COMPOSITE ACTION IN CONCRETE FILLED TUBES

By Charles W. Roeder,1 Member, ASCE, Brad Cameron,2 Associate Member, ASCE, and
Colin B. Brown,3 Honorary Member, ASCE

ABSTRACT: This paper studies composite action in concrete filled tubes (CFT) that have dimensions and
proportions like those used in U.S. practice. CFT applications in buildings and the importance of bond stress
and interface conditions to behavior are noted, past research is summarized, and the combined results are
analyzed. An experimental study is described and evaluated. It is shown that shrinkage can be very detrimental
to bond stress capacity, and the importance of shrinkage depends upon the characteristics of the concrete, the
diameter of the tube, and the surface condition at the inside of the tube. The bond capacity is smaller with large
diameter tubes and large d/t ratios. The bond capacity is interrelated with slip at the steel concrete interface. An
exponential distribution of bond stress is expected prior to slip, and a more uniform distribution occurs after
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slip. An equation that estimates the bond stress capacity is developed, and this leads to design recommendations
at different performance levels.

INTRODUCTION of CFT columns in the United States are usually in excess of

one meter (40 in.), and diameters up to 3 meters (120 in.)
Concrete filled tubes (CFT) have been used as columns for exist. The d/t ratios for the steel tubes are commonly about
seismic design of buildings. The construction involves the 100, and one structure has a ratio of nearly 200. Axial stiffness
erection of hollow steel tube columns with steel beams and is often the motivating influence for the use of CFT columns,
bracing. As the construction advances, the tubes are then filled and often very high strength concrete has been used to max-
with concrete. CFT columns offer advantages over either pure imize this stiffness.
steel or reinforced concrete members. The concrete fill adds CFT columns have had a much wider usage for seismic
stiffness and compressive strength to the tubular column and resistant design in Japan. Both circular and rectangular col-
reduces the potential for local buckling. The steel tube rein- umns are used exclusively in moment frames in Japan. The
forces the concrete to resist tension, bending moment, and diameters of circular columns are usually less than 700 mm
shear. Additionally, the tube acts as formwork for the concrete, (28 in.) with d/t ratios less than 50. The moment resistant
thus saving a major construction cost. The structural benefits connections have diaphragms as illustrated in Fig. 1, where
require stress transfer between the steel and the concrete in the diaphragm penetrates the tube and the concrete fill. The
order to ensure their composite action. In practice, this has blocking action provided by the diaphragm to the fill ensures
been attained by relying on either shear connectors on the reduced bond stress demand. Shear connections are seldom
inside of the tubes or the natural bond between steel and con- used inside CFT columns in Japan, but innovations to enhance
crete. This bond stress transfer is not well understood. Bond the natural bond capacity have been developed, such as the
stress transfer requirements for seismic resistant construction use of steel ribs on the inside of tubes (Tomii et al. 1980a and
are the primary focus of this paper. b).
CFT columns have been used longer in Japan than in the
United States. Extensive research studies have been conducted
in Japan; however, the practice, tube dimensions, and propor-
tions there differ from those in the United States. The research
and practice are reviewed, and the locations of critical bond
stress demand are identified. The magnitude of the demand
and the behavior at the demand interfaces are analyzed, and
the experimental results available are evaluated. The incom-
plete evidence regarding the United States practice leads to the
experimental research program reported here. Finally, these
experimental results are evaluated, and recommendations are
made regarding bond stress and shear connector requirements
for CFT at various performance levels.

U.S. AND JAPANESE PRACTICE

Most U.S. structures with CFT columns are braced frames.
These columns develop axial forces under lateral loading with
a consequent demand for bond stress capacity. The diameters
1
Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2700.
2
Struct. Engr., Skilling Ward Magnusson and Barkshire, Seattle, WA
98101.
3
Prof. Emeritus of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA, and
Courtesy Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR 97331.
Note. Associate Editor: W. Samuel Easterling. Discussion open until
October 1, 1999. To extend the closing date one month, a written request
must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for
this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March
2, 1998. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 125, No. 5, May, 1999. ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/99/0005-0477 FIG. 1. Diaphragm Connection Used to Connect Steel Beam
0484/$8.00 $.50 per page. Paper No. 17829. to CFT Column

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999 / 477

J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.

