 5 0 / .5 0 \
\
u_ .- A
30
19-25
r a d ia l l a y o u t , . yo u . .<J
lh c pOK<-** ' ' |i>ul ht^
Ih-ci> tJ>'CU"c illu strated *cf

_ - 'f " *
b> icp jm K X " " (h is C h a p te r
I S tu n o * H ''n |a y o U | w o u ld b e
Np c e i l u a 1 j ial layout w ere not o n th e c o n s tru c tio n site. The
^ * Ta** of co^ n
- ' " K ' c o m m e n t s b y " e l d P " > o n n e * ' h * ' iber,
" lc> ; ' " " P" . " n c h u lc J in .1.0 T a b le a rc w ay* to check * , ,
' y avoid .hove p ro b lem s. A l w ^ c a n b e c o s tly . T h .s T a b le by 0
" v;,ul to e lim in a te b lu n d e rs an d m c a u s e c r e a tiv e p e rs o n s in the field ,0
m eans m c lu siv e . * v c rv day. It is h o p e d , h o w e v e r , th a t th e se id e a ,
,.u .
General lim itle s s A n y w h e re a c o o r d in a te fo r a p o in t can be

T he uses o f ra d ia l la y o u t are d s u r v e y in g s o f tw a r e o r C A D software,
lo cated , ra d ia l la y o u t can be . s t a c lic k a w a y . T h is a llo w s th e user to
lhc e x act c o o rd in a te s a rc . , w oulU n o t h a v e b e e n a tte m p te d b e c a u s e of the
c a lc u la te c o o rd in a te s th a 1 c p c r f o r m in g r a d ia l l a y o u t s h o u ld h a v e good
in v o lv e d m a th e m a tic s . y c a l c u l a t i o n s , it a ls o p r o v id e s greater
so ftw a re . N o t o n ly d o e s it a llo w m
Radial layout opportunity to check the radial layout and not taking the time to check is
Anyone w h o .s p e rto rn ,m g radta^ y ^ o p p o rtu n itie s fo r blunder5 C(
requires triple-
checks.
t ^ e TableTha.'ifstsSources o f mistakes in radial layout, and procedures to check

and eliminate the mistakes.
Radial Mistakes and Checks
Radial Layout
Radial Layout Radial Layout Checking
Mistakes from the
Source of Mistakes Procedures
Field
Backsight The backsight had been If the backsight is bad, the
disturbed. structure could be in the
wrong location on the site or
The rod holder went to even off of the site.
the wrong backsight
point. Always triple-check to be
sure the backsight is correct.
Shoot the distance to the

backsight.
Turn an angle from the

backsight to another control
point.
1 9 -2 6
m ethods 0
i n_
Radial Layout
fiad/a/ Layout
Source o f Mistake Mistakes from the Radial Layout Checking
Control Procedures
traverse between the
Control that does not close to
control points did not
close. the specified standards will
result in points that will be
wrong.
Close the traverse precisely.
Re-measure the angles and

distances and perform traverse
computations until the control
meets the standards
established for the work.
Instrument
D idnt set up the A lw ays review instrument
instrum ent properly at the settings and constants. T hese
beginning of the day. |could be changed by som eone
else and cause errors in
readings.
Instrument Distances Slope distance used. B e sure to check the settings
on the instrum ent when
Distances do not check starting w ork every day.
(between points.
IC onfirm that horizontal
distance is being displayed.
R eadout, prism constant parts

p er m illion, etc., should all b e
checked.
C h an g e technology and chain

as a check.
Instrument Angles Not set up over the point. Set up exactly over the point.
Pressed zero set at the Stay away from the zero set
wrong time. button except when sighting
onto the backsight.
Low battery. Vertical
angle used rather than Check the battery often
horizontal angle. carry a spare.
Be familiar with the

instrument display.
Read the owners manual.
1 9 -2 7
Train the person holding the
prism pole in the correct
procedures.
Prism constant was C heck the offset on the prism
wrong. and in the instrum ent daily.
Prism pole bent. Prism
M ake sure som eone hasnt
bubble off. turned the prism around.
C alibrate the prism pole daily.

N o easy w ay to check.
Transposed numbers.
N o te k e e p in g
R ead and re-read the display
No sketch provided.
and com pare the field book to
th e display.
A lw a y s provide a sketch.
Laid out points 20 to 50 Total stations have a built-in

T o leran ce error of 3mm for new
feet away that didnt
check within a hundredth. instruments and 5 mm for
older instruments.
It is impossible to consistently
check radial layout within a
hundredth.
The points that were set To isolate layout errors, check
Layout Procedure
f om the control points everything in every way
were incorrect. possible.
Always check with at least

one other backsight.
Set up on some other control

and reshoot the points.
Measure between two shot-in

points to verify critical
dimensions.
Possibly occupy one of the

building comers, and BS
another comer, and turn
angles and measure distances
to another control point.
Shoot several points, then

flop the gun and recheck all
points.
m ethods @
Radial
Check several points by

laying them out off of your
grid system.
Re-Section from two or three

points onto points you have
laid out.
Eyeball alignment with

existing elements (catch
basins, piers, etc.) to see what
lines up.
Step back and look at big

picture to see if it looks
correct.
Jse existing structures or

landm arks as references to
verify that youre in the
general vicinity.
A lw ays have 2 ways to get

b ack to each point.
L ay out points from one point,

and lay o u t the sam e points
from another set of points.
Turn angle and shoot distance

to another control point.
Check zero set when finished

turning angles.
C oordinate M ath Calculated some layout Put numerous backsights into
points in the field and your computer and print out
entered the wrong the coordinates before leaving
coordinates. in the morning to avoid doing
the math in the field.
Double-check your
coordinates, inverse between
them, and then tape them in.
Figure out dimensions to

existing structures to double
check the locations of your
points.
19-
T h is m e th o d o f la y o u t is u se d to r
residences, com m ercial, and industrial
structures. It d o esn t m atter w hat the
size o r shape o f the structure, the m ethod
o f establishing a baseline and tu rn in g
90 angles and m easuring d istan ces to
locate points is ex actly the sam e. W ith
th e la rg e r, m o re -c o m p le x s tru c tu re s ,
sim p ly use m o re p o in ts. U su ally sev eral
in stru m e n t setu p s w ill be re q u ire d to
co m p lete the la y o u t and to c h e c k the
points. C are m u st be tak en in tu rn in g th e >
angles and measuring th e d ista n c e s so th e b u ild in g w ill b e sq u a re a n d o f th e prop
d im en sio n s. D e p e n d in g on th e p ro je c t, the instrument u s e d may be a b u ild e r's transit/
lev el, a tra n sit, an o p tic a l th e o d o lite , a d ig ita l th e o d o lite , o r a to ta l sta tio n .
B aselin es for Primary H orizontal C ontrol

Baselines are often the foundation on which layout work will be based and are the
primary control of the project. Therefore, the utmost in precision must be used t
obtain the best accuracy. The "best" summarizes everything about establishin
baselinesthe best in planning; the best equipment; the best methods of measu ' ^
distances, angles, and elevations; the best in checks; and so on. It must be righf
E sta b lish in g the Baseline

Place baselines
Baselines should be located in areas that allow the greatest amount of undisturb d
o f f s ite fo r
access and lines o f sight. Often, the very best place for baselines is off-s t
p ro te c tio n . Contact the owner of any off-site property where you are planning the baselinef6
permission to locate it there. e Ior
The plans should be reviewed, and the location of the structure on the sit
is determined. The primary baseline is typically placed so that it is parallel to th!
major axis of the structure. If a secondary baseline is established it will he
perpendicular to the primary baseline. If setting two baselines perpendicular to
the m r m? o n re,the 3ng' e * 'aSt SX or eight ,im es direct and reverse to obtain
the most exact 90-degree angle possible. A verage the angles to obtain a better
determination of the true value. 6 ain a better
One thing that must always be performed when
establishing a baseline is to place at least four monumented
points on the baseline. Mathematicians will say that two
points create a line. For surveyors, if two points are
monumented and one is destroyed, the line used for layout
does not exist. If three points are monumented and one is
destroyed, the line still exists, but there is no checkpoint If
d e L Py0e d tSth e er m nU.? e n te d ^ th e b a se lin e and one *
foresigh t f Whon" srgh'n '.rn a- W j - C ' 8 backsSl>ts and short

backsight that is as far away as possible 5166 ^ 6 ff f the baseline use a
30
m ethods ^
FOR BASELINE OFFSET

S te p place a hub and a tack at one of the front
corners of the building to use as a starting
point of the layout baseline. Set up an
instrument over the point and sight in
the direction of the other front corner o
the building.
Q te P 2 C hain or shoot the prescribed distance

^ ^ w ith a total station to the other front
corner and set a hub and a tack. This
represents the other end of the baseline.
Set at least 2 other points on the baseline.
S te p 3 Set zero degrees on the instrument and

turn 90 in the direction of the adjacent
corner of the building. Measure the
prescribed distance from the plans and
set a hub and a tack exactly on line and
distance.
S te p 4 Move the instrument to the other end of

the baseline and set it up over the point.
Sight the other end of the baseline with
zero on the instrument and turn 90
toward the adjacent corner of the
building. Measure the prescribed plan
and set a hub and a tack.
9 chapter nineteen ,a yo u t < *h nlqu64
Measure along the baseline w hatever

S tep 5
distance is needed for setting up the
instrument to turn an angle and set any
in te r io r p o in ts o r c o rn e rs on th e
structure.
S te p 6 M easure the diagonals to determ ine if

the building is square. I f the diagonals
are equal and the planned dim ensions
have been established, the building is
square. I f the d iagonals are not equal,
the angles can be turned again o r the 3 /
4/5 can be used at each o f the co rn ers to
determ ine w hich is not square.
S te p 7 Set batter boards at each co rn er and

stretch strings o r w ire. M easu re the
distan ces and d ia g o n als b e tw een th e
s tr in g i n t e r s e c t i o n s a s a f in a l
co n firm atio n th at the b u ild in g is the
pro p er size and is square.
S te p 8 Inform the construction crews the site is

ready for excavation.
It has been shown that the baseline-offset method of layout is simple an

straightforward. If the field engineer can establish the baseline in a location th
is safe from construction activity, it will be usable throughout the project. Fi
long-term use, baselines should be well monumented and defined by at least foi
points on the baseline. The field engineer should reference all baseline points !
the points can be re-established if necessary.
)N T E b s e c t i o n s methods @
^
One of the best meth d

ieinstrum'ayOUt Squick and0 accuUSln8interSeCt'n8llnes- Once established, this
stmo e T OVer a point W i^ im " * easil> used b> yone who can set up
s mpla Observation, since str* e r s e c t i " 8 lines, layout can even be checked by
That baselines
that K T f 3s ujb r r o uo
n ddesign
.u 'on, n tr o ?
1 5S0 ** invoWe<1- Adequate time must be taken
Initial setup o f the no Prject site-
intersectig% i L ^ ^ ^t h eTo d o! l idt e fr
i n d e e d v e r y time n is
performed p r ^ e r ^ c^ " 1
rewarding with buildings that V" y
and easy to control curing
during construction.
consTrucUon. ^
Planning
Plannina
E x te n s i v e p la n n in g is th e k e y to b e in g a b le to lo c a te p o in ts b y in te rs e c tin g lin e s .
A b u i ld in g s ite m u s t h a v e c o n tro l c o m p le te ly a ro u n d it a n d ta rg e ts m u s t b e p la c e d
t o c r e a t e a n e f f i c i e n t s y s te m o f b a s e lin e s a r o u n d th e s ite .
Determine first if intersecting
Intersections lines will work for the project. Projects
can work w ith most suitable for this method are those
any shape o f that are rectangular or square and have L __ 1I I
building. columns that basically line up. Projects
that have numerous walls and unusual
dimensions to columns, or have curved
] f n
lines, etc., are adaptable to this method
of layout, but will require more initial
layout work. Review the site plan to see
3-----c3
-- V
1
"E* ---- f
-- - - :.l___r
t y3---- i-1
if there is room to place the control all
around the structure. Will haul roads
j
M -
destroy the control? Will material be - : 3 = i fl-----1:3-----F

stored in such a way that the control
would be unusable at times? i P
Communication
Check with others who will be building the structure and let
them know that intersecting lines is the method of control that
will be used for the project. Talk to all the crafts represented
on the job to obtain their input. Discuss the plan and encourage
them to point out weaknesses that may have been overlooked.
Obtain their ideas for a good offset from the structure for the
control to be located. Find out where they will be storing
materials, building roads, setting cranes, etc. Begin the process
of telling them how important the control points will be so that
they will be careful not to disturb or destroy them.
Establishing the Control

Surrounding the site and locating control points on every column line will require
that more points be placed and monumented. Ensure that points are located outside
the limits of construction and materials storage areas. Build monuments so that the
control will be available throughout the length of the project. Look for areas where
targets can be placed to make the use of the control easier.
19-33
^ otapw
M o n u m # n t tlo n estab lish ed , m o n u m cn tatio n o f all o f the comrnl

Once ihe control Uncs have 1h smic(urc wi|l have m any p o m ts. Som e o f th^
points can beîn i a h s * ' ints that are m arked w ith c o n c re te m on^
should be perm anent co V ^ tem p o rary . T h e r u le o f th u m b Is t h a t T ^ !
w hile others can he huh ;n |l y . n lo n u m c n te d p o in ts p e r lin e . Select
sh o u ld alw ay s he f<r P* su rv fvc , hc c o n stru c tio n a c tiv itie s to m onum em
that are most l.Kc fo r , he are a an d a lso th e expan d ab ility
1W forget to c o n s - d ^ t h e ^ t , ^ ^ ^ m o n u m c n ts . of
D on't forge* j c e p o r big to
the soil lo determ ine how J e e p
Establishing Targets is ,he key to efficient use of intersection

H aving a backsight .tla b le
1t a v ailab on eac
le on eac ^^ j j a c e n t bu.ldmgs.
------' wwon
b u ild in g s , stdewalks.
s id e w a lk s , etc., by
Imes during layout.
,t. PPlace
lace tatargets
rg e ts o
on ....
n ^ ^winHnwsills.
indoW Sills , windows.
w in d o w s , narn**
p a ra p e t w alls,
,__ jting or using sticker
stic k e r targets
ta rg e ts on
on wano,
w - ---------------
^ Uafnrt% n \ a r \n o tn ro ^ tc parapet
w..:. .. ~J
etc. Obtain permission from the owner first before placing targets on a bu'ln-
If necessary, place targets immediately behind the control point itself by bu l ling
mini batter board and putting a nail on the line. Well-placed targets are a m ainr
iho cmrt'PKsful use of layout by intersecting lines. a nia
PROCEDURE FOR USING IN T E R S E C T IN G L IN E S

Assuming that control has been established around the site and that targets
available, use the following method to locate a needed point. are
Example
The illustration at the right is for a
simple building. Control points and
target locations have been established

and are indicated. The superintendent
has requested exact location of an anchor
bolt template at the intersection of lines
"B" and "2". Two instruments are
available. A carpenter has located the
template approximately but needs the
exact location to drill holes in the
template for the anchor bolts.
S to p 1 Set up an instrum ent on "B" line.

Backsight onto a "B" line target across
the building site. Signal to the carpenter
at the anchor bolt location to m ark on
the template the "B" line. A point is
marked on one side and then the other,
and a straight edge is used to connect
the points with a line.
19-34
m ethods 0
S te p 2
S e t u p a n i n s t r u m e n t o n 2 " V in e .
B a c k s ig h t o n to a "2 " lin e ta rg e t a c ro ss
t h e b u ild in g s ite . S ig n a l to th e c a rp e n te r
a t th e a n c h o r b o lt lo c a tio n to m a rk o n
t h e t e m p l a t e t h e 2 l i n e . A. p o i n t i s
m a r k e d o n o n e s id e a n d th e n th e o th e r
a n d a s tra ig h t e d g e is u s e d to c o n n e c t
th e p o in ts w ith a lin e .
S te p 3 T h e in te r s e c tio n o f "B " lin e a n d "2 " lin e

m a r k s th e c e n te r o f th e te m p la te a n d is
in d ic a te d o n th e te m p la te . T h e s e lin e s
c a n n o w b e u s e d b y th e c a rp e n te r fro m
w h ic h to m e a s u re a n d lo c a te th e p o s itio n
o f th e a n c h o r b o lts .
i
S te p 4 Repeat this procedure for any point that
needs to be located within the structure.
Check the layout of the anchor bolts
before the concrete is placed. 2 Line
can be seen that using intersecting lines is also a simple process. The critical part
f using this method is in establishing the control points and targets around the site.
i ' tim e is available to establish control points and targets that surround the site, it
sn he o n e of the best methods of establishing the lines needed for building a
structure.
1 9 -3 5
>
Line
19-37 L o n g BS a n d S h o r t F S
Instrument Angle Error

19- 38
19- 38 Natural Backsights
19- 39 N a tu ra l or Quic k F o r e s i g h t s
19- 39 B u c k i n g In
19- 40 P r o c e d u r e f o r B u c k i n g In O n L i i r
19- 43 Double-Centering
Procedure f o r D o u b Ie - C e n t e ri n g
19- 43
SCO PE
Layout can be accomplished in many ways simply with distances, or it can also be
established with the line of sight of the instrument. Line can be used in keeping
formwork straight, in lining up anchor bolts, when establishing the centerline of
pavement, or on numerous other construction activities. There has been much
discussion in this text on instruments and their uses in measuring and turning
angles. This Section discusses some principles of establishing line as well as some
common practices that are used daily on the construction site.
1 9 -3 6
v-fn i F S
io *"*
T h is p ro c e d u re has h
e x p la in e d as to w h i?n m en tin e d in ea V
lo n g b a c k s ig h t a n c U Sh i,m P a n t and uUl ha* never TeaUy bcen
siz e o f e rro rs in si K ^ rt fo resight is a fim a lfccl lt has on layout. H a v i n g a
d e s c r ib e d b v a n ; n 8 b t m S and in anBi_ am ental principle that reduces the
b e la id o u , o f ? " i ' " k *'**1- e *Ple In ! *"rem em ' T his P " n c'P>e is besl
h a s b e e n e s ia K r a b a s e lin e. T h e huiia- , ustralion show n. a building is to
A , b7 d 100 o ff o f / h * " 8 " S f l b 1W*> f > A baseline
e n d o f th k ^ Were p la c e d on the h ce f Ihe building, and ihe m onum ents
bbaseline's
a s e lin e 8 ls n e*
is e de*d .* T he
^ , 'i ' n . U ^ ,ne
"' on
" 'b
* e grade
8 - 0 ' beam
beam at
the
the w est
wesl
l _ . tb a t a 990-decrrp,*
0 -d e g re e an o ie au statio n has been set on Point B on th e
o n t h e g ra d e b e a m . T h e l a v C3n turne<* f f f the b aselin e to estab lish
as a b a c k s ig h t, o r u se C D ^ erso n bas an P h n at th is stage: use P o in t
Always haê a
Iona and a
S h o r t F5!
If a sighting error of a hundredth

(0 .0 1 ) is made when backsighting on
Point A (100 feet away), and a perfect 90
degrees is turned to the grade beam ( 1 0 0
feet away), there will automatically be a
0 .0 1 error at the south end of the grade
beam. By the time the line is projected
through another 500 feet to the other end
o f the grade beam, the error has increased
p ro p o rtio n a te ly to 0 .0 6 or an
unacceptable amount.
Instead, if Point E (1000 feet away) is chosen as the backsight and the
sam e 0.0 V sighting error is made, and a perfect 90-degree angle is turned to the
grade beam (still 1 0 0 feet away), the error will be decreased in size by a factor
o f 1 0 ( 1 0 0 0 / 1 0 0 ), and the sighting error
onto the grade beam will be 0.00V. If
the line is then projected to the other
end o f the grade beam , the error will
have only increased to 0.006, which is
w ell w ithin the layout tolerance. Long
B ac k sig h ts and Short Foresights are a
b asic p rin c ip le th at should always be
fo llo w e d in any layout situation.
19
IN S T R U M E N T A N G L E E R R O R
M<< I'tn K jn inltwriM i*
li otjWuAinj; lim-tluoni: Mn>
NiiUm fi latjfr jn>l Mtull h j*f tw o tMlill
vith Jimil* ihjii .<nh ilH im l * MW
mimMr ! an Wiih ihr t4*l li(iiwt that
i(r ifc<u uw\l h>' in i it (In*
( v o u m n *f th e m jf lr t turned* 11 m*
M fc')?, hjit )<nrt in iilr.1 cl Ihe hiK'ii
f ' l ' l I" !* feel MH llltvl H llh X.IIIIHIV
ifii'nljf rrim* SiMr !h.it theMtMHini u ill
i h a n f e p t v *i'.n.ill> d ep en d in g o n Ih e
In ttru m e n t Angte E r r o r ______

L in e a r E r r o r L in e a r E rro r
L in e a r E rro r
A n g u la r E rro r 100 a w a y
200 aw ay 1000' aw ay
0.000 feet 0.000 feet 0.001 feet

1 seCiWld
0.001 feet 0.002 feet 0.01 feet
2 secitnd*
0.(X)2 feel 0.005 feet 0.02 feet
S seconds
0.003 feet 0.010 feet 0.05 feet
10 seconds
0.010 feet 0.020 feet 0.10 feet
20 seconds
30 seconds 0.014 feet 0.028 feet 0.14 feet
1 minute 0.029 feet 0.058 feet 0.29 feet
5 minutes 0.145 feet 0.290 feet 1.45 feet
1 degree 1.746 feet 3.491 feet 17.46 feet
Keep these values in mind when turning angles to lay out points. Stay within
the tolerances required by using the correct instrument for the layout.
N A T U R A L B A C K S IG H T S
Always look fo r An excellent practice when establishing
two or more control on the jobsite is to locate some
natural natural backsights that can be used at
back sig h ts any time from any point on the site.
around th e s ite . Examples would be a radio transmission
tower miles aw ay, the beacon on the top
of a water tower, a church steeple, or
some other prominent feature. The pre
construction jobsite visit is the best time
to identify possible objects that can be
used as natural backsights. When the
19-38
---- V^
control traverse *
Possibfeh t R ecohHSe bj ects>tu rn ^ n cle0? eaCh f the contro1 monuments with

protect if r<* tb*s data in th* s to as many of the other control points as
natural*i f l" 0111" ta T l. W field book' Then. anytime during the
acksights can be used n* re:ub^ available to turn angles from, these
N A T U R A L O R Q U IC K F O R E S IG H T S
Natural the jo b T ite.^h s h eh rfT "8 ay Ut on

foresights can e s ta b lis h a o L ' rPfUl
to IU leate
Locate o r
--------- a q u i c k p o i n t to h o l d the
save layout f o re s ig h t o n w h ile w a itin g fo r so m e
time. c o n s tr u c tio n a c tiv ity to ta k e p la c e . An
e x a m p le w o u ld b e o n a h o t jo b s ite . T h e
sun is s h in in g o n th e in s tru m e n t a n d
c a u s in g th e b u b b le to g o o u t o f le v e l
q u ic k ly . K n o w in g th a t th e in s tru m e n t
m a y b e a d v e rs e ly a ffe c te d b y th e su n a s
it s e ts a f te r th e a n g le h a s b e e n tu rn e d , i
ou nn tmh ee llin
in e e oo ff ssig
ig h
h tt tthat
h a t ccan
a n bh e u s e d a s aJ ^ 0(X* Pract*ce is
to quickly set a foresight
tthh ee rro
o dd pp ee rrs
s oo nn tto
o p lace ------ah UuGC* aS a reêrence to hold
the line w hile w aiting for
is tu rn e d u p an d d o w n a H th * 6 ^ rouncb ^ ben the angle is turned, the telescope
a g u a rd ra il p o s t o r e d e e o f a h 1" StrunJent Person looks for a natural point such as
th e fo re s ig h t. O r m ore r v i U1 L g th at Can be rem em bered as being on line w ith
g r o u n d a n d m a rk lin e on it dperson w ill quickly ham m er a lath into the
b e le v e le d hui-L' , . ften ** tb e in stru m en t goes o ut of level, it can sim ply
lin e u s e d to eQf K r * e te le sc o p e sig h ted onto the tem porary foresight, and th at
havina tn t IS exact ^ ne on the desired layout point. This process eliminates
having to turn the angle from the backsight again.
b u c k in g in
In construction layout, there are times when it is necessary to establish a line between
two points that are not intervisible, yet both can be seen from a point between the two
points. For example, points on both sides
/ x of a hill are not visible to each other, but
each would be visible from a single point
on top of the hill. This can occur often in
high-rise construction when line is needed

t o on a floor and the control is on targets that
w
f t have been established on adjacent
D= buildings. The field engineer will not be
m able to set on one of the control points to
u = establish line, so bucking in (also called
t
wiggling in) on line is necessary to
H establish a line on the floor of the building
P 1 1
between the control points.
Bucking in is basically a trial-and-error process. The field engineer guesses
where the line between control points is and sets up the instrument and goes
through the process to see how close the guess was. Seeing the results of the first
try, the field engineer again makes an educated guess and repeats the process. This
is repeated until the instrum ent is on line between the control points. Reference
C hapter 3, Fieldw ork Practices, and Chapter 5, Angle Measurement.
19-39
f The cuu'pnwnl u l f. ">i* * * * * " T , " ? U. "* i slni
. tuptni AlH! J Z '> ' * * n. l eor . 25-faM upc .o m ,ure h
u . m ove the u w .u m c n , th e f n c c a I * * * * - ">.
PROCEDURE FO R BUC K IN G IN O N LINE
S t6 D 1 Review the points betw een w here you

waul to estab lish a line. Ih in k ahoul
u h e re 10 set up ihe in stru m en t to r the
b u c k in g - in p r o c e s s . T o re d u c e
instrum ent error. it is best to set up th e
instrum ent halfw ay b etw een the p o in ts,
i f p o s s ib le . S ta n d at th e s e le c te d
in stru m en t lo cation. Be su re y o u can see
c le a r ly b o th o f th e p o in ts y o u a re
estab lish in g a point b etw een . If th e p o in ts
are h ubs, c o n sid e r p lacin g a targ et on
th em . If p o ssib le , m ak e th em v isib le so
th e b u c k i n g - i n p ro c e ss can be
a c c o m p lish e d by o n e in d iv id u a l at th e
in s tru m e n t, r a th e r th a n th re e p e o p le
w h ere o n e is at the in stru m e n t a n d o n e is
at e a c h o f th e tw o c o n tro l p o in ts .
S te p 2 Set u p th e in s tr u m e n t at a lo c a tio n w h ic h
y o u e s tim a te is h a lfw a y b e tw e e n , a n d
on lin e wi t h th e tw o p o in ts . L e v e l th e
in s tr u m e n t p r e c is e ly .
S te p 3 Sight exactly onto the first point, plunge

the scope, and see how closely you hit
the second point. More than likely, you
wont hit the other point. However, if
you are good at guessing and you hit
exactly on the point, you are on line
between the points and can establish the
required line. If you did not hh the
Point, continue through this procedure.
1 9 -4 0
---- w
S te p * ... " n*ucnihe instrument is
of line. If you arc setup haltway between
the two point*, you can cVoscly ûess
ho* much the transit needs to he mosed
hv estimating m mcasunng turn tai the
line of sight missed the point It the line
of sight was about 1 loot ttom the tatget.
move the instrument one halt toot tit
you aren't set up hallway. a ptoptutmaal
relationship can he set up It you d*nt
knot* where you are set up. mote the
instrument vshereset you think t
S te p 5 M ove th e in stru m e n t, set up. sight,

plunge, ami o h se rsc Repeat the above
steps o v e r and over, m using closer and
closer to being on line betss cen the points
E ach m o v em en t o f the instrum ent should
be sm aller and sm aller as you m os c closer
to b ein g on line. W hen you plunge and
the line o f sight is w ithin aless hundredths
o f the sec o n d p o in t, slop this process and
go on to th e next S tep.
S te p 6 Shift the head of the instrument on the

tripod. When you are within a few'
hundredths after plunging, you should
be able to shift the transit on the leveling
head enough to get exactly on line. Try
this, then sight, plunge, and observe
where the line of sight hits the second
point.
juble-center as a check. When you hit

S te p 7 2 point exactly after plunging, use the
ocedure of double-centering to be sure
your work. Reference D o u b le -
e n te rin g , P a g e 4 3 , for a complete
scription.
1 9 -4 1
Mark th e final instrument lH*lion. Do
S to p 8 tthaifur is necessary to mark the point
JireefIv mulcr the iiisirumcnl by sighting
thnuiph the optical plummet. Drive
huh tt the setup is on the ground, etch a
j*omi if the setup is on concrete, etc.
S te p 9 Establish the required line. Using the

final instrument location and line of
sight, mark other points on the line for
future use as a control line.
S te p 10 Record your work in the field book. For future reference and as a record of your
work, prepare a sketch of the site, and the points and the lines you established
Field Notes for Bucking In

A sketch of the area, the points used, the points established, and the line established
are needed for this activity. Include all inform ation provided, and anything else
you feel is necessary.
pOUBLE-CENTERING
^ % ^ ^ ^ 8h U in e s o re K.
P rojects such as h ig h * * 'd engin r . T h u 'u l"8 pe.rfcc* 9-d** e angles is often
e m g p rojected im o th ^ u r piPelnes and CSpec!al!y lrue in the layout of route
l,n es >s one w hich ^ e bui,di" 8- The b" l h Udm* Projects " e lines are
e *'m.na,es insuumentri^ f " * * "* or Prolonging
^ v errors in the process.
The field engineer should use
ouble-centering in all instances of
prolonging a line. However when using
ouble-centering, the field engineer must
remember one of the fundamental
principles of layout: Always have long
backsights and short foresights. This
pAuble-centering educes the effect that sighting errors might
should be used he principle of double-cem on lhe line bein8 prolonged,
on c ritica l eing turned to establish lavom nn^ sboidd also be used whenever angles are
layout points!! same concept of turning direct ^ exact 90-degree angles are needed, the
splitting any difference, applies30 reverse and Seating the exact line by
th e o d o lite . It ca n e lim fn a t 006 ^ m St ûndam ental f ah operations with a

tim e a p o in t is set re g a rd le J r ! f .^rUfm ental errors and should be perform ed every
s ta tio n . (N o te : S om e C type of instrum ent used, from a transit to a total
th e o r e tic a llv e lim ; . n ew er to ta* stations have dual-axis com pensators that
H o th e v r mStrUm ental e rr rS that are e b d b y double-centering,
th is m e th o d ) ^ COmPen sate ô r sighting errors, w hich should be averaged by
P R O C E D U R E F O R D O U B L E -C E N T E R IN G
U s in g tw o p o in ts , e x te n d a lin e b ey o n d th em by the follow ing m ethod:
Plan and prepare. O b se rv e w h e re the lin e m u st b e p ro lo n g ed and locate control

p o in ts th a t c a n b e u se d . T y p ic a lly , a p o in t th at is c lo sest to the w ork w ill be used
f o r th e i n s tr u m e n t to b e se t up o n , an d a p o in t th a t is fa rth e st from the w ork w ill be
u s e d a s a b a c k s ig h t. D e te rm in e w h ere to se t a p o in t th a t w ill define the p ro lo n g ed
li n e a n d u s e th e f o llo w in g p ro c e d u re .
S to p 1 Set up on Point B. Set up and level the

instrum ent exactly over the point.
19
^ ctMpU'r mnetMfl
S te p 2 Backsight on the war Station A with the

idcscopc in chc direct position.
Step 3 Plunge the telescope to the reverse

position, and direct the field engineer to
set Point C.
Step 4 Put line exactly on Point C.
S te p 5 R o ta te th e in s tru m e n t 180.
S te p 6 Backsight on Point A with the telescopt

in the reversed position.
c CD
1 9 -4 4
S te p ?
Plunge ,..c
position, and telescope
the *
s,ht nt0 p . *he d- line
pnt c. ect
S te p q
Analyze the results,
and C2 hit exactl
represent a O'in If both Points C1
ABC. and j inthe same line, they
true prolongation of the line
you have accomplished the
rem
of prolonging the line '*ey dont
fall*'***'
rePres on the sa*^" actually
above Proctw0Same line, and ,ft<>
ess distinct
to lines, repeat the
confirm vo-
wrki
S te p 9
SP ]i< th e
Wf- n t w o t ^ c e
and
- -vvo marks result setthe
from Point C.
process, it is standard-vpractice
uom the above
the . - is
thedist*~~
distance * standard
between practice
n 1 to split
ntClai
Point
C2 and set p - 1 split
and Point
2S*&? .,iic
distinct pointstnrough
*hat
_represents
ABC.
to* " '*
When the

