Middendorf 1

Onnie Middendorf

Terry Grundy

Nasty, Brutish & Short: How the Enlightenment Transformed Our Lives and Gave Us the

Modern World

22 November 2016

The World Needs Another Enlightenment

Make American White Again was spray painted on a baseball dugout in

Wellsville, NY. It was accompanied by a swastika. At Canisius College outside Buffalo,

NY a black baby doll was found in an elevator with a rope tied around its neck. In

Rochester, NY rainbow flags symbolizing the LGBTQ+ Community that were hanging on

private homes were burned. Black lives dont matter and neither does [sic] your votes

was spray painted on a wall in Durham, NC. Sieg Heil 2016 and a swastika were

painted on the front of a store, and Trump Rules and Trump Black Bitch were spray

painted on a car in Philadelphia.

One of my friends who attends the University of Cincinnati was called a Dotty

the day after the election. My friend who lives on Jefferson Avenue described an

encounter she witnessed out her window that same day. She said that she was in her

room and heard shouting. She looked out her window and saw four white college-aged

students yelling at and shoving an African American student around. She ran to grab

her phone but then the police pulled up. The police separated the two parties and sent

the four students on their way without talking to them. After ensuring that the African

American student was unharmed, they were talking and my friend could hear him

asking Why didnt you do anything? Why did you let them just walk away? And I
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wonder why too. Yes, removing the problem is important, but if people are not held

accountable for their actions then they will not change their behavior.

All across America reports of hate crimes against African Americans, Hispanic

Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, Muslims, Jews, members of the

LGBTQ+ Community, women, and other groups have all increased.

Our president-elect has said that he wants to build a wall, that he has grabbed

women by the pussy, he has said that he would require Muslims to register, he has

mocked people with disabilities. If this is the leader of the free world, then where on

earth is the world headed? Our society was given two inadequate choices, and chose

the greater of two evils. The majority chose their self-interest or their fiscal concern

over human decency. What does that say about the state of our nations intelligence

and morality?

If the above examples are not evidence enough that we need a new

Enlightenment then I am not sure what would be. As a whole, societies typically

operate at a lower level of moral reasoning than the individual, but it was individuals

who cast the votes, and I fear that the majority of individuals in our country do not have

advanced moral reasoning. I believe that the two best ways to try to usher in a new

stage of Enlightenment is through education and technology, but first let us focus on a

basic component of human interaction: morals.

To focus our discussion we shall concentrate on Kohlbergs Theory of Moral

Reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was an American psychologist who based his theory

on Jean Piagets psychological theory, and he held that moral reasoning was the

foundation for ethical behavior. Each society, though comprised of a multitude of

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individual humans with unique experiences and mental processes, typically adhere to

patterns of behavior, both in general and regarding morality. Kohlberg theorized that

there are six stages1 of moral reasoning broken into three levels: the Preconventional

Level, where morality is externally controlled and self-interest often plays a role; the

Conventional Level, where conformity to social rules is seen as a positive, and is not

related to self-interest; and the Postconventional Level, where moral reasoning goes

beyond unquestioning support of social laws and norms and focuses instead on basic

human rights.

The first two stages are in the Preconventional Level, where morality is externally

controlled. In this stage, children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions

by their consequences. Behaviors that result in punishment are negative and therefore

to be avoided, and behaviors that result in a reward are good and therefore to be sought

after. Stage One is the Punishment and Obedience Orientation, where the individual

cannot see two points of view and often overlook other peoples intentions. The primary

focus is on the fear of authority and avoidance of punishment. Stage Two is the

Instrumental Purpose Orientation, where individuals become aware that people can

have different perspectives in a moral dilemma. The easiest way to describe this stage

is Ill scratch your back if you scratch mine. As a whole, the reasoning of this stage is

rooted in the concrete reality of understanding.

The second two stages are part of the Conventional Level. Individuals continue

to view conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest. They

believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships

and societal order. Stage Three is the Good-Boy or Good-Girl Orientation, where

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morality is focused on interpersonal cooperation. Close personal ties lead to the first

desire for obedience because it promotes social harmony. Simply, the individual wants

to be seen as a good person. Individuals in this stage understand ideal reciprocity,

which is that they express the same concern for the welfare of another as they do for

themselves. This standard of fairness is often summed up in the Golden Rule. Stage

Four is the Social-Order Maintaining Orientation. Here, the individual takes into

account the larger perspective, and social laws as necessary. Their moral choices

depend on being enforced in the same evenhanded fashion for everyone, and believe

that each member of society has a personal duty to uphold them. In their eyes, laws

should never be disobeyed because they are vital to ensuring societal order and

cooperation between people.