 BOND STRESS DEMAND
Prototype structural designs were completed for a six story
moment resistant frame and a 12 story concentrically braced
frame to examine CFT columns used in U.S. practice. The
buildings were designed to meet the seismic provisions of the
Uniform Building Code (Uniform 1994), even though these
provisions are not complete with respect to these composite
structures. Computer studies (Emoto 1996) included static
analysis, dynamic response spectra analysis, and time history
analysis for these prototype structures. The analyses estab-
lished the locations of critical bond stress demand and ap-
proximately determined the demand at these locations. The
analyses were elastic; however, the locations of yielding dur-
ing an earthquake were established and the effect of this yield-
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ing on the bond stress demand was estimated.

The results showed that the bond stress demand varied for
different structural systems and different locations in a struc-
ture. Demand was always greatest in regions of geometric dis-
continuity such as connections and foundation supports. Far
less bond stress demand was required in connections where
elements penetrate the concrete fill than in direct steel-to-steel
connections. Moment resisting frames had smaller bond stress
demand than braced frames. This may be explained with the
use of Fig. 2, where a braced frame is subjected to lateral
loads. The axial force in the brace transfers a vertical com-
ponent of force at each connection, as shown in Fig. 3(a),
located at A in Fig. 2. Large tensile forces are transferred to
the foundation at the base of a column at B in Fig. 2. Fig.
3(b) illustrates this detail, where the bond stress demand at-
tains a maximum.

INTERFACE CONDITIONS
The bond transfer between the steel tube and the concrete FIG. 3. Detailed Sketches of Bond Stress Demand at Critical
fill depends on the radial displacements due to the pressure of Locations: (a) At Brace Connection; (b) At Base of Column
the wet concrete on the shell and the shrinkage of the concrete
core, together with the rugosity (or internal surface irregular- concrete, the head of the wet concrete, the compressive load
ities) of the interior surface of the tube. The radial displace- that is applied directly to the concrete but not to the steel, and,
ment due to the Poisson effect is significant only to the extent to an unknown extent, the tube diameter. The shrinkage of the
that composite action is not achieved, and the strains in the concrete will involve a radial reduction, 2, of
steel and concrete are different.
Because CFT columns have axial symmetry, the pressure, 2 = (cd )/2 (2)
p, will cause a radial enlargement, 1, of the tube:
where c = linear shrinkage strain of concrete. The shrinkage
1 = ( pd 2)/(4Es t) (1) depends on the concrete, the curing procedures, and the di-
ameter.
where d = diameter; t = wall thickness; and Es = elastic mod- Three possible states exist at the interface:
ulus of the steel. The pressure depends on the viscosity of the
State A:
1 2 > 0 (3)
State B:
1 2 < 3 (4)
State C:
0 1 2 3 (5)

where 3 = amplitude of the rugosity of the interior of the

FIG. 2. Critical Locations in CFT Braced Frame System
478 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999
tube.
In State A, the concrete pressure persists on the interface
after the shrinkage is complete, and the initial bond strength
is provided by an adhesion between the steel and the concrete.
This is often termed chemical bond. With increasing shear, this
chemical bond capacity is exceeded, and the subsequent
strength depends on the mechanical characteristics at the in-
terface. Here, two features exist: the bond that depends on the
interface pressure and the coefficient of friction, and the bond

J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.

 provided by the mechanical interlocking of the concrete and
steel. No separation of these two types of mechanical bond is
made in this paper.
In State B, separation between the two materials exists after
shrinkage, and relative rigid body motion occurs with little
bond strength or resistance when one material is pushed rel-
ative to the other.
State C is an intermediate condition. Adhesion is of reduc-
ing significance, and the mechanical bond progressively re-
duces in a mostly unpredictable manner as the state approaches
B.
Examination of the conditions causing CFT elements to
transform from one state to another is useful. Typical values
of c and d/t are 0.0003 and 100, and these values indicate that
State A is achieved only if the pressure in the concrete exceeds
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simulating slip between the concrete and steel over part of the
length. The normalized bond stress was limited to a value of
just over 0.1 acting over a distance of 0.2d from the loaded
end of the column. This replicates the absorbing, by friction,
of the uniform bond stress over the slipped length. Fig. 4 il-
lustrates the transfer of the load over the slipped region and
the manner in which the exponential distribution develops in
the unslipped region. These analyses show that the bond stress
demand is concentrated in a local region, and that the unbal-
anced load must be distributed between the steel and concrete
over a short region if slip is to be avoided.
PAST EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Most of the experiments on bond stress capacity evaluated