^-mis result everyWhen
time,two
it
indicates that the instrument is out of
adjustment and it should be sent in for
calibration.
Check
If possible, set on C, sight on B, and check any intermediate points back to>
A. Set the instrument on Point C and check your work by sighting on Point 1
should be on
check any line.
intermediate line points that might be visible towards Point A.
Grade
19-47 General
19-47 Roadways
19-48 Pipelines
19-50 Slope Staking
19-53 Procedure for Settin g a
SCO PE
A major aspect of construction surveying and layout is vertical layout of elevations,
also commonly called grade. Most layout activities require both horizontal and
vertical layout. When establishing building corners, elevations (grade) are placed on
the stakes so that the excavating equipment can remove soil as needed for constructing
the foundation. When building pipelines, elevations (grade) have to be determined
and staked so the pipe will be placed at the correct elevation and slope. When
building a roadway, rough grade stakes are first set when the excavation is deep
enough, and then finish grade stakes are set as the base is being prepared for concrete.
Another type of grade stake is the slope stake that is placed so that the operator knows
where to start to cut the slope. There are many construction activities that are first
located and staked horizontally, and then elevations are placed on the stakes. And
there are some activities where the only layout is setting a grade stake. Grade was
introduced in C h a p te r 7, L e v e lin g , with a brief discussion of leveling applications.
In this Section, setting slope stakes and other types of grade stakes will be introduced.
1 9 -4 6
S>
( j N E R * '-
(trade stakes ate found w\HHl buddings. btulgcv. pipeline*. highways. 'c%c? '
*Uicwtkv and jum about any type of conwtnxiton activity stakes may **
a combination of a line stake and a giadc stake l ot example. "*Vc' ,w *
pi,>clmc might be ollset 10 Icet ttom ccntc. ot the pipeline to be used to Weep me
pipeline headed in the tight ditestion These same staVes * ill base e l e v a t i o n s tm
them thal can be used to detenuine hois deep to c\sa' ale lot *be P'P0 ' ^
slakes mas jusl be undon\l\ placed next 1 0 ihc ôiV it ik>piiliCiiUf
have an elevation on them that can be used lot the construction ^ k t lh ot
G rade stakes might be 2 by 2 hubs. I by 2 stakes. inch by 2 i***
possibly rebar or some other piece of metal that is dtiven into the
Sometimes hubs arc driven into the ground and plastic called whiskers ate
to protrude so thal operators can see the hub. and avoid it vchilc grading ^
When setting any type of grade stakes, be sure to follow *_ pbts
fundamental principles of leveling to reduce errors and eliminate f a d in g
includes hav ing solid setups, balancing backsights and foresights, care u y
the rod. keeping the rod plumb, closing into another benchmark, etc
R O A D W A YS
Setting grade slakes is a major pari of ihc layout of a roadway tha,

needed will be slightly different for the various types of roacwa^ * ^ , uW
arc encountered. Projects will include municipal sweetv a .congc*tcdf
highways, or interstate highways. U rb an (congested) an
conditions will affect where the grade
stakes can be placed and how
------ - they arcC
IIIW) ai
ik p H lr*
used. In -roadway
1 construction, ihere
is a tendency tor all stakes inside the
construction area to be destroyed.
With the landowners permission, it is
often best to place the initial stakes
outside of the right-of-way so that
they will not be removed or destroyed
dur i ng the clearing or demolition
phases o f the construction.
What is most important in route construction is thal the grade stakes he
based on a benchmark network that has been checked and re-checked to be sure that
Usesolidpoints the elevations are absolutely correct from the start to the finish ot the project.
off of the There are examples from the field of projects where it was found too law: that ihc
jobsite to keep elevations from one pari of the project did not match up with anotherV*
benchmarks. Therefore, closed loops and solid benchmarks are an essentia co pt
highw ay grade stakes.
1 9 -4 7
T
A fter the alignm ent o f the roadw ay has been staked

and .he centerline stakes are in the ground, grade can begin
he established along the route. T hese initial grade stakes wm
be located on the cen terlin e stakes. T hey w ill list a cut or r,u
at centerline. B ecause they are going to be destroyed when
constru ctio n beg in s, th ey w ill need to b e transferred ,0 a
offsite point th at is o u tsid e o f th e rig h t o f w ay. G enerally, ,hVs
m eans running an o ffse t line at a selected distance from the
cen terlin e th at w ill re su lt in p la c in g th e p o ints outside of ,he
rig h t o f w ay.
u stak es slo p e sta k e s w ill b e se t to d ire c t the operators
F rom th ese d e . s lo p e sta k e s w ill b e d iscu ssed in detail later in
where t o c u t o r ft 1 to fin ^ bgen c u , o r fille d , th e ce n ,e rlin e can be re-
th ts S ectto n . A ft 1 P wU1 b e p la c e d o n th e ce n te rlin e stakes so
e sta b h sh e d A . thpo m t ftn g a n d b fo u p to g ra d e . A s so o n as
P rio r to p a v in g , g ra d e sta k e s w ill

be u se d to se t g u id e strin g lin e s fo r th e Pavem ent
p a v in g m a c h in e s to fo llo w . In s te a d o f
g u id e lin e s , la s e rs m ay b e u s e d to k e e p
th e p a v in g m a c h in e o n lin e a n d o n g ra d e .
During this paving operation, there will
be a need for constant monitoring to be
sure the guidelines are not moved in any
way. If they are not at the correct
elevation, the pavement thickness may
not be correct and will require removal
of the work in place. . ..
Setting highway grades is simply an extension of the basic leveling process
of backsights to obtain an HI, and foresights to obtain an elevation.
P IP E LIN E S
On just about any construction site, pipelines will be
encountered. They might be small sewer lines as part of a
septic system from a home to the sanitary sewer pipe in the
street, or the sanitary or storm sewers in a town, or a huge
pipeline that diverts water around a dam. Regardless of the
size or purpose, the methods of construction and the layout
and grade requirements are similar. That is, from a set of plan
and profile drawings, the pipeline "line and grade" is
determined, and using standard surveying measurements
pipeline is located in the field.
The surveying measurements may include chain and string lines, chain and
transit/theodolite, chain and laser, total station and laser, just the total station, or
GPS. Any of these methods can be used successfully to locate the pipeline. The
choice of measurement method will be dependent on what is available and what is
practical for the situation.
19-48
5|T*d* 1
Determine the horizontal location of the pipeline off of the primal* ^ ot

project. The location of the pipeline will typically he shown on the l>* \ V
CoocaX
t ed
centerlines of roadways, or as straight lines between manholes t ^ mply
from given coordinates. Therefore, determining the horizontal !oct\ ^
a matter of setting an instrument on control polnu * " the
techniques to locate the manholes. Once the manholes are located, f* ^ ^lKftlcd by
center of the pipeline can be established using radial layout, or can and
setting the instrument on a manhole location, backsighting anot eT rc Qên< an
placing stakes at station intervals of 2 5 or 50 feet along the l'nc- s\akc would
offset line from the center of the pipeline is staked since center tnc
be destroyed during the excavation of the trench.
M . "S rei
ty p ic a lly ^ n 3' 010? ' ' ne n thc p,pc duTin& construction is
lines. The n' T-,,h * pipelinc ,aser or wth ihc use of siring
alienpd
a |gned ,,, ,i ' the*ne *ascr
with " r * >s* placed
piacctl inside the manhole
inside the manhole and
and is
is
ddirection
i r e c t - of!the
!he U
USe
SC f *8 t*
theodolite on on
lcoclhte up the
. k- surface in .w-
the
the work proer C** man*1*e- As the trench is started and
the laser are n v ^ * ' at,.iustmems in the pointing of
foresights H iv,*1 6 * ^Ct ** Pinted correctly due to short
used, thev will f *hc excavat>on. string lines arc
they arc avail P-ICCd wff to the side of the trench so that
T h e accuracy required f h >le for cons,m line,
rather low compared to lomtin f or,zntal location of pipelines is typically
close, but usually do not have t "b b US r brid*e pier- penes have to be
inch will do in most situations 6 ^ ^ hundredth horizontally. Within a half
Elevation (Grade)
of basic levehng^techniques^ T u " 8 f ade t 0 build a P'Pel'ne is an application

ninelinp at fr^n.. ^ ^ be^lns by establishing benchmarks along the
Th u 611 lntervals that can be easily accessed from the trench excavation
, v*' w enever devation of the bottom (invert) of a manhole is needed,
([ Invert J, or a c ec on t e elevation at the point of excavation is desired, a simple setup with
an automatic level or a laser level can be made and the leveling process used to
X T J determ ine the needed elevation. Be absolutely sure that the benchmarks have not
been disturbed when using them, as many a newly-installed pipeline has had to be
rem oved and reinstalled because of bad benchmarks.
To maintain constant grade during the excavation, a pipeline laser is
typically used. The profile drawings are used to determine the percent slope of the
line. Be careful of the sign (positive or negative) of the slope, as a misreading will
rpcillt in the
result thp pipe
ninp sloping
clnninrr lin inctooH nf
up instead of down nr Of *<\na. ygfsa.
Vice vtisa. The
in t laser
iupvi is
ij set in
iii the
uiv
bottom o f a manhole or in the pipe and the grade of the pipeline is dialed into the
laser. The beam is projected along the pipeline and the crew works from the beam
to
tvz im
u uaintain
i m u m iline and grade. Typically
m v uuv a^ a translucent Plexiglas sensor that makes it
M
kflom is
easy to see the beam ic iic/=r1
used in in thp
the pnrl
end
of the pipe as it is being placed. The
pipe is adjusted right and left and up and
down until the beam is at the correct
spot on the sensor. When this is
achieved, backfill is placed to hold the
pipe in the correct position.
1 9 -4 9
. _ |%C * ***
K rT 0" " ! w.,,*., WHl %nn* Iw v c ^ T
ru . \
h.r **"*** _ , _ c h.oi f*'*"4* *" hnc ** U* * ? .
* *%H ., ^W >cd lev.ikw ^bovT
m "T l l H* *< ,Nv M |***t ** ** 0< h*nct **<*
ft
t1Mw ir umt
nm "* .-.
-**.p, * M > ** *Pn
-.v.WO *l ir ItfVcall) -H* n> ivv
L .^l *"* *T Kr U-CJ * 0 ** ,hC CteVMUM, *|
f o r l m g p v f * w ill Kc u tc d to r< ih c
h .'o r-w it <1 K vaul, . (th
(ihce tv
K iiiri
-n c i
* ih c u----------r
k u l u t i ) <Ji*Unci<^^
S ' " 1 ' ^ ^ ' ^Kn.ncni IhuhJ* < rr* d v 1 *
C "**> U"
.. !,
**S
* * M* lin?K
, c *" .0 .1 . c - ^ '> >* > . * ,
C l'** uirnhcO **'* *] Jt^ n Ihc pipe
tnm hc " " nf U** h . CI h,vml^ *H have to he pted *>
T, ,hf ,,nC S l'h t b e gf*dr * ,h< b<, Cr EVCfy UTOC *
? * P " * * " 10 f ' * , , * f i l h a v e to s to p io a llo w ih c v tn tu >
- Z Z Z Z & Z ' ' * - <* Thi* simple method w
f ,a J c . . t i n * U o * * t b e * wrk ,( p ,p c h n c ^ a n d i* e a s ily p e rfo rm e d t*
r r,cKl h* anyone w"h kno* ' ft * ' , of effort ami altcnlion ami they an
L u r. hoard* and >nn lte * * ^ re ^ comp*nlive tn pipeline work requina
COMUOl <*# f ^
S LO P E S TA K IN G k* ^
When e x e a x a n n g for a b u ild in g
foundation or a route of transportation,
the excavation contractors goal is o
remove or place onl> the amount o f soil
or rock required in the contract. If more
rock is removed than designed, the
contractor will not he paid for the excess
removed If less is removed, the owner
will require the contractor to return to
the sue to remove what was required. Either o f these situations wU cost the
contractor time and money. The field engineer for an excavation contractor has the
responsibility o f placing stakes that locate the lim its o f the excavation so that only
the volume o f earthwork required is m oved. Slope stakes are the communication
tools used b> the field engineer to inform the equipm ent operators where to work,
how much to cut or fill, and what slope angle the operator must maintain.
Objective
The objective o f slope slaking is to
locate where the design slope intersects
the original ground. There is only one
spot where this can occur. To locate
that spot w ill require that the field
engineer com bine field m easurem ents
of distances and e l e c t io n s with the
typical section design inform ation that
is o b ta in e d from the p la n s and
sp ecification s.
1 9 -5 0
grade
Terms and Definitions

i l l u s t r a t e d tv*. vf or a building project are elevation drawings that
r o u td T n d d d, e r What the wiU look like from a side or end view. In
u s e s s ta n d a rd 10n* .^ e8e. d ra w in Ss are called the "sections." T h e h ig h w a y designer
, sPe c ific a tio n s th at are based on the general purpose of the highway
to d e s ig n th e ty p ic a l s ectio n s th a t are to be follow ed during the construction. Term s
u s e d in th e s e c tio n in clu d e:
B a s e , b - is th e b a se w h ich is the
w id th o f th e b o tto m o f a c u t section or
CUT
Vs r- b
th e to p o f th e f ill se c tio n .
eO/---
| b --IS
f FILL *0
S lo p e , " s " - is th e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n en t
o f th e s lo p e . W h e n re p re se n tin g slope,
th e r e a re tw o c o m p o n e n ts to a slo p ed .
lin e , th e v e r tic a l c o m p o n e n t an d th e h o riz o n ta l com ponent. Standard n tatl^ ^ en
r o u te s u r v e y in g is fo r th e v e rtic a l co m p o n en t to b e listed as one.
c o m m u n ic a tin g s lo p e , th e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n en t is ty p ically listed first an
v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t is lis te d la st. S om e ex am p les follow :
1/2
\ \T
4 :1 - FOUR to O N E 2:1 - TWO to ONE 1/21 - ONE-HALF to ONE 1
G r a d e e le v a tio n , " G r a d e - is the elevation that comes from the design elev
G r o u n d e le v a tio n , - G r o u n d - - i> the
setting a slope stake. ion and the
The key to
setting slope
stakes is^ ^
h = ground elevation - grade elevation
determining "h
d o ibe s' f v * S p S
be used on a J cut section.
illustration tor a
19 -5 1
Highway Project .
For a typical highw ay project, there w ill be a spot to the rig h t and to the left _
centerline to m ark where the slopes in tersect the ground. In technical terms, the
objective is:
Distance measured must equal Distance calculated,
or, dm= dc
Where d is the field measurement from centerline to
% . n nfmthe slope stake, and dc is the calculated
J distance from the centerline, d is determined by a basic
M --------------7 " st f* ,h. t is based on design dimensions and slope, and the
J------------ ' ' fmld measuremmiôf the height of cut or fill. In an example
J for a highway, the formula is:
dc = + sh
c 2
"b" is the base width of the road, "s" is the slope, and "h" is the height of the cut
or fill. These terms will be defined in detail later.
Building Site
For a building, the same approach is
taken, but the formula must be adapted
for the given situation. It may be that
the reference line for setting the slope
stakes will be the edge of the building
and that the slope will be cut from the
bottom of the foundation. Assuming a
working space between the wall and the
slope, the formula might be:
dc = W orkspace+ sh
In this case, the field engineer would measure dmand compare it to dc. Are
they equal? If they are, set the stake. If they aren't, determine a new "h" and
measure a new dm and perform the computation and comparison until they are
equal. Once the field engineer understands the basic concept of setting a slope
stake, writing a formula to determine dc for any situation w ill be easy.
Examples of Highway Sections

Typical sections can be simple or can
become complicated, depending on the
type of terrain where the project is being
built.
S im ple c u t a n d fill se c tio n s - T he

illustrations to the right show a typical
roadway section in a cut area and in a fill
grade
Complex CutSerti
is b ein g built t h r o u g h " a ro * iw ay
a rea, cuts on the side o f ,h mountainous
e v e n th r o u g h a m o u n f m Untain or
uncommon. Several sô are not
benches may be used a * angles and
conditions of the soil 0 P ending on the
encountered. the rock that are
Preparing to Set h -.k
T y p ic a lly w h en stak in g a W g h w ' P S ,a k e s
c e n te r lin e o f th e ro ad to d e te rm in l ! ^ fleM engineer w iu initially set stakes at the
le v e le d so th a t an in itial ground T locatlon; The centerline will then be profile-
s ta k e s , th e fie ld e n g in e e r rrmt v. evatlon w id known. To set highway slope
nave follow ing inform ation.
C e n t e r l i n e - A c e n te rlin e
g r o u n d a t th e c e n te rlin e S & e is needed along with elevations of the
P l a n s a n d specification* _ * *
s e c tio n th a t is b e in g u sed k f ' n lh grade ele v ation at centerline, and the typical
a d d itio n th*> A , u st ta^ en from the plans and specifications. In
f n f o r l t io n 7 1 f * * h ' g h w ^ th e ditch w idth inform ation, side slope
in f o r m a tio n , a n d b e n c h w id th are also needed.
Field measurements - D ista n c e m easu rem en t from the reference line to w here it
is e s t i m a t e d th e d e s ig n slo p e in te rse c ts the ground, and L eveling m easurem ents to
d e t e r m i n e th e e le v a tio n o f th e g ro u n d w h ere it is estim ated the design slope
i n t e r s e c t s th e g ro u n d .
procedure F O R S E T TIN G A HIGHWAY SLOPE STAKE

S l o p e s ta k i n g is b e s t u n d e rs to o d w h e n a ctu al nu m b ers are used. T he fo llo w in g d ata
w i l l b e u s e d in th e s te p -b y -s te p illu s tra te d d escrip tio n .
ELEV = 620
GRADE ELEV = 600

b = 40' -
TYPICAL SECTION
her all necessary equipment and

S te p 1 s, design information and the field
t x i i r r whM
^ p e stake iH
e
1 9 -5 3
StjnUinf it f ill the
S fp 2 k < if>- lU lr MJil iHc
Isrrs* f " J .! I V , fc h h jv uh I h J th e
|V tu* * till i(n- %.! ul l<i
*' ihf ivinctlinr < m ruvinl iluUntr
r>f*Al i*' u r u m u l r th is iliilin iv
<U Nr !_
St eps t *mjr i hand Ififl and Ihc

Jimr*n- from mw n r to the grnwwd.
lake a reading <nibr nd *1 the estimated
ponM \dd the profile ckiMion ami
soot e ye height Io obtain the h i
Nubiimi the rod trading to obtain the
devatron of the ground at the point
*- *so r . <* - a
nowefi t v. lo.dnt
S tG p 4 O btain the grade d o t a t i o n from the

design inform ation S ubtract g ro u n d
elevation and grade d o t a t i o n to o b tain
"h" l fsing ihc d e sig n in fo rm a tio n ,
d eterm in e "b" and "s' and insert them
into ihc form ula to d e te rm in e d C
S te p 5 < ornpare d and d If they are within a

tenth, set the slope stake, and write the
cut and slope information on the stake.
If dn and d are greater than a tenth,
determine if another elevation reading
is needed.
S te p 6 Measure a new dn. take a new rod

rea d in g , c a lc u la t e a new g ro u n d
elevation, calculate a new h. so lv e for
d .
1 9 -5 4
g ra d e 0
c te P 7 C om pare dc to d m. If they are within a

^ tenth, set the slope stake. If not, repeat
the process.
Setting Any Type of Slope Stakes

T h e p ro cess ju st illustrated and described can be used in any slope-staking
situ a tio n , w
------------ -Mh .U
ether
.U nit oe
be slope
slope stakes
stakes in
in fill
fill areas,
areas, com
complex
plex cutcut sections,
sections, building
^ ^
ee xx cc aa vv aa tio
tio nn s,
s, oorr etc.
etc. TThe
he process o f ______ ;___a-----------------
m easuring distance and ----------
com paring *i tPl a
c a lc u la te d d istan ce is the gist of slope staking. In all slope-staking situations, ^
k e y is b e in g ab le to determ ine "h." O nce "h" is know n, d c can be calcu ate
rnmnarpri tr+ ------ *
Field Notes
A ll o b se rv a tio n s are to be recorded in the field notebook at the tim e they are
o b se rv e d . R e fe r to the fo llo w in g illu stratio n for an exam ple slope-stake noteform .
> 7/20/94
S lo p e S ta k in g
5 0 0 6 S o u th 5 0 0 Ea< 5t , eoorraouor
H
CA
L N
OD
THLT
EA
VP
EE
LS HU
M
kC
TET
VRETS^
K
5R 00
69+0 it075+0 j nrrrrm
RIGHT
.M l i i
:tM ip
STA GrajndElev DesiyiElev' _____
... ..
69+0
70+0 .
7T+0
6200
622.1
623.7
6000
6010
6020
: ...........j
Jjj
=
>c-
72+0 6250 ZZZJ
----------------1
6030
75+0 6260 6040 m
_____|
TYPICALSECTION

i---------
1---------
C-2L7 i
i____ _____ 4 ..
3 A\
2V - ft t Llffi I cs
1 b = 40
3 ;. AfW..
J-------- -
itt+ m ft
ym
S-
C-1
547.6
dc = 1/21
3
+
4--------------
4 --------
1--------------- 3
J -------------
j 3 .
:
PROFILE NOTES - PAGE 7 ; ------
1 9 -5 5
f ] vertical Alignment
l .... .. itieiif n*f*J
19-57 General
19-57 Methods
SCOPE
Vertical alignment, also known as plumbing, isnt a horizontal layout activity as is
laying out a one-story building. Instead, it is vertical layout that is used daily on
buildings and bridges as well as on other types of high-rise construction. There
are many methods that are used in plumbing structures. Some, such as using a
plumb bob, have been used since structures began to be built up and plumb. Other
methods are based on new technology, but do exactly the same thing as the old
reliable plumb bobassist in building one floor directly over the previous floor,
or building a concrete bridge column in which the formwork stacks vertically on
top of the previous pour. It doesn't matter which method is used, the result should
be the samea plumb structure.
gENERAL
vertical alignment 0
Plum bing requi

aligned stru c;' ** _cordiation
S 3 t uTir h a ,^ i X ^ , - venicauy-
DifferentrUCtUre 3 tal1 monum d bndge clumn ** 3 one'story residential
m e re n t m ethods numem , or a n y th i .* J 5lcvator shaft a cell tower, a
jo b site conditions. b Used for different tv buiU up from thc Sround- h \
Perform Checks ^ fr different
W hat is im portant t
or instrument use* can

Process is perform ed H S me f the methods th e ^ f * lf amng column if a check
Follow th e p rin c ip le canrî ne Way apd then revp a J>nnc,p e f reversion where the
principle o f c ritic a l that t h i s h ^ 6 ^ errors that m ieh to S Uld a' Ways be performed. This
reversion when sin g le line v be perfornied when nlumh- 1 CUF 10 the process- It is especially
plumbing. an d m a rk ' CT_lca ,,y may require rotating ti?8 - Alignment methods that project a
th a n o ne r ? Hnc at ea^ rotation T f ^ ent at 90' degree increments
of a " . hC actual P int is determ ined h 1S r tatl0n results in four points rather
to ohtair> the true vertical line y p 0n" ectln8 opposite points in the form
sta n d a rd o p eratin g procedure for the n B lh f these checks realW should be
tim e p lu m b in g is perform ed on the jo b site ^ &nd Sbould be Performed every
C hange T echnology
In a d d itio n to p erform ing the
p lu m b in g sh o u ld be to alwav* P! per Procedure, another standard practice in
p lu m b in g as a q u ick check t ^?gC tecbnoloy and use another method of
a n d h o ld in g it a d k e e n t to L .^ Y * iS 38 Simp,e aS grabbinS a Plumb bob
is c o n s t a n t f r o m X t o b o , t0 m O r CUfrr ^ ^ diSta" Ce ,he S,ring
th e s tru c tu re and u , ^ r ^ a carPenter s level is available, place it against
tn e s tru c tu re an d o b serv e the plum bing bubble.
m ethods
Plumb Bobs
Plumb bobs, of course, are the most ancient of all surveying tools and have been
used since the beginning of time for plumbing simple-to-complex structures. Just
about every building ever built until the last century was plumbed with this simple
device. Using a plumb bob for plumbing is still the most used of all plumbing
methods in most areas of the world for small structures, and is used extensively in
some high-rise situations, such as elevator shafts. As long as the force of gravity
exists, plumb bobs will be used for plumbing structures.
Plumb bobs range in size from 6 ounces to 4 pounds or more. In some
situations, plumb bobs as they are known, are not used at all. Instead, the nearest
piece of metal is used simply to provide weight to string or piano wire. The string
is set at a designated offset from the wall, so not having a plumb bob point isn't
important For low-rise structures, string line is typically used, and in high-rise
structures, piano wire is used. String or piano wire will oscillate when the wind hits
it making it difficult to determine the location of the true vertical line. Because
. ,, rm a iiw diam eter it will be less affected by the wind,
piano wire as . d jt js common to place a bucket or barrel of
W henever a plumb line -n ^ oll This has the effect of
oil at the bottom andh 8 ^ the |ie will not cause the
19-57
C m rp + n frr B L 0 V * t
II h- u i j v n i n * level van lv u*evl ItH
pfuiiihittff *h*it hri)!hK vetv etfev.livel>
( Hk* two *m even thiee vioiy N ild in y v
iim M Iv pliiitihrtf quite vrll vvilh this
n n im o n iim I llim c v c r. if going over
ih"1'! heights, cum ulative erro r could
N >'iii u revult, a n J the structure might
m*t end u p bcinit plum b W hen usinî a
carpenter \ level, he sure to calibrate it
h>
nj Uusm yH
MIIJI the
IVprinciple----of reversion, vvhieh
1 K* ''s lin i! o r
thcn ,urnin c"d for d and P ek in g
in that position A ny a m o u n t. is o ff w ill im m ed iately be o b v io u s because tw o linc*
will result If the bubble is ad justable, take the tim e to ad ju st it. If n o t. sp U, thc
.t .r w o m e betw een m arks m ade in each p o sitio n to o b ta in th e tru e p lu m b line.
Pocket Laser com m on tool fo r lo w -ris e plumbing on the

T h is sim p le la se r h as c co t ^ wjlhstand the rig0rs of thc construction
1
1 jo h s itc . L a se rs a rc s c ry w jth in ,/4 inch jn 100 fe e t. I f used within this
site w h ile ty p ic a lly being at e ff e c tiv e tool fo r plumbing a variety of
tolerance r a n g e . co|umn S. p r e c a s t bridge piers, and numerous
s tru c tu re s su c h its to rm w o n s .
I
I
'hCr ro u T e a ^ k e . laser for plumbing, set it on a level surface next to the wall
1 . 1 .. v a r io u s horizontal lines as well as a plumb tine are
InstaiKly*projected'.' Initially, .he beams will be oscillating as the internal
compensator settles down. If .he beams continue . 0 move, the bu, dtng ts v,bra,mg
L m construction activity. It may be necessary to postpone the plumb,ng unt.l the
construction stops. The best time , 0 check a structure for plumb is , 0 perform the
task early in the morning before the sun is affecting the structure, and while the
cranes and material lifts are not moving.
Just about every laser manufacturer offers a pocket plummet. Be sure to
review the specifications since different-size models have different accuracy.
Some are tiny and have limited range and few features. Others are much larger and
have greater battery power and thus greater range. As with other measuring or
alignment tools, this device should be checked for proper calibration. See the
owner's manual for the exact procedure. One quick check would be to rotate the
plummet in four directions to see if the same spot is obtained 1 0 0 feet above. If four
distinct spots occur, use the point in the middle of them. Or, if a wall or column
has been plumbed with a more accurate device, set the pocket plum m et next to the
wall and make comparisons. Any deviation from true plumb should be noted.
Check the ow ners manual lor instructions if a plum b line is not projected.
Utility Laser
The utility laser is another tool that can be used for plumbing structures. This laser
can be used to project a single line upward or, by turning it on its side, to project
a vertical plane. The accuracy of this type of laser is typically about 1/16lhper 100
feet. Utility lasers usually have numerous features to provide greater flexibility
and use including an automatic leveling of the laser with automatic shut-off if
bumped. This is perhaps the most versatile of all plumbing devices. See C h a p t e r
8, Lasers, for more information.
19-58
P^'j^'t ventcal line, a utility later is generally set
P '"er a predetermined control point that established
Cf - * n Prwicl> This point will usually be on an even
stl * control lines ami will be easy for everyone to
remember its coordinates. In building construction, this
'crtical line can be placed inside the building or on the
outside of the building. Winside, attempt to place it in a utility
shaft or in the elevator shaft if possible. If it were to be
located in the floor, then to plumb the building, a hole would
have to be left in every floor of the building. On a high-rise
structure, this becomes inconvenient for as the structure is
rising, the floors at the lower levels will not be able to be
finished because of the hole in the floor. If the vertical line
is to be placed on the outside of the structure, the problem of
leaving holes in the floor is eliminated and the vertical line
can be used unobstructed. However, the security of the
instrument is compromised both because of the weather and
if something should fall from high.
If the utility laser is turned
sidi* it ,s lurned on its
s id e , it p ro je c ts a vertical plane that can
be used along the entire length of the
b u ild in g fo r p lu m b in g . T he laser could
be located on a control line on the ground.
A special base is often available that
allows for fine adjustment of the laser to
move the beam exactly on the line. When
satisfied that the laser is on the control
line, the persons on the upper floors of
the structure can be signaled to use the
beam by having a sensor on a long
storyboard that can be held out over the
edge of the floor. When the sensor
indicates that it is on line, a mark can be
made on the floor at the selected offset.
When using climbing wall forms, the utility laser can be located on the forms and
have sensors on control points on the ground. The forms can be hydraulically moved
until the vertical laser plane is intercepted simultaneously on both ground sensors.
O f course, this instrument should be checked tor proper calibration regularly.
If projecting a vertical line upward, rotate the instrument at 90-degree increments
and mark the line each time. I f it is in adjustment, only one point will be marked.
If it is out of adjustment, there will be four marks. When using it on its side, set
it mark the line of sight, and then reverse the position of the laser and mark the line
again. There should only be one line marked. Refer to the owner's manual tor
adjustm ent instructions.
1 9 -5 9
la y o u t te c h n iq u e s
chapter n in e te e n
Z en ith P lu m m e t automatjC level that happens to have a prism inside

This instrument is py , j UDWard. It is very precise and has been used
so that the line of sig t ls Pr0J rocedure to use this instrum ent is sim ilar to the
on many h . g h - n s e s t r u c l u r e s . ^ e p o c e d u e r e ( h in s t r u m e n t is s e t
projected through a hole in the floor or on the outside of the structure.