The Postconventional Level, or Principled Level, holds the highest two stages. In

this level, individuals move beyond unquestioning support for their own societys rules

and laws, and instead define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that

apply to all situations and societies. Stage Five is the Social Contract Orientation,

reminiscent of one of the main focuses of the Enlightenment. Individuals in this stage

see laws and rules as flexible instruments for furthering human purposes. They imagine

alternatives for social order, and emphasize fair procedures for interpreting and

changing the law. They believe that laws must be consistent with both individual rights

and the interests of the majority, and that buying in to the social contract with free and

willing participation in the system is beneficial because it brings about more good for

people than if it did not exist. Stage Six is the Universal Ethical Principle Orientation,

which is the highest stage of Moral Reasoning. In this stage, right action is defined by
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self-chosen ethical principles of conscience that are valid for all people regardless of

law or social agreement. These abstract principles include respect for the worth and

dignity of each person.

Stages Three and Four, the Conventional Level, reflect morally mature

reasoning, though they are not the highest levels. Few people reach Postconventional

Morality, and people typically reason below their actual capacity. Kohlbergs Theory

holds that moral understanding is vital for cognitive development, and involves actively

grappling with moral issues and noticing weaknesses in ones current reasoning. Doing

this leads to gains in perspective taking, which permits individuals to resolve moral

conflicts in more effective ways.

Our society does not view moral reasoning as importantly as it ought. This is

most likely due to the fact that human beings are creatures of habit who typically desire

the familiar, and we are made comfortable by the laws of our society. There is a level of

principled behavior that exists beyond what is written on a piece of paper, but many

people in society do not see that. For example, they believe that if something is legal

then it is right, which is so wildly inaccurate that to members of the Thinking Class this

misconception is almost painful.

So the question then remains: how can our society move beyond the basic

stages and achieve higher moral reasoning? Various factors influence moral behavior,

including but not limited to the following: maturity of moral reasoning; emotions such as

empathy, sympathy, guilt; the individuals temperament; cultural experiences and

beliefs; parenting practices such as moral standards; and level and quality of schooling,

especially just educational environments.

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I believe that this last factor is where the most change for good can be achieved.

The American Schooling System needs to be improved. More than 1.2 million American

high school students drop out of high school every year, which is one student every 26

seconds, or about 7,000 every day. A student dropout is defined as an individual

between the ages of 16 and 24 who is not enrolled in high school and has not earned

either a diploma or the equivalent (such as the GED). As of 2010, the dropout rate was

7.4%, and in 2014 it was 6.5%. It may look appear to be huge progress to have

dropped down to 6.5%, but it is possible that this will start to plateau as there was no

difference between 2013 and 2014 that could be measured. Fortunately that was an

improvement since 1990 when it was 12.1%.

However there is still work to be done. Of the students that do not drop out, one

in four students do not graduate on time. Almost 2,000 US high schools have more

than 40% of their students drop out, and these schools are called dropout factories.

Dropout factories are responsible for over half of the dropouts every year. What is

unfortunate is that one in six average students attends one of these schools, and one in

three minority students attend one of these schools. These are sobering statistics, both

for the individual and our society. Over their lifetime a high school dropout will earn

$200,000 less than a high school graduate, and almost a million dollars less than a

college graduate.

Another sobering fact is that unfortunately, the dropout rates are inconsistent

across various races2. Every single year from 1990 to 2014, the highest number of

dropouts were Hispanic students, followed by African American students, followed by

White students. In 1990 their respective droupout rates were 32.4%, 13.2%, and 9%.

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In 2014 their rates had all declined to 10.6%, 7.4%, and 5.2% respectively. This shows

that, even though as a whole dropout rates are improving, there is still racial bias and a

lack of adequate support or schooling for minority students.

Dropping out is not only detrimental to the individual student, but also to the

greater population as 75% of annual crimes are committed by high school dropouts. As

of 2008, high school drop outs were more than three times more likely to be arrested

than those who had graduated from high school and 8 times more likely to be

incarcerated. 68% of the inmates in state prisons have never gotten their high school

diploma3. Some researches report that a 10% increase in graduation rates has helped

to lower the rates of murder and assault by about 20% in the United States.

Research has found some common factors that influence dropout rates. As

could be expected, having low grades or low academic self-esteem can make some

students feel that the only option is to dropout. Not surprisingly, large and impersonal

schools also tend to foster an environment that produces more dropouts, as do

ineffective general education or vocational tracks. Because students exist not only in

school but also outside of school, factors such as a lack of extracurricular involvement

or family background, specifically uninvolved parenting styles or limited parental

education, can also contribute to higher dropout rates.