1.2 MPa (174 psi). Higher pressures are required for smaller push-out test specimens, as shown in Fig. 5. The bond stress
d/t ratios. These pressures are unlikely to be achieved for most capacity is defined as the average interface stress associated
practical conditions, and the shrinkage term, 2, will com- with the initial rigid body slip of the concrete core relative to
monly dominate over 1. Thus, State A can not be generally the steel tube. The load at which this slip occurs is P, and the
achieved in CFT. maximum average bond stress, f, is
Given c and d values of 0.0003 and 2540 mm (100 in.), the
minimum rugosity needed to avoid State B is 0.38 mm (0.015
in.). Smaller irregularities are required for smaller diameters.
Actual surface roughnesses of greater than 0.25 mm (0.01 in.)
may exist in the tubes used in conventional practice. This in-
dicates that the interface conditions of most practical CFT ap-
plications will tend to be in State C. Further, these compari-
sons show that CFT elements with large amounts of shrinkage
or large diameters may be in State B.
State C produces variable behavior, based upon the degree
of interlock between the surface irregularities of the steel and
the concrete in its shrunken state. As noted earlier, the inter-
lock will be smaller and possibly nonexistent at larger diam-
eters, but the uncertainty in the shrinkage, c, expected for long
CFT elements adds uncertainty to the maximum diameter that
can achieve State C. Large d/t ratios are also significant, be-
cause interlock develops significant bond stress resistance only
if the tube retains its irregular shape which blocks concrete FIG. 4. Variation in Computed Bond Stress along Length of
slip. Tubes with large d/t ratios have much smaller radial stiff- Circular CFT Column
nesses than tubes with lower d/t values. As a result, tubes with
large d/t ratios distort easily and must develop smaller bond
resistances due to the interlock effect.
The largely unpredictable interface conditions of State C
will vary spatially both along the length and inside the perim-
eter of the tube. Thus, local values of bond stress capacity will
be erratic and must be averaged over a finite area in order to
obtain useful design values.
To better understand the bond stress at the steel-concrete
interface, analyses were performed using a fine mesh of three-
dimensional solid elements to model the steel and concrete of
CFT columns. The SAP90 and ANSYS computer programs
were used in these analyses. Axial forces or bending moments
were initially applied to either the steel or the concrete and
then elastically redistributed until a composite response was
obtained. The calculations were made for a practical range of
tube diameters, wall thicknesses, and column lengths em-
ployed in the United States. When the interface condition al-
lowed zero slip, the bond stress was exponentially distributed,
as shown by the solid curve in Fig. 4, where the bond stress
is normalized by the compressive stress applied to the con-
crete. The value was a maximum at the end of the interface
where the loading was applied, but it decayed to nearly zero
at a distance of approximately d/2. This computed distribution
was unaffected by the column length, unless that length was
close to d/2. For d/t greater than 100, the near zero bond stress
appeared at distances somewhat less than d/2, and for d/t less
than 50, it occurred at distances somewhat greater than d/2.
The dashed line on Fig. 4 shows the results of an analysis FIG. 5. Push-Out Test

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999 / 479

J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.

 f = P/dL (6)
where L = length of the concrete interface.
A modification of the arrangement of Fig. 5 occurs when
the air gap at the base is removed and the reaction is on the
composite steel-concrete section. The P in (6) is then defined
as the maximum load that must be transferred to provide a
composite proportion of forces in the steel and concrete at the
base. The f value for this test tends to be smaller than that
obtained by the Fig. 5 setup.
Bond strength tests on these apparatuses have been per-
formed by Virdi and Dowling (1975), Shakir-Kalil (1991,
1993a and b), Morishita et al. (1979a and b), and Morishita
and Tomii (1982). Some conclusions from these tests are:
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Under eccentric loading, the values of f increased over

those under concentric loading.
The values of f increased with the rugosity of the steel at
the steel-concrete interface.
The values of f did not change when shear connectors
were employed, and the connectors only became effective FIG. 6. Bond Stress Capacity for CFT as Function of Concrete
after slip had been initiated. Strength