To check the instrument, the same process that is used on other instrum ents
which project a vertical line is used. Rotate the instrum ent at 90-d eg ree intervals
and mark the line, noting any differences, and as alw ays, m arking the center o f the
four marks. If the instrument is found to be out o f calibration, refer to the owner's
manual for instructions.
T ra n s it/T h e o d o lite /T o ta l S ta tio n
Often, other than a plumb bob, the only instruments available for plum bing are the
total station, theodolite, or even the old transit. Any of these instrum ents can be used
for accurate plumbing o f a structure. All that is needed is to set the instrum ent up in
a generally perpendicular position to the direction where the plum bing is being
checked. Level the instrument exactly and sight onto the bottom o f the structure.
Move the scope upward along the edge o f the structure, observing w here the edge is
in relation to the vertical crosshair. That will check the structure for plumb.
A more typical method is to sight on a 1-foot offset at the bottom o f a steel
1 v"
-v
structure and then move the scope upw ard to the elem ent being plum bed. H ave
another field engineer (or ironw orker) hold a tape at the location and read the tape.
/ m i n i ? J.1,111 I I I ]
If it reads 1.12 feet, the steel will have to be m oved 0.12 feet. T he ironw orkers w ill
tighten or loosen the turnbuckle on the crossing cables until the read in g is 1.00 feet.
' fy During this process, the instrum ent person typically co n tin u ally re-sights back to
the bottom as a check. W hen confident that the readings at the bo tto m and top are
1.00, the instrum ent is reversed and the process is repeated. In the rev erse, position
the instrum ent to the bottom 1.00 and then back to the top. If the in stru m en t is in
perfect adjustm ent, the reading will be 1.00 exactly. If the read in g is not 1.00, the
vertical axis o f the instrum ent is not p erp en d icu lar to the h o rizo n tal axis o f the
instrum ent. This is no problem how ever, for if the rev erse read in g is 0.9, the actual
plum b reading should be 0.95. The w orkers can be d irected to m ove the steel as
needed. See the illustration.
If the building is very tall or the
instrum ent is very close to the building,
it will becom e p h y sically im possible to
look through the scope. F or this situation
a device called a d iagonal ey ep iece can
be a tta c h e d to th e e y e p ie c e o f th e
in s tru m e n t a llo w in g fo r v e ry ste e p
sightings to take place.
19-60
v
s tic k s a n d s tr in g s @
Sticks and
Strings
General 19- 62
Story Poles 1 9- 62
3 /4 /5 Layout Square 1 9- 63
Ba t t e r B o a r d s 1 9- 63
String Lines 19- 66
L i n e s and Pl umb Li nes 19- 68
SCO PE
Since the beginning of time, as humans have built structures, sticks and strings
w eie essentially the only method that could be used to maintain the control lines
that were used to build buildings, bridges, canals, tunnels, or highways. It is
obvious that stick and string methods were highly successful as evidenced by the
great projects that were built straight, level, and plumb, and still exist from
hundreds or even thousands of years ago.
Because o f their ease of use and reliability, sticks and strings are very much
a part o f construction layout today. One only needs to look at any construction
project anywhere and see sticks and strings in use. In some areas of the world, sticks
and strings are still the predominant method of construction layout. This Section
illustrates and discusses sticks and strings as they are used today.
Even though total stations, levels, and lasers have taken over many
alignm ent and grade layout activities on the site, everywhere one looks on just
about any construction site, sticks and strings are still visible and are still being
used every day. The sticks might be story poles, pencils, stakes, lath, hubs, batter
boards, or 4 by 4 posts; and the strings might be chalk lines, piano wire, plumb
lin es, and string lines. The sticks are any pieces of wood that are used to
com m unicate surveying information or that are useful in performing surveying
tasks. The strings are used to establish straight lines along forms, or between
anchor bolts, or to plumb the structure.
19-61
GENERAL t H trines as opposed to m odern in stru m en ts is really pretty
When to use sticks and 8 *,!, a v a ilab le, use stic k s and strings! Even if
simple. I f m odem m stru s(icks and strin g s m ay still b e the b est choice
modern instrum ents are a tied jn one lo catio n all d ay giv in g line when
because an instrum ent ca iobsite A n d ev en if th e in stru m e n t isn t being
it Will be n e e d e d b e s t o p tio n fo r th ey can b e set and used for
s e v e r a /d a y s ^ r longer*while an in stru m en t w ill h av e to b e set up and tak en down
every O f course there are tim es w hen w ork is b e st p e rfo rm e d w ith the m odern
equipm ent that is available. W ith lasers b e c o m in g m o re p o w e rfu l, m ore v ersatile,
s l T and less expensive, ju s t ab o u t an y o n e w h o w a n ts o n e can o b tain one. In
Som e situations, it is b etter to have a la se r line th a n a strin g lin e th a t is in the way
o f the m ovem ent o f m aterials a n d /o r w o rk ers w h o are trip p in g o v e r ,t regularly.
The sm all pocket laser is one o f th o se in sta n c e s o f a to o l th a t h a s g re a t ad v antages
over string lines, and is b eco m in g m ore an d m o re p re v a le n t on th e jo b site.
H ow ever, the ad v an tag es o f stick s and strin g s s till m a k e th e m the " first cho ice" in
m any situations even w ith m odern e q u ip m e n t a v a ila b le .
STORY POLES
A story pole is nothing more than a long
piece of wood that is used to transfer
elevations or to mark line. Two by
two's (2" X 2") or two by four's (2" X 4")
are commonly used as story poles. The
predominant use of a story pole is in the
establishment of grade for a concrete
pour. For example: When grade is being
checked on the top of concrete in a
concrete pour, it is common practice to
grab a piece of lumber and mark (with a crow's foot) the foresight that must be shot
at the dozens of points where the concrete will be checked. This keeps a good level
rod from being used around the concrete where it probably would become covered
with concrete. This story pole can be used throughout the pour and, when the pour
is over, washed off and used again or discarded if the concrete has hardened on it.
One thing to watch when using story poles is using it too often. That is,
using it over and over and having numerous marks (crow's foot) on the face of it.
It becomes confusing if there are too many marks on the lumber.
In pipeline construction, a story pole with a piece of lumber attached
perpendicular to the bottom is used with string line or with lasers to measure down
hJeH r r Pf , that is being placed When a trenching operation is being
of i h e nVert 0f tbe pipe a short Piece of lumber is attached to a long piece
used m h7 lbraCe' This Can then be inserted into he pipe opening and
T
IS set up at ground level, aP1PC
is set up at around I * \ ' S can
sensor thebecorrect elevation. If using with a laser that
placed on the story pole. The sensor String Line
Batter Boarck _ for setting-
will indicate if the pipe is too high or too grade
low, or right on grade.
Sometimes, story poles are used
m establishing line. If an instrument is
19-62
sticks and strings ^
S? on u four-foot offset from the centerline o f colum ns, a

s >mp e m ethod o f transferring the offset line back to the
co um n cen terlin e is to use a story pole horizontally. From
t e bottom o f the pole, m ark a line at four feet. M ake the line
old and easy to see, or b etter yet. use a stick on target. T o
m ark the co lu m n line, the person at the instrum ent signals to
th e ta rg e t i tu Perso n h o ld in g the story pole to m ove it right or left until
Dole (-in S " f C v e rtc a *cro ssh a ir. W hen good is signaled, the person at the story
m ar rom the b o tto m o f the story pole the colum n centerline.
3/4/5 LAYOUT SQUARE

T h is d e v ic e c a n b e used to sp eed up the p ro cess o f lay in g out 9 0-degree angles. It
is s im p y a la rg e w o o d en c a rp e n te rs sq u are. B uilt on the p rin cip le o f the 3/4/5, it
can be c o n s tru c te d e a sily w ith o ne by tw o (1" X 2") b o ard s. T y p ically , six-foot by
e tg t-f o o t le n g th s o f b o a rd s are u sed. A p iece o f p ly w o o d is used to provide
s ta b ility a n d s tre n g th , and the larg e sq u are is read y for use in laying out in terio r
w a lls o r o th e r a p p lic a tio n s w h e re q u ic k 9 0 's are n eeded.
batter b o a r d s
Anyone who has seen a construction site has undoubtedly seen some type of batter
boards. They are often the first sign that construction is going to take place; they
also indicate exactly where the project is to be built. Batter boards are used by a
variety of crafts to control the excavation of the foundation, locate the footings,
align the masonry block, or build the
walls. Although location or alignment
is the primary function of batter boards,
a reference elevation to the top of a
footing or the finish floor of the building
is also often placed on the batter board.
Field engineers, professional surveyors,
carpenters, masonry crews, excavators,
etc., may set batter boards. Regardless
who sets the batter boards, certain
principles should be followed.
G e n e ra l P u r p o s e
The primary function of batter boards is to establish a reference line. For a
residential structure, the reference line is typically the outside face of the foundation.
For pipelines, the center of the pipe is located. For column footings, the center ot
the footing is generally located. No matter what the batter board is referenced to,
it is serving the same purpose in all situations. The batter board is built so a semi
perm anent control line will be available as needed during construction.
B atter boards m ust come in
pairs. That is, where there is one, there
m ust be another. Two batter boards
are required to stretch a string or wire
betw een, or to sight between and create
the reference line.
1 9 -6 3
T y p e s o f B a t te r B o a r d s
Batter boards are built in many ways. Most often, the construction of the batter
board is an afterthought and the nearest thing available is used. Batter boards can
be built from new or scrap lumber, rebar, wooden posts, just about anything will
work. The following illustrations show a few examples of the construction 0f
b atter boards.
Lumber - W hen using lum ber, 2x4's are u su ally u sed as th e
stakes th at are driven into the ground, and a 2 x 4 o r 1x4 is u sed
as the b atter board. I f the soil is soft and th e sta k e s are n o t
firm in the gro und, it is a go o d p ractice to d riv e a d d itio n a l
2x4s to su p p o rt the in itial b atter board. It is n o t u n co m m o n
fo r the stakes to pull o u t o f the g ro u n d w h en w ire is b e in g
used and pulled tight.
Rebar and lumber - S o m etim es re b a r is u sed as th e sta k e s to
su p p o rt the b a tte r b oard. T h e b a tte r b o ard is a tta c h e d to th e
re b a r by w ire o r by d rillin g a h o le in the re b a r an d u sin g n a ils
o r screw s. W h en the g ro u n d is very h ard , re b a r is m u ch e a s ie r
than a 2x 4 to d riv e in to the g ro u n d .
Portable and reusable - In an effort to
cut wood costs and to be able to recycle
the wood, a field engineer might choose
to build batter boards as shown in the
illustration. To use these batter boards,
simply use form stakes or rebar and
solidly attach them to the ground. Drive
a nail on line and attach a string or wire
and they are ready for use. They might
be the best option when a series of
houses is being built in a subdivision,
since moving and storing them is a
r*nncid/rfltinn
U ses of B atter B o ard s

Batter boards are used in all types of construction. A few uses are described and
illustrated here.
Buildings - The predominant use of batter boards is in building construction.
Batter boards are used when building garages, houses, gas stations, restaurants,
schools, factories, and many other types of structures. Any time constant alignment
is needed, using batter boards is the method of choice by most builders. For a
simple building, batter boards might be installed as shown in the illustration.
1 9 -6 4
Highway . Batter b
o f th e ro a d w a y i b ards are o f i;
com ,Lc,yvb7 ; 1^ u''T 7 , " ;'d ?>'"uht a Th'

' CWK te" Zssxzzz
Pipeline - Although pinelin. .

g r a d e o f p ip e lin e s , b a tte r b o a r d w r e ^ m ' m eth d o f controlling line and
s h o w s a ty p ic a l u se o f b a tte r bo ard s fn L " S me ,nstan ces- T he illustration
boards for p ipehne construction.
E s ta b lis h in g Line on B atter B oards

Line on hatter hoards is generally established after the building line has been
determined I or instance, it the corners of a building have been set, an instrument
s set at one of the corners and a sight is taken on the other corner. The telescope
s sighted onto one batter board, and a nail is driven on line or a saw kert is cut. The
clcscope is then plunged and a nail or kerf is placed on the other batter board. The
nsirum ent is then moved from the comer point, and a string is stretched between
he h a lie r h o a rd v
19-65
T "a
@ c h a p te r n in e te e n
desirable to reference the height o f the batter

structureusually the elevation o f finished
STRING LINES
their work This includes: excavating contractors digging footings and foundations,
concrete contractors pouring foundation walls, carpenters aligning walls and
framing, ironworkers aligning rebar and structural steel, sitework contractors
building sidewalks and curbs, pipeline contractors aligning pipelines, contractors
building culverts and bridges, paving contractors paving roadways; and the list
could go on and cn
Types
String - Any old string will not do when using it as string line on a construction
site. Craft string, packing string, binder twine, and rope are not good choices. They
either break easily, or they are so thick that they are difficult to use. The string line
string that is available at construction suppliers or surveying suppliers should be
used. It is strong and can withstand the uses on the construction site.
Piano Wire - Piano wire is very lightweight and is extremely strong and thin.
Because of these characteristics, it is an excellent choice for use as a string line. It
can be stretched tighter and has much less wind resistance than any type of real
string. Batter boards will have to be braced well when using piano wire as the
tension applied will be substantial and could pull the batter board stakes out of the
ground. Piano wire is very popular with elevator installers as they use it almost
exclusively for plumbing the support rails in elevator cores of high-rise buildings.
1 9 -6 6
W hen using * " C8 . ^
follow ed In8 lines th
si S ' r. a ,h "
hteo.n,na
becoming * * * ref,,J
r e T u !f ^^ Wfcd ' -'.r,
^ ***

X ;2 fk X - - n* y> r r "a -5 L ^;
w h e re h eavy
o ccasio n ally - - - -
K eep it tight t ur s,r g line h", / nder 'îne were anH Certamly inStanCes
CCUr ^ the string ** Use<j eff^tWely, t n n? r Uld be avoide<J * *
f S ? bV S S e 'd fP o K r * * S ~ * .
1. Make loop ralns-
on finger. Cy t0 stretch and loosen up.
Twisted L o o n -o
2. Put loop the string around i t s e i n o ^ , - S m ePerSO nsuseist0tw ist
o n n a il.
over the nail. The loose J h I 8 a"d then Place the looP
tight. The loose end * then " ^ PU" ed Until the stS *
3. P u ll till
tig h t.
tim es help to hold the s t r i n ^ ^ ar0Und the nail a few
W rapped Nail - This method of

fastening the string is very quick. Take
1. Wrap string
he loose end of the string and go around around
the nail twice, pulling hard to tighten the nail twice.
string as tight as possible. Grab the taut
2. Pull taut line
line and loop it over the nail and over the over wraps so
string loops on the nail. The tightness of that wrapped
the taut line prevents the loose end of the line can't loosen.
string from becoming unwrapped.
1. Bring line Wrapped Board - This method uses both a nail and the batter
under board. board and is also very quick. To use this fastening system, the
string is pulled taut and the loose end of the string is taken
2. Wrap line around under the board and up over the nail from behind. The loose
nail. (Loop once.)
end of the string is then held back and the taut string is pulled
up from the front of the board and looped over the nail and the
3. Pull line very loose string. This holds the string in place because the front
tight at back. taut line is over-the-top of the loose end loop around the nail.
To tighten, pull on the taut line and then pull on the loose end.
4. Loop line in Release the taut line and it will again put enough pressure on
front over nail. It
should be very tight. the loose end to hold the line.
5. Pull line in
back to really tighten.
19-67
Principles and Applications
c , s be maintained a. one inch. Simply measure .he offset to determine the

work from .he oring line. Or. perhaps the s.nng line has be.
.0
so a " "g a m s . .he work. Watch i. carefully be sure .he work . . bendiu, ,he
straiehtness of the string. . , _
w h e rc ,h0 string w ill ho placed is d ependent on the m ethod of construction
and how .he string will he used. Put som e .h o u g h , into the best place lo place the
string. G enerally, construction layout p ersonnel are resp o n sib le for the control and
m avbe som e string lines for the excavation. T y p ically , th e cra fts urc responsible for
th eir ow n lines and w ill m ake d e cisio n s on w h ere they should be placed. For
exam ple, in form w ork construction, the crafts w ill m ake the decision w hether the
string should be on the inside or ou tsid e o f the form , and th ey w ill base th eir decision
on the form ing system and w here m ost o f the w o rk is g o in g to be tak in g place.
T y p ic a l u se - T he illu stra tio n sh o w s strin g lin e s u se d w ith b a tte r b o a rd s that
m ark ed the e x c a v atio n area, and then are u sed to lo c a te th e fo o tin g s as w ell as the
o u tsid e o f the w all.
PATTERPOARD-OETSFT
5-0*FROMEXCAVATION
FORMBOARDS
CHALK LINES AND PLUMB LINES
6 8
iMp o r t a n t p o i n t s
s um rnary
The most import
AVO,d cumulativc "d W * to ,he outsidc

Al^ h a v e , ' b T : e o f the layout me..
Establish four n t o n u ^ J * ^ and sh" " f'M gh,v
^ practica, tolcranc any baseline.
Ch COnS' slet or good results

Change technology when
Discuss the scope of the n rf rming horizontal layout to identify errors
" - hod of ,ayout to use Ptojoc, with ,hc supe,in,edet to dctermine (hc
Use concrete monuments to preserve ,
Place control on the structure 'n Prrect c < > n tr o 1 Points.
Slructure as soon as possible
C h e c k T * a" C ntr0 WOrk separate field book,
method W X Y ^ Changlng methods- Lay out by method ABCD. check by
Use natural backsights to strengthen the control network.

Use double-centering when laying ou, critical points.
errors chnolgy when performing vertical alignment layout to identify
For constantly available control, use string lines.
Using up all of your tolerances in layout and not leaving anyone else room to
use some tolerance.
Wasting time using a total station when construction to an existing structure
only required surveying with tapes and string lines.
Failure to establish baseline control and get closure before starting building
column layout.
Not checking for square, whether using the 3,4,5 or measuring a diagonal. All
the dimensions check out, but the room can be out of square and no one notices
u n til y o u try to pu t cabinets in later.
. N o t " c h e c k in g b ack -in " w ith your backsight on a regular basis.
. N o t d o u b le -c h e c k in g w hen doing radial stakeout from another point.
. N o t c lo s in g th e lo o p (h e., checking back to your starting elevatton aft,
le v e lin g )
C o lu m n fo rm s w e re o u t o f plum b.
1 9 -6 9
^ H on d im en sio n s from e x istin g n o rth b o u n d rail Une
. B uilding layout was basea . E n ginee r referen ced la y o u t o ff th e southbound
for light rail transit system , r fo u n d atio n b e in g a lm o st 5 fe e t off.
rail, thus resulting in the b u n o n K
rdl . _ u.. A m h iin a the an g le.
QUESTIONS AND PRO BLEM S

1. D isc u ss w hy p lan n in g is the m o st im p o rta n t p a rt o f la y o u t.
2. D escrib e w hy it is im p o rta n t to h av e c o m m o n o ffs e ts on a p ro je c t.
3. W hat is the p u rp o se b eh in d th e c o n c e p t o f p e rfo rm in g la y o u t fro m c ritic a l to
n o n -c ritic a l p o in ts?
4. W h at w o u ld be th e b e n e fit o f b e g in n in g at th e m id d le o f a p ro je c t w ith th e m ost
c ritic a l c o n tro l lin e an d w o rk in g to th e o u ts id e ?
5. D e sc rib e a situ a tio n in c o n s tru c tio n (n o t s u rv e y in g la y o u t) w h e re m easu rin
te c h n iq u e s to av o id c u m u la tiv e e rro rs is u se d . S
6. Illu s tra te h o w th e la y o u t ru le " s u rro u n d th e s ite w ith c o n tro l" w o u ld w o rk on
a re c ta n g u la r b u ild in g .
7. R e fe r to C h a p te r 3, F ie ld w o r k P r a c t i c e s , a n d lis t th e to le ra n c e fo r th e fo llo w in g
lay o u t a c tiv ities: fo o tin g s, fo u n d a tio n s, b a tte r b o a rd s , a n c h o r b o lts, w alls,
co lu m n s, lo c a tin g re b a r, se ttin g the o ffic e tra ile r, o ffs e t p o in ts , slo p e stak es.
8 . Describe why consistency is so important in layout.
9 . If radial layout with a total station was used to lay out a "T" shaped building,
what "change technology" method could be used to check the layout?
10. List five items that should be considered when planning a bridge layout.
11. Research local building codes and determine the frost depth for your area.
How deep should monuments be set in that area?
12. Contact a professional surveying company and conduct an interview on the
types of control they provide on construction sites. Determine if a report of
survey" is provided for the work performed. Determine the type of monuments
set, and the instruments and methods of measurement used.
13. Describe how primary control could best be protected on a building site.
14. Describe how primary control could best be protected on a highway project.
15. Develop a Table that lists the differences and sim ilarities between primary,
secondary, and working control.
16. Visit a local school and sketch a rough site plan showing the streets, roads, and
outline of the building. If you were to lay out that building and the site,
describe and illustrate where you would locate the control.
17. Explain the concept behind the rule of thumb "get Vi of what follows you."
18. List ten objects that could be used as benchmarks along a typical city street.
19. Explain why vertical control should be placed on the first concrete poured on
the jobsite.
20. Describe how you think a 1 ,000,000-square-foot factory m ight be laid out.
21. D escribe how you think a 1000-square-foot re sid e n tia l stru ctu re m ight be
laid out.
2 2 . Describe how a 50-foot-long bridge over a sm all stream m ight be laid out.
23. Describe how a bridge over the M ississippi R iv er m ig h t be la id out.
24. List 5 uses o f the 3/4/5 triangle m ethod o f lay o u t in a building.
1 9 -7 0
summary @
25. Instead of a 9 0 H
triangle measurem?? angle- how far off
26- List 1 0 ways to eh * 3 0 /4 0/49,95-> * *he a"8le be from 90 if the
^ F ^ l t a , . ( 0 t a' k '
* . k . -aiM *Ascribe the s ig n in ^ ^
2 8 . F o r a n 1 " h mg four points monumented
how many insat^ buildi"g. in which the ln
29 Illustrst . ent setuPs will be needed?CSt Sl<*6 'Sparallel to a base'ine'
d is ta n c u " h a sk etch how a build- tbcorners of the building?
30 D k S 6tW een P P o site c o r n e r e " ^ * n0t be Square even if the diagonal
3 0 . Describe th e a d v a n ta g e s and d a Same len8,b'
layout. g6S and dtsadvantages of the method of intersection
^1 How
an 800afootmb 7 forbmldmd r ^ * fr a" intersection layout around
feet on center? 8 lf the column lines in the building are 50
32. por the building you visited in r,

it out by each of the layout ' ayUt P' a" fr ' ayi"g
a) 3/4/5
b) Intersections
c) Baseline Offset
d) Radial
33. After laying out a 200-foot by 600-foot building, it is found later that the target
was set up 0.02 feet off of the backsight that was 500 feet away. Proportionally,
a foresight point 300 feet away will be off by how much? Would this be
acceptable for anchor bolt layout?
34. Looking outside where you are right now, identify five objects that could be
used as natural backsights. Describe why they would be good.
35. In the process of bucking in on line, the instrument is exactly in the middle
between Points 1 and 2. If the instrument line of sight is 2 feet to the right of
the 2 nd point after plunging the scope, about how much should the instrument
be moved?
36. D escribe how double-centering is important in highway or railroad
construction.
37. D escribe how double-centering could be used in building layout.
38 Setting grade is simply another term for what process in layout.
3 9 Draw and label grade stakes for the following information:
a) Fill 2.3
b) C ut 15.9
c) On grade de in the construction of a building.

40. List 5 applications of gg . on a roadway?
4 1 . W hat is the most important aspect of setting g
42. Describe the objective of slope stg ing ^ field.determined value

43 In the process of setting slope.* J ^ d ? How is it obtained?
besides the distance measure feet> side slope at 1-1/2 to
19-71
vnapier nineteen
4 5 . lIif aa vcut
u i area -------
has a
distance betw een
46. In the illu stratio n to the right, the
1r ig
1g hilt-
i oVf1- wT*a y (R
' O W ) th a t w as

p u rch ased from the lan d o w n er is
175' w ide and the c e n terlin e o f the
road p ro ject is in the c e n te r o f the
rig h t-o f-w ay. ay . W hat is the actual
d istan ce b etw een the slope stakes
rig h t and le ft? Is th ere a p ro b lem ?
48. D raw a V shaped fou n d atio n and p la c e b a tte r b o a rd s as n eed ed at the corners.
49. F o r the fo llo w in g fo u n d atio n , p lace b a tte r b o a rd s as n e e d e d to strin g every
line.
50. Develop a poster that provides a new employee with rules for setting string
lines.
FIELD AND OFFICE ACTIVITIES

1. Setting a Hub - (2 or 3 persons, 1 hour) Objective: Set line and distance on
the center of a hub. Procedure: Set up an instrument over a point. Sight and
measure a distance of 50' to set a hub. Obtain a rough line and distance. Drive
the hub into the ground. Check line and distance and adjust the location of the
hub by hammering the ground to move it. Drive hub until flush. Check line
and distance and adjust hub until line and distance intersect at the center of the
hub. Measure to the nearest 0.01'.
2. Referencing Points - (2 or 3 persons, 1 hours) Objective: Reference control
points so they could be found if covered with 1' of dirt or snow. Procedure: Go
to any established control point. Review the area for trees, utility poles,
sidewalks, etc., as potential referencing objects. Follow the principles of good
referencing practices and reference the control point. Record in a field book.
3. Establishing Points by Intersection - ( 3 persons, 2 hours) Objective:
Locate a point by intersecting lines from two instrument setups. Procedure:
Layout a 100' by 100' building. Set hubs at the corners and at the midpoints
of each line. Choose two adjacent lines and set an instrument up at the
midpoint of each line. From the instrument setups, sight onto the midpoint of
the opposite line of the building. Lower the line of sight of the instruments and
set a hub at the intersection of the sight lines. Set a tack exactly on each line
of sight.
1 9 -7 2
summary @
poles m the ground ! 7 y Poles, a building 7 , 7 * .!? be,w n them. Select

Po-nts is and set up tL an inrument and e<t.i VP'e' r set ,wo ra"Se
and sighting, determ ," strum <w. By trial a n where line ^ " " e e n the
5.
openarea/50'x50MnteChniqUeS to ^ n ^ i g C a n *1 UypU' SmaU b u l l d i n 8

and measure 30 a, Ze' Pla"lay ou,a30 x40 h m- Pr#' edUre: Go t 0 an
to measure the 4 0 'and"e ^ f the b id in g U s^M / 5 " Pi m
buildino c * 4U d establish the 90 flnni8' n 3 / 4 / 5 yout techniclues
g* S et p o in ts w ithin 0 0 1 ' ^ e * ^ ePeat for all corners of the
6 . B a s e lin e O f f s e t - (2 o r 3 n
b a s e lin e a n d m e a su re 90 o f f n , 2 J UrS field) O bjective: Establish a
Procedure: E sta b lish a b aselin e J n V 81" 1* l lay out a sma11 building,
a n d tu rn a n g le s to th e c o rn ers o f a 40'C srr a adway Set UP on the baseline
a ll c o r n e r s . C h e c k d iag o n als to Pr. L shaPed building. Set hubs at
to th e n e a r e s t 0 .0 1 ' sure ^ at building is square. M easure
S b w ! i f e UULocna8 ,eL,hyOUt ' ( 2 7 3 perSOns' 2 hours *. 2 hours field)

measur e a n a l th,Crners of a bu>ld>ng using an EDM and theodolite by
measuring angles and d.stances from one control point. Procedure: Using a
set of plans for any small building, calculate the distances and angles to be
measure to ocate the corners of the building from a control point. Set hubs
and tacks at all corners. Check the layout by setting at another control point
and measuring calculated angles and distances to the building corners.
8 . Setting Slope Stakes - (2 or 3 persons, 3 hours) Objective: Set slope stakes
for a highway. Procedure: Go to the field and run a straight line for 200 feet,
establishing stations at 50' intervals. Assume a nearby benchmark elevation
o f 696.00 and using profile leveling, determine the elevation of each station.
Use the typical section shown at right for needed slope staking information.
Use the slope staking procedure to set slope stakes to the right and left of the
line. Set a lath at each point and write on it the cut and slope information. Set
the stakes to within a tenth.
__ GradeEL 680.0___ 2
1 -1 /2 I"" Base 40 1
Setting Batter Boards - (2 0 1 * P"

n CeS f
9. at the corners of a small build g. ^ 3/4/5) baseline offset, intersecting
batter boards. Lay out a build g 2 ^ lnstrument at one corner and sight
lines or radial layout for (he corners 0f the building. Check by
19
c h a P te r t w e n t y f
in s tr u c tio n c o n tro l | l
Introduction 2 0 -2
S i t e wo rk 20-4
Retaining Systems 2 0 -8
Caissons 2 0 -1 1
Footings and Foundation 20-14
Anchor Bolts 20-17
Structural Steel 2 0 -2 0
Concrete and Metal Decks 20-23
Block-Outs and Embeds 20-26
Concrete Columns 20-29
Elevator and Stair Cores 20-33
Sidewalks, Curbs, and Gutters 20-38
Summary 20-41
20-3
General
SCOPE
The control needed for construction activities on the jo b site varies w ith the type of
work that is being performed. Some require centerline stakes, other activities
require offset stakes to the inside, while others require offset stakes to the outside
of the work. This Chapter provides some thoughts from field engineers w ho w ere
asked what they thought was im portant to consider w hen perform ing these layouts.
The principles and practices that are presented here are directed tow ards any type
of construction layout. They apply to building construction, brid g e construction,
route surveying, etc.
20-2
Introduction (g
f fanning is - n t r S : , ' ^ a ctivities.

always first. planning is the Jement and layou,th'S ChaP*er are di
$ 4 c o n tin u o u s .
cannot be stressed" th'ng that must^ 1' 0 6 8 shold be" M? keep in mind lhat
layout. The w e l Str n8 'y enough ,Knsided prior , 0 !, "?WCd A* always,
should be revi ' US Chapter addre the lmPrtance of l y. ayout activities. It
Will it last until the end of th W rk? ls easily u " ^ " th e C O n t r o 1 lsP ' ^ d
when preparing for the .he Project? These a,.*.,- ls " well monumented?
8 the vartous layout aspect 7 T " %^ a" be dered
H o rizo n tal C ontrol f construc>n-
Throughout this book, various
we"! a?sComeed d 'i8ted' f measuri"g techniques have
new points to consider when estahiiv*** are especially important, as
Always have long backsiehts a , estabU^'n g cont
o , ,g lM urnin! *>
~
x. r . . .r r , rSe t 0 : ellmmate instrumental errors.
Measure all critical distances at least twice.
If a baseline is used, establish it with at least 4 concreted monuments.
movement' 5 ^ Pr Ximity of staining walls will be subject to
movement as piles are drtven or excavation takes place. Locate monuments
away trom the immediate work area if possible.
V e rtic a l C o n tro l
A lthough mentioned previously, here are a few important points about vertical
Always plan th e control that must be followed.
check
procedure. Establish temporary benchmarks (TBM) around the jobsite, both at original
ground elevation and in the excavation.
TBM 's should be placed in out-of-the-way locations so they are not disturbed
during normal construction operations.
Locate elevations on a sturdy point such as an edge of footing, top of anchor
bolt, or small angle iron welded to H-pile. Use a scribe mark on the wall if
necessary.
. R em em ber: tiro BM^spej HI for tw oTB M ^ if possible.
S S S b e d ! it will be readily apparent.
. P lan ahead for all vertical control o p e ra te s .
20-3
i
S i t e w o r k
Planning
20 - 5
20- 5 Safety
Earthwork
2 0 - 6
SCOPE
Sitework is the first and last operation on a co n stru ctio n p ro ject. O ften th e site
must be prepared for the w ork by clearing and d em o litio n . A th o ro u g h ch eck for
utilities must be made or tem porary rerouting m ay b e n ecessary . E arth w o rk ,
mostly excavation, w ill prepare the site to the c o n stru ctio n su b -g ra d es sp ec ifie d on
the plans. Throughout the project, elev atio n s o f su rro u n d in g b u ild in g s m u st be
checked for possible settlem ent. A t the end o f th e p ro je c t, stak es w ill b e p la ce d to
control the final grade. A ll stakes set fo r sitew o rk sh o u ld b e re fe re n c e d b a c k to the
prim ary horizontal and vertical co n tro l o r laid o u t to fo llo w th e fin ish co n to u r lin es.
20-4
P L A N N IN G
*! is important to do
""
C o n su lt
r*- isrsssr^
and projected finish dates
Check with the cl
contractor to see f arinS contractor tu
5SST*. r * r ~
work Will progress and disen L C onsu wiU. the s i gm Where ,he slak
Color Code and d,SCUSS ,he siteworruVohut pTnrimendem to sec how the
Although color-coding
j ' r S x r r s s
communicate sitework activities. S yU Want il to * to effectively
SAFETY
is an issue to keep in mind''l^Tthe 'h* ^ many machines working, and safety

it is especially important to paj a t t e n t i o n " g' demHti0n' ,nd UtiHty Wrk
C le a rin g a n d D em olition
After the site has been verified, the limits of usable space must be marked. Fences
should be located to enclose all work and storage areas accessible to the project.
Fences should be set just inside the limits so they don't encroach onto other property.
Careful study of the site plan will reveal what is to
be removed. Often, attempts are made to save mature trees.
Any natural or human-made object that is to be saved
should be well-marked with a surrounding fence of 4
painted lath and colorful surveying tape. Operators should
be personally contacted and taken over the site pointing
out objects to be preserved.
Demolition is dangerous! Falling debris, unknown
utilities, poor walking conditions, etc., comprise just a few of
the dangers. Keep bystanders off the site at all times. A
company has an obligation to protect employees and the
public during all phases of the project. Safety tool box talks
should address this issue.
C heck the plans tor .................... unidentified lines. However, inis may ..m
confirm locations and will seal-f # company did all of the right th
find all utilities. On a recent at P J hed in the ground. If nec*ssary
still hit gas lines in the first two hole _ ? P of the project. Mark those
may n d ^
lin e s and locate them w ith the total
Hate if necessary.
20-5
EARTHW ORK
Shallow E xcavation ^ parking lots, shallow buildings, etc.