Some specific ways to combat these factors include remedial instruction, which

can benefit the student by preventing them from falling farther and farther behind as a

result of not understanding the basic concepts upon which more challenging concepts

are built. Personalized counseling is also a way to remedy this, because it helps to look

at the individual student as just that an individual. This offers the opportunity for the

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student and the school to identify any personal factors relating to the possibility of

dropping out, and to help preemptively address them.

Overall, the American schooling system needs to evolve and adapt. To support

academic achievement, schools must take an authoritative and not dictatorial approach.

This method is principled, gives reasons for why things are the way they are, and has

leaders and authority figures who are engaged in the student-school relationship. It is

helpful for schools to give freedom within a box, or to provide clear lines that cannot

be crossed, and defined limits for what students can and cannot do, but also offer them

the option to make their own decisions and be independent with that school support.

The current school model is outdated: it was set up for industrial or factory work.

Students were shaped and molded into the ideal employees for manufacturing, which is

a long-term result of the Industrial Revolution. The problem though is that in the 2000s

our country is no longer a manufacturing powerhouse. However, even though that is

not our primary employment opportunity now, that is not to say that ever single job

requires a college degree. The problem remains though that after graduating high

school most students are ill-equipped to move directly into the labor force.

One other strategy to prevent dropping out is high-quality vocational training;

plenty of jobs do not require a college degree, but there is not a truly viable opportunity

that is effective and appealing to students. Switzerland is a country that does vocational

training incredibly well. In Switzerland university education is free, but most students

choose to pursue vocational training over higher education. There, it offers students

hands-on training and a quicker path to employment. About 65% of 15 and 16 year olds

in Switzerland choose to pursue continued education through the Vocational Education

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and Training (VET) after their mandatory schooling, which lasts nine years. The VET

provides the workforce with prepared workers who are already skilled and experienced.

The VET program involves a part-time classroom instruction component with hands-on

practical training at a host company. The perception of vocational training is positive

there as well, and is known to attract talented students that promise to be qualified

employees.

Switzerlands approach seems to be working, because less than 3% of the young

people there are unemployed. This is the lowest rate of unemployment in the

Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, which is a group of 30

industrialized countries). In the European Union the rate is four times as high, and in

the United States the rate is more than seven times as high. They also consistently

rank at the top of the world education rankings, which has lead to Switzerland piloting

programs in Britain and India. Fortunately, they are also looking to expand to the United

States in the future. This will be interesting to observe.

Now we will switch focuses from education to technology. As the current world

population grows older, more and more people are growing up with technology. The

United Nations specialized agency called the International Telecommunication Union did

a report that measured the development of information and communication technology

across multiple countries4. It defined digital native as someone between 15-24 who has

4 The Top Ten Digital Native Countries By Percent of Total PopulationIceland, 45,495,
13.9%
2 New Zealand, 606,040, 13.6%
3 Korea (Rep.), 6,552,589, 13.5%
4 Malaysia, 3914573, 13.4%
5 Lithuania, 436,045, 13.2%
6 United States, 41,322,288, 13.1%
7 Barbados, 35,830, 13.1%
8 Slovakia, 696,917, 12.7%
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had five or more years of internet experience. As of now, more than 363 million people

worldwide qualify as that. In North America the average is 10.9%, with America at the

highest of 13.1%. Technology often seems ubiquitous, and as a digital native myself it

sometimes boggles my mind when understanding technology does not come easily to

me. But, just like with anything that one is unfamiliar with, I struggle with new concepts

or tools as well. Because most people who are comfortable and regular users of

technology, like myself and most of my peers, are young people, a generation gap

exists in regards to technology.

The Generation Gap, although it is a relatively new term, is extremely important

in terms of technology, and since 1965, the connotation has transformed from neutral to

negative. The way the generations are using technology is very different, as well as the

attitudes about it; the younger generations are benefitting from being accustomed to this

technology. The younger generations are changing how they interact with those around

them, and currently one very popular method is Facebook. If society does not find a

way to bridge the Generation Gap, generations who are not tech savvy may fall through.

The term Generation Gap originated around 1965, and became a common

phrase by 1970. The simplest and most neutral definition of this term is that it is the

years that separate one generation from the generation that either precedes or follows

it, but over time it has come to take on a more complex connotation. It now implies a

lack of understanding between two generations, which can be brought on by differences

in tastes, values, outlooks, customs, attitudes, and beliefs. The most commonly

9 Latvia, 275,036, 12.3%

10 Denmark, 685,624, 12.3%
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occurring instance of the Generation Gap is between children and their parents.

Overtime, the Generation Gap has broadened due to technology.

Technology deeply impacts the Generation Gap, and is causing it to widen at an

extremely rapid pace. Moores Law, which basically states that technology is advancing

exponentially, is making it harder for digital immigrants, or people who grew up before

the internet, to adapt and keep up with the digital natives. Digital