CFT bond tests have been performed on specimens with a
maximum diameter of 300 mm (12 in.), with the majority
smaller than 200 mm (8 in.). The d/t ratios have been less than
60, with the majority between 15 and 35. These diameters and
ratios are substantially smaller than those used in this country,
and there is doubt about the applicability of these past ex-
perimental results to contemporary U.S. practice.
From the above references, 104 circular and 49 rectangular
CFT tests were identified, and the f values were related to the
concrete strengths and the specimen geometry. Fig. 6 shows
the f values with respect to the concrete compressive strength
for these tests. The circular and rectangular CFT column re-
sults are shown as solid circles and squares, respectively. The
figure shows that the average bond stress for rectangular tubes
was 70% smaller than the average for circular tubes. The con-
crete compressive strength had no consistent effect on the
bond stress capacity. The scatter of these results is associated
with the variation of the f values in columns with the same
concrete strength but with steel tubes of different diameters,
lengths, and thicknesses. This scatter indicates that the influ-
ences of d and d/t on f are not completely understood.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
An experimental investigation of 20 specimens (Cameron
1997) was performed to examine the bond stress capacity for
circular CFT members. The variables involved were:
1. The diameter of the concrete core
2. The wall thickness of the steel tube
3. The shrinkage of the concrete core
The steel tubes had diameters between 250 mm and 650 mm
and d/t ratios between approximately 20 and 110, as shown
in Table 1. Eight specimens (Series I) had concrete with mod-
erate shrinkage potential and twelve (Series II) had concrete

TABLE 1. Summary of Test Specimens and Results

Inside Wall Concrete Age of Ultimate Maximum Maximum
diameter Length thickness strength concrete load average local bond
Specimen of tube of tube of tube f c at testing Test capacity bond stress stress
identification (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (days) method (KN) (MPa) (MPa)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
I-1 247.6 758 13.46 29.3 38 Concentric 6.2 0.010 NA
I-2 247.6 758 13.46 29.3 56 Eccentric 15.6 0.026 0.69
I-3 341.4 1,064 7.11 27.9 37 Concentric 36.0 0.031 1.62
I-4 341.4 1,064 7.11 27.9 47 Concentric 42.7 0.037 0.40
I-5 341.4 1,775 7.11 37.3 45 Concentric 247.9 0.094 1.83
I-6 341.4 1,775 7.11 28.6 48 Concentric 82.8 0.043 0.42
I-7 598.4 1,927 5.59 29.3 46 Concentric 192.2 0.052 0.31
I-8 598.4 1,927 5.59 28.6 57 Eccentric 236.7 0.068 1.79
II-1 247.6 810 13.46 47.2 23 Concentric 486.4 0.773 3.01
II-2 247.6 810 13.46 46.6 28 Concentric 494.8 0.786 6.20
II-3 247.6 810 13.46 46.6 24 Concentric 488.2 0.775 5.68
II-4 247.6 1,495 13.46 43.9 30 Concentric with cy- 371.6 0.319 3.70
clic load
II-5 341.4 1,064 7.11 47.3 28 Concentric 315.5 0.282 2.25
II-6 341.4 1,064 7.11 47.3 24 Concentric 404.1 0.355 1.31
II-7 341.4 1,775 7.11 43.9 29 Concentric 332.0 0.175 3.94
II-8 341.4 1,775 7.11 43.9 29 Concentric 355.6 0.187 2.15
II-9 598.4 1,927 5.59 44.9 25 Concentric 523.3 0.145 1.62
II-10 598.4 1,927 5.59 47.2 25 Concentric 635.9 0.176 1.45
II-11 598.4 1,927 5.59 46.2 31 Concentric with 332.4 0.093 1.69
dented tube
II-12 598.4 1,927 5.59 46.2 30 Concentric with 332.9 0.093 2.80
dented tube