Shallow e x c a v a tio n s Excavate a larger area than needed in order to
Set offset accommodate formwork. Set stakes at a specified offset from the edge of the
stakes. pavementfcenter of footing, or wherever the carpenter foreman des.res (5.0' offset
G ridlayout. Grid size depends on the size of excavation, future contours, depth
of excavation, and factors in choosing equipment to complete the job. For
parking lots, roads, etc., a 50' grid is fairly standard. Grids smaller than 50' make
it difficult for heavy equipment such as scrapers to operate. For larger areas
where contour varies little, a 1 0 0 ' or 2 0 0 ' grid will suffice. Shallow excavations
make it possible to grid the excavation only once. In cutting, the grid stakes can
be left standing with a small island of existing dirt left around the stake. Once
the whole area has been cut satisfactorily, the stakes can be pulled and the island
excavated. See Chapter 7, Leveling.
Reference Grid to Primary Control. The main baseline and stationing points
should be referenced. Measure the angles and distances. This information is a
necessary safeguard in case the grid is inadvertently lost during the construction
operation.
Staking. Use 48" lath, typically, for cut/fill stakes. For
clarity, always face the stakes in one direction. Mark both
sides with a cut or fill (eg., C2.1) and flag the tops (typically
red for cuts and blue for fills). Also mark the bottom o f the
stake with a line indicating existing grade. See the illustration.
D eep E x cav atio n

Determine the limits of the excavation. Have the soils engineer determine the
angle of repose for the soil to slope from the toe of excavation up to the existing
ground elevation.
If the excavation will have sheet piling or lagging,
determine the limits of excavation necessary for the system
used. Maintain an up-to-date schedule of the operations
which will be needed to keep the excavator and the pile
placers working together placing shoring where needed.
Workspaces. The room which is necessary behind
foundation walls (5' typical) depends on the formwork and
lagging systems used. Refer to formwork drawings and
shoring details and talk to the crafts.
Limits of excavations. When determining rough-grade elevation, allow additional
depth for waste material obtained from caisson placement, sub-excavations, etc. If
the excavation is to be sloped, one must locate the limits of excavation by
accounting for several variables:
The location of the outermost perimeter of walls or footings.
The rough grade elevations desired in all portions of the excavation.
Generally, the elevation will be taken down to the level of the bottom of the
slab on grade.
The amount of working room needed by the crafts.
20-6
sltework 0
j
Excavating. T h e e x c a
f # 0S,HA
sta ndard5.
Sometimes, the area is ov. am,naled soi's-

spillage from caissons or excavating * a!'ow a(lditional room for inherent
f grade material is not structural in n*t lngS* This may be executed when the sub-
OSHA Determin th ^ . Uldl mature.
the slope. Follow the re ^ re rn e Wt" ch w U 1 be necessar> to accommodate
soil encountered is used to determ,S u An angle of repose for the type of
engineer or surveyor check th imC W ?'Pe must be cut. Have a registered
could become an issue. C S PC angle since ^'ability over a possible mishap
footing w L n f derminingCth euJZformwork behind the Perimetet wa" s or

m > . g lim its o f excavation. N othing slows a form w ork
leaving to n na Vm? WOrlc *n unnecessarily crowded conditions. Additionally,
g row o a space behind the wall can create a dangerous trench-like
situation. Extra excavation is inexpensive when compared to the labor cost
associated with poor productivity or costs related to injury.
S ta k in g
Excavating or filling at a predetermined slope will make it necessary to locate
grade stakes away from the top of the slope. This is properly performed by utilizing
the method of setting slope stakes found in most surveying texts. Basically, the
slope is multiplied by the amount of cut ottsetn*_
Offset 1 _ *___ htodoi
or fill to determine the distance from stake
the structure to where the top or toe of
slope should occur. Offset the slope
stakes 5 feet back from this catch point.
See C hapter 19, Layout Techniques, for
a discussion of slope staking.
I
n f\ 7
\
\
R e t a i n i n g S y s t e m s
20-9 planning
20-9 Layout
Double-Check
2 0 - 1 0
SCOPE
When excavating for a project, several conditions may exist that require holding the
soil from tumbling into the excavation site. The most common is a deep excavation
through loose soil. Various forms of piling may be driven into the soil to hold it back
while excavation and foundation construction are taking place. Another is excavation
on a limited-size site. Although the excavation may not be deep and the soil may be
able to hold a slope, there might not be room for the required slope. Retaining
systems allow work to progress when unstable soil conditions exist, when building
on the property line, or when other site limitations exist.
20-8
retaining systems
p l a n n in g
If pile or laeeino
the drawing for ? lrecluired, check
- by the d- ~ - -
LAYOUT
The layout of retai *
centerline is e sta h u ^ n? systems is tynicaiiv u
system straight. The % .' Matter b o L d f a n d 's tr ^ ^ " Centerli"- 0 ce the
check and movement rh T 8 are also h elPful as refe" 6 8 be USed t 0 keep the
follows 1 C tK k- ' ' . f C I l < lo -io .
g system, things to consider
Reference to Prim ary CoM ro,
All measurements for layout o f th
primary horizontal and vertical controloo"'?8 Should be referenced to
directly on the property lie, ,herefore * ey ^ ^
Always o ffs e t in C e n te r lin e s

twodirections. Refer to plans and locate the centerline
of the retaining system as noted. Usually
this is parallel to the foundation wall
To locate the centerline of piling in both
directions, the lagging and pile thickness
plus form-work information must be
evaluated. Establish layout from
structural drawings for the wall location
and for pile centerlines. Locate within
tolerance per specifications.
O f f s e ts
Stakes are offset from the actual location to allow for equipment movement. Check
with the operator to locate offset stakes where they are not likely to be disturbed.
Offset your point in two directions and have a benchmark available for grade.
F o rm s
Form attachment brackets may be used when shoring is used as a form face. When
used like this, lay out vertical centerline at the top of the pile. Typically this is the
centerline of the form bracket. Next, establish horizontal centerline of the form
bracket. This is an elevation derived from the form drawings. Double-check from
orimarv control and offset stakes. . ...
P Check lagging shop drawings to make sure layout is consistent wi h
Check lagg g P laging may not protrude into the finish wall,
foundation drawings. A rem d . & ^ ^ ^ an(J sight the outside
r o assist in plum bing, eldabrack
w This can be plumb-bobb
of the wall h am * "
w Z b n e s . from the h a . of the
lown and used to measure lagging v
20-9
D O U B L E -C H E C K should be co n sta n t c h e c k in g o f the retaining
W hen the system is o ut; *h f oroP<;r a lig n m e n t w ith the in stru m en t or a
Always double- s ^ tc m This includes checking .o r ^ gp c rfo rm c d by u sin g the vertical
check siringline. .n d also for P,u , 6 -foo. lev el, o r d ro p p in g a p lu m b h n e . Check
plumbness. crosshair of .he i n s . r u m e n . us.ng a y co,rol .f needed.
locations from offset pom ls as e .
When keeping retaining system forms in line while pouring, simply stretch
a string line on an offset line and measure from it.
20-10
P|ar' n i ng
2 0 - 1 2
La y o u t 2 0 - 1 2
Dr'lling
2 0 - 1 2
A s -Bui|,s
20- 13
SCOPE
C aisso n s are diam eter-drilled holes typically in solid rock and filled back with
c o n c re te to the designed plan elevation. Most caissons have re-bar for a foundation
c o n n e c tio n o r an ch o r bolts installed for structural steel. Recognizing the accuracy
re q u ire m e n ts o f anch o r bolts, the layout of caissons is critical and must also be
a cc u ra te . T hus, layo u t should be initiated from primary control to achieve the
g re a te s t a c c u ra cy in placem ent o f the caisson.
20-11
P L A N N IN G , t develop field drawings showing the location of
To prepare for caisson lay'- . Reference the drawing to the specific plan
caissons and all pertinent mformaU if needed. Include building lines, reference
pages where information can be Highlight any unusual dimensions that
lines and control points o n the P 'V are located. Indicate the location of the
might be overlooked when the c located. Have the project engineer or
nearest benchmarks to the cais ^ caisson layout drawings for omissions
as your guide during layout. Read, study
o r\A Irnnw rhe c a is s o n d ra w in g s!
LAYOUT
used as the basis for all caisson
As noted in the Scope, primary control should be
should be checked and double-
locations. I f secondary control must be used, it
checked during the caisson work.
Centerlines
Typically, column center is equal to the
Column center
caisson center. However, there are
is typically
occasions when this is not true. Be
caisson center.
aware that caisson centerlines may not
be on gridlines Any unusual caisson
locations should be red-lined on the
plans. From caisson shop drawings,
determine at least two approaches to
locate a caisson from p rim ary or
secondary control. Both should be used!
Conventionally located caissons are laid out by intersecting the necessary
working lines, which represent the caisson center. Care should be taken when
chaining along working lines for caisson stationing so that errors do not accumulate.
Always check layout from two different means as a double-check.
O ffse t
Once the double-check closes, offset the OFFSET STAKES
caisson in two directions 90 apart. Offset
stakes or monuments should be located
where they will be out of the way of
equipment travel and caisson spoils. Five
to ten feet is a typical offset built with
hubs or sturdy monuments.
01
During the drill rig setup, talk to the o p erato rs a b o u t th e im p o rtan c e o f th e offset
stakes. M ake sure they u n d erstan d the m a n n er in w h ic h th e stak e s w ere
established and how they w ill be used. S tate th e sig n ific a n c e o f n o t d estro y in g
the offset stakes.
If anchor bolts are to be placed in the top o f th e c aisso n , tem p lates shoul
be used for accurate placem ent. R efer to the A n ch o r B o lt S ectio n in th is Chapte
for placem ent and alignm ent procedure in the use o f tem p lates.
20-12
caissons
A fte r the c a is s o n s are staked o ut d

as c lo s e ly as p o ssib le to ensure th-*! ^ ec^ ed and ^-checked, watch the drilling
A fte r th e y are drilled and poured it* f COrTect sXakes and offsets are being used.
a n d d ra w in g s b e completed and ^ tle n a requirement that as-built measurements
c a is s o n s are not l o c a t e T c t r m l v T , * ** des'gner fr apptova'' ' I t
K .iU dinp to o hanop e c tly ltxaX may cause the structural loading of the
r . req u ire a redesign. In some states, these as-builts must be
p re p a r e d b y a lic e n s e d la n d surveyor.
V
i'
1
,1
20-^3
construction control
@ chapter twenty
F o o tin g s a n d
F o u n d a t i o n
20-1 5 Pl anni ng
20-15 Ho r i z o n t a l La y o ut
20-16 Elevations
SCOPE
During and after excavation, it will be necessary to give line and grade to the
carpenter foreman so crews can begin placing formwork for the concrete work that
will support the columns and walls of a structure. This will include spread footings,
grade beams, pier caps, slabs, or caisson tops. Although good layout and alignment
techniques must be used for initial formwork line and grade, for excavation, and for
rough locating purposes, tolerances for this type of work are not as precise as for
primary or secondary control work. Normal referencing, double-checking, closing
level circuits, and information-gathering steps should continue to be followed.
20-14
votings and foundation @
P L A N N IN G
primary control should h*
Communicate s s ? for au* * - d

line and grade are h Secondary control location7,,COntro1 locations. care should
control back into primarv 8 P'aced fo rm w o rk Ca" be direcdy used while
information to Be sure to describ' r" * regular bas^' 6 CheCk SeCondary contro1
the foremen
ar]d their crews. operators. Contact the c a r p lm r y ^ w f inf rma,ion *the excavator foreman and
placing operations to assure that I , ! , ? 3" " 11 in adva"ceof the forming and
are being set, how line and grade * understanding exists about how forms
corrective alignment may be used in th estabhshed, and what means of
Under certain soil conditions eVeiU f 3 Problem- Think ahead!
not have to form them When ni 1 ma^ Poss^ e to excavate footings and
formed or not. If it win be fo r m T !? 8 * * lay Ut determine if the pour will be
needed outside the footings and 1 etrmine how much working room will be
around the footings. Ifthennnr n &n ,r enouh room for proper backfilling
excavation is the proper size Th ^ formed make absolutely sure that the
footing. If it is poured and n'n* i 3 *S make SUre il meets the plan size for the
Line a d f 1 T Iarge enouSh- the rework will be expensive.
Line and grade should be easily identified by all
beliT rd ? S Wi" ^ ily and lay "formationwfl.
b b tl i h n ,mfark 311 P ntS wel1' Use sharP Pencils
o establish w ell-defined lines; use permanent mar"kers t0
label needed line or grade information; circle information
with paint.
HORIZONTAL LAYOUT
Layout for excavation may be accomplished by defining the area of cut with hubs,
lath, lime, etc. Be sure to consider the means of forming before digging. If the earth
is too soft to act as a form face and is to be high walled, be sure to communicate
that to the excavator. If reusable formwork is used, be sure to provide ample work
space for the crafts.
Wooden bearing pads may be
set at subgrade elevation to facilitate
firm bearing for formwork. Form line
can then be snapped directly onto
wooden pads. Batter boards may be
used around the perimeter of subgrade
foundations to reestablish working lines.
This can be useful on opposite sides of
Monitor
location during
concrete
of ts s s s z z iz z x s ,
d eflect if not properly secur flexibility. Forms kicked to the trench
placement. turnbuckles w ill of adjustment.
bankS W h t f us/nTprevTously-set batter boards and string, or instruments, to
When using prey.us during concrete placing, be sure they are set
m onitor footer alignmen ^ ^ ^ disturb them or the line of sight.
^ p l a c i n g operation will not disturb them
where
20-15
l
. r on grade beams, pile caps, slabs, or caisson tops.
Foundation walls may oea 6 vide layout information is firm and free
Be sure the surface on which you f viding layout information, check with
o f obstructions before you beg t formation is needed. The foreman may want
the crew foreman to determine wn nuous Une which represents back of form,
actual concrete line or may as
stiff back, or whale line. directly onto form foundation tops. Avoid
When possible, set layo g j one more chance to make a mistake,
working from an offset line, im t gnd reading directiy to a rod or a stiff
However, if you are wo/ k,ng on hoiding the rod swing an arc with the rule,
rule, always be sure to t a ve tiie p principle applies when reading a target or
then read the low estvalu . hile occupying an offset.
rod during alignment operation ^ you wiU need to supply any
unce me moi
Once the -------side
first form P' sieeves, points of change, etc., can
ontroli lntmiifc
layouts and
and information
information SO so block-outs, sleeves, points
lUao ui '-"<<;, w ., can
am pnmnlpfplv
When swinging
e established. Check with the subs to make sure that they are completely finished
an arc, always
/ith their work. Before the pour begins, be sure to document all existing
use the lowest ieir wuirc. ~~----
reading. mentions in a field book for future reference.
onditions
- ... is
Once the form :----- and is b"
complete and secure
is buttoned and secure,
check fnrm
check form
ilignment by setting the instrument on the working offset and sighting the bottom,
niddle, and top of the Formwork throughout the pour. An alternative is to place
itringlines along the top, middle, and bottom and have the carpenters monitor the
jffsets from the form to the stringline during the pour. Remember, stringline use
illows the field engineer to go and work elsewhere.
ELEVATIONS
Temporary benchmarks should be established in the area o f the Formwork as soon
is possible. The tops o f caissons, protected stakes, etc., may be used. Set several
n the area to be checked into frequently.
Once Formwork and bulkheads have been set, grade information needs to
?e provided. Grade may be marked as top o f form, or a grade line with nails may
leed to be snapped on the form face.
Place a target on the level rod at the correct reading o ff o f the Formwork.
This will help to eliminate the human error when reading a rod. B e sure to consider'
brm thickness when placing a target on the lev el rod.
20-16
SC O P E
Anchor bolts are used to hold structural members to the foundation. There is little
room for error in location or spacing. Steel or precast is being fabricated and
brought onto the site with the expectation of being easily slipped into place. The
field engineer must use surveying knowledge and skills to ensure that the bolts are
located according to plan.
20-17
P LA N N IN G Dimensions between anchor bolt locations. the s.zes of anchor bolts, and
spacing of anchor bolts will vary widely throughout the project. Many w,
Read th e plans. the same, however, it is the ones that are different that are usually impropeiT
Know th e plans! placed. Red-line on the plans unusual anchor bolt situations so they win not be
overlooked
Whenduring layout.
planning a control network for placing anchor bolts, keep in mind
anchor bolt orientation. That is, anchor bolts must not only be in the right location
they must also be oriented to the building or to North properly. This will requir
more than just the centerline or the coordinates of the center of the anchor bof
layout; it will also require points to be calculated that will orient the bolts proper! *
This is why grid layout is popular when locating anchor bolts because the gr^j
makes it easy to orient the bolts.
HORIZONTAL LAYOUT
Try to locate control points so anchor bolt templates can be sighted directly wi h
the transit/theodolite/total station. If possible, two instruments should be
simultaneously to set the template by intersecting the two lines o f sight. This*1^
increase the accuracy of the location o f the anchor bolts. In situations which d o ^ ^
allow for direct sighting from primary control points, it is best to estabf0]!
secondary control points at a location that will perm it direct sighting. Refe ^
C hapter 19, L a y o u t T echniques, for inform ation on intersecting lines. rCllCe
Such practices as plumbing with a plum b bob or hand level, or chainin
---- .m -c Km chnnlri h
from other points to locate bolts, are common practices but should be avoided
because of inherent errors in the procedure.
Caution must be taken when
deciding to use secondary control points.
Secondary points must be located so
they will not be disturbed by drilling,
concrete placement, etc., and will still
allow for checks into primary control.
W hen adequate protection
cannot be provided or good checks into
primary control cannot be made from
secondary points, it is best to go ahead
and work from secondary control with
extreme care.
anchor bolt pattern, which is shown

on the anchor bolt drawing against the
base or structural steel piece drawing
to ensure that the two agree.
Whenever you have more than
one anchor bolt pattern, always prepare
a drawing that clearly identifies the
different patterns. Color code the various
patterns on the drawing. Then paint the
corresponding templates the same color.
20-18
anchor bolts @
e l e v a t io n s
Tolerance of A 'w ays check tonnf

0.01 is typical anchor bolt p l , anchr bolt elevaf
for anchor threaded nut. W h e n c e 1811 enou8h t o ^ b w for M f ^ e,evalion- Make sure
bolts.
Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified
S o " t hned b,; : c ^ l holt, should be ,e,
Section 7, AISC Steel C o n s b u c t a ' h' ^ f S "dar<1
placem ent
Anchor bolts must be h IH
Generally, this is accom plished! '^ v ^ u 6 Whl'e concrete is beinS placed,
securely to the formwork. y hlng the temPlate to 2x4's and nailing them
template. Rotating t h e L m p l a t e " ^ t r ' ^ S ' r Pla,Cement t0 properly onent the

serious results. Check and rinuhi u v 1 from the correct position could have
after line are given m that lnstrument sights before, during, and
If n n ih i C^6W member allning and securing the template.
ensure th ^ ^ templates as close t0 Pour time as your schedule allows to
sure that the template or formwork doesn't move prior to the pour. Re-check the
position o f the template during concrete placement.
It is good practice to make sure the labor crew puts a coating of grease or
duct tape on the anchor bolt threads prior to concrete placement. This will prevent
the threads from filling with concrete and eliminates requiring a laborer to spend
considerable time cleaning the threads.
A S -B U ILT S A N D C H E C K S
A lw ays check anchor bolt location and elevation when the concrete is "wet." After
it dries it will be too late to make any adjustments.
A fter anchor bolts have been set and concrete is placed, grid lines will
need to be established on the concrete surface for checking and plumbing the
bolts. C oncrete nails can be placed in the top of the caisson while concrete is still
"green." The heads o f the concrete nails will provide durable points that can
su rvive sandblasting during caisson cleaning. The nail heads also provide good
secon dary control points. checking to see if anchor bolts are within
tolerance be sure to check not only the location of the bolts,
but also their plumbness. As the bolts protrude out of the top
o f the caisson, these bolts can be within tolerance at their base
(at the top o f the caisson), but out of tolerance at their tops
(several inches above the caisson).
To protect bolts after the template is removed, sleeves
He o f 2x4's can be cut and placed on the bolts. This will
T e /e n t Item from becoming damaged from malerials being
E o n them o , vehicles running over them.
20-19
S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l
planning
20-2 1
Elevation
20-21
20-21 C h e c k Eq u i p me n t
20-22
P l u m b i n g and E r e c t i o n
SCOPE
The arrival of the structural steel is a m ajor m ilestone during the construction of
a project. The overall shape of the structure w ill finally begin to occur. T hat is,
if the steel has been fabricated correctly, if layout and the plum bness of the
structure are maintained correctly during erection, and if everyone has been
following the plans, the pieces should fit together quickly and easily. H ow ever, if
the plans are not read or layout and plum bness are not correct, p roblem after
problem will occur creating unnecessary rew ork and lots of headaches.
2 0 -20
P LA N N IN G structural steel @
Primary control points used h
checked for accuracy prior to use lC1alion of lhe anchor bolts should be re
points are established on column r nn^ erecôn process. If primary control
control points which are offset \ " may be necessaTy lo establish secondary
the plumbing process. * CV/ ^rom 'be column line to be used during
e l e v a t io n
Erection cannot begin until w i

the proper elevation. This is^d^âSe plates
P*ates or columns
co'umns w'*h
with base plates
P'ales are sel
set at
__ i- elevation
the anchor -bolts. * ThU a006 ims or
Wlt^ sb'ms or witv
with leveling nuts threaded onto
advano pI!-S 'ms are use(f shim packs can be made in

the h C lm pac^s are niade by stacking shims on top of
, .ea^ln surface to obtain the necessary thickness to
a is the elevation of the bottom of the base plate. The
S im pack is then taped together and labeled for use when the
erection begins.
If leveling nuts are used, they are threaded onto the
anchor bolts to the correct elevation. Tape is then placed just
above and just below the nut to keep it stationary.
CHECK EQUIPMENT
, ia u i instrument or equipment is going to be used to plumb the steel

s ou e c ec e for proper calibration before the steel erection begins. Errors
in t e instrum ent that might not be significant when working on the ground will be
m agnified when projecting lines to high elevations. Check the instrument for the
proper geom etric relationships before the erection begins. Refer to Chapter 10,
E q u ip m e n t C a lib ra tio n , for detailed information on these processes. If a transit/
theodolite/total station is going to be used to plumb the steel, the most important
geom etric relationship within those instruments is that the horizontal axis should
be perpendicular to the vertical axis. If
th is r e la tio n s h ip e x is ts and the
in stru m en t is level, a plumb line of sight
can b e p ro je c te d up w ard . If this
p erp en d icu larity does not exist, line of
uufco uui tA.131, the
uil/ line
iiiiv sight
horizontal
axis
nor
off ci crht will
sight
si will notnot bbee nplumbi nmh when
when
projected upward. Remember from
earlier Chapters that the procedure to
eliminate most instrumental errors is to
turn direct and reverse. If that is used
when plum bing a structure,
instrument that is out of adjustment can
be used to create a perfectly plumb line
by splitting any difference that occurs.
20-21
p l u m b in g AND ER ECTIO N [t can be done with a tool as simple as a plumb
There are many ways to Plunlk S*e*histicated as a pocket laser, a utility laser, a zenith
bob or a carpenter's level, or as sop croSshair of an instrument, or more
plummet, an optical plummet h methods have been used to successfully
recently with a GPS system. All o con,inue (o be used today. The equipment
plumb steel at one time or the otne procedure and changing technology as a
used isn't as important as using t P P ^ of (hem for plumbing is described in
check. T h e procedures on how to> these methods were explained in detail
Chapter 19, Layout Techniques.h e to cover them again. Howe
previously, no attempt will be made here to
about erection are noted. M
Tolerances , , , ,,,
Unless otherwise specified by the contract docum ents, structural steel should be
plumbed with tolerances outlined within the AISC construction manual. In
1/0" per 10'
general, steel should be plumbed to within l/ 8 ,h inch per any 1 0 -foot section. This
is not a cumulative error; it is both plus and minus, and should average out so that
the building will be plumb from top to bottom.
Turnbuckles and C ables
When steel is being plumbed, cables will
be attached from corner to corner of the
section being plumbed. Turnbuckles will
be attached to the cables so that they can
be tightened or loosened to move the
steel in the direction required. The person
on the instrument will have to recognize
the time-consuming process it takes to
move the steel to be plumb.
Tighten the Bolts
After aligning and tightening the bolts, a re-check of the backsight and foresight
should be taken by reversing the scope and repeating the sighting to the steel. If
there is any error in the instrument, it will be eliminated by this process.
Troubleshooting
If it becomes difficult to plumb a section, the lengths of the beams should be checked
to see that they were fabricated properly. In fact, don't check just the length, also
check the center-to-center spacing of the bolts. Column elevations should also be
tt, e<k j - mon*tor any fabrication errors. As the building goes up, recognize that
the budding structure will compress with the loading of the building. Be sure to
consider this factor when determining column elevations as the building progresses.
2 0 -2 2
Cor>w*te
and metal
c " C re te
a r ic i
M e ta l
^ c k s
H 0 r i 2 n , al c P'anni"9
c n t r o ' (Line)
E 16 v a t i
. " s <a-d.)
a a ' n i >h . L
L aa s, e r
C n c r e t e Pl ar
aeernent
SCOPE .j
Structural concrete and metal deck work consist of two major categories:
Establishing line and grade, and supervising the work of the crafts by checking
their interpretation of the plans and specs. Line and grade must be completed
quickly on each floor. As work progresses from floor to floor, the crafts will expect
line and grade to be available as they need it. Contact should be made with each
of the foremen to develop a schedule for establishing line and grade. All line and
grade should be established off of primary or secondary control.
After the concrete is poured is not the time to closely read the plans. Many
embeds, dowels, conduits, etc., will have to be placed in the concrete. Lift and
block-out drawings should be developed for each floor and used to check off items
to be installed or openings to be formed. A double-check of the lift drawings
should be completed just prior to the pour to ensure items have not been forgotten.
20-23
P L A N N IN G . . l vtuHikl be directly cMahh'hetl from the primary control
A 9k th e c rs * t* All omk icic amt dex k ct*Mr available to set the point*, care should be
imr* they " " ^ . a * <**.*
meet laken to *c setomlary v I or thc general foreman to determine the
^ - ro ** or making * ^
and and gride inlor.nat.on than is necessary U good
j j - , **
'm .l. well labeled and conuMcnt fn>n. floor fo floor if pos.ihle.
A. alw avs he sure .hal .he concrete mi a design .a appropriate for the
application Check .he specifications and confirm lha. the concrete delivered la
Determine if floors are to be poured level or with a slope to compensate for

column compression or differential settlement.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL (LINE)

Be sure to place control on decks as soon
as possible so layout of edge forms,
beams, block-outs, embeds, etc., can
proceed quickly. Also, check plans for
all slab penetrations and confirm location
from control lines and make sure block-
outs arc o f proper size. Finally, check
and re-chcck control during the slab/
deck construction as movements may
occur within the structure.
ELEVATIONS (GRADE)
Set up a level or laser in an area that will not interfere with the work of the crafts.
Preplan this location. Setting up next to a column is best because the floor is more
stable. Setting up on a metal deck is very unstable.
When marking slab elevations on adjoining walls and columns, mark grade 3-
1/2" above concrete elevations. This is the common height of a finisher's screed. In
this manner, the finisher can place concrete to grade without obscuring the grade line.
Be sure to check all pre-established concrete grades which need to be
matched. Previously-poured slab sections, door and elevator sills, etc., may need
to be matched in elevation. II discrepancies arise, be sure to consider future impact
of your corrective decision. It may be necessary to remove the already placed, but
incorrect, material. Read the plans!
The embed plates at the edge ol slab or deck that need specific coverage will
dictate grade. Care must be taken to ensure that these plates have been located
properly. Doorjamb locations should carry the same elevation to ensure consistent
door head-to-ceiling height.
Most slabs are to be poured level. However, in some high-rise work, slabs
may need to be placed at a slope to compensate for differential compression at the
perimeter or core. Excessive quantities of concrete being used to maintain a level
surface may cause an overload condition that will impair structural integrity.
Carefully monitor deck deflection.
2 0 -2 4
concrete and metal decks @
G R A D IN G w it h a laser
The laser has become the
readings without setting u ^ a h T W rk' Pan the setuP to be able to maximize the
the laser toTcolumn8 ^ 0nvenient and acceptable to attach

Special mounts p! k Wa" * get il out of the way of work.
As soon 8,1 nf purchased (r made) to accomplish this.
indicating the Hne 'S ^ UP a"d operating a mark
co lu m n Thrr u should be made on a nearby
checked on th' U ?Ut <he day the line of sight should be
has occurred'Smar t0 deterrr>ine if any instrument movement
senorcUSe t S6r SenS rS t0 detect the beam if necessary. The

should h dn, u6 moUnted t0 a level r d or to a 2"x 4". Care
oeriodir n ^ mi" ally setting the sensor and also in
periodically checking its location on the rod.
CONCRETE PLACEMENT
to eliminateb overirC'ded whe" Plannin8 the concrete placement sequence on decks

mnn-t d K erloadln8' ShorinS below should be constantly checked and
omtored before and during concrete placement. Decks on structural steel or
precast beams should be loaded center span first.
Develop
C hecklist To be sure all materials are in place before pouring.
C heck off the

w ork of others For location and grade of subcontractors.
All reinforcing is in and properly placed: clearance,

C heck
additional threaded dowels, etc.
Electrical conduit of proper size and outlets at proper
C heck
locations.
C heck Unit and duct hangers for HVAC.
C heck Embeds for ceiling grid hangers.
To see that all slab penetrations are blocked out and checked
C heck for location and grade.
Embedded plates for proper location and for correct embed
C h eck designation and count.
To ensure that the bulkheads in the pour are properly placed
according to structural criteria, and are doweled and keyed.
C heck
Also check that chamfer strips are in place.
Make sure all mesh, conduit, and other embedded items are
F in a l C h eck below top of concrete with proper coverage.________
After the concrete is placed and cured, it is too late to read the plans ana ima
thatômething is missing, so. check, check, check, and re-check you, work!!
20-25
B l o c k - O u t s a n d
E m b e d s
20-27 Planning
Use
20-2 7 Lift-Ora wing P r e p ar a ti o n and
20-28 Layout
Check, Check, and R e - C h e c k

20-28
SCOPE
To construct a concrete structure with all of the embeds, sleeves, and block-outs
in proper location requires a very methodical, systematic approach. There are
countless details that must not be overlooked. Concrete-embedded items include,
but are not limited to, anchor bolts and base plates, rebar dowels, block-outs, beam
pockets, rustication strips, sleeves (for mechanical, electrical, fire protection,
etc.), miscellaneous metals, and hollow metal frames. Forgetting to locate just one
of these will cost the company time, money, and headaches.
Wock-outs and embeds
P A N N IN G
has been poured. To avoia easil? place an J ? l slMemera and never
b 8, _ = s s a s 5 s = s
Consult with the key subc

After you have collected daT^* Carênler Pieman for their input,
inform ation on a concrete lift drawing ^ ^ embedded Uems or&anize this
L|FT-DBaW 1N G p r e p a r a t io n a n d u s e
Establish an elevation line on the lift drawing that will be the same elevation you
ie better to w ill eventually establish on the formwork. Dimension all embedded items off of
this elevation line.
era5er than a Build a system to double-check the elevations of all embeds either off of a
jackhammer. separate elevation line or in relation to other embeds. Show these relationships on
the lift drawing!
Establish one or more working control lines and/or offsets. Once again, the
lin es established on your lift drawing should be the same lines you intend to
establish on the formwork.
D im ension all embeds from a minimum of two working control lines to
preparing the lift drawing:

Are there overlapping
. Between embedded items.
roof slabs conflicts? outside of
* * * '* ^ "
Reinforcing steel. Are there heavily-reinforced areas

and conflicts with embed or block-outs? (Additional
trim bars may be required around block-outs.)
WALLS
Architectural concrete walls. Are proper block-outs
attached? (Normal methods of nailingor boltingablock-
out to the wall form or using conventional rebar tie wire
usually result in rust stains on the architectural concrete
base slab
face. A better method is using coated tie wire.)
. Block-outs and pipe sleeves. Centerline of edge o
flowline. , , ,
T h e fin a l s,ep in ,he

for accuracy and completeness I t 18/ " J i ,
double-check your work to avotd overioobng mtstake,
20-27
cnaptet twenty construction
control
LAYOUT
As soon as one face of the wall form is in place and securely fastened, establish
* u predetermined elevation lines and grid line.. If hi. mfornistion established
prior to any trades working on the wall form . will allow all parties to work off
of the same lines. It is much quicker and easier to perform layout prior to
installation of block-outs and reinforcing m a wall pour.
V e rify ! Once the required lines have been established, lay out all embedded items
V e rify ! from the lift drawing. All embeds should be clearly labeled as to their type and size
V e rify ! from the information shown on the lift drawing.
Contact your field foreman and/or superintendent to discuss methods of
marking on the formwork. Several possible materials include chalk (a different
color than is being used by the carpenters), magic marker, paint, nails, etc. Extra
precautions must be taken on architectural concrete walls to ensure that the layout
information does not appear on the finished product.
Double-check all layout for accuracy and request that the carpenter foreman
does the same.
Prior to setting the second form
face, verify that all embedded items have
been installed per your layout and lift
drawing. If you do not verify, any errors
will result in delays and additional cost.
CHECK, CHECK, AND RE-CHECK

While checking the final installation o f the embedded item s, the following things
should be investigated:
Block-outs are securely fastened to the form surface.
Rectangle block-outs have square corners, and have sufficient kickers so they
will not change shape under the force o f fluid concrete.
Embedded sleeves, electrical boxes, etc., should have tape over all openings
to prevent concrete from flow ing in.
Verify that block-outs have cham fered corners if required by the contract
docum ents.
Verify that reinforcing has the sp ecified clearance for em bedded items and
form surfaces.
Failure to check and re-check may result in a jackham m er correcting your

mictab'**
2 0 -2 8
SCOPE
As an integral part of a concrete structure, concrete columns serve as the load-

supporting members of beams and decks. The columns may be located in the base
of the structure, never to be seen again, or they may be part of the architectural
front, seen by thousands each day. Regardless of the location within the structure
and the differences in specifications, the same care must be taken in establishing
the locations of all columns.
A variety of forming systems may be used to construct concrete columns.
The field engineer should become familiar with the type to be used and plan the
layout accordingly. Close communication with the carpenter foreman is necessary
to agree on the most suitable method of layout and marking the locat.on.
20-29
P L A N N IN G , , be based on primary control. During the
Work on concrete columns sltoaM V that column control poi<s
Highlight unusual planning of points on ttS lhc columns typically sit on the grid
columns on yo u r established on grid lines become ^ ^ .r all columns on the grid line,
plans. line More useful are offset lines: < h ntry foreman should be contacted fo,
Before construction begin.. 2-foot offsets from centerline required?
input into the layout line locations. ^ ^ be marked? Win
Does this forming system rcqu> form ig lin es and dow el locations?
templates be constructed to
Communication is the ke> elevation, mix design, rebar placement, etc.
Columns vary in location. isb eingconstructed. Highlight unusual
Read the plans to become overlook them during construction. A good
columns on your plans so you that is needed concerning the columns is
method of detem m m ge
r a p i d l y Reference ch a p ler office Practices, for a
to prepare a column Ilf * drawing should show:
discussion on l.f. repetjlive from floor to noor. and the dimensioning
' of0 T c o m m Uns to m the grid or offset lines. This w ill provtde a quick
reference for layout.
. Top o f column elevation for each column.
Column size.
rl */ f d *
fnf Aach rollim n.
H O R IZ O N T A L C O N T R O L A N D L A Y O U T
Concrete colum ns may sit on the top o f a pier, ca isso n , slab, or deck; and they
may be rectangular, circular, or irregular in shape. R egardless where they are
encountered, or the design shape, the fundam ental principles o f control and
layout are the same.
C o lu m n D o w e l L a y o u t
The first step to ensure accurate location of a concrete column is the layout of the
rebar dowels which will penetrate the slab on which the column sits. It is
imperative that the dowels be embedded in a location where the rebar cage for the
column will fit over the dowels and allow for proper location of the column form.
For dowels protruding from a concrete slab or pier cap, begin layout by establishing
control adjacent to the column (from offset control lines).
Locate center of column in both directions. This can be accomplished with
string lines attached to batter boards.
Have the carpenter foreman build a rebar template for the maximum size the
rebar dowel cage can encompass. Mark the template with column grid lines to
allow the crafts easy identification.
2 0 -3 0
cncrete
clur^ns
Begin'roiu^fn T n C ncrele s 'at>

Gilding contrM ayul ^ establishing
? , thCCnCrete S'ab- *
is recommend s ^ each duecb
c h a in iS l aUow foT m^mum
distances anddouble-checking.
grid W 8d method for establishing
Une " T ! " Cncrete slab '* ^ chalk
This , nTed Witb a clear lacquer paint.
1 protect the line for future use
Measure ln layout of exterior skin, interior
directions. C o lum n Layout on Rectanqular r i.Partitions, etc.
Establish the outside perimeteôf th ' m ns
measured directly from the offset lin L Th1 n the concrete slab- This will be
colum n base plates directly from the zo\ ^ aUWthe carPenlers t0 set their
A w ood template is often usef^foJ1 lay.out
c o lu m n rem ain square. Often two fac^ cJasurmS lbattbe top and bottom of the
w h ile the colum n could be om o 7 ^ are rl l t ^ ^ be pWmb
square resulting in an unacceptable product.
C o lu m n L ayo u t on Circular Columns
E stablish the grid line center of the
colum n and use a circular template to
lay out the base o f the column on the
concrete slab. This layout will allow
the carpenter to attach the column base
plate directly. ^ ===============^
A nother m ethod for laying out the column bases is to establish the outside
o f th e colum n base plate. This can be done for both rectangular and circular
colum ns. T o avoid confusion, it is recommended that this be discussed in advance
w ith y o u r carpenter foreman to reach an agreement on the most suitable method.
E COL
PLUMBING THE LUU MN
O n ce the carnei
U s T a t a 3 r r h haS r Cted a COlUmn f0rm the form be plumbed.
U se a h e a v y p lu m b bob or shoot it with an instrument. Both rectangular and
c ir c u la r c o lu m n s m ust be plum bed in two directions.
Plumbing with a Plumb Bob

C lo s e a tte n tio n m u st be paid to several aspects of the plumbing.
U se a h e a v y plum b bob w ith a long string. A light bob will bounce around,
n e e d le s s ly s lo w in g the process. W hen plumbing ceiling height columns, often
b o b s a re u s e d w ith a norm al 6' string or with a gammon reel requiring additional
s tr in g . T h e r e f o r e , it is b etter to have at least one bob with a long line on a reel or
s p in d le . T h is b o b c a n be reserv ed for all high plumbing operations.
W a tc h f o r irr e g u la r o ffse ts in the form s themselves. The forms may be
c o n s t r u c t e d w ith 2 " x 6 ' s a t th e bottom , and w ith 2" x 4"'s at the top. Vertically
a l i g n i n g th e e d g e s o f th o se m em bers w ould cause the inside of the form to be out
o f plumb.
20-31
construction control
chapter twenty
Plumbing with an Instrument

There are also some aspects ot plumbing
u/irh nn instrument that require caretul
anemiuii. . . .
Make sure the instrument is level.
5 wing an arc to
ensure th a t rod
Improper leveling of the level plate will
is read when it
result in the vertical crosshair not being
is perpendicular. truly vertical, possibly resulting in a
column which could be out of plumb.
Have the person holding the story
pole or engineer's rule swing an arc to
obtain a reading when the rod is exactly
perpendicular to the line of sight.
Again, be aware of irregular
offsets in the forms. Watch the rodperson
carefully to be sure offsets are all being
measured from the same plane.
E L E V A T IO N S
Prior to placement of the concrete, top of column elevation must be established.
On plywood forms, top of concrete is normally established by nails driven
to grade. This can also be made with a chalk line, but this line is difficult to find
during concrete placement.
Another method, though not strongly recommended, would be to identify
the distance from the top of form to top o f column so the pouring crew can simply
measure down. The distance would be clearly marked on the outside face of the
form so errors do not result. This method, however, allows for more human error
than other methods.
The top location of concrete columns is often critical. Investigate the
contract drawings for the connection o f columns to the structure above to determine
the allowable tolerance. Also, double-check and triple-check before and after
placement o f concrete to ensure the proper elevation is achieved.
When placing columns to be used with cast-in-place deck systems, it is

often advisable to place the columns 1/2" above the bottom of deck elevation.' This
makes the deck forming easier and eliminates concrete leakage during deck
placement. 6
CHECK, CHECK, AND RE-CHECK
,erai ('""ied in straight line is t<

How ! Z ? < r ,h! row f '""ts to ensure a tree line ot columns
T e rn fWn " T g nl *liS etcat
m .^L n ^::S rS * P Uri"S bSMVe " y
20-32
SCOPE
w " t c i ea !edatw0 r t rStai,r T S f " 0WS Wry Cl0Sely With " * feld -gineering
. . structural concrete and structural steel. The core is an
in egra part of the structure and must be given more attention than other phases of
he construction project. Core location is particularly critical in high-rise work.
Structural steel often has to tie into a concrete core, fitting prefabricated steel
members (beams, columns, trusses) into the concrete core structure. Any mislocation
of the core can easily make the members too long or too short to fit, and out of
p lu m b .
Throughout the height of the core work, vertical alignment and horizontal
control of twist must meet exacting tolerances. The elevator subcontractor will
base work on how well the core is controlled. With elevators and stairs being part
o f the critical path of most schedules, the field engineer must work well so others
ca n w o r k w e ll. , . ..
T h is S e c tio n lists ' 2 S - S -
nYs r o S . The entire core work depends on the aceurac,
o f the base o f the core.
20-33
k should he based on primary control. During the planning of the primarv
(,'o rc w or
conm.l for (he project. point* ml lines should have been established for c,rom
the sure II necessary, secondary control can be used while regularly checking
fr prrrper adjustment. Refer to C h a p .e r ,0 . Eq ip m n ,
Before construction occurs, one should establish the procedure to be used

for all core work Look at all aspects of the job to gain insight into what access will
be available to perform alignment work. Will the core be s tpformed the entire
height before construction starts on the main structure - * .l l the core precede the
decks Will there exist anv shafts or mechanical cases that can remain empty
during the entire core construction time to allow for visual access of the cores
plumbncss9 Can the core be visually checked from the ground without obstructions?
How can checks be performed to be absolutely sure your location system is
correct? These procedure questions and others must be answered before decisions
on a proper system to locate the core can be made.
The shape of each core is usually unique. Some are rectangular, some
trapezoidal, some circular, some irregular, and some unsymmetrical. Because of
this uniqueness, no one method o f control can be used in all cases. Varying the
offsets, using coordinate systems, establishing several planes to check the concrete
face, plumbing by lasers, etc., may be necessary. Careful thought should go into
the method o f control prior to the beginning of construction. The following are
suggestions when encountering the various types o f cores:
z
Rectangular is the easiest shape to locate. Interior angles are 90
and are. therefore, more easily maintained and controlled. Since the
Y faces o f the core are planes, a coordinate system can represent the
core location well. Changes in offset dim ensions for plumbing
faces and visually aligning them (X and Y) are easily apparent.
T ra p e z o id a l cores are more difficult to locate z

than the rectangular cores. Variation o f the angles
on the formwork are not as apparent (giving rise
to core rotation). However, major concrete faces
can be checked by the sam e m ethods as for
rectangular cores.
are the most difficult to locate.

I r r e g u la r , u n s y m m e tric a l c o re s
Use of a coordinate system is the most effective method available.
Planes can be established from which to check the concrete faces
and for rotation of the core.
If deck work is close behind the core, the deck controls can be used as the
principal control lines for the core. (Dont forget to check into original primary
control.) The close proximity of the deck controls will provide generally easy
access to the core.
2 0 -3 4
el8vatw cores
p T lC A L ALIGNMENT
There are a varietv ^
bob, a theodolite _ methods
. , 1 M ,
u ~ o, rj z z r * t 0 - a
A plumb line off of form
ensuring that formwork d l l * W.0rks vary well anrl .
from the top of the core ne?n nSJnS and angles rem T'"'4"1" core 'option. While
well
w el. when
when used
used properly, f o m p ^r o p*he
^ XTand
^'*ta X a P'Umb liaea
The wind affects the stabiV, * rememb are:' P mbbobworks
wind resistance. ab''"y of the Hne. It is best t0 us
A v, i use pvano wire to reduce
A heavy plumb bob 2
bob should be im m e r s e d L t^ u should be used. To reduce
nmersed into a barrel of oil 10 reduce movement, the
The line creates physical limit *
other work must avoid disturbingthVhne6 * rk Because of its existence
M agnetic forces created by e le c tric m ,
Precise plumbing should take place w h . H measurably affect the line.
p.ace when nearby motors are not operating
Use of th e Laser
T he lase r w orks extrem ely well as a v ^ rtiî or
the absence o f physical line to interfere with o th eT w o t
ts c o st; h o w ev er, this can be quickly recovered in increased productivity.
n c r, A C re WOrk ther are sltuat'ons that adversely affect the laser's precision.
Lasers increase B E C A R E F U L o f the following:
productivity- W hen the laser beam passes through a cold shaft into a heated room, it will
have a tendency to be displaced by refraction through these temperature layers.
This temperature shear will be apparent as the laser beam appears to bounce
around. It is a problem in very large cores or when the laser is used in pipelines.
This can be avoided by using the laser at night or in early-morning hours when
these tem perature conditions are not present.
Pressure differentials also exist throughout the core and can cause problems
sim ilar to the temperature shear. Pressure differentials are caused by many things
in clu d in g drafting through the core. Nighttime or early-mommg work will
minimize the pressure differentials. are
Accuracy of lasers is generally. taken
to o ls they are not calibrate mstrumen . plumbing device on the laser is
over lo n g d istan ces. The automatic over longtounce..
n ever a b so lu te ly correct and will give: shg y , the laser about its
S S S S r - - - ' * - -
20-35
U se o f an Instrum ent
Use of the ihdHlolite or transit is another
acceptable priKCdure tor aligning a core.
A n stated before, care must be taken
when using any instrument (or extreme
vertical operations. There are a few
additional considerations when using
transits or theodolites to visually align
the core.
One can establish an offset off
of the concrete faces and shoot the
formwork. However, access for a clear
sighting can be difficult. When shooting
up
Up to
to the
me core,
u>u. quite often it is difficult
m ------ . nndj ..........
* '**"srlr
IO see around the forniwor to carry or to hold horizontally over
supports. Also, a level ro '"a' , jrf ineer's rule is usable and is readable up to
the side for a shot. A stna . lo?shHOt , he core offset, always swing an arc
about 80'. When using a n 1 perpendicular to the line o f sight. As with
with the rule to be sure the rea g_ P ^ throughout the arc.
norma! leveling a ways re ^ av#.|#We when checking concrete rather than
formwrk. You are too late to affect the location o f that part o f the core. However,
future lifts can be corrected. By checking both ends o f the w all, core rotation
annarent.
A Tw ilhstrucfural steel, if a plum b line or laser line o f sig h t is being used to plum b
Always use two the structure or core, at least tw o lines m ust be used. If not, the structure will be
lines for able to rotate or twist w ithout detection. A lw ays use at least tw o plum b lines or
alignment. laser lines o f sight when vertically aligning a structure!
E xternal F a c to r s W h ich A ffe c t P lu m b in g

Vertical alignm ent w ork should take place early in th e day before the follow ing
factors can have an adverse effect on the p lu m bing:
T e m p e ra tu re : The sun causes the stru c tu re to e x p a n d as th e tem p e ra tu re rises.
Precise plum bing is necessary early in the day to av o id th is e ffect.
T ow er C ra n e : If the tow er crane is a tta ch e d to the s tru c tu re , the tall stru c tu re w ill
move in the direction o f the load on the cran e. T h is m ak e s p lu m b in g d iffic u lt.
Precise plum bing is necessary early in the day o r w h en th e c ra n e is no t busy to
avoid this effect.
W in d : W hen it is e x tre m e ly w indy, w o rk e ls e w h e re . E v e n a m o d e ra te w in d w ill
cause a tall stru c tu re to sw ay. P re cise p lu m b in g s h o u ld be p e rfo rm e d w h e n the
air is still.
2 0 -3 6
^ V A T IO N S
Elevauonsnecessaryfor
are first established bycoreaconstruction
temporarv
benchmark near the foundation of the
core during the footing and foundation
work. The elevations are then transferred
to several positions along the side of the
core by normal levelingtechniques. Next,
they are transferred up the side of the core
by using an engineers chain at several
locations around the core. See Chapter 7,
Leveling, for a discussion of transferring
an elevation. Then they are transferred
around the formwork using an engineers
level, water level, or rotating laser.
Most normal chaining procedures
can be used; however, there are a few
variations. One variation is that the chain
must be held vertically. A plumb line
should be used to ensure that the chain is
not out of plumb. A second variation is
that the weight of the chain should supply
all of the tension necessary. Do not pull
hard on the tape in this position as it will
cause stretching and inaccurate readings.
S E T T LE M E N T
Don't forget to constantly check, check, and re-check the TBM at the foundation
level to detect any settlement that might occur during the construction process. If
settlement does occur, it may be necessary to rechain up the core to compensate for
this shrinkage and displacement. This is most important when the building is of
a composite nature with the core consisting of a different material than the
superstructure. Ignoring this possibility could cause the floors to be sloped
unacceptably.
Total settlement can be estimated using factors such as soil conditions,
foundation design, and total loads. Compressive strain can be estimated by
analyzing the combination of all live loads, dead loads, and external loads
(structural steel connections). One can then build the core higher to account for the
total displacement. Contact the structural engineer for confirmation of any
adjustments that are found to be necessary.
NATION OF bEM
m BEDS, BLOCK-OUTS,
uuuu, U U W V iv w w .w , _ETC.
___
Care should be exercised in placing embeds and block-outs off of primary control.
:mbed
Checks of the specifications and shop drawings must be made of the tolerances for
iterance these items. Metal frames and closures for doors should be compared to block-out
1/2" sizes. Core location will directly affect the embed location and variances. Typically,
the embeds are bolted to the formwork in the same position following the core
exactly. However, do not assume this to be the case. Always check to verify there
are not subtle changes from lift to lift. Typically, in complex high-rise structures
these embeds must fall within Vi inch or less of the correct location. This illustrates
the importance of the core location.
20-37
t
S id e w a lk s , C u r b s 5
a n d G u tte r s
20*39 Planning
Gutter C o n s t r u c t i o n
20*39 Cur b a n d
Construction
2 0-40 Sidewalk
SCOPE
Construction of the sidewalks, curbs, and gutters generally indicates that the job
is winding up and the layout work of the field engineer is almost complete. After
having been involved with the critical layout of items that directly affect the
structure, sidewalk work may seem insignificant. That isn't the case at all!
Sidewalk, curb, and gutter work represent some of the most visible indications
of the quality of the field engineer's work. No one likes to open a car door and step
into a puddle that has not drained away, or trip on a crack of a poorly-laid sidewalk.
The same quality of work must be maintained for these activities as was maintained
for the rest of the project. Just because the end is in sight is no reason to sacrifice
quality.
20-38
--a .R8, curt>, and gutters ()
P L A N N IN G
Contact Depending on the project, sidewalk

professional ^ o T a n n ilV 8 ^ S S S L T y m"re -
gurveyor for ^ . * ls a must to finish the iob on r cSardlcj* of ihe time involved,
property line the equipment, material. , u labor ^*" " ''ithmeost. N only man
questions. inspections that must be arranged tk scheduled- but ihere arc various
affected traffic management denartmin ^ mUSt ** C'OSC coor<fmation with the
Sidewalk, curb, and uutter wort S
major landscaping is complete. Clean T * Man unUl lhc sUc is cleaned and the
the project, however, towards the en | Uf S. ul(1 ^ a |Pic of concern throughout
At weekly meetings, the subcontractors'aLT** ' " h?c0,ncs * m*)OT
upcoming sidewalk, curb, and gutter work ,1 ^ " ''" .SJ" ** odv,sc<) of **
so the work will progress efficiently k' d H "e' d f r cl' anu,> n <hei' ***
critica|ThTh^c
c.trveverc tra i oTcurbsWolk^
h r is,(*
d es"ofI SU "erS a'ng
a street 'h' used
arc often pr',pcr'y lin" i 15
by licensed
f th y ! i heCuenter of the slreet- anti ultimately to assist in the location
of the property lines. Therefore, the location of the sidewalks, curbs, and gutters
must e accurate. Property corners used in the design and layout of the primary
control system should again be located and used to perform the layout of sidewalk,
curb, and gutter work. It in doubt about the location of a property corner, call the
licensed surveyor who established the original civil drawings used at the beginning
of the project.
CURB AND GUTTER CONSTRUCTION

If the exact location isn't given on the
architectural or civil drawings, have the
licen sed surveyor who prepared the
property survey indicate where the back
o f curb should be located. (The City
Engineers office may also be able to
provide this location.)
Establish working control lines, typically 2 V . off back of curb towards gutter.
civil drawings for flow line location, then
adjust for curb configuration. ,Kehh exactly 2'0" off back of curb and
If 2'0 offset is used, place a nail in the hub exactly u ot
shoot grade. f t0 of the nail to the top of the curb on the

hub. S ee^ w u 'd ra w in g s' and check architectural draw.ngs for elevations.
20*39
S ID E W A L K C O N S T R U C T IO N
Sidewalks may be ti^hi against the back of curb or may be located in the 0pen w tK
nothing around them. They are not as critical for property location as curb*
however, surveyors do use them if the curb and gutter have been destroyed a V
the licensed surveyor about their location. s*
Layout
Check civil and architectural drawings for construction joint layout,
construction expansion joints are critical if stone work or pavers are placed These
on top
of the sidewalk.
Lay out construction joints and check subgrade for corn 1 elevations. Check
contract documents for minimum and maximum slopes, Double-check local
ordinances.
Lay out light boxes and street lights Contact electric utility or govern
agency for setting any precast bases. nt
*U"'mry ^
Summary
Mp O R T A N T P O I N T S
T he control needed on the
. g is the most important

P lan n in * ' part
e vanes wuh the type of work.
of layout.
F ollow the basic principles of measurement when placing control.

setu p w
P lace hen leveling.
enough Temporary Benchmarks so there arc two available from any
L a y o u t is typically based on centerlines with offsets set to protect the points.

C ritic a l points in layout should start from primary control points.
O rien ta tio n o f anchor holts is critical and must he double-checked.
U s in g lift draw ings is a critical part of planning for layout.
C h a n c e technology when checking vertical alignment.
C a lib ra te instrum
r-ucch, ents and
cneck, before critical
check ag< layout.
Check, check, check, and check again ail layout.
a KE s a n d e r r o r s f r o m t h e f ie l d
Failed
F .M ." to
,o use
. . . primary control for
,OI c; _ ... ,
M a n y tim es we have staked something where the stakes were technically

c o rre c t, bu t the contractor's forces used them incorrectly such that the object
u n d e r co n stru c tio n was incorrectly built. We defend ourselves by saying the
sta k e s w ere correct. But, if the construction crew did not understand them
c o rre c tly , th en the stakes are incomplete or incorrect. This means that we
w e re w ro n g .
A c a s t-in -p la c e panel was made 1-1/2" too narrow because the torm was
p la c e d to th e w rong side of the line.
16 s e ts o f a n c h o r bolts w ere laid out 1-1/2" off because of plans that were
m is re a d . T h e building detailer had dimensioned his shop drawings from a -
1/2" o f f s e t o f the control lines, and had noted it on the drawings. The
e n g in e e r d id not catch the note.
Assum ed ,l,e eo s till < V ?
elevation was se,
m o d if ie d .
c ast into a wall facing the wrong way because it was
Wall
T U l i dowels
v* w . . were
incorrectly marked that way. wall.
Anchor bolts were installed off-line through an entire
Embed plates left out of a cast-in-place structural beam because the pour
checklist wasn't completed.
20-41
, huildinK and had offset it 2" on accident. This was
w e laid out an elevator b d iffic u lt to fix below ground as the elevator
easy to fix above gnd ^ es maintained from the elevator to the shaft,
pi, must be correct and d.st degrees.
Anchor bolts were mis-orient y
inconsistent offsets lternatedbetween 5' and?' o.c.Hadtwo

Laid out embeds improperly. P ^ . h threw the rest of the series off.
5- spacing dimensions back between a series o f anchor bolt
Didnt double-check the spa g ^ forms but dicm t double-check for 21
spacing from ^ e r o f anchor bolt template to center o f anchor bolt template.
Q U E S T IO N S A N D P R O B L E M S
1. What is the most important part o f layout?
2. List five important methods that should be follow ed when establishin
horizontal control for layout.
3. List five important procedures that should be follow ed when establishin
vertical control for layout.
4. How could color coding be used on layout work?
5. How much room is typically needed behind wall form s and the excavation for
the crafts to work?
6. What is a simple way of keeping wall forms straight during a pour without
actually being at the pour?
7. Why is it necessary for as-builts to be prepared for caisson locations?
8. Describe why it is important to go back to primary control for critical layout
work.
9. On a project, a compass was attached at the end of a 5-foot wooden arm that
was attached to an anchor bolt template. Why was a compass needed on the
template?
10. Describe a method of protecting anchor bolts from being damaged after the
concrete is poured.
11. When plumbing buildings with an instrument, what geometric relationship is
very important to check?
12. What is the tolerance for laying out embeds?
13. Describe how lift drawings would be very useful to the layout person.
14. Describe the process that would be used to plumb a building with a plumb bob.
15. Why is piano wire used when plumbing elevator shafts?
42
A f4D O F F IC E E X E R C IS E S
vimmmry ^
P roject Control Analysis U lo 5 n.

the student with the o p p o r t u ^ ^ ? ^ 1~ 12h^ ObjtetW. t
construction site. Procedure \ !, ludV and unuW/e nr, . To 1'tovulc
subdivision, commercial, industrial^ oS T * * 'hc cSI
io n e v is U isre; , r n<ronha,rs I l" ,|sh'>conl? r,tW ew "" a
horizontal and vertical control that is b e i n f ^ COimcUon site and *---
At least one
crew will be submitted f~-visit is required and more ^ l con,r''
other items that m u Z ^ H pr<W t h = Ui^ Undin8 m P'*n" M>

responsible for ,he |avou, 'a,d out by thVr'V10" * i m e L ^ ku,Wtat*.
layout methods used Ta ^ OU'd * interview'^ '"S'1* " . C ? " ' *>
project site and look f k 0 lhe held enai d E rm in e .hi emP'yces
pavem ent, .m es or ^ ^ - r S T " ," 4
on the sides o f s u r r o u n d in g " ^ n ,he U,
engtneer on the job is u s in g ,h e ,c ' ^ e-v'e a a " ,he W * . , . tg c '
(digital or scanned) of the c8ontro^ - ZOntal and v^ c a l com TcT?0* *hc ftc,d
d evelop a com plete report. Analv PT and oth^ project in Indudc Ph<**
used. Report on any nrohlp ^ e hie methods of lavon.* ^mahon needed to
courteous! P rns with the layout Do^not ?nd conhol that was
a , 1 ,m e" u p t the work a*
A nalyze the control o f the project from th
who ts maktng a report to a Vice President . Th! 5 T !,view f a fe.d egir
analysis of company surveying and layout \ Char8edwi,h W ring aa
problems. So be thorough or the VP will look because f re m C u t
addressed to the VP. Prepare the reonrt f art yur report with a memo
APA or similar documentation style)' a title r a l processor and include (usmg
body of report, sketches, figures am*d ces'
ru * -ii . , .6 appendices, and references cited (if needed!
P h o to s , illu stra tio n s, the sue plan showing control point locations, and Z
sketches should be integrated into the report. Bind the report on the left side with
a report binder.
Be prepared to discuss your findings with the class by making an oral
presentation to the Vice President on your findings. Prepare a PowerPoint
presentation that you would use to make an outstanding 5 -minute presentation on
the project and on horizontal and vertical control, and include your analysis of the
surveying methods and techniques. To hold your audience's interest, plan well and
include: an introduction; a purpose; project background information; photos,
chans and/or maps of your jobsite visit; an explanation of the equipment used,
surveying control; an analysis
ways to improve the a^ J he P
na whe prese<mg, you should no. simply
topics, and a conclus .
b e tw e e n 5 ^ J presema<ion are wo separale
read your written report. P
communication situations.
ata,f,iaS*
20-43
c h a p te r tw e n ty -o n e .
o n e -p e r s o n s u r v e y in g V
Wo r k i n g - Al o n e T o o l s
2 1- 3
i n s t r u m e n t s for Wo r k i n g A l o n e
21-5
SCOPE
Many times, only one person is assigned to a small job, or a person chooses to work
alone. How is it possible for an individual to perform construction layout alone?
How can lines be measured? How can elevations be determined? How can
alignment be given? It isn't as easy as when two people are available, but field
engineers working alone on a project complete all of these activities and many
more, every day. A lone surveyor is like a woodworker. An efficient woodworker
figures out what is necessary to build a jig to do a repetitive task. The jig then acts
as a second person in the activity. A field engineer has to figure out how to create
"jigs" in the field to act as a second person. No doubt working alone will take
considerably more time to accomplish the layout task. Sometimes two or three
times longer. But, if no one else is available, it has to be done. This Section will
cover one-person techniques in layout which are used when working alone.
Sometimes the needed measurement will require a lot of planning and creativity,
but where theres a will, theres a way.
2 1 -2
,r .AV-0N E T O O L S
be able to work alone sometimes requites
^0** device that can be used Inplace of anotv-
hold a level tort ___* giace of anatKÛireS a na^ c' amP lot>l, or homemade
hold a level rod plumb, or hold a target 7 7 7 7 7 ,7 7 of^ ci'am01 tap<:'
simple clamps that can be purchased . 7 ^ ^ ' m ^
used
designed
by persons
especially
whofor
survey
surveying.
alone. The following is a list of useM tools that are
Tripod Rod
Holder Clamps, Etc.
Some surveyors use simple Cn clamps for holding the end

of a chain on a hub or perhaps holding a level rodto a tripod.
Others use bar type clamps that can be tightened with one
hand. If these types of clamps arent available, perhaps some
lengths of tie-wire can he used to wrap aroundahub andhold
a chain in place or to attach a rod to a tripod. The common
bungee c o rd can be also be used for holding a rodto a tripod,
or for holding branches out of the way when sighting to a
backsight or projecting a line. For the ultimate in clamps for
surveying, a special tripod rod holder device that is custom-
made to be attached to a tripod and used to hold a rodin place
is shown in the illustration.
Turnbuckles
When chaining alone, a small turnbuckle
can be oe very helpful
neipiui in easily adjusting
flip . p n H n f a p V ia in c r \ ~~ ! - -
the end of a chain so that zero is on the
point. This is accomplished by driving a
rebar behind the point and attaching the
turnbuckle to it. Attach the end of the
chain to the turnbuckle and apply tension
to the chain w hile adjusting the
turnbuckle until zero is over the point.
Carpenter's Tools
The common carpenter's square can be used effectively in layout as a quick
check, and to see if lines are perpendicular. It is useful when marking an anchor
bolt template for the location of the bolt holes. The square can also be used when
holding it vertically to transfer the line of sight to formwork.
Another common tool is the carpenter's level in 2-
foot, 4-foot, or 6-foot lengths. This device is very useful
when working alone to transfer elevations from one spot to
another on a building or formwork. It can also be used for
transferring a line vertically. Some persons use a 2-foot or 4-
foot level instead of a plumb bob to locate line.
Of course, it is not possible to mention carpente
s =
tool is used continuous
3
x-------
3
v3
This has been mentioned many times earlier
3
tool.
S
U -l I I need further discussion as a one-person
does not
21-3
/
1
Instrument = I
For quicker setups when great accuracy isn't required, the bipod is a good
tool to have when working alone. Bipods are readily available and allow the person
to quickly set a prism pole in position and run back to the instrument for a
measurement.
Sticks and Strings

This topic was discussed in detail in C h a p ter 19, L a yo u t T echniques. When
working alone, it is possible to use sticks and strings to great advantage. Following
is an example.
When working alone and running a long line, place a random stick into the
ground leaving a sharpened point upright. Carefully position the point of the stick
over the hub by using a plumb bob. When the instrument is set up at the next point
and a backsight is needed, simply sight onto the point of the sharpened stick. Since
the backsight is simply a stick picked up from the ground, it does not need to be
retrieved, saving time and energy.
Strings have uses too numerous to mention for the person working alone.
One quick example would be when strings are used to establish a reference line to
work from in performing baseline layout. By placing a string on the exact baseline,
hubs can then be positioned under the string at locations where offsets to the
structure will be measured. Another example is the obvious use of strings when
laying out a building and using batter boards.
Chalk Lines
Chalk lines can be helpful in many ways to mark lines that will be useful in
performing the layout or the actual layout lines themselves. Holding the chalkline
while working alone is easy on wooden floorsjust drive a nail in the floor and
place the end of the chalkline over the nail and snap the line. When working on hard
surfaces such as concrete, it isn't easy to hold the end o f the chalkline. One method
for chalking lines on hard surfaces by yourself is to use a weight. This might be
a piece of scrap steel picked up from the jobsite, a concrete block, can of paint, or
maybe even a fire extinguisher or anything else that is heavy by placing it on the
string and then pulling and snapping the
line. A suggestion from the field is to
use shim plates welded together with a
nail attached to the bottom o f the pack
for attaching the string line.
2 1 -4
1
Tape and introduction

Tle W,ril
. io wire VI/
Duct .. . w,r
Duct tape w orks wonders for m-mv . .
elevations, tape a rod to a w all column '" gs' el*"* one-person s u rv e y in g . For
to a tall m etal pin or stake allowt^ J m T - W^ n b W tis n d e d . Arodtaped
and take a foresight. Du t pe /uT ed m f 'o ' ^ M * * 2
r e a d ' o n the ta j* and marked ' th e i
* nio
............ ape and marked " r * ,faslen ,aP to the d<
available on the jobsite, can be used , Which is re<% available on the iobsito -
or a rod to a power pole One d a,,ach a rod 10 tripod
Wire to make a r J L * ^ ^ ! * ? * ^ * * * *
illustration shows how this m ig h t ^ pr!sm The
person working alone to quicklv vh . i d and w,tl allow a
q u 'c k l y s h o o t d i s t a n c e s to p o in ts .
instruments for working alone
If working alone is a choice then nnn U e , . . .
for working alone. This would include th ? cons,der instruments that are design
of these inûments marworking^llone^â- r robotic tcai station.andGFS. ,
g a l o n e a d e f i n i t e o p t i o n in la y o u t a c tiv itie s ,
Lasers
With a laser and a sensor, one person can easily accompli
many line-and-grade layout tasks. The laser can be set up
project a horizontal plane and any elevation can be establish
or determined on the jobsite. In fact, using a laser for most
the grade work can be just as effective as having two perso
performing leveling. Turning a laser on its side to projec
vertical plane allows a single person to set it up on a line a
use the sensor to mark line on formwork, anchor bolts, 01
host o f other layout actions. Some of the carpenters-lev
lasers are also ideal tools for working alone. Refer to Chap\
8, Lasers, for a thorough discussion of lasers and their us
Robotic Total Station
The robotic total station was developed with single-person surveying in mu
With this ---------
instrument, one-person
wi.^-pcisun surveying
surveying and layout
and layout of anyofpoint
any point
is posis possi
Coordinates ofan entire project station
roject can be loaded into the robotic total > ar

person can stake every point. This is a great instrument and certainly will I
instrument of choice for working alone. As mentioned earlier in Chapter 6,
S ta tio n , having an expensive instrument 2 feet or 300 feet away where it co
taken or damaged is a concern. Another concern stated by surveyors wl
robotics is having to carry all of the equipment, hammers, hubs, lath, etc., w
a helper.
GPS
For one-person surveying in an open
area, it doesn't get any better than having
a GPS system that is capable of sub
centimeter positioning. Many surveyors
have recognized the usefulness of GPS
as a tool for large-area control work and
also for topography. One person working
alone can perform a multitude of tasks
with GPS. Refer to C h a p te r 9, G PS
F i e l d P r o c e d u r e s , for more information
on this topic.
21-5
cnapttN tw>nty-^*'r
i
D i s t a n c e s
i
21*7 Pacing
2 1*9 Chaining
l
SCOPE
Measuring distances will likely be the most frequent measurement made when
working alone. The required tolerance and the length to be measured will dictate
the type of measuring process that will be needed to accomplish the layout task. It
may be as simple as pacing some distances, to being able to chain short distances,
or having to use a total station or GPS for long distances.
21-6
distances 0
The ability to pace distances with

anyone. The field engineer in SOnable Pîsion is very useful to almost
measurements made by more d Partlcuâr> can use pacing to quickly check
able to detect large mistakes ^ C1Se mans* By so doing, he or she will often be
by counting the paces necess person s average pace length can be determined
more precisely measured f * Wa^ a ^ stance which has previously been
accomplished most satisfactoriJ S 3 tape)' For most people pacing iS
try to take rpaces
-----v/xofwciiain
certainlengths
leiT As k"8 "atUral steps' Some therS hke l
fie. - a
(i.e., a Ip.noth +1---- feet),
length of three ^ but this
method is tiring for long distances and
usually gives results of lower precision.
As horizontal distances are necessary
in construction, some adjustments
should be made when pacing on a
sloping ground. With a little practice,
a person can pace distances with a
precision of roughly 1:50 to 1:200
depending upon the ground conditions.
Select a location that is level and has a clear distance of 100 feet or 50
meters. The process will be the same for feet or meters. In this example, lay out
a 100-foot cloth tape on the ground. Some individuals count each step as a pace
and others only count when their right or left foot steps. It really doesn't matter
which method is used. Just be consistent.
One pace counted every time the right foot steps down.
One pace counted for every step taken.
21-7
Determine Pace c n th c e n d p o in ts o f th e c h a in a t le a s t f o u r tim e s .
^ IT l/T o re v e n 1 /4 p a c e s i f it is p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e y o u r p a c e t h a t c l o s e l y .
ReCOrdD c4 n m n etile average n C ^ o f ^ c e s a n d d i v i d e i t i n t o t h e 1 0 0 - f o o t

d ista n c e T d e T r m in e a p a c /le n g th . R e c o r d t h i s d i s t a n c e i n t h e f i e l d b o o k .
100
Test 1 = 38 Average = 38
Test 2 = 37.5
Test 3 = 38.5 - 100 = 2.63' pace length
Test 4 = 38 38
Calculations
Distance Paced divided by # of Paces = Length of Pace
(Length of Pace) x (Average Pace) = Distance
Develop Confidence in Pacing

To gain confidence in your pacing ability, pace along the sides of a building and
calculate the building dimensions by multiplying your pace length by the number
of paces you recorded. Use a chain to measure the dimensions of the building to
check your paced distance. Repeat by pacing lengths you can later measure.
Continue this practice until you can pace distances to a precision of one foot in 50
feet. With some practice, you'll be able to pace quite accurately.
Remember the Number of Paces in 100 feet