480 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999

J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.

 with little shrinkage. Table 1 includes the characteristics of
these test specimens.
Test Arrangements
The tests were performed with the geometry shown in Fig.
5. Longitudinal strain gauges were fixed externally along the
length of the specimens before the concrete was placed to
determine the axial load and axial strain gradients in the tube.
Transverse strain gauges were attached at various locations to
establish the tangential strain and the presence of local radial
contact stress between steel and concrete. The axial load gra-
dients are related by statics to the interface bond stress distri-
bution. Thus, if Ps is the axial load in the steel tube at location
x, then the bond stress, fs(x), is given by
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dPs /dx = dfs(x) (7)
Fig. 7 shows the strain gauge spacing on specimen II-5. This
typical arrangement had close gauge spacing at the top to es-
tablish the variation in bond stress described in Fig. 4.
Standard ready mix concrete was used in all specimens. The
concrete of Series I was specified with 5.5 sacks of cement
per cubic yard, pea gravel aggregate, and a target slump of
125 mm (5 in.). The values for Series II were 5 sacks, 19 mm
(3/4 in.) aggregate, no air entrainment, and a slump of 135
mm (5.5 in.). The 28 day target concrete strength was 51 MPa
(7.4 ksi). A retarder was used in Series II to ensure that the
cement would not commence setting until all the concrete was
placed. The 28 day shrinkage for the concrete mixes in Series
I and II were estimated at c = 0.000375 and 0.00026. The
shrinkages were estimated from standard shrinkage test spec-
imens. It has been suggested that shrinkage cannot be signif-
icant in long CFT columns, because moisture can only escape
in the long direction. The validity of this hypothesis was one
parameter in the test program. As shown in Table 1, many of
the CFT specimens were quite long simulating realistic field
FIG. 7. Typical Strain Gauge Spacing
J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.
conditions. In addition, the ends of all specimens were sealed
to prevent overly rapid moisture loss. As a consequence, these
test specimens provided a reasonable indication of the shrink-
age that could be expected in a real CFT column of compa-
rable diameter.
The concrete was placed in the tubes from the top in mul-
tiple layers, and each layer was vibrated to ensure good contact
between the two materials. Concrete cylinders were cast at the
time of concrete placement and tested periodically to establish
the time dependent strength of the concrete. The yield and
tensile strength of the steel tubes were not measured, because
the loads achieved in the tests were far below the loads nec-
essary to yield the material. Series I tubes were torch cut and
Series II were cut with a pipe cutter to the required lengths.
The strengths of the concrete (provided in Table 1) in Series
I fell well below the target values and suggest that the concrete
delivered was inferior to that ordered.
Potentiometers were attached to the steel tubes at the top of
each specimen to measure the slip between the concrete fill
and the tube. The loads were applied to the concrete by a
Baldwin hydraulic testing machine; the specimens were sup-
ported and reacted by the steel base, as shown in Fig. 5. This
arrangement allowed nearly 50 mm (2 in.) of slip before the
concrete encountered any direct resistance from the support.
The loads, strains, and displacements were measured with a
Hewlett Packard computer controlled data acquisition system.
Results and Comments
Fig. 8 shows the load slip plot for specimen II-5, which is
typical for Series II specimens. The load-slip behavior can be
divided into various zones. Two curves are provided to illus-
trate the zones of behavior. The curve with solid diamond data
points is the normal force-slip displacement curve. A clear sep-
aration occurs in this curve at the ultimate load capacity of
315.5 KN associated with approximately 0.25 mm (0.01 in.)
slip; increasing slip beyond this point results in decreasing
resistance. The curve with square data points is the same data
with the slip displacement amplified by 100, and this curve
shows a sharp increase in the rate of slip at approximately 140
KN (31.5 kips). This point represents breakaway of the initial
contact between the steel and concrete and the point where
sliding frictional resistance begins. This initial transition oc-
curred at loads from 40 to 80% of the ultimate, and the ulti-
mate load was achieved at slip displacements of approximately
0.25 mm (0.01 in.), which were between 20 and 200 times
larger than the initial breakaway slip. For slip greater than that
at the ultimate load, the behavior is of rigid body motion be-
tween the core and the tube with reducing mechanical resis-
tance from interface shear. For Series I tests, the initial zone
of behavior was usually not evident.
FIG. 8. Typical Load Displacement Curve of Test Specimen
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999 / 481
 The acoustical response due to the striking of the outside
surface of the tube depends on the continuity at the steel-
concrete interface. As a result, this simple sonic test was used
to evaluate the potential bond capacity of each specimen be-
fore testing. A solid tone was evident over a large portion of
the surface area in the Series II specimens and also on spec-
imen I-5. A hollow sound was heard at most locations in the