The most important thing to remember is the number of natural walking paces
you had in 100 feet. The reason is that if you know your number of paces in 100
feet, it is easy to determine the number of paces it would take to pace out 1 0 feet
or 20 feet or 50 feet or 200 feet by using simple m athematics. For example, if your
number of paces in 100 feet was 40, you would double that to 80 steps to get a
distance of 200 feet. Or, if you needed something located 50 feet away, you
would divide 40 by 2 and pace out 20 steps to get that location. Commit to
memory your number of paces in 1 0 0 feet and use it to your advantage to do a
quick check of distances.
2 1 -8
'-omnces
Field Notes
CHAINING
Measuring a Distance
Measuring a long line can be rather difficult alone, but pulling a single chain-length
can easily be accomplished. When measuring from a point, see if a piece of rebar
can be driven into the ground behind the point. If this is possible, it can be used
to attach the chain. The rebar will replace the rear chain person in the leveling
process. Use tie wire to attach it, trying to line up zero over the point. If it becomes
time-consuming to line up zero, just determine what the reading is and add or
subtract it from whatever is read or laid out. If a turnbuckle is available, use it. It
was described earlier in this Chapter how a turnbuckle could be used to set the chain
exactly to zero.
L a y in g O u t D is ta n c e s
In a sim ilar manner as described above, distances can be laid out. Use the same
type o f rigging and attach the chain to a rebar. Take the time to set it to zero over
the starting point. Distances can then be measured and set along the chain. If the
layout is over several hundred feet, simply repeat the process until all the points
that needed to be laid out are located.
21-9
L i n e
Backsights
E s t a b l i s h i n g a Li ne
Ob t a i n i n g an Ap p r o x i m a t e Ri ght Angl e
Procedure for the Wi ngdi ng Right Angle
P r o c e d u r e for E s t a b l i s h i n g a P e r p e n d i c u l a r Li ne
Checki ng Plumb
SCOPE
Establishing line can be a function of distance or angle m easurem ent or string-
lines. For a person working alone, w hichever m ethod is easiest and m ost timely
to accomplish will be used to locate line. Often, when establishing line, temporary
targets will be needed. Creative ways to m easure and m ark line while working
alone will be discussed.
2 1 -1 0
line
0A c k s ig h t s
O f course, to measure an anal
here are several methods o f o b u ^ f * backsighl is needed. Described
Obtaining a Backsight CS abUshmg backsiglus when surveying.
The easiest way to do this alone'
then be used as a constant refere ' ^ * trip d With a target on lt- The target can
range pole is available it can 10 cbeck in* as the day progresses. Or, if a
point. It was also described aCCd ?? that il is directly behind the backsight
placing them directly over the poim'1* ^ Chapter how sticks could be used by
Setting a Backsight
^ ayout work, it is often convenient to establish temporary
g u s or walls that are nearby and can easily be seen and checked.
Som e suggestions on how this can be accomplished are listed here.
O n a nub. When setting a point, take the time to drive a nail directly on line behind
the tack that marks the point. This nail can then be used to sight on (if there arent
any obstacles in the way) from an instrument set up on the same line. To make the
nail more visible, put a piece of surveying ribbon on it. If the hub is behind grass
or dirt, consider hanging a plumb bob from a stake or stick.
On a W all. Often, when setting a point on a line, there are buildings directly
beyond the point where a small target could be placed. Of course, you should ask
for permission to do so. Explain that it is temporary and that you will remove it
after the project is complete. Generally, a small plastic target can be glued to the
1
onH will not leave ---- morlrc when removed.
21-
fj} c^vipft twenty-on*
f
, hu.ldH.tf may rrlW to *vc yin. permiwion to place a tartet

thco^nc of *bu' * oM |hc point, move ,your line_ of sj
Mghl , lh<
While \h.i inutomcnl i%
rumeni t' Minim* * ........-
______............
.w_ .k..a.u--
......
------------ ^
hillldltlft 1 ***k ftnr anv tlivlinfuithahlc mark on the building you can conic
to anvtime >t*u
to m.iiinc >*hi need need a backlight on the line you arc setting. Possibly the r
sight will hit a srack in the wall just abo\o a window or will hit the edge of a'^
ih something similar that can be described in your field book and be used by an0'*"
using the line ht
.......... ,n a hub. a target on a wall, or some *ome other type 0f
ha< ksight H> available
having a at nailall times, one person can perform many "y of of the
the lavot
| , you;
activities on the jobsite.
ESTABLISHING A LINE
Marking a line can easily be accomplished alone. For example, here is a method
that can he used to mark the centerline for a column form on a concrete slab.
After an instrument has been set up and a backsight has been taken on the
nail or target described above, turn the angle required for the layout, and sight to
where the line is required Since you arc operating alone, no one is there to mark
the point. You will have to walk there yourself to mark it. Take a level rod or
something else that has graduations on it. Knowing about
where the line of sight is. lay the rod down facing the
instrument. Go hack to the instrument and read the rod with
the vertical crosshair carefully. Return to the rod and mark
the reading on the surface. That mark represents the point
you wanted to establish. A 25-foot tape can also be used as
shown in the illustration. Lay the tape on the ground and
perform the same process.
This procedure can be expanded to set points on both sides of a column so
a straight edge can be used to establish the centerline o f the column. Furthermore,
the instrument can be moved to a control line 90 degrees away to establish the
centerline o f the column in the other direction using the same procedure. This
method o f using a rod or som ething sim ilar that is graduated can be used time and
again to establish line when working alone.
S om e p e r so n s e v e n h ave
developed methods o f attaching a rod
horizontally to the top o f a tripod which
allows for the same rod-reading process
and then going and dropping a plumb
bob from that reading to establish a
point on the ground. A hub can be
driven and a tack placed on line.
Targets
When using an instrument for establishing line, it is often
convenient to place a backsight nearby for easy checking of
line. One easy method is to place a stick-on target on a scrap
of wood or angle iron. By trial and error, align this so that the
target is exactly on the line of sight. A tip in using this is to
booby trap this temporary target by placing another piece
of wood or something on top of the target. If it is observed
that this piece of wood is moved, it will be instantly known
that the target may have moved.
21-12
Une @
Templates
A similar procedure to the
w c X S Z " " " + * ,.* * .
After the c lm f f ! re Used t0 hold anchor b X T * * "* lemPla,es in P>a-
, rpenters have drilled the holes f ,u mP ace dunn8 concrete placement.
template at the end of each' centerline

Place the template in the approximate
location and place your graduated rod on
one stde of it. Move back and forth
between the rod and template until the
nail is at the rod reading. Repeat this
process for both sides of the template in
both directions until the template is
correctly positioned. Secure the template
to the form.
o b t a in in g a n a p p r o x i m a t e r ig h t a n g l e
Often when checking work or setting rough clearing stakes, it is useful to obtain
an approximate right angle. An approximate right angle can be used when an exact
right angle with an instrument isnt necessary, or a right angle prism isnt available.
The method that has been used since the beginning of time is commonly called the
"wingding or clapping a 90." It consists of simply using your arms to measure the
90 degrees. This process is illustrated and explained in the following.
p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e w in g d in g r ig h t a n g l e
S te p 1 At the point on a line where a ninety- __________ o

degree angle is needed, carefully
position yourself so that you are standing
exactly on the line.
S te p 2 With your feet aligned 90 degrees to the __ a

line, hold one arm out and sight down
the line, moving your arm until it is
point exactly on the line. Hold it steady
on the line.
Rotate your head to look in the opposite

a'
S te p 3 direction and raise your other arm and
sight on the line, moving your arm until
it is pointing exactly on the line. Be
careful not to move your other arm.
21-13
S tep 4 Rotate your head right and left confirming
that both arms are sighted on the line. o
S tep 5 Close your eyes and quickly bring your

arms together in front of you. Match up
your fingertips and your hands should
be pointing in a direction that is
approximately 90 degree to the line.
PROCEDURE FOR ESTABLISHING A PERPENDICULAR LINE

If an angle-turning instrument isn't available and a perpendicular line is needed, the
double right-angle prism can be effectively used in many instances. The double
right-angle prism is often the tool of choice when measuring cross-sections or
setting slope stakes. This tool consists of two pentagonal prisms for line of sight
to the right and left. Using a double right-angle prism isn't difficult. The following
illustrates how to use the double right-angle prism for establishing lines
perpendicular to a centerline.
S te p 1 Attach a plumb bob and string to the

bottom of the double right-angle prism
and hold the prism horizontal and exactly
over the point on the centerline where a
perpendicular is needed.
y OBJECT TO LEFT
S te p 2 Open up the protective lens cover on the

prism. Looking directly at the exposed
glass, peer through the middle glass at
an object directly ahead.
21-14
Une @
S te p 3 i
ai me top prism and observe features 1
that are at a 90-angle to the right and to
the left o f the prism. Look at the bottom
prism and observe features that are at a Object to right
90-angle to the left of the prism.
Object to left
S te p 4 /\u g n the im ages in the top prism and

the bottom prism w ith the view straight
ahead.
Object to right
Object to front
Object to left
S te p 5 When all three images are in a vertical Objecttofront

lin e, the point straight ahead is
perpendicular to the line.
Object to left 'r^ Object to right

Q-------
.............
CHECKING PLUMB
Checking a column for plumb is as easy
as setting up an instrument. Simply set
up the instrument approximately parallel
to the side you want to plumb. Level the
instrument exactly and sight at the edge
o f the column. Move the vertical
crosshair up and down on the edge of
the column to determine if the edge of
the column is parallel to the vertical
crosshair. If it is, the column is plumb
in that direction. You will have to move
the instrument to be able to check the
column in the other direction. If the
column isn't plumb, contact the work
foreman for action.
21*15
E l e v a t i o n s
21-17 I
Permanent Backsight
21-17 Checking Grade
21-17 Pegging a Level
SCOPE
One of the primary activities of a person surveying alone will be determining
elevations of points or of establishing elevations on the jobsite. As discussed
earlier, this is most easily performed with a laser and a sensor. However, if a laser
is not available, elevation work can still be accomplished with a little effort as
described and shown in this Section.
21-16
p e r m a n e n t b a c k s ig h t
Obtaining the I-
Obtaining the Height of Instrument (H.I.) to begin leveling
requires some preliminary work. When a benchmark is
established, it is convenient to locate it near something that is
vertical such as a power pole, a building, etc. Locate an old rod
and attach the face of it on the object by nailing it, wiring it, or
using duct tape. Now, whenever you need an H.I., set up the
instrument so the face of the rod can be seen and read the rod
Add the reading to the benchmark elevation to obtain the H.I.
zknF
p h e c k in g g r a d e
benchmark
Rodlaceglued
time to do o n r -p e io n w a ^ ^ T 1^ h'd the TOdat the same

can be done. An "S7 h isn'1alwa*s * h*
for the level rod Modify^ E0**m'gtU** used as a suPPo
while you 1 ! ? 80 that the rod ca" be held in place
m e n t i o n e d ^ n thed take a readi"S- ^
bungee corrk ra u * dlscusslon on tools for working alone,
clamo can t a t0 hold the rod or, a C-
suDnliers <c u USe l h'd the rod t0 the tripod. Equipment
. f . . , , .. suppliers sell a custom-built rod holder for just this activity See
^ Ki'Pod rod holder illustration on Page 21-3. If you have an old level rod thatds still
usable, consider attaching 1 x2 s to it with screws to serve as tripod legs. Just like the
other working-alone activities, checking grade alone will require a lot of walking back
and forth to move the rod. One thing that could be done to eliminate some of the
walking is to have several rods and bipods that can be used. That way, one trip from
the instrument
the instrument can move two or three rods at the same time when checking grade.
can move
PEGGING A L E V E L
The quick peg process was described in
detail in C h a p t e r 1 0 , E q u ip m e n t
C a lib ra tio n , and is briefly repeated here
as a one-person activity. If the peg area Rodsection
nailedto
is set up properly, one person can peg a tree.
level within a minute. Locate two objects
that are about 250 feet apart where it
would be possible to glue onto or nail
2-foot or i-mcici
into a z-rooi 1-meter sbtuuu
section ôf an old
rod. This could be old power poles, light poles, buildings, bridge piers, etc. Obtain
permission to do this from the owner. Set up the leveling instrument exactly between
these two objects, make sure it is level, and sight towards each object, and mark the
sight on the object. These marks will be the same elevation.
line of Now, whenever a leveling instrument needs tobe pegged,
simply set up the instrument close to one of the objects. Sight
onto the near rod face, and read the rod. Sight onto the far rod
face, and read the rod. Compare the readings. Ignore the whole
foot/meter parts of the reading as they may not be the same
different part
since a different part of
of the
tne rod was
rou Wao glued_ tobethe object.
*L'' *-*>oHina should the
However, the decimal part of the reading should be the same ifsame if
the instrument is in proper adjustment. If the decimal parts are
different, the instrument needs adjusting. So, one person, one
setup, two readings, and a simple comparison within a minute
or two to peg a level.
21-17
L a y o u t
21-19 General
2 1-19 O In*oe - P e~ r s o n 90 s
* _ O n e - P e r son R a d , a
2 1-19 P r o c e d u r e for o n e
2 1 -2 1 3/4/5
A n g , e M e a s u r e m e n t wi t h a C h a i n
21-21
SCOPE
One-person layout is the theme of all of the procedures in this Chapter. It has been
shown that there are all kinds of techniques that can be used to work alone to
measure distances, angles, and elevations. It is a simple task, as well, to apply these
techniques to layout. A few applications are mentioned in this Section.
21-18
" KV
Layout o f a structure u
bit more com pliCated ^ en Working ai0n
workm g alone ls g . 8 abutment, or highw ' w ' acc'"pUsh the

d forth as points are beino x,remely efficient No m" hd of
working alone might mair establishe<l. Them. se of the need to walk back
throughout this b ooM 6 ,he e a s S and m Se f Sm' f tool i
involve chaining, and another'^ ** Performed by s e v ^ 't h 'd AS" pUincd
r s r r s ; * r ^ a s
J r ; ; ,! ," : * * v r , r Y ; i s
chaining to l o c ^ T a U s ^ m t h t b S,a,i" * ^ ^ ^ ^ T e 'a ^ r ^ r z
coordinates are known to u s e T ^ i S o n S i f t - * *
ONE-PERSON 90S
c Z Z : i r f t * * - - . .w . m m . .
alone is not quick, but it is a pretty easyU sT T h lY T " '^ ' lhis
in this Chapter are used-chainino ni y ' The lechmtlues explained earlier
Level and establishing line alone by 7 ? ^ ^ f ,he chain
Rod o 1 1 , . y sing a tape or rod horizontally on the eround
Simply locate the starting point, and set up the instrument. Drive a rebar behind
the point and use a turnbuckle to set the chain to zero. Determine the reference
direction for the backsight, and turn 90 degrees on the instrument. Note where
the line of sight is pointed, and chain in that direction. Measure the distance
exactly and place a level rod or tape at that distance. Walk back to the instrumen
and read the rod. Walk to the rod and place a hub or 60-penny nail in the groun<
at that point. Check the distance and angle, and if they are on line and on distance
a point has been established. Repeat for all corners of the building.
PROCEDURE FOR ONE-PERSON RADIAL

If a total station is to be used to lay out a project, planning will include calculation
of the coordinates of all of the points, and a gathering of equipment to work alone.
This w ill include tripods, bipods, and several prism poles. To perform total station
layout, a repetitive process will be required to locate points. That is, it will take
several tries to locate a point.
S te D 1 First, after the backsight has been

determined and sighted, turn the angle to
the point. Note where the line of sight is
pointed and pick out something on the
grou n d as a reference. Pace the distance
to the approximate location where
point will be and position a prism po
with a bipod on line.
chapter twenty-one
Walk back to the instrument and sight to

S tep 2
the prism (it may be necessary to
temporarily turn away from the measured
angle to measure the distance to the prism)
and shoot the distance. Compare the
measured distance to the calculated
layout distance and determine where to
move the prism for the next shot. If more
than 25 feet, walk over and pace to where
it should be; move it, walk back, and
shoot it again. If less than 10 feet, walk
over and measure the distance needed
from the prism with a 25-foot tape and
measure that distance, and set the prism
at that point. Lay down a rod or 25-foot
tape horizontally at the base of the prism
pole to help in determining where the
measured angle will be located.
S te p 3 Walk back and shoot the distance again

and check line. Determine from the
distance displayed if the prism pole is
close enough to set a hub. Read the rod
or tape to see where the exact line is
located. Walk to the prism and measure
with the 25-foot tape and set a hub at the
exact distance and angle.
S te p 4 Set up the prism on a bipod with the

point of the prism pole on the center of
the hub. Lay the rod or 25-foot tape
down horizontally again so it can be
read from the instrument. Shoot the
distance and read where the line of sight
intersects the horizontal rod. Using this
information, go to the hub and measure
to the exact distance and mark the exact
line on the hub and set a tack. A building
corner has now been set. Repeat the
process for additional points that must
be located.
It is obvious that this is not a very efficient process and it is very time consuming.
adial layout when working alone will be a lot of work. Once you are close (10 feet
or 'ess) you should be able to actually measure the corrections with a pocket tape and
set the hub pretty close. Remember to check the point after it is set by re-tuming the
angle and shooting the distance.
21-20
\
layout @
3/4/5
t* * U'dpra'>Pear.that the common layout method of using combinations of the 3/4/

riang es to establish a 90-degree angle would require two or even three
persons, but it can be performed by a single person working alone. To do this requires
consi era e planning and adaptation of methods and even equipment. Small holes
need to be drilled in a chain at 0-, 40-, 50-, and 100-foot marks-small, but large
enough to slip over a 4-penny finish nail, many persons may be reluctant to do this.
First, establish the starting corner where the 90-degree angle is needed. Determine
the direction of one of the lines and use a rebar and turnbuckle to hold zero to measure
30 feet, and set that corner of the triangle. Now, with two points in the ground, drive
4-penny finish nails at the exact building corner points on the hubs. Place the 0
drilled hole on one of the nails, and the 100 drilled hole on the
other nail. Slowly walk towards the third corner of the triangle.
Place a nail through the hole at 40 and the hole at 50 and pull
the chain tight from both hubs. Place a hub where 40 and 50
intersect, re-stretch the chain, and mark the exact corner of the
triangle. Repeat this as needed at other corners of the structure.
This may require having a special chain that is only used for 3/
4/5 since it will be weaker at the drill-hole spots.
a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t w it h a c h a in
For those times when an instrument isn't available for turning or measuring angles,
it is possible to determine the value of an angle or to lay out a specific angle by means
of linear measurement. Relatively simple mathematics is all that is required.
Measuring angles with a chain can best be accomplished by using oblique angle
trigonometry. This versatile method is straightforward and simple to calculate. Exact
measurement of the sides of the triangle must be made to obtain an accurate value for
the calculated angle. Being off even a hundredth will affect the angle considerably.
This method involves measuring defined distances along the legs of a triangle and then
measuring the closing length. This is shown in the illustration. The formula used in
this case is based on a trigonometric identity, and is:
A Chord Length
Sm ^ ' = 2L~
sides of the triangle used.

Where "L" is the length o f the two
21-21
chapter twenty-one
one-person surveying
L can be any length that is practical for the situation. Fifty or one hundred
feet are commonly used. If only a 100-foot chain is available, using side lengths
of 50 or less is a good idea so that the chord length is less than 100. The field
engineer will have to accurately define the lines where the angle is to be measured.
This is best accomplished by using string lines that are accurately located. By
using this method, any angle between intersecting lines can be determined. In the
example here, 100-foot horizontal distances were used for convenience, however,
any length could have been used.
. 1 A 55.4
sin A = ------
2 200
s in -A = 0 .2 7 7 0 0 0
2
a r c s in = 3 2 09 45
Field Notes
ummary 0
Summary
IMPORTANT POINTS
O ne-person layout is Do im
y Possible with good planning
In addition to common hardware tonic
specifically designed for working ajtÎÛrVeyinsuPPliers sell specialty tools
In s tru m e n t are now aillble ^ o(
h r a T S o ^ y o n " "'eas"rement' Pacing, which is estremely important
The re so ureef ill use of tripods enables one working alone to have a constant
backsight or to run a traverse.
When surveying alone, dont forget to follow all the standard principles and
practices o f good measurement.
U sing a level rod horizontally is an effective method of determining where to

mark line on a slab.
When checking a building for plumb, simply set up anywhere and sight onto
the building with the vertical crosshair.
Pegging a level should be performed weekly, and is a one minute activity
working alone.
r T - x r ; r r j * ~ - *.
lin e w i r n 0 0 ' ,l" a ^ * - * - - * - p Pi
Read the rod wrong when it was horizontal on the floor and marked the
incorrect line.
I he backsight tripod was moved out of the way by a foreman. It wasn't noticed
until the end of the day after dozens of points had been set wrong.
The column had too much dirt on it and the duct tape holding the rod to the
column didn't stick well and the rod slipped off of the benchmark.
Didn 't use a heavy enough object and the chalkline slipped just a little, but that
made the line wrong and things were built wrong.
The robotic total station picked up a reflector in front of the rod and measured
that distance instead of the distance to the rod.
The laser was knocked over and was set up in the same spot without me
know ing it. O f course, .he HI was differen. and resulted m numerous potnts
being at the wrong elevation.
21-23
1. Identify and describe three methods of holding a level rod plumb on a
benchmark to obtain an HI.
2. Describe how turnbuckles could be used in chaining.
3. List 5 uses of the plumb bob in working alone.
4. What is the advantage of a bipod over a tripod? What might be a disadvantage.
5. Describe how strings can be useful in building layout.
6. List 5 items that could be used to hold the end of a chalkline when snapping
a line while working alone.
7. In addition to using tie-wire to create a mini-tripod to support a peanut prism,
devise at least one other method to hold a peanut prism on a point.
8. What is the most useful instrument that is available for working alone? Why?
9. Develop a step-by-step process for measuring the angles and distances of a
four-sided traverse while working alone. Identify the instruments and tools
needed and the procedure that will be used to measure each angle and distance.
10. Identify three uses of pacing in construction surveying and layout.
11. What problems might be encountered when using a tripod with a prism as a
backsight?
12. Identify methods of marking a backsight on the construction site.
13. If permission cannot be obtained to establish a backsight, what can be done?
14. If an angle is turned off of a backsight and the vertical crosshair intersects a
rod laying horizontally on the concrete deck at 5.43, where will you mark the
line when you walk over to the rod?
15. Describe methods that could be used to establish targets on line on a deck.
16. Identify errors that might occur in the process of obtaining an approximate
right angle with the "wingding method.
17. When checking a column or form to see if it is plumb, what procedure should
be used to eliminate any instrumental errors in the instrument? Refer to
C h a p te r 10, E q u ip m e n t C a lib ra tio n .
18. If a 200-foot by 300-foot building is being constructed, where would be a good
location for a permanent benchmark that could be used from anywhere in the
building?
19. How could scrap l"x2" boards be used to create a tripod for a rod?
20. Identify how often a leveling instrument should be "pegged. Refer to
C h a p te r 10, E q u ip m e n t C a lib ra tio n .
21. What method of one-person layout might be best suited to a residential

structure?
22. What method of one-person layout might be best suited for a bridge over a
river?
2 1 -2 4
I
field a n d o f f ic e e x e r c is e s
1. Pacing - (1 person. 1 hour) Objective: Determine
the
- dimensions ui of a building. Procerinro. t ^ pace length
ounains. Procedure: and measure
------------- -
the ground. Pace the length of rhP . k V Wn a 10-foot cloth tape on
thf1 r ''
average pace length. Use this kn h ,'ape 4 tlmes and determine
of a building. Check bv u s i p a c e 1 0 measure the dimensions
dimensions. Be wi,Wn + or \ 1 * tape t0 confirm the b^ i n g
for the activity ~ d f' f ,he at,ual ,en8tb. Prepare field notes
O W ec7ivea! r LeVfe,inh8 T*"* Au,omatic ^ v e l - (1 person, 3 hours)

uxi no l , ^ from 3 benchmark to a temporary benchmark
ng two turning points. Procedure: Locate a benchmark and determine
where a temporary benchmark is needed. Working alone, utilize differential
leveling procedures and run a level loop from the BM to the TBM. Close the
loop. Be w ilhin the 005 when closing. Utilize working-alone procedures to
hold the level rod. Keep leveling fieldnotes of the work.
Differential Leveling with a Laser Level - (1 person, 3 hours) Objective:
I ransfer the elevation from a benchmark to a temporary benchmark using 3
turning points. Procedure: Locate a benchmark and determine where a
temporary benchmark is needed. Working alone, utilize differential leveling
procedures and run a level loop from the BM to the TBM. Close the loop. Be
w ithin the 0.05 when closing. Keep field notes of your work.
4. Laying Out a Baseline with a Chain - (1 person, 2 hours) Objective:

Establish 4 points on a baseline at intervals of 100 feet or 30 meters.
Procedure: Using a 100-foot or 30-meter chain, typical chaining tools, rebar,
and if available, a turnbuckle and tie-wire, establish a starting point and place
hubs on line and at the specified distances. Keep a field book of this activity.
Building Layout i.h W s - (1 person. 2 hours) Objective: Establish and
* in hv 40 building using a theodolite and chain,
mark the corners o f > by 40 bo, hi insrrument and tom a 90-
Procedure: Estabb * c^ with rebar and mark the 30' line. Establish the
degree angle. Hold the cha exact distance and angle.
00 using a rod held homomaU . the buMi8. Check b,
Move .he instrument and P ^ > |>yout in , fieid book,
measuring the diagonal..
21-25
.1
c h a p te r tw e n ty -tw o
tie ld o b s e rv a tio n s
In t r o d u c t io n
S t e p Ba c k , Look at It, a n d Q u e s t i o n It
R e - M e a s u r e , If N e c e s s a r y
Ca l i b r a t e It Fi r s t
O b t a i n A n o t h e r Op i n i o n
Ch e c k Cont r ol
Revi ew T o l e r a n c e s
C o n s u l t wi t h S u b c o n t r a c t o r s
Schedule
SCOPE
There is a lot to learn from those who are in the field working as field engineers or
construction surveyors. This Chapter is written to sum up the book as well as to
present comments by practicing field engineers about quick checks, tech-tips, rules
of thumb, and common mistakes that they have seen occur in the field. These
comments are a result of discussions at seminars, workshops, and training sessions;
and they are also from a questionnaire that was sent out to field engineers at several
major construction companies. Hundreds of persons from around the country
contributed with comments about the topics covered. Many of the comments were
the same which indicates the methods were good.
"Is it laid out correctly? Does it look right?" These are fundamental
questions that all field engineers should ask themselves after establishing any
points in the field. Helpful hints suggested by experienced superintendents, field
engineers, surveyors, and others are presented here on methods they use to perform
a "quick check" of the layout. As can be expected, most of their suggestions are
common-sense approaches to reviewing the work.
2 2-2
s t e p b a c k , l o o k a t it , a n d o n *, ,mro',UCUon
After laying somethin S T , N IT!
^ f f i ^ : ^ r s r - - w a yadloo,
Fie,d Comments heC1Umns
Has a y Upposed to?
karvLt: ??- ..
eolations of standard
umilyouhavfo^dTwod ffe iUS aid out is wrong

youve done. different ways to check what
done while tatfng out c o u l ^ " ^ ^ 6 thi"8 yU''ve

most and fia e Ut d have thrown you off tthe
most, and ftnd a way to check it.
wmethinvd3^
something does *
notaflook
theright.
suPerintendent for helpF if
RE-MEASURE, if n e c e s s a r y
Come in from a different direction to
check critical points. This is a method
that must be used frequently, especially
when coordinates are being used as the
basis of the layout system. The only
way to discover some mistakes is to
perform it differently. If the layout is
performed using method ABCD, check
by using method WXYZ.
Field Comments
Cross-check measured distances. Measure diagonals if possible.
Use the 3/4/5 method to check 90 angles.
When measuring angles, use the close-the-horizon method of
summing the angles to check their total.
Check dimensions of work a l r e a d y s e e if

results. , Any deviatton indicates a
problem in procedures or instrumentat.o .
22-3
Check radia. .ayou, by chainin g
d iffe re n t point and check p o i n t s . * ^ * f check the la y o u t,
in another location, free station in , and check y
x- - 4 D istance M easurem ent - Chaining;
For related in fo rm a tio n , reference Chapt- 4, D T echniques,
s AuoIp Measurement; and Chapter
CALIBRATE IT FIRST
E q u ip m e n t should alw a ys go th ro u g h a
c a lib ra tio n check before the jo b starts.
O n ly a fte r each piece o f e q u ip m e n t has
been p e rso n a lly checked, sh ou ld i t be
used fo r la y o u t w o rk .
Field Comments
You're only as good as your instrum ent; check calibration
periodically.
Calibration should be preformed for NEW total stations, transits
and theodolites, levels, site levels, rods, and especially chains.
Theodolites should be checked for proper internal geom etric
relationships. Levels should be pegged.
Calibrate your level by "pegging it" weekly.

Check level rods and prism poles for damage.
Reference C h a p te r 10, E q u ip m e n t C a lib ra tio n .
O B T A IN ANOTHER OPINION
If the points are very critical and the outcome of the project depends on the points
being absolutely correct, it may be necessary to ask someone else to perform the
check. Ask another crew or even an outside consultant.
Field Comments
If others come in, they should check using independent methods and
their own equipment. If you don't have the luxury of another crew,
or money to spend on an outside consultant, ask the most experienced
person on the jobsite to review your methods and procedures.
Mistakes could be prevented if someone else had

reviewed the work.
Another crew found that a bridge pier was constructed

on a N/E bearing instead o f the correct NAV bearing.
4
Introduction 0
CONTROL
CH6c K
R eticu late the coordinate tor the control point, and compare themto the oh.inat
calculations. Remeasure angles ami distances (tom the primary
secondary control points. Any deviation from the original control point* he
work should lo
thoroughly investigated and analyzed.
Field Comments
Are the project control points disturbed? Has heavy equipment
been working next to the control points?
Measure angles and distances hack fromlayout points

to the control points to confirm their location.
Spending a little more time on tight control on the
ground will save untold amounts of time.
Establish baseline, and pour concrete monuments.
REVIEW TOLERANCES
One of the fundamental mistakes "green" field engineers make is they dont
understand that tolerances vary for the different types of work on the jobsite. If
tolerances aren t understood, ask several others on the site with experience, llsc
their judgement and yours to determine if the layout is acceptable.
Field Comments
Rough staking of the site work might only need to be within a foot.
Measuring those stakes to the same tolerance as anchor bolts is a
waste of time and money.
Dont try to achieve the impossible. Sometimes the tolerances
found in the specifications are unreasonable. After all. architects
dont build buildings.
Review with others who have
been field engineers and with
your local equipment dealer to
see if it is physically possible to
achieve the stated tolerance. It
may not be possible. If so, have
the superintendent discuss t e
issue with the ^rch'tect and
owner to educate them about
what is achievable.
R eferen ce C hapter 3, F i e l d ^ r k
P r a c tic e s .
22-5
CONSULT WITH SUBCONTRACTORS ^ work iSto talk with yoUr subcontractors.
Sometimes an excellent sourc layout. They have to make their work Fit
See if their needs are being met bj * the first to find out if things aren't
around the work of others, ^ a" J ^ d, thing earlier since they are able to
fitting properly. They may would be proceeding better if the
force things to fit when in realUy. ^ WO see samethmg you havei, t
layout was exactly correct. Ask tnem. y
thought about.
Field Comments
The sub checked our work and found a huge mistake that we had
overlooked in our layout. We had used the wrong backsight.
The sub noticed that the elevations we set did not match from one
side to the other. We had blown a tenth in reading the rod.
SCHEDULE
Speak up when the two-week schedule is reviewed. A major souce of error in
surveying layout doesn't come from the quality of measurements. Rather, it comes
from a lack of planning the field engineer's time. When field engineers are
supposed to be two or three places at one time, something will suffer. Ultimately,
it may be the accuracy of the work. With a little better planning of the field
engineer's time on the jobsite, adequate time should be allotted to each layout
activity. If it isn't, justify your time requirements and speak up!
2 2-6
SCO PE
This Section describes how a few little procedures make measuring easier or more
accurate. For example: using two lath to steady a prism pole, or color coding your
layout points. Some of these have been mentioned earlier, but are well worth
repeating because of their value. It has been said that a lazy person is the most
creative person because they will think up ways to make work easier. That isnt
always the case, but there is something to that statement.
22-7
FIELD WORK TIPS
.... ôt*or*ries of work or tips that have been
These comments are d i v , d c d L e n d e r some categories because the comments
made. Duplicate tips may . eral persons in the field have mentioned,
reinforce the importance ot those topic, - p
Stakes . . .
If the layout is in a small area. I will count how many pomts and
offsets I will have and scatter .ha, many hubs and lath (P us a few
extra) around the area. This way. I don't have to pack the stake back
and everything else. Along a road job, I will dr.ve and drop hubs at
the required intervals.
In hard ground, I use a 40d spike. It drives very easy
and fits through a stake chaser.
Always put offset lath with the writing in the direction
facing whatever is being offset, so that you can make
sure the offset is towards the right direction.
On cut and fill dirt work, always lay out a line on the
lath that is an even foot-number cut or fill.
I color-code my points, and then add white flagging if it is an offset

point to another point. This way, I can readily distinguish my actual
layout points and their offsets.
Always color code control line offsets and try to keep it the same in
each area on the jobsite. Blue ribbon on lath = fill; red ribbon on lath
= cut; green ribbon on lath = grade; white ribbon on lath = control
point or structure point.
We started with white for primary and blue for secondary on our
building control mostly because that is what we had. For the bridge
columns, we were using orange for inside loop, green for outside
loop, and blue for any others (the colors from job to job don't matter
as much).
Use different-colored chalk lines for different layout references.
Layout
Make layout consistent. Always use the same offset.
With multiple crews, keep a log of layout and what is complete and
what needs to be done. This will prevent you from going out into
the field to see if it is layed out.
- -s When laying out saw-cut joints on concrete paving

while it is green, tie the ends of two chalk lines together
one person reels out line from one side, snap a line, the
other person then reels out line from the other side, snap
a line, and so on... you always have a fresh chalk line.
Always check

Always shoot ,
- ~ r a i s ss; 5
<w vmm. p.u * * -* , ,

b a c k s ig h t w ith o u t ^ _______ *<*
"
hacksiyhl [Hum a c h ^ e w ' * ' t * * " * **
and checked-in
A t i e r y o u l a v o u t i K n.i i
o n e o f t h e b u ild in g c o m e 'r v , * ^ f h " W

s . d c o f t h e b u i l d i n g . d lhcn ,mri a , n T "* ""
a p r o p e r ty c o m e r o r a c o n tro l
b u il d in g y o u a rc o c c u p y in g Tho "" " " *d , *c e M * > * o f ih r
vlrong , r " * - - r .r r , z
p o s s i b l e , l a y o u t L i l a m l r o c t o ^ M h T f a m e wwy m ,K h
^ Z T ? * ' ........ ^ X Z X Z Z Z
m u m " m * .........- - '->'
When you pick up where you left off from the pres,.ms day s work,
if possible, check into one of the last hubs or lath you put ,n the day
before to make sure everything is as it should he This is especially
important it you have to jump different crews into a sight As much
as switching crews around should be avoided, sometimes it can t he
helped.
Set up a backsight pole at least 3 to 4 times your farthest distance

w hen setting up primary control and secondary control. This \m 11
save a lot o f time. Always pick a high spot such as a mountain, tall
building, etc. Make sure you can see it trom all your primary
control, and if possible, from all your secondary control points
nations
When m ak in g repetitive level
sh o ts o f the sam e elevation, a
fo o lp ro o f m eth o d is to use a 2x_
b o a rd as a dum m y rod to mark
y o u r backsight on. C alculate
th e difference b e tw e e n your
b e n c h m a rk an d the grade shm ^ o f down a, needed on * e
y o u w ill be tak in g . foresight. Then all you have to do I ' o f
d u m m y rod a n d mark your f o r e s i g ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ graJc 5,ake This
nthem ark c o r i n g .he wrong number and ccaim g
r " i - * * " - 7 ,
When shooting elevations on elevatcu ow
bracket that attaches to a structural column or shear wall
vibrations affecting the level.
22-9 n
it
9 c h a p te r t w e n t y - t w o
vn8
Always sec up the instrument with the instrument level bubble in the
shade. Keeping the sun off of it takes away the radiant heat of the sun.
When setting anchor bolts in piers, use a template that can be
adjusted up and down to ensure the correct projection of bolt. The
concrete needs to be placed to a certain elevation, usually based on
the plans. The template is then adjusted up and down so that when
it is placed in the pier, there is enough projection of the bolt to allow
us to set the leveling nut at the correct elevation and allow for 2" of
grout to go under the column.
Use golf ball to check for slope to drains.
OFFICE W ORK TIPS
Plans
Color code control plan drawings to coincide with the color coding
of the points laid out in the field.
Make reproducible drawing templates that show primary and
secondary control points/lines. Then, issue lift drawings off of
these templates. Using a consistent template will help the end users
understand them and avoid confusion.
Plot out coordinates that are being used to lay out the building, and
verify location and dimensions.
SCOPE
The items in this Section have been mentioned over and over by many of the
persons who contributed their comments to this text, and most have been mentioned
earlier in the text. Because o f their importance, they are listed one Jast time.
22-11
DO IT TWICE (REPEAT ALL PROCEDURES)
Double all angles for critical work.
Double-center all points laid out for im portant points.
l.ook long and go short! . In other words, long backsight and short
foresight.
Measure distances by chaining forward and reverse.
Obtain a Height of Instrument (HI) from two benchmarks on jobsite
work to check the benchmark, the reading, and the arithmetic.
PLANNING
Have a good layout plan ahead of time. Although, sometimes, you
just have to establish something on the ground, failure to plan will
lead to time-consuming mistakes. A good plan always allows you to
adapt as you become more aware of what is required of your layout.
Walk the site prior to the beginning of the job. Look for access
problems and things that might be in the way.
The individual who created the lift drawing performs the layout.
LAYOUT
Always lay out to better than Vi of your final tolerance. (Remember
that you may already have some discrepancy in your control.)
Always tie into layout you have already shot in. This helps flag any
previous or current layout mistakes you may have made or may be
making. Helps make sure your layout is in agreement with the rest
of the work.
In building layout, start at the center and work out to minimize

errors!!
Check diagonals whenever possible.

calcula HUNS
be sure!" C mpu,aions 3 ,in>es ^
Minimi^ o u r
Doal' clcui,.- '
of day beforeieS be8mning
make sure all ' aVl"8 office8
entered and ready0^ " ^ are
ravel back ,0 jobsite ^,'mes'
a
to happen0'" J bSie ca'cula,ions^ hat ^ J " i

here mistakes are prone
COMMUNICATE
Find the foreman t

for him/her. It js the ? ssible- and discuss wha.
is complete, find t h e s 'chanceit o . c h a n g e ^ T 8k"8 ,odo
yu did. Explain how t o u "e P SSible- and tell him o'r he
warned, you can change it ^ P ints- * * is not 1 ^ ^
Keep accurate and neatly-written field

document events. Never k n o T J ^ L T ' S a" *0
Make sure rodperson and WlU*
signals before starting to ^ othcr'8
CALIBRATE
Your layout is only as good as your equipment.
The compensator should be working in an automatic level. Tap the

tripod leg to see if the crosshair moves.
Instruments must be level when they are being used. Make sure the
instrument is level about the entire 360 degrees before layout,
especially if someone else set up the instrument.
Double-check the backsight setup frequently when it is in a high

area of traffic; close level work into a known benchmark; double
check layout by setting up on another point in the control network.
Always double-check by flopping the gun and/or checking from

another point or gridline. Time permitting, I simplify the layout
method by checking from control lines with a chain.
Mistakes can be extremely ^ t l y "

Never leave a session uncertain. You won P
are not positive the layout was correct.
22-13
Common Mistakes
22-1 5 Chaining
22-15 Leveling
22-15 Instrument
22-16 Layout
22-17 Calculation and Notekeeping
22-17 Plan Reading
SCOPE
Mistakes are the problem that everyone in surveying and layout face on a daily
basis. Everyone makes them, and most of them are found before there is a problem.
Listed here are comments about mistakes that persons in the field see happening
and experience almost daily.
22-14
eommon mistakes
CHA'N'NO Not taping in a straight lie.

Using poor measuring techniques.
foot-
Reading tape improperly.
Starting and measuring from the wrong point
Allowing too much sag in the cap..
No, recognizing . ^ ^ ^
Taping when it is windy.
Not holding the tape the same way each time.
l6 VEI.INO
Not holding the rod in a vertical position.
-9 Not fully extending the rod.
Not ensuring that the instrument is level.
Not setting up the instrument on a stable surface.
Setting up on frozen ground and not checking level as the sun heats up.
Setting the wrong datum elevation.

Setting up on loose dirt piles and not being able to keep it level.
6 N ot closing the loop.

s
Incorrectly reading the rod.
INSTRUMENT
Sighting on the wrong backsight.
Throwing the instrumentinto the
truck.
Not calibrating the instrument.
No, leveling the ^ oul

Trusting the instrum not catch it.
h, changed and instrument
Rod height chang
22-15
LAYOUT
foot bust from cutting a foot when holding on a point,
Having a one-fool
tenth bust from cutting a tenth when holding on a
Having a one-tent
point.
Assuming surveyors controls are correct.
Not offsetting stakes far enough from the work.
Always measure
tw ic e . Setting points too close to where heavy equipment is working.
Mistaking tenths for inches.

Not marking the points the same way each time.
Not measuring twice as a check.
Not going back to the starting point as a check.
Not checking for square.
M a rk in g th e w ro n g s id e o f a le v e l ( b e in g o f f th e w id th o f th e
carpenter's level).
P la c in g h u b s in s o ft m a te r ia l.
P la c in g h u b s to o s h o r t in le n g th to b e s o lid .
F o r g e ttin g to o f f s e t p o in ts .
N o t c h e c k in g , c h e c k in g , c h e c k in g .
Communicating poorly.
Improperly setting up the instrument.
M isreading measurements.
Allowing control points to move after post-tensioning and not re

checking.
Allowing various people to take readings.

m l ,^
A N D n o t e k e e p in g
c uuA TIO H
Adding numbers ineonecUy.
Interpolating incorrectly.
Calculating incorrectly.
Incorrectly converting tenths to
inches.
Incorrectly converting inches to

tenths.
Erasing.
pu A n b e a d in g
Calculation team missed a quadrant change on a beattng resulting
m a three-column hem for a cast-in-placc box girder bridge being
out of position by seven feet.
A "taper" on a curve was not noticed on the plans by the field

surveyor and an edge of deck was laid out such that the bridge was
ten inches too narrow at one end.
Slope staking crew used the calculated catch point coordinates and
radial sprayed in the slope stakes and did not check the elevations
to see if they were actually the catch points. The computer points
were generated from aerial photos in heavily forested areas and
subsequently had errors in the vertical. Net result was slope stakes
w ere up to 50 feet off horizontally.
M is ta k e s can be
e lim in a te d by
c h e c k in g a n d
re -c h e c k in g .
22-17
^ p p *te**%Y
G ? '" X ^ '
G l s s a r y
accuracy Refers *o the de r
accuracy (first-order) C ** ^ 2 & + * * * m^

tunnfic u: . accuracv r^ . . ; ,t
lunncls- high sêH " r'1UWd f. 1
accuracy I second-order | The
The accuracy
accuracy "T
rcJ''* ' a" etc
Me.
nm
. ...*,,,
interchanged ^
interchanges^ sh^ for large 1
,arge en Wrt> -
accuracy (third-order) g es. short tu n n ek ? n?,T*cerin *
T h e a c c u ra crvy r. SK e,c
c ,t - ?- t o . Mlch ,
" ta p p in g c o m r | qUred for " . I I * '
accuracy ratio
T h e r a tio o f e rro r o f C|()M ? *W "> fo.phK
measurements. ,re to the distance m
acre 43-560 square feet Ca' "' M " * woes
adjustment of data
S S S fttiR K S ----
measurements.
adjustment of instruments The process of brinei .u
- __ uvmi
*nish occur m \\
designed geometric * Jn ,n,,rumcnt mtn their
alidade
levels. tranSU W theodol"c tha coma,ns the telescope and pu,e
as-builts
actual positions and6 CmP'C ,C V"""k ,hc
axis
A reference line about which a body rotates. A reference line for coord,nmes
azimuth
The clockwise angle from the North reference meridian used todesenbe the
direction of a line.
B
backsight (bs) In leveling, a sight taken on the level rod held on a point ot known elevation
to determine the height of the instrument. When measuring angles, the sight
taken on a point being used as the starting point of the angle.
baseline A line established with great care that is used as a reference line for
measurement of distances and angles during construction layout.
batter boards Boards set at the corners of a building for stretching * ire or string that mart
the limit o f construction, typically the outside face of a wall. Fortreochiof
a board set across the trench to carry the grade line.
The clockwise or counterclockwise angle measured off of Ntt.il, Soud
bearing
that is used to describe the direetton ot a ltne.
back bearing The reverse d ir e c tio n of a ^ elcvatjon used as. refe-e"

A relatively permanent object
benchmark
f r leVein g' , than a full chain length .ha, are used when chaining
Measurements less than
breaking chain
slope.
APPENDICES * 1
c _____________ instrument or chain with a standard.
!/ calibration The process of comparing an instrum
cardinal direction The directionsNorth, South, East, and West.
chaining The operation ot_ measuring
. a rdistance
ii c f i n r e on the ground with a chain or tape.
on i g v
Chaining and taping are used synonymously.
change of grade The difference in elevation between existing ground l.ne and previous
ground line.
closed loop A series of consecutive measurements that closes on the beginning point.
closed traverse A series of consecutively measured lines that start at a known point and end
at the same point or another point that is known.
coefficient of expansion A known amount a material will change in size because of a change in
temperature.
constant error An error that always occurs with the same sign and amount.
construction layout A survey that is performed to locate designed structures on the ground.
contour An imaginary line on a site plan that connects points of the same elevation.
contour interval The spacing (elevation difference) between contours shown on a site plan.
control A series of points coordinated and correlated together that serve as a
common framework for all points on the site. Control can be horizontal and
vertical.
coordinates (polar) The distance and direction (Azimuth or Bearing) from one point to another.
coordinates (rectangular) The linear values from the North and East axes which designate the location
of a point.
correction A value that is applied to a measurement to reduce the effect of errors.
crosshairs A set of wires or etched lines placed in a telescope used for sighting
purposes.
cross sections Elevations and distances measured along a line that is perpendicular to
centerline and are plotted and used for design and volume computations.
cut The removal of soil or rock to obtain a desired elevation or grade.
D
datum A reference elevation such as mean sea level or in the case of some
construction projects a benchmark with elevation 100.00.
degree A unit of circular measurement equal to 1/360th of the circle. The unit of
measurement for temperature.
deflection angle The angle measured off of a prolongation of the preceding line.
departure The East-West component of a line that is determined by multiplying the
distance times the sine of the direction.
differential leveling The leveling process of determining the difference in elevation between
two points.
direction
The angle between a line and a chosen reference line. Can be an azimuth
or a bearing.
double-centering
A method of establishing a point by sighting direct and then plunging and
marking the line of sight; reverse and then plunging and marking the line
of sight; and averaging the marks to determine the true point.
2 - A PPEN D IC ES
E
earthwork Construction operations connected with cutting or filling earth.
EDM Electronic Distance Measurement is an instrument which times the
transmission and reception of an electronic signal to and from a reflector
and translates the signal wavelength and time to a distance.
elevation The vertical distance of a point above a datum.
elevation angle A positive or upward measured vertical angle off of the horizon.
error of closure The difference between an actual measured location and its theoretical
location determined mathematically.
F _______
field notes The permanent detailed record made of field measurements and observations.
fill The use of soil or rock to build up the ground to a desired elevation.
focus The point in a telescope where the rays of light converge to form an image.
foresight In leveling, a sight taken on the level rod to determine the elevation of any
point. In angle turning, the sight taken on the ending direction of the angle.
frost line The depth below the surface to which the ground becomes frozen.
G___________
geodetic surveying Measurement in which the curvature of the earth is considered.
grade The slope of the surface of the ground. Also used to designate that the
desired elevation has been reached.
grade staking The process of setting stakes that mark elevations to cut or fill.
gradient The slope or rate of ascent or descent of a line.
grid A set of evenly spaced lines drawn or laid out perpendicular to each other.
Gunter's chain A measuring device composed of 100 metal links fastened together with
rings. The length of the chain being 66 feet. The source of the term "chain"
that is frequently used to describe measurement with a steel tape.
H
height of instrument (H.I.) The elevation of the line of sight of the telescope above the datum plane in
the differential leveling process.
height of instrument (h.i.) The height of the instrument above the station point when using atop mount
EDM or a total station. The height of the observer's eye above the station
point when performing slope staking with a hand level.
horizon, closing the Measurement of angles about a point such that the sum of the angles should
be 360.
horizontal axis The axis about which the telescope rotates vertically.
hub A 2 inch by 2 inch wooden stake from six inches to twenty four inches in
length that is driven solidly into the ground. Is used to mark control points,
building corners, centerline stations, centers of footers, etc.
I__________
index contour On a topographic map, a contour line that is darkened or made bold.
indirect leveling Measuring vertical angle and slope distances to determine the difference in
elevation between the instrument and a point.
interior angle An angle that is enclosed by two sides within a triangle or closed polygon.
intersection The process of determining the location of a point by sighting from two or
more points.
invar An alloy of nickel and iron that has a very low coefficient of expansion.
invert The low point on the inside circumference of a pipe.
APPENDICES - 3
L_______
land survey A type o f surveying that locates property lines, su bdivides land, determ ines
land areas. D escribes land and provides inform ation for the tran sfer o f land.
latitude In traverse com putations, the N orth-S outh co m p o n en t o f a line that is

determ ined by m ultiplying the distance o f the line by the cosine of the
d irection. G eo d etically , it is the an g u la r d ista n c e m easu red along a
m eridian from the eq u ato r to a p osition on the earth.
least count The finest reading that can be made directly on the vernier of a transit or
micrometer of a theodolite.
least squares A mathematical method for the adjustment of observations based on the
theory of probability.
leveling D eterm in in g the d ifferen ce in e lev atio n b e tw e e n p o in ts.
level surface A surface having all points at the same elevation and perpendicular to the
direction of gravity.
line of colimation A line which joins the optical center of the objective on a telescope and the
intersection of the crosshairs.
line of sight The line extending from an instrument along which distinct objects can be
seen. The straight line between two points.
longitude The method of expressing the angular distance from the starting geodetic
meridian at Greenwich, England. An angle measured at the poles between
the starting meridian and any point on earth.
M__________
map A paper representation at a reduced scale of the features on a part of the
earth's surface.
mark A call used to indicate that the listener should place a point on a hub,
footing, monument, etc.
mean sea level The average height of the surface of the sea measured over the complete
cycle of high and low tides (a period of 18.6 years).
meridian A North/South reference line to which all directions of a survey are
referenced.
mistake A large difference from the true value of a measurement.
monument A physical structure which marks the location of a survey point.
N_____________
nadir The point directly under the observer. The direction that a plumb bob points.
North The primary reference direction for surveying. Represented as 000 as a
North azimuth.
O_____________
offset A measurement made to locate an auxiliary point or line for the purpose of
preserving the location of the initial point if it is destroyed.
offset Line A line that is close to and roughly parallel to the main line.
optica] plummet A special device attached to an instrument that allows the operator to sight
and locate the instrument directly over a point below the instrument.
P____________
parallax The apparent movement of the crosshairs caused by movement of the eye.
plane surveying Surveying in which the curvature of the earth is not considered.
plotting The transfer of survey data from field notes to paper.
plumb The vertical direction. A line perpendicular to a horizontal plane.
4 - APPENDICES
plunge
To reverse the direction of the telescope of a transit around its horizontal axis.
point
A position which has not length, width, or height. Also used synonymously
with station.
position The location of a point with respect to a reference system.
precision The closeness of one measurement to another. The degree of refinement in
the measuring process. The quality of the measuring operation.
profile The graphical representation of the earth's surface performed by leveling
and by plotting.
profile leveling The process of determining the elevation of a series of points along a
defined line.
prolongation The lengthening or extension of a line in the same direction.
Q
quadrant A sector of a circle having 90.
R
radian The angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal in length to a
radius of the circle. It is approximately equal to 57 17' 44.8".
random errors Errors that are accidental in nature and always exist in all measurements.
They follow the laws of probability and are equally high or low.
range pole A slender wood or metal rod of varying length with a metal point, painted
in alternating colors of red and white that is used as a sighting object at the
ends of a line.
reference mark A point or object which is measured to or from a monument for the purpose
of being able to relocate the monument if it is lost.
refraction The bending of light rays as they pass through the atmosphere.
The accumulation on the circle of an instrument of a series of measurements
of the same angle.
re-section The process of determining the location of a unknown point by measuring
distances and angles to at least three known points.
route survey The establishment of control and construction stakes for the location of a
line of transportation.
S
sideshot A reading to a point that is not part of the main survey.
slope The inclined surface of a hill. The inclined surface of an excavation or an
embankment. A measurement of how much the ground varies from horizontal.
slope stake A stake set at the point where the design slope meets the original ground.
stadia A method of measurement using the optics of an instrument. An intercept
between the stadia hairs on an instrument that is calculated and used to
determine distance.
station A point whose location in route surveying is described by its total distance
from the start of the project. Generally listed in terms of 100-foot intervals.
A definite point on the earth whose location has been determined by
surveying measurement. Also used synonymously with point.
su rv ey in g The art and science of determining the relative position of points on,
above, or beneath the surface of the earth by measurement of angles,
distances, and elevations.
system atic error Those errors that occur in the same magnitude and the same sign for each
measurement of a distance, angle, or elevation. Can be eliminated by
mechanical operation of the instrument or by mathematical formula.
APPENDICES - 5
T ______________ A straig h t line that tou ch es a circle at o n e p e n t .
tangent A ribbon o f steel on w hich g ra d u a tio n s are placed for measurement 0f
tape d ista n c e s. U sed sy n o n y m o u sly w ith chain.
T h e p ro cess o f u sin g a ta p e to m e a su re a d ista n c e o n th e gro u n d . A lso used
taping sy n o n y m o u sly w ith ch ain in g .
A m eth o d o f su rv e y in g m e a su re m e n t in w h ic h th e d ire c tio n s and distances
traverse (closed) o f th e lin es b e tw e e n a se rie s o f p o in ts is d e te rm in e d a n d u sed to calculate
the p o s itio n s o f the p o in ts.
A traverse that starts and closes on the same point.
traverse (loop) A tra v e rse th a t o rig in a te s at a k n o w n p o s itio n a n d e n d s at an unknow n
traverse (open)
p o sitio n .
The process of measuring distances and angles between traverse points.
traversing Measurements taken for locating objects and the elevation of points on the
topographic surveying
earth's surface.
A m e th o d o f s u rv e y in g m e a s u re m e n t w h e re a b a s e lin e is e sta b lish e d and the
triangulation a n g le s b e tw e e n s ta tio n s a re d e te rm in e d to c a lc u la te d is ta n c e s .
T h e p ro c e s s o f m e a s u rin g v e rtic a l a n g le s a n d s lo p e d is ta n c e s to determ ine
trigonometric leveling * i d iffe re n c e in e le v a tio n b e tw e e n p o in ts .
- - I- ______ rliffprentifll
_______n n in t w h o s e e le v a tio n
turning point
V______________
The direction in which gravity acts.
vertical
The angle measured up or down from the horizon.
vertical angle
Z_______________
The point directly above a given point on earth.
zenith
The angle measured downward from the zenith.
zenith angle
6 - APPENDICES
appendixb- bibliography @
Appendix B -
Bibliography
SCOPE
survevincr readers of this text will want to learn more about

. Practice and theory. Many books have been written on the subject of
k ir Iug at W1 * Prov*ê the reader with valuable information. Some of the
books that might be of interest are listed here:
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (2002). Commentaries on Section

7. J Installation of Anchor Rods, Foundation Bolts, and other Embedded Items.
AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges [On-Line].
Available Internet: http://www.aisc.org. Link AISC Codes & Specifications, pp.
56-58.
American Society of Civil Engineers and American Congress on Surveying and

Mapping. (1978). Definitions of Surveying and Mapping Terms. Manual No. 34.
New York.
American Society of Civil Engineers. (1985). Engineering Surveying Manual.

Manual No. 64. New York.
Anderson, J. M., & Mikhail, E. M. (1985). Introduction to Surveying. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
Anderson, J. M, & Mikhail, E. M. (1997). Surveying: Theory and Practice (7th

ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Barry, B. A. (1988). Construction Measurement. New York: John Wiley and

Sons.
Barry, B. A. (1978). Errors in Practical Measurement in Science, Engineering,

and Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Benton, Arthur R.,& Taetz, Philip J. (1991). Elements o f Plane Surveying. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Brinker, R.C. (1978). 4567 Review Questions for Surveyors (11th ed.). Box 1399,
Sun City, AZ: R. C. Brinker.
Brinker, R. C & Minnick, R. (1995). The Surveying Handbook. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Brinker R. C Barry. B. A.. & Minnick, R. 0981k NoKforns for Sum ,m g

Measurements (2nd ed.). Rancho Cordova, CA: Landmark.
Buckner, R. B. (1984). Surveying Measurements and Their Analysis. Rancho

Cordova, CA: Landmark.
A P P E N D IC E S - 7
Chesney, Jim. (1991). C o n s t r u c t io n S u r v e y in g w it h R o a d a n d H i g h ay
A p p lic a t io n s .
Carrol. John. (1998). Measuring, Marking, & Layout: A Builders Guide.

Newton, CT. Taunton Press.
Carrol, John. (1999). Working Alone: Tips and Techniques for Solo Building.
Newton, CT. Taunton Press.
Evett, JackB. (1991). Surveying (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Herubin, Charles A. (1991). Principles o f Surveying (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hickerson, T. F. (1967). Route Location and Design (5th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Jackson, W. P. (1987). Building Layout. Carlsbad, CA: Craftsman.
Kavanagh, Barry F. (2001). Surveying with Construction Applications (4th ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kavanagh, Barry F. (2003). Geomatics ( 1 st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice

Hall.
Kavanagh, Barry F., & Glenn Bird, S. J. (1996). Surveying: Principles and
Applications (3rd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kissam, Philip. (1978). Surveying Practice (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kissam, Philip. (1981). Surveying fo r Civil Engineers (2nd ed.) New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Kratz, Kenneth E. (1991). Survey Crew Manual. Troy Michigan: Business News
Publishing.
Landon, Robert P. (1994). Practical Surveying fo r Technicians. Albany, NY:

Delmar.
Leick, Alfred. (1995). GPS Satellite Surveying. New York. John Wiley and Sons.
Lufkin Rule Co. (1972). Taping Techniques fo r Engineers and Surveyors. Apex,
Meyer, C. F., & Gibson, D. W. (1980). Route Surveying and Design (5th ed.). New
York: Harper and Row.
McCormac, Jack C. (1991). Surveying Fundam entals (2nd ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mikhail, E. M., & Grade, G. (1981). A nalysis and Adjustm ent o f Survey
Measurements. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Moffitt, F. H., & Bouchard, H. 1992. Surveying, 9th ed. New York: Harper &
8 - APPENDICES
- --# vjy
Naval Education and Training Program Development Center. Engineering Aid 3

& 2 (V2&3, NAVEDTRA 10628 & 10629-1). Washington DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Pafford, F. W. (1962). Handbook of Survey Notekeeping. New York: John Wiley

and Sons.
Parmley, Robert O. (2001). Field Engineer's Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Roberts, Jack. (1994). Construction Surveying: Layout and Dimension Control.

New York Delmar.
Stenstrom, Guy O. (1987). Surveying Ready Reference Manual. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
Stull, Paul. (1997). Construction Surveying and Layout. Carlsbad, CA: Craftsman.
Van Sickle, Jan. (1997). 1001 Solved Surveying Problems. Belmont, CA:
Professional Publications, Inc.
Tuthill, P. E. (2002). Basic Surveying Exercises and Techniques. (2nd ed.).

Wilbraham MA: Hill Press.
Van den Berg, John, & Lindberg, Ake. (1983). Measuring Practice on the
Building Site. Gavle, Sweden: International Federation of Surveyors.
Wagner, Willis H. (1996). Modern Carpentry: Building Construction Details in

Easy-To-Understand Form. South Holland, IL: Goodheart-Willcox.
Wirshing, James R., & Wirshing, Roy H. (1985). Theory and Problems of
Introductory Surveying. Schaums Outline Series. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wolf, Paul R., and Ghilani, Charles D. (2002). Elementary Surveying: An

Introduction to Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
A P P E N D IC E S - 9
Appendix C -
j Additional Problems
SC O PE
Hm Appendix ! problem* i* provided f>* two purposes l itM. (hew? are jo
additional problem* for the student of construction surveying to text and improve
problem solving skills The problems cover a variety of calculation areas and
some of them arc quite challenging
Secondly, instructors of surveying can use the Field Hngincer Layout
Sketch.- sec r a c e /4 at end of this appendix. Appendix C. to develop their %n
problems in coordinate geometry, horizontal curses, vcrtu.il surxcx. volume, and
other computations Instructors are encouraged to use the questions m this
Appendix as guides in developing hundreds of additional questions
Q U E S T IO N S
R clcr to the h e l d E n g in e e r L tiv o u t S k e tc h . F n g c 1 4 . o f th is A p p en d ix .
I T h e s u p e rin te n d e n t g iv es you a m e ssa g e fro m th e o w n e r o f the gas statio n It
seem s that the I PA has e n c o u n te re d a p ro b le m w ith u n d e rg ro u n d storage
tan k s from ihc prev unis g a s sta tio n that w as lo c a te d at the sam e spot He asks
yo u to lo c a te ihc ta n k s for fu tu re re fe re n c e . S e ttin g on C P 25 and h ack sig h tin g
on C'P 24. yo u tu rn an a n g le o f 4 0 d e g re e s a n d m e a su re a d is ta n c e o f 360 feet
to th e c e n te r o f th e tan k . W h at are the c o o rd in a te s o f the ta n k ?
2. Y ou a r e n t fin ish e d w ith th e E n v iro n m e n ta l P ro te c tio n A g en cy ! T h e y called
an d said th at they w ere c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e lo c a tio n o f the s to ra g e tank at
P o in t 24 It se e m s th at th is ta n k m u st he at le a s t 5 0 0 feet fro m any lo cations
th at se rv e fo o d (su c h as th e fa st fo o d b u s in e s s ). H ow fa r aw ay is the tan k from
th e fast fo o d re s ta u ra n t? W h at a re y o u g o in g to te ll the E P A ?
3. W ith th e in s tru m e n t still se t up on C P 25 w ith th e s a m e b a c k s ig h t, w h a t angle

a n d d is ta n c e a re m e a s u re d to lay o u t P o in t 8 o n th e B u ild in g ?
4 W h a t a re th e c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t 6 fo r B u ild in g 1?
5 R e fe rrin g to y o u r lift d r a w in g s , y o u n o te th a t th e o f f ic e e n g in e e r in d ic a te d a
c o o r d in a te o f N 1455 a n d E 7 9 8 fo r an e m b e d in th e B u ild in g 1 s la b th a t you
h a v e to lay o u t. C'an th a t he r ig h t? W h y o r w h y n o t?
6. G e ttin g b a c k to th e la y o u t o f B u ild in g 1, y o u d e c id e d to c h e c k your layout by

m e a s u r in g th e d is ta n c e fro m P o in t 8 to P o in t 5. U s in g the total station, you
s ig h t o n P o in t 8 a n d th e n o n P o in t 5. U s in g th e in d ir e c t distance function, the
to ta l s ta tio n d is p la y s 2 0 8 .8 7 ' Is th a t d is ta n c e acceptable? If not, what should
th e c o r r e c t d is ta n c e b e ?
7. Still wanting to lay out Building 1, you are still set up on CP 25, and the grade
foreman calls and asks lor you to check the layout o f the PI of Curve 1. Not
w ishing to inove your instrument, you decide to set the point from your current
setup. If you are now backsighting on CP 27, what angle and distance must
be measured to lay out this point?
8. The ow ners of the fast food restaurant just slopped by and would like to know
the approximate location o f a billboard that they want to place to the West
along (he road in front o f their new store. What are the coordinates o f a point
(hat is 600 feet away parallel to the road in front o f the restaurant?
10 - APPENDICES
9.
to know the rf Uy Fea<* P*ans ? Your pipeline contractor just called and wants
a length d* lstance ^rom Manhole #1 to Manhole #2. Oops, you didnt put
lrnension on your site plan. You quickly calculate the distance.
10.
8,h stn n ^ drawings, you are planning the layout of a point on the
d- t ^ a 6 ProPosec*Building 1, elevation 96 feet above the ground. What
to In t an an^*e âve to measured from CP 25 with a BS on CP 29
tu a , an eclulPment Pad point with coordinates of N 1430.00, E950.00 on
the deck at the edge of the floor?
11.
oa, t e superintendent just gave you a change order for the radius of
urves and 2 on the project. They both now have a radius of 200 feet. You
a a ready calculated the parts of the curve and the deflections for the given
ata. Oh well, no problem. You are an expert at curve calculations. Calculate:
MO, PC Station, PT Station, deflection per foot, and curve layout
data to lay out the curve by deflections at 50-foot stations.
12. If the lodge is 60 by 80, what are the coordinates of Points 29 and 30?
13. What is the area of the lodge?
14. What is the volume that must be removed from Proposed Building #2, given
the following conditions: The site has been leveled and a workspace of 10 feet
must be provided. On the East side, piling will be driven vertically at a
distance of 10 feet from the building. On all other sides, a slope of 1 Vi to 1
will be cut. What is the width across the cut in the East-West direction? What
is the width across the cut in the North South direction? How many cubic
yards will be removed from the site?
15. How many cubic yards of concrete will be needed for Remington Drive from
County Road 4410 to the parking lot if the drive is 24 feet wide and the
concrete is 5 inches thick?
16. The architect just called and wants you to give her coordinates of a smokestack
that must be torn down on the future development area. While set up on CP
26, you determine the direction to the Smokestack to be 281 41 41".
Quickly, you move to CP 29 and determine the direction to the smokestack to
be 260 13 39". Using this information, you quickly calculate the coordinates
of the smokestack.
17. In preparation for work tomorrow, you decide to do a preliminary calculation
for the layout of a manhole. From a sketch provided by the utility contractor,
you have distances from MH1 and MH2 to a new manhole to be installed in
the Future development area. From MH1 to MH-X is 433 feet and from
MH2 to MH-X is 366 feet. To be ready to locate that point tomorrow, you need
the coordinates of MH-X. What are they?
18. What are the coordinates of the corners of the parking lot?
19. If an instrument is set up on CP 23, with a BS onto CP 25, what angle and
distance would be measured to locate corner points 21, 22, 23, and 24 of the
parking lot?
20. How many square feet are there in the parking lot?
21. What is the approximate percent grade between Points 21 and 23 of the
Building 1 parking area?
22 W hile you are laying out the slope stakes for the Proposed Building 2, the
excavation subcontractor wants you to ensure that the existing sewer beneath
the proposed building will not be disturbed. How far below the surface is the
sewer along the edge of the proposed building? Pipe diameter is 8 feet.
APPENDICES - 11
23. The proposed Building 1 has now been erected to the 10th floor. T he elevation
is 100 feet above the ground. W hat distance and angle w ill have to be
m easured from C P 26 with a BS on C P 27 to locate B u t l d . ^ P otnt (B P) 1
N 1460 00, E950.00 on the deck at the edge o f the f lo o r. W h o a .
24. in addition to being responsible for layout o f B uilding 1 you also order the
concrete for the pour. How m uch co n crete should you ord er for tw enty 30".
25. The superintendent ju st passed on a m essage to you. S om eone from the

m ilitary called and said they w ere going to be m oving som e arm ored vehicles
on the highw ay after the new bridge is built. T hey w ant to know the m axim um
clearance there w ill be under the u n d erp ass. O ne o f th e v eh icles needs a
clearan ce o f 17 feet. W ill it m ake it u n d e r the b rid g e ? F rom the plans, you
determ in e the th ick n ess o f the b rid g e in clu d in g b e a m s, d eck in g , pavem ent,
etc., to be 3.65 feet. T he p av em en t b elo w the b rid g e has an elev atio n of
6 25.55. To d eterm in e the c learan ce, you n eed th e h ig h p o in t e lev atio n o f the
v ertical cu rv e o v er the b ridge. W h at are th e e le v a tio n an d sta tio n o f the high
p o in t? W hat are you g o in g to tell th e A rm y ?
26. W h at are the c o o rd in a te s o f the rad iu s p o in t o f C u rv e 1 ?
27. W h at are the c o o rd in a te s o f P o in t 6 fo r B u ild in g 1?
28. T h e o w n e r o f th e site has c a lle d an d le ft y o u a m e ssa g e . S h e h a s d e c id e d that
sh e w a n ts to p u t a fe n c e on th e rig h t-o f-w a y alo n g th e d riv e w a y to th e p ark in g
lot. S h e has p ro v id e d you w ith th e p ro p e rty su rv e y in fo rm a tio n so th a t you
w ill h a v e so m e th in g to u se in lo c a tin g th e fe n c e le g a lly on th e p ro p e rty line.
S h e say s th at so m e o f th e iro n p ip e s th a t id e n tify th e p ro p e rty c o rn e rs are still
in p la c e , but th a t y o u w ill h a v e to m e a s u re an d lo c a te so m e o f th e m . S h e has
p ro v id e d you w ith n e w iro n p ip e s to p u t in if y o u fin d th e o th e rs a r e n t c o rrect.
A s a fie ld e n g in e e r, w h a t fie ld a n d o ffic e w o rk m u s t y o u d o in p re p a ra tio n fo r
d o in g th is p ro p e rty su rv e y a n d f o r e r e c tin g th e fe n c e ?
29. Some additional control points are needed in the new development area.
Quickly you set some monuments and run a traverse. Using the data listed
below, assume angles were measured with equal precision. The Direction
from CP 26 to A is AzN 300 00. Calculate the Latitudes and Departures, the
LEOC, and the precision.
F ie ld A d ju s te d
P o in t D is ta n c e
A n g le A n g le
A 52 26
322.53
B 53 05
265.26
CP 26 74 32
267.51
A
12 - APPENDICES
appendix c - additional problems @
Line Direction Distance Cos Sin Lat. N Lat. S Dep E Dep.W