other specimens. The solid tone is interpreted as interface con-
ditions that are in State A or in State C but near A, whereas
the hollow tone is interpreted as State B or in State C but near
B. These acoustical results correlated with the f values in Table
1 and the contact surfaces observed after testing was complete.
Low values of f are linked with hollow sounds and poor in-
terface contact, and high values of f are associated with solid
sounds and evident contact. In Series II specimens 1, 2, 6, 7,
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and 10, an audible pop was heard at the ultimate capacity.
Strain gauge measurements were used to infer the bond
stress, fs, distribution along the length of tubes as loads
changed. The discrete strain measurements mean that the val-
ues of fs must be approximated by difference gradients in (7).
The strains are small quantities each with limited precision and
the resulting fs values are approximate, because they are de-
rived from differences in these strain values. The tangential
strains were an order of magnitude smaller than the longitu-
dinal strains; their effect in the determination of the Ps gradient
was therefore not significant and not included. Fig. 9 shows
the calculated fs at points along the length of the tube at dif-
ferent loads in specimen II-5. At low loads, the stress distri-
bution has the exponential form anticipated in the work lead-
ing to Fig. 6. After slip occurs and propagates down the tube,
a more uniform distribution develops. These distributions were
anticipated and are typical of those in the other specimens.
Erratic local values of fs were noted at locations and specimens
where the sonic test produced a hollow sound. The maximum
fs values calculated in each specimen are given in Table 1. The
small tangential strains provided insight into the behavior un-
der load. Specimens with small bond stress capacity had neg-
ligible tangential strains at all loads, but those with large f
values had larger tangential strain. This indicates that speci-
mens with large bond stress capacity had significant interlock
and adhesion to develop initial bond stress capacity, and they
later developed sufficient contact stress between the steel and
concrete due to the Poisson effect to further increase the ca-
pacity with friction.
Two experiments were eccentrically loaded and resulted in
ultimate loads and maximum average bond stresses, which
FIG. 9. Typical Bond Stress Distribution at Different Load Lev-
els
482 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999
J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.
were 123% and 252% of the values obtained in concentric
loading. This is in agreement with previous tests (Morishita
and Tomii 1982) where significant gains in bond stress capac-
ity resulted with eccentric loading. Finally, specimen II-4 was
monotonically loaded until initiation of slip, unloaded to zero,
reloaded into the slip state, unloaded again and then loaded to
the ultimate load to simulate cyclic behavior. This cyclic load-
ing was intended to model the behavior of a column in a
braced frame during earthquake and produced deterioration;
the ultimate load capacity was significantly lower and the f
value was 50% of that attained in identical specimens with
monotonic loading. It is not possible to draw a general con-
clusion from a single test but this suggests that cyclic loading,
which occurs after initial slip, has a detrimental effect on the
bond performance.
Analysis
Series I experiments were intended to have greater shrink-
age of the concrete than Series II specimens. The f values for
the Series II results and previous CFT research studies were
commonly between one and two orders of magnitude larger
than those for Series I, as can be seen by comparing Series I
and II test results in Table 1. Prior evaluation of the interface
states depended on shrinkage as a critical parameter. The sonic
tests provided supporting evidence that Series I had greater
separation between the steel and the concrete as well as
smaller bond capacity than the Series II specimens. The com-
bination of these observations suggests that significant shrink-
age occurred in these long closed tubes. The tests in this study
were all on larger diameter specimens than previously used,
and the diameter is a significant dimension in assessing the
importance of shrinkage in CFT studies. These factors indicate
that the amount of shrinkage will be of critical importance in
specifying the capacity of large diameter CFT columns de-
signed and constructed in this country.
The results from this research were compared with previous
test results. Fig. 10 relates the maximum average bond stress,
f, for the combination of the Series II and the previous test
results with the diameter. Series I results were not used, be-
cause the concrete for these tests had a greater shrinkage value
and significantly lower f values than expected in normal prac-
tice. Fig. 10 shows that there is a large reduction in the bond
stress capacity in larger diameter tubes. The data in Fig. 10
for tubes of about 300 mm diameter and larger were obtained
entirely from the Series II results. Fig. 11 shows the average
maximum bond stress, f, with respect to the d/t ratio for the
same data set. Here, f decreases dramatically as the d/t ratio
increases.
It is unclear from Figs. 11 and 12 whether the diameter or
d/t is more important in the attenuation of bond stress. The
reported large diameter data had no results where the diameter
FIG. 10. Bond Stress for CFT as Function of Diameter

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FIG. 11. Bond Stress for CFT as Function of d /t Ratio
FIG. 12. Proposed Bond Stress Evaluation Models
was changed and the d/t ratio maintained. Thus, both the di-
ameter, d, and the thickness, t, appear as important parameters.
To include both, a linear regression analysis was performed
from these data which indicated that 97.5% of the specimens
should have a maximum average bond stress capacity in MPa
units which is larger than
f2 = 2.109 0.026(d/t) (8)
This equation suggests that no reliable bond can be achieved
with d/t ratios greater than 80. The bond stress f2, given in
(8) is two standard deviations above the mean. The mean av-
erage bond stress, fmean, is
fmean = 2.314 0.0195(d/t) (9)
Comparison of these two equations shows the standard devi-
ation of the data. The previous tests that produced the largest
f values (Virdi and Dowling 1975) also introduced the greatest
amount of scatter in Figs. 10 and 11. The large scatter and
bond stress values are directly related to the irregularities in
the diameter and shape of the small diameter tubes used in
that study. Very small bond stress was achieved when these
irregularities were machined out, and large f values were at-
tained when these irregularities were maintained. Series II test
results indicate that the irregularity effect observed in the Virdi
and Dowling study does not apply to tubes with large d/t ra-
tios, because specimens II-11 and II-12 had substantial dents
in the tubes but small bond stress capacity. These specimens
had large d/t ratios, and the tube did not have adequate stiff-
ness to enforce the blocking behavior needed to increase the
bond capacity.
J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper provided an examination of the bond stress trans-
fer between steel and concrete in CFT columns. In the United
States, CFT columns are used in braced frames with large
diameter tubes and large d/t ratios. This practice differs from
that in Japan, where small diameter and d/t ratios are used in
steel moment frames with internal diaphragm connections.
Two prototype structures were designed and analyzed to de-
termine the bond stress demand for buildings used in this
country. The analysis showed a larger demand for braced
frames than for moment frames. In braced frames, the most
important location for bond stress demand is the attachment
of the CFT column to the foundation, but the brace-beam-CFT
column connections were also important because of the ver-
tical component of force transferred by the brace. The con-
nection details had considerable impact on the bond stress de-
mand. Connections with elements penetrating into the concrete
fill block restrain the slip between the steel and concrete and
dramatically reduce the bond stress demand.
An analysis of the interface conditions between the steel
tubes and the concrete fill showed the importance of concrete
shrinkage and the column diameter on the bond stress behav-
ior. If the slip between steel and concrete under interface shear
was prevented, the bond stress demand was completed within
a length of approximately d/2 with an exponential distribution
along the interface. The transfer length was longer than d/2
with low d/t ratio CFT columns and shorter than d/2 with large
d/t ratios. After slip, the bond stress was approximately uni-
form over the slipped region.
The results of previous experiments were examined to de-
termine the factors that may affect the bond stress capacity.
The results showed considerable scatter but three clear trends.
First, rectangular CFT columns had smaller bond stress ca-
pacities than circular CFT columns. Second, the bond stress
capacity did not appear to be related to the strength of the
concrete. Finally, the bond stress capacity was reduced by in-
creasing the diameter and the d/t ratio. This final feature was
of considerable concern, because the U.S. practice is directed
towards the larger diameter tubes with larger d/t ratios. Past
studies provided no data for these larger values.
An experimental program was reported that addresses the
effects of larger diameter, larger d/t ratios, and the potential
for concrete shrinkage to change the bond stress capacity.
These parameters are major concerns with respect to U.S.
practice. The twenty specimens were extensively instrumented,
and the observed data correlated well with the analytical re-
sults previously described. The specimens were long closed
tubes and the ends were sealed to control the escape of mois-