A-B
B-CP26
CP26-A
Z Z
LEOC = ______________
Precision = ____________
30. Using the data calculated in Question 29, adjust the traverse only if the
precision is greater than 1:30000. Perform all calculations necessary to
determine the coordinates of Points A and B. Use the form here.
LINE A djust Lat. A d ju st Dep. Point North East
CP 26 1500.00 7700.00
CP 26 - A
A
A -B
B - CP 26
CP 26
Now that this series of problems is taken care of, the field engineer moves on to
other problems in the real world.
APPENDICES-13
FIELD E N G IN E E R L A Y O U T S K E T C H
BUILDINGCOORDINATES
Pi 1320No7ith
10878 Ea*t
N2230 1 920710878
MH1 t \ \ E 1050 2 11233788075498 1 01 9191483
S1A 116*00 \ 3 1235505 878 1030047878
ini N 2145933359 \ ' \ EL 812 4 482759
5 1180287878 1115480879
E 838664255 \ \ \ 5 1328822274 937582391
INV 595 \ \ \ 7 909 128119
O' . \ 6 1349880055 1027303049
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 1640237992 1289087931
17
18
19
20 1485017661 1440.115539
21 1181 707075 910411147
22
23
24
25 990880644 1236386836
26 1587066017 673355339
27 1551 710678 708710678
28
29
30 1560549513 788221366
CURVE 8
R = 150'
I = 80'
PI = 4+10
CP 23
N 800
E 1050
EL. 651.75
14 - APPENDICES
Index
3/4/5 Arm Signals
3/4/5 Requirements, 19-23 Marking
Common Uses of the 3/4/5, 19-23 Basic Principles of Chalking Lines, 2-27
Multiples of the 3/4/5, 19-22 Communicating the Meaning of Marks, 2-27
Using the 3/4/5, 19-22 Marking Line and Grade, 2-25
3/4/5 Layout Square, 19-63 Principles of Marking, 2-26
3/4/5, 21-21 As-Builts, 20-13
Average End-Area Method, 18-10, 18-8
Azimuths, 14-14
Abbreviations and Symbols, 2-35
Common Abbreviations, 2-31
Common Symbols, 2-34 Backsight (BS), 7-3
Accuracy Standards, 7-16 Backsights, 21-11
Adjusted Distances and Directions, 14-30 Baseline, 19-30
Anchor Bolts, 20-17 Procedure for Baseline Offset, 19-31
Angle Adjustment, 14-9 Batter Boards, 19-63
Angle Measurement Establishing Line on Batter Boards, 19-65
Horizontal Angle Layout, 5-24 Setting an Elevation on Batter Boards, 19-66
Horizontal Angle Measurement, 5-14 Types of Batter Boards, 19-64
Vertical or Zenith Angles, 5-28 Uses of Batter Boards, 19-64
With a Chain, 21-21 Bearings, 14-14
Angles Benchmark (BM), 7-3
Close the Horizon, 5-17 Benchmarks, 19-16
Determine the Average Angle, 5-22 Block-Outs and Embeds, 20-26
Direct and Reverse, 5-17 Borrow Pit, 18-12
Double-Center, 5-17, 5-26 Bucking In, 19-39
Measuring Traverse Angles, 5-21 Procedure for Bucking In On Line, 19-40
Procedure for Reading Angles, 5-17 Bucking In (Elevation), 7-51
Turning an Angle, 5-18 Building Benchmarks, 7-48
Types of Angles, 5-3
Field Angles Measured, 5-4 CAD, 11-6
Horizontal, 5-3 Caissons, 20-11
Vertical, 5-3 Calculating Coordinates on a Traverse, 14-33
Angular Closure, 14-5 Calculating Directions, 14-16
Applied Leveling, 7-47 Calculating L.E.O.C., 14-24
Approximate Right Angle, 21-13 Calculating Latitudes and Departures, 14-20
Arc Length, 16-15 Care of Hand Tools, 3-33
Area by Coordinates, 15-33 Know Your Tools, 3-34
Area, 12-16, 18-4 The Importance of Maintenance, 3-34
Cross-Section Coordinates, 18-6 Care of Hand Tools, 3-33
Trapezoidal Rule, 18-7 General Rules of Use, 3-34
Areas, 15-30 Do Not Force Equipment
Procedure for area by coordinates, 15-33 Keep the Equipment Clean, 3-34
Procedure for area by geometry, 15-31 Know How to Operate the Equipment, 3-34
Arm Signals Parts, 3-34
Arm Signals for Numbers, 2-12 Use a Protective Case, 3-34
One-Hand Signals for Numbers, 2-13 General Surveying Equipment, 3-35
Field Operations Signals, 2-14 Brush Clearing Equipment, 3-37
Signals to crane operators, 2-16 Chaining Pins, 3-36
Stakes and Laths, 2-17 Cloth Tape, 3-39
INDEX-15
Gammon Reel. 3 3ft Column Dowd layout, 20-30
Hammers. I- is Combined Corrections, 13-21
I-evel Rods, i 40 Common Mistakes, 22-14
Plumb Btvb. 4 IS Communicating with Signals, 2-11
Prism Polev 3 '7 S e r Ann Signals
Rllt(!C INles. I 4ft Communication
Rvk t'hisel. 4-IK Dealing with People. 2-H
Sight Level. 4 <5 Giving and Receiving Criticism. 2-9
Steel Chain. 3*38 Meetings. 2-7
Cure of Hand Tools. 3-33 Radio Communication. 2-6
Instrument Handling Guidelines. 3-42 Recognizing Communication Barriers, 2-10
Carpenter's Level. 19*58 Structuring W ritten Documents. 2-7
Centerlines, 20-9 Telephone Communication. 2-5
Chaining Writing an Effective Letter, 2-6
Analysis o f Chaining Errors. 4-18 Communicating on Stakes, 2-20
Analysis of Common Chaining Errors. 4-20 Compass rule, 14-27
Breaking Chain. 4-5 Concrete and Metal Decks, 20-23
Chaining a Distance. 4-7 Concrete Columns, 20-29
C haining a Traverse. 4-15 Construction Control, 20-1
Chaining Basics. 4-3 Construction Drawings, 11-7
Reading a M etric C hain. 4-4 Drawing Types, 11-9
Reading an Engineering C hain. 4-4 Reading Drawings, 11-10
C haining Equipm ent. 4-3 Site Plans, 11-11
Properly Care for C hains & C haining Standard Practices, 11-8
Equipm ent. 4-6 Construction Staking, 2-18
Sources o f Error in C haining. 4-19 Cut or Fill Stakes, 2-21
Instrum ental. 4-19 Principles of Communicating on Stakes, 2-20
N atural, 4-19 Color Code the Flagging, 2-19
Personal. 4-19 Face Stakes in the Correct Direction, 2-18
Traverse Chaining Field Notes. 4-17 Offset Stakes for Protection, 2-18
Types of Errors, 4-19 Use the Proper Size Stake, 2-18
Random. 4-19 Setting Stakes on the Site, 2-21
Systematic, 4-19 Types of Construction Stakes
Chain Corrections Control, 2-24
Combined Corrections, 13-21 Curb and Gutter, 2-23
Length Correction. 13-8 Fine Grade, 2-22
Measuring Conditions, 13-3 Minor Structures, 2-24
S1ope Correclion, 13-12 Pipe, 2-23
Temperature Correction. 13-17 Rough Grade, 2-22
Chalk Lines and Plumb Lines, 19-68 Site-Clearing Limits, 2-22
Chalk Lines, 21-4 Slope, 2-23
Change Technology, 19-7 Consult with Subcontractors, 22-6
Check Equipment, 20-21 Contour Areas Method, 18-14
Checking Grade, 21-17 Contour Characteristics, 11-19
Checking Layout, 19-7 Contour Intervals, 11-17
Checking Plumb, 21-15 Contours, 11-16
Chord, 16-16 Contouring Rules, 11-21
Chord Calculations, 16-15 Defined, 11-17
Long Chords, 16-19 Drawing Contours, 11-21
Short Chords, 16-19 Representations by Contours, 11-17
Climatize, 3-29, 8-10 Depression, 11-18
Closed Loop, 7-3 Highway Cut, 11-18
Closed Traverse, 14-3 Highway Fill, 11-18
Closure and Precision, 14-22 Hill, 11-17
Color Code, 20-5 Control, 19-9
Color Coding, 22-8 Coordinate Geometry, 15-1
16 - INDEX
index 0
Coordinates, 14-32 Development of a Test Area, 10-4

Coordinates in Construction. 15-5 Hand Level. 10-40
Setup of a Coordinate System, 15-6 Procedure for Calibration of a Hand Level,
Where to Use Coordinates, 15-4 10-41
Correction Calculations, 13-4 Laser, 10-31
Cross-Section Coordinates, 18-6 Procedure for laser calibration, 10-32
Cross-Section Leveling, 7-33 Laser Plummets, 10-23
GPS Cross-Sectioning, 7-37 Levels, 10-24
Cross-Section Interval, 7-34 Levels, 10-24
Total Station Cross-Sectioning, 7-37 Quick-Peg by One Person, 10-29
Curb and Gutter Construction, 20-39 Review of the Geometry of a Level, 10-25
Curve Layout Data, 16-20 The Principal Lines on a Level, 10-25
Two-Peg or Quick-Peg Test, 10-26
DD to DMS, 12-15 Optical Plummet in a Tribrach, 10-22
Data Sheet, 15-26 Prism Pole Bubble, 10-34
Deflection Angles, 14-5 Using a Door Frame, 10-38
Deflection Increment, 16-15 Using a Wall Bracket, 10-37
Deflection per Foot of Arc, 16-15 Using Tables, 10-35
Deflection, 16-16 Testing of a Chain, 10-6
Deflections and Chords, 16-14 Testing Requirements, 10-4
Degree of Curve, 16-6 The Circular Level, 10-22
Degree of Curve, Da, 16-11 Total Station, 10-19
Departure, 14-20 Total Station, 10-19
Departure Correction, 14-29 Horizontal Collimation, 10-20
Differential Leveling, 7-22 Vertical Index Error, 10-20
Digitizer, 18-5 Tribrach and Plummets, 10-21
Direct-Elevation Rod, 8-12 Laser Plummets, 10-23
Direction Calculations, 14-13 Review of Instrument Geometry, 10-11
Comparison Between Azimuths and Bearings, The Circular Level, 10-22
14-14 The Optical Plummet, 10-22
Obtaining a Back Azimuth, 14-15 Principle Lines Angle-Measuring Instr., 10-11
DMS to DD, 12-15 Establishing a Line, 21-12
Double-Centering, 19-43 Establishing Line on Batter Boards, 19-65
Double-Check Grade Sheets, 7-55 Existing Objects as Benchmarks, 7-48
Drafting, 11-2 External E, 16-10
CAD, 11-6
Equipment, 11-3 Field Book, 1-15
Graphical Scale, 11-13 Field Engineering
Legend of Symbols, 11-13 Field Duties, 1-9
Principles of Lettering, 11-5 Getting Started and Organized, 1-2
Techniques, 11-4 Office Duties, 1-11
Responsibilities, 1-7
Earthwork, 20-6
Success Characteristics, 1-8
Field Notekeeping, 3-17
Electronic Data Collection, 6-40
Basic Practices, 3-18
Electronic Instruments, 3-29
Keep Field Book Safe, 3-18
Elevation, 7-3
Leave No Room for Interpretation, 3-18
Elevations, 8-15
Make References, 3-18
Elevator and Stair Cores, 20-33
Record Data Exactly, 3-18
Engineering Layout, 1-9
Use a Hard Pencil, 3-18
Equipment
Do Not Erase, 3-21
Equipment Checklists, 1-4
Guidelines, 3-21
Personal Equipment, 1-3
Layout, 3-18
Equipment Calibration
Methods of Notekeeping, 3-23
Angle-Measuring Instruments, 10-10
Sample Combination, 3-24
Basic Principles, 10-3
Sample Description, 3-24
INDEX -17
Grading with a Laser, 20-25
Sample Sketch, 3-23
Sample Tabulation, 3-23
Grid Leveling, 7-39
Record Everything, 3-21
Grids and Contours Method, 18-11
Use Standard Drafting Techniques, 3-22
Use Standard Lettering Techniques, 3-22 Height of Instrument (HI), 7-3
Field Notes HI From Two BM's, 7-54
Arithmetic Check, 7-20 High and Low Points of a Vertical Curve, 17-20
Field Note Samples Equation for the High or Low Point, 17-21
Field Notes for Profile Leveling, 7-31 Procedure for C alculating a Low Point, 17-21
Field Notes for Referencing, 19-20 Horizontal Control, 19-14, 20-3
Field Notes for Bucking In, 19-42 Horizontal Control and Layout, 20-30
Field Notes for Chaining, 4-14 Horizontal Curves
Field Notes for Cross-Sectioning, 7-38 Form ulas, 16-7
Field Notes for D ifferential Leveling, 7-27 Layout by C oordinates, 16-30
Field Notes for Distances Between Control Procedure for Coordinate Calculations, 16-32
Points, 6-23 Procedure for Radial Lines, 16-28
Field Notes for Grid Leveling, 7-42 Layout by D eflections, 16-21
Field Notes for H orizontal Control Layout, Computing Deflections and Chords, 16-17
6-15 Curve Layout Data, 16-20
Field Notes for Level Loop, 7-19 Deflection Increment, 16-15
Field Notes for Leveling, 7-17 Procedure for Long Chord Layout, 16-26
Field Notes for Measuring Traverse Angles Procedure for Short Chord Layout, 16-22
with a Chain, 21 -22 Parts of a Horizontal Curve, 16-4
Field Notes for Measuring Traverse Angles, Arc Length, 16-15
5-23 Deflections and Chords, 16-14
Field Notes for Radial Layout, 6-32 Degree of Curve, 16-6
Field Notes for Slope Stake, 19-55 External E, 16-10
Field Notes for Transferring an Elevation Up Length of Curve L, 16-9
a Structure, 7-46 Long chord LC, 16-8
Field Notes for Traverse Chaining, 4-17 Middle Ordinate MO, 16-10
Field Notes for Traverse Computation, 14-11 Station Interval, 16-15
Field Notes for Traverse Data, 14-6 Stationing, 16-12
Field Notes for Trigonometric Leveling, 6-39 Tangent T, 16-8
Rules Related to Field Book Use, 7-21 Types of Curves, 16-3
Field observations, 22-1 Broken-Back, 16-4
Field Work Tips, 22-8
Compound Curve, 16-3
Footings and Foundation, 20-14
Reverse Curve, 16-3
Foresight (FS), 7-3
Simple Curve, 16-3
Formulas, 12-2
Spiral Curves, 16-4
Foundations, 8-15
Index Contour, 11-19

GPS, 19-46, 21-5
Instrument Angle Error, 19-38
Calibrate, 9-12
Instrument Care, 3-25
GPS equipment care, 9-12
General Instrument Care and Use, 3-27
GPS Project Planning, 9-9
Attach Instrument Snugly to the Tripod, 3-27
Jobsite Applications, 9-5
Do Not Touch the Lenses, 3-27
Recording log sheets, 9-14
Establish a Wide Foundation, 3-28
Satellites, 9-11
Grasp the Instrument Firmly, 3-27
Standard Practices, 9-7
Keep Equipment Dry, 3-28
Advantages, 9-4
Keep it Clean, 3-28
Disadvantages, 9-4
Gradient or Grade, 17-5 Never Leave the Instrument Unattended, 3-28
Silicone Lubricant, 3-31
Calculating Elevations on the Gradient, 17-7
Gradient Elevations, 17-4 Transporting Surveying Instruments, 3-26
Negative Gradient, 17-6 Carrying the Instrument, 3-27
Positive Gradient, 17-5 Keep an Empty Case Closed, 3-27
Zero Gradient, 17-6 Transport the Instrument in its Case, 3-27
18 - INDEX
Instrument Setups, 3-51 Layout Data, 15-24
procedure for Setup with a Plumb Bob, 3-52 Procedure to Calculate Layout Data, 15-28
Procedure for Setup with an Optical Plummet, 3-54 Legend of Symbols, 11-13
Procedure for Setup with a Laser Plummet, 3-57 Length Correction, 13-8
Instruments Length of Curve L, 16-9
Digital Theodolite, 5-9 Level Rods, 7-8
For Working Alone, 21-5 Rod Levels, 7-10
Geometry o f Angle-M easuring Instruments, 5-10 Rod Use, 7-14
Optical Theodolite, 5-8 Leveling
Components o f Theodolites & Total Stations Differential Leveling Basics, 7-3
5-12 Leveling an Instrument, 3-43
Total Stations, 5-10 Procedure for Electronic Leveling System,
Transit, 5-7 3-49
Angle-turning C lam ping (M otion) Systems, P rocedure for Four-Screw Leveling H ead,
5-12 3-45
Com ponents o f a Transit, 5-11 Procedure for Three-Screw Leveling Head,
U se o f an Instrum ent, 20-36 3-47
Interior Angles, 14-4 Leveling Instrum ents, 7-6
Interpolation, 11-22 Autom atic Levels, 7-7
Procedure for Interpolation, 11-22 D igital Levels, 7-8
Intersections, 15-13, 19-33 Dum py Levels, 7-6
D irection / D irection Intersection, 15-17 H and Levels, 7-7
D istance / D irection Intersection, 15-16 Leveling Process
D istance / D istance Intersection, 15-14 Balance Backsights and Foresights, 7-16
P rocedure fo r U sing Intersectin g L ines, 19-34 C arrying a Level, 7-13
Inversing, 15-7 C heck the Com pensator, 7-13
Inverse D irection, 15-8 C lose the Loop, 7-16
Inverse D istance, 15-11 Focusing, 7-13
Setting up, 7-12
Land Surveyor S tandard Practices, 7-11
Lasers, 21-5 Lift Drawings, 11-26
Applications, 8-14 B asics, 11-28
Benefits of using a Laser, 8-3 Example Lift Drawings, 11-31
Calibration, 8-13 Lift Drawing Checklist, 11-30
Classes of Lasers, 8-5 Lift-Drawing Preparation and Use, 20-27
Fixed, 8-5 Line, 19-36
Rotating, 8-5 Linear Error of Closure, 14-23
Utility, 8-6 Location of Embeds, Block-Outs, etc., 20-37
Standard Practices, 8-7 Long BS and Short FS, 19-37
Types of Lasers, 8-4 Long chord, LC, 16-8
Electronic Level, 8-4 Long Chords, 16-19
Visible Light Laser, 8-4
Use of the, 20-35 Math Review
Latitude Correction, 14-28 Algebra, 12-3
Latitude, 14-20 Formulas, 12-2
Latitudes and Departures, 14-19 Plane Geometry, 12-4
Laying Out Distances, 21-9 Trigonometry, 12-5
Layout, 20-28 Measurement Principles, 3-10
Baseline, 19-30 Accuracy vs. Precision, 3-13
Change Technology, 19-7 Accuracy, 3-13
Checking Layout, 19-7 Errors, 3-11
Mistakes vs. Errors, 3-11
Intersections, 19-33
Mistakes, 3-11
Methods, 19-21
Precision, 3-13
Radial Layout, 19-26
Measuring a Distance, 21-9
Rules of Layout, 19-5
Middle Ordinate MO, 16-10
Select the Layout Method, 19-11
Schedule, 1-6
INDEX- 1 9
Bucking In On Line, 19-40
Monumentation, 19-13
Calculate Layout Data, 15-28
Moving Up on a Horizontal Curve, 16-35
Calculating Directions, 14-16
Procedure for Moving Up, 16-36
Calculating L.E.O.C., 14-24
Calculating Low Point, 17-21
Natural Backsights, 19-38 Calculating Unequal Length Curve, 17-17
Natural or Quick Foresights, 19-39 Calibration, 10-8
Notekeeping for Three-Wire Leveling, 7-50 Computing Deflections and Chords, 16-17
Coordinate Calculations, 16-33
Obtaining a Back Azimuth, 14-15 Cross-Sectioning, 7-35
Office Work Tips, 22-10 Differential Leveling, 7-23
Offset Curves, 16-43 Direct and Reverse Angles, 5-18
Offset Chord Equations, 16-45 Direct-Elevation Rod, 8-12
Offset Curve Layout Data, 16-46 D ouble-Centering, 19-43
Procedure for Offset Chord Layout, 16-47 Electronic Leveling System
Offset, 20-9, 20-12 Establishing a Perpendicular Line, 21-14
One-Person Surveying, 21-1 Four-Screw Leveling Head, 3-45
3/4/5, 21-21 G rid Leveling, 7-40
A pproxim ate Right Angle, 21-13 Intersecting Lines, 19-34
Distances, 21-6 Laying Out and Staking a Vertical Curve, 17-24
Chaining, 21-9 L aying-O ut a P oint w ith a Total Station, 6-25
Elevations, 21-16 Layout Data, 15-28
Layout, 21-18 Layout of an Angle, 5-26
Line, 21-10 Long Chord Layout, 16-26
E stablishing a Line, 21-12 Measuring a Distance with a Chain, 4-8
O btaining a Backsight, 21-11 Measuring Distance & Angle with Total Station,
O ne-Person 90's, 21-19 6-12
Procedure for O ne-Person R adial, 21-19 Measuring with a Total Station, 6-17
Open Traverse, 14-3 Moving Up On a Horizontal Curve, 16-36
Offset Curve Layout, 16-47
Pacing, 21-7 One-Person Radial, 21-19
Determine Pace Length, 21-8 Profile Leveling, 7-29
Pegging a Level, 21-17 Quick-Peg, 10-27
Permanent Backsight, 21-17 Radial Lines, 16-28
Pipelines, 19-48 Setting a Highway Slope Stake, 19-53
Planimeter, 18-5 Setting Grade, 7-55
Planning, 1-3 Setup with a Laser Plummet, 3-57
Plumb Bob Setup with a Plumb Bob, 3-52
Plumbing with, 20-31 Setup with an Optical Plummet, 3-54
Use of the, 20-35 Short Chord Layout, 16-22
Plumbing and Erection, 20-22 Three-Screw Leveling Head, 3-47
Plumbing the Column, 20-31 Transferring Elevations, 7-44
Plumbing with an Instrument, 20-32 Traverse Computations, 14-7
Pocket Laser, 19-58 Trigonometric Leveling, 6-36
Precision Calculation and Analysis, 14-24 Using a Door Frame, 10-38
Preserving Points, 19-17 Using a Wall Bracket, 10-37
Primary Control, 19-14 Using Intersecting Lines, 19-34
Primary, 19-14 Using Tables, 10-35
Secondary, 19-14 Wingding Right Angle, 21-13
Working, 19-15 Zenith Angle Measurement, 5-30
Prism Pole Bubble, 10-34 Professional Surveyor, 19-11
Procedures for Profile Leveling, 7-28
Adjusting Angles, 14-11 Project Documentation, 1-11
Area by Coordinates, 15-33 Pythagorean Theorem, 19-23
Area by Geometry, 15-31
Baseline Offset, 19-31
20 - INDEX
index
Quality Control, 1-11 Slope Correction, 13-12

Quantities Slope Staking, 19-50
Determining Area, 18-5 Building Site, 19-52
Geometric Formula, 18-5 Highway Project, 19-52
Setting a Highway Slope Stake, 19-53
Radial Layout, 19-26 Terms and Definitions, 19-51
Rectangular Coordinate System, 15-3 Software and Computers, 1-4
Reference to Primary Control, 20-9 Stakes, 22-8
Referencing, 19-18 Staking, 20-7
Re-Section, 15-19 Stationing, 16-12
Angle Re-Section, 15-21 Station Interval, 16-15
Distance R e-Section, 15-20 Sticks and Strings, 19-61
Retaining Systems, 20-8 Story Poles, 19-62
Review Tolerances, 22-5 String Lines, 19-66
Roadways, 19-47 Characteristics, 19-67
Robotic Total Station, 21-5 Fastening Techniques, 19-67
Rules of Layout, 19-5 Principles and Applications, 19-68
Rules of Thumb, 22-11 Types o f stringlines, 19-66
Structural Steel, 20-20
Structures, 8-15
Safety Symbols
Construction-Site Hazards, 3-8 See Abbreviations and Symbols
Crew Protective Equipment, 3-4
Hand Tool Hazards, 3-5
Tangent T, 16-8
Highway hazards, 3-7
Tape and Tie Wire, 21-5
Natural Hazards, 3-6
Targets, 21-12
Personal Protective Equipment, 3-3
Tech Tips, 22-7
Planning for Safety, 1-12
Temperature Correction, 13-17
Safety is for life!, 1-12
Templates, 21-13
Safety, 20-5
Tension and Sag, 13-6
Sample Site Plans, 11-15
The Theory of Differential Leveling, 7-4
Satellites, 9-11
Three-Wire Leveling, 7-49
Signal Reception, 9-12 Title Block, 11-13
Schedule, 22-6 Tolerances, 20-19, 20-22
Scheduling Common Tolerances for Construction Layout, 3-15
Daily Scheduling, 1-5 Total Station
Maintaining the Schedule, 1-13 Layout of a Point, 6-24
Sample Layout Schedule, 1-6 Measuring Basics, 6-11
Secondary Control, 19-14 Measuring Details, 6-16
Select the Layout Method, 19-11 Procedure for Measuring with a Total Station,
Setting a Backsight, 21-11 6-17
Setting a Slope Stake, 19-53 Standard Practices, 6-7
Setting an Elevation on Batter Boards, 19-66 Trigonometric Elevations, 6-33
Setting Benchmarks, 7-48 Types of Total Stations, 6-5
Setting Grade, 7-53 Basic Total Stations, 6-6
Setup of a Coordinate System, 15-6 Full-Featured Total Stations, 6-6
Short Chords, 16-19 Reflectorless Total Stations, 6-6
Sidewalk Construction, 20-40 Robotic or Automatic Tracking Total
Sidewalks, Curbs, and Gutters, 20-38 Stations, 6-6
Significant Figures, 12-3 Transferring Elevations, 7-43
Site Plans, 11-11 Trapezoidal Rule, 18-7
Information on Site Plans, 11-12 Traverse Accuracy Standards, 14-25
Description of Benchmarks, 11-15 Traverse Adjustments, 14-26
Description of Monuments, 11-14 Compass Rule, 14-27
Road Names, 11-15 Departure Correction, 14-29
Sitework, 8-15, 20-4 Latitude Correction, 14-28
Slope, 17-5 Traverse Accuracy Standards, 14-25
INDEX - 21
construction surveyingand layout
Traverse Analysis, 14-24 Vertical Alignment, 20-35

Traverse Angles, 14-4 Vertical Control, 19-15, 20-3
Adjustment Options, 14-10 Vertical Curves
Calculation of the Gradient from PVI to PVI, 17-6
Angle Adjustment. 14-9
Angular Closure. 14-5 Definitions, 17-5
Equations of the Vertical Curve, 17-13
Deflection Angles. 14-5
Interior Angles. 14-4 Gradient or Grade, 17-5
When to Adjust Angles. 14-10 Laying Out and Staking Vertical Curve, 17-24
TVaverse Computation Sheet, 15-35 Parts of the Vertical Curve, 17-10
TVaverse Computations Point of Vertical Intersection, 17-6
Closed Traverse, 14-3 Properties of the Vertical Curve, 17-11
Open Traverse, 14-3
TVaverses, 14-3 Sag Curve, 17-11
Procedure for Traverse Computations, 14-7 Symmetry, 17-11
Trigonometric Leveling, 6-36 Vertical Curve Layout, 17-23
TVipods and Bipods, 21-4 Vertical, 8-15
TVipods, 3-29 Vicinity Map, 11-13
Position Tripod Legs Properly, 3-30 Volume, 12-15
Keep it Horizontal, 3-30 Volumes
Keep it Tight, 3-30 Average End-Area M ethod, 18-8
TVipods, 3-29 Borrow Pit, 18-12
Ensure a Solid Setup, 3-30 Contour Areas Method, 18-14
Check all Screws and Bolts. 3-31 Grids and Contours M ethod, 18-11
Maintain Proper Tension, 3-31
Secure Adjustable Legs, 3-31 Working Control, 19-15
TVipods, 3-29 Working-Alone Tools, 21-3
Transport Carefully, 3-31 Carpenter's Tools, 21-3
Ttirnbuckles and Cables, 20-22 GPS, 21-5
Thrnbuckles, 21-3 Instruments for Working Alone, 21-5
Thrning Point (TP), 7-3, 7-14 Lasers, 21-5
Turning Point Pin, 7-15 Robotic Total Station, 21-5
Sticks and Strings, 21-4
Unequal Length Vertical Curves, 17-16 Tape and Tie Wire, 21-5
Procedure for Calculating an Unequal Length Tripods and Bipods, 21-4
Curve, 17-17
Units and Conversions, 12-11 Zenith Plummet, 19-60
DD to DMS, 12-15
DMS to DD, 12-15
Feet and Inches to Feet, Tenths, and Hundredths,
12-12
Feet to Meters, 12-13
Feet, Tenths, and Hundredths to Feet and Inches,
12-13
Meters to Feet, 12-13
Units of Length, 12-12
Utilities, 20-5
Utility Laser, 19r58
Vertical Alignment, 19-56

Methods, 19-57
Carpenter's Level, 19-58
Plumb Bobs, 19-57
Pocket Laser, 19-58
Transit/Theodolite/Total Station, 19-60
Utility Laser, 19-58
Zenith Plummet, 19-60
22 - INDEX
Right Triangles
GIVEN TO FIND FORMULA
b 7 c2- a 2
A sin A = a/c
a ,c
B cos B = a/c
Area a/2 7 c2 - a2
a y c2 - b2
A cos A = b/c
b ,c
B sin B = b/c
Area b/2 7 c2 -b 2
B c y a2 + b2
A tan A = a/b; cot A = b/a

a ,b
B tan B = b/a; cot B = a/b
Area ab/2
b a cot A
C= 90 DEGREES
c a/sin A
A ,a
B 90-A
Area a2 cot A
2
a b tan A
c b/cos A
A ,b
B
9 0 -A
b2 tan A
Area
2
a c sin A
b c cos A
A ,c
B 90-A
Area c2 (sin A)(cos A) = c2 sin 2A

2 4
Oblique Triangles
Law of Sines = _ _ b _ c
Sin A Sin B ~ SinC
Law of Cosines = c* = a= + 1* - 2ab CosC

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A Field Engineering Methods Manual

Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Construction surveying and layout: a field engineering methods manual - 7rd

Construction surveying and layout

Copyright 2003, Wesley G. Crawford

Printed and bound in the United States of A m e rica b y T h o m s o n /S h o re lh c -> Ml

peW C A T'O "

First and Second Edition

Reviewers and Contributors

Surveying G i n , Sl-r..d O rg .a i^d ,.j

preparing R . p o r ' s C h 'la 1 -1 4

Communicating with Signals 2- 11

Stakes and Laths 2-17

Marking Line and Grade 2- 2 5

Abbreviations and Symbols 2-30

Trigonometric Elevations 6-33

Electronic Data Co ll e c ti on 6-40

Standard Practices 7-11

Field Notes for L e v e l i n g 7-17

Differential Leveling 7-22

Profile Leveling 7-28

Cross-Section Leveling 7-33

Grid Leveling 7-39

Transferring Elevations 7-43

Applied Leveling 7-47

Setting Grade 7-53

Standard Practices 8-7

P A R T TWO - OFFICEWORK AND CALCULATIONS

Construction Drawings 11-7

Site Plans 11-11

Lift Drawings 11-26

High and Low Poi nt s 17-20

Average End-Area Method 18-8

Grids and Contours Method 18-11

PART THREE - APPLICATIONS

Vertical Alignment 19-56

Sticks and Strings 1 9-61

Ret ai ni ng Syst ems 20-8

Structural St eel 20-20

Concrete Columns 20-29

Common Mistakes 22-1 4

Appendix C - Additional Problems 10

HOW TO OBTAIN ONLINE UPDATES ON THIS BOOK

A fundamental principle has been followed in presenting the material. This

that identify ^eature f this text is the inclusion of chapter summaries

To further assist in learning the fundamentals of surveying and construction

Field book (preferably bound) Whisk broom

Plumb bob (24 oz. minimum) Sighting target

Gammon reel Marking pen

Hand level Several rolls of plastic, colored flagging

Carbide tipped etching tool Chalk

25-foot tape (preferably graduated in Marking crayons

5-m eter tape graduated to mm Hammer for driving nails

6-foot engineer's rule Orange marking paint

Clear coat (varnish) to preserve layout

"Red-eyes (nails stuck through a 1" Safety belt and harness

Equipment Checklists . understanding of the capabilities of the

engineer should consult 'he vanous ^ tensci omparisons of spe

surveying!^ graphic^pri^ter n e c e ^ T t S ^ S ftWar6'S 6XP6Cted ^ In

Use your own phone when possible. ___________________ _