ture. Despite these measures, the experimental results, along
with those of past studies, revealed that shrinkage of the con-
crete was an important phenomenon. With large diameter tubes
with large d/t ratios, shrinkage could lead to very little bond
stress capacities. Small diameter tubes with smaller d/t ratios
developed large bond stress capacities. An empirical equation
for predicting bond stress capacity is provided.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
The empirical formula given in (8) was based on the ex-
perimental results obtained in this study for CFT with normal
shrinkage properties and the previously reported results. The
values of maximum average bond stress capacity, f2, given by
the equation are conservative, because 97.5% of all specimens
will have larger values than predicted. The equation predicts
large bond stresses for stocky tubes with small d/t ratios and
small values for large d/t ratio tubes. At the ultimate load
performance level, this bond stress is distributed evenly around
the periphery of the interface and along a length equal to the
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999 / 483
 lesser of either the column length or 3.5 times the diameter of
the column tube, as shown in Fig. 12. The 3.5 limitation was
based on the observation (Cameron 1997) that the maximum
average bond stress capacity is somewhat smaller with longer
column lengths. Engineers have increasing concerns about the
performance of structures under repeated loading and at ser-
viceability limit states. This study showed evidence of bond
deterioration if cyclic loading is applied after initial slip has
occurred between steel and concrete. Thus, at the serviceability
performance level, it is proposed that a triangular stress dis-
tribution over a length equal to one half the tube diameter be
used, as illustrated in Fig. 12. It is emphasized that the bond
stress check is needed only for axial load transfer, because
bending moments develop a binding action that enhances the
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Istanbul Universitesi on 08/28/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
local bond stress capacity. Finally, there is limited evidence
from previous work that shear connectors do not work well
with the natural bond stress. It is therefore recommended that
the axial load transfer be accomplished either entirely by bond
stress or entirely by mechanical connectors.
This study showed that shrinkage can be very detrimental
to the bond stress capacity. Care must be exercised about the
shrinkage potential of the concrete mix when the use of bond
stress is being relied on in large diameter tubes. Previous tests
showed that irregularities on the inside of the tube significantly
increase the bond stress on specimens of small diameter (150
mm) and small d/t ratios. However, the evidence of the ex-
periments reported here suggests that tubes with large d/t ratios
and diameters lack the stiffness to enforce the benefits of ir-
regularity in the cross section.
Finally, a reviewer has suggested that the bond stress ca-
pacities obtained in this study and proposed in (8) are lower
bounds to the true bond stress in as much as the compressive
stress in the concrete causes increased concrete diameter due
to the Poisson effect. The concrete was slightly stressed in
these push-out tests, and so it could be postulated that the
increased diameter and resulting bond stress would be larger
for a practical column. This hypothesis is dangerous and
flawed. In a composite column, both the concrete and steel
carry axial load, because the load is distributed between the
steel and concrete in accordance with compatibility of strain.
Thus, both the concrete and the steel will increase in diameter
by similar amounts with the Poisson effect. Under these re-
alistic composite conditions, the push-out test used in this and
previous studies is a good indicator of the bond condition.
484 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / MAY 1999
J. Struct. Eng. 1999.125:477-484.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant
CMS-9520233, Design Requirements for Shear Connectors in Encased
Steel (SRC) and Concrete Filled Tube (CFT) Construction. Dr. S. C.
Liu is the NSF Program Manager for this research. The financial help is
greatly appreciated.
P. Santos, a former graduate student at the University of Washington,
performed a series of computer analyses that helped in the preparation
of this paper.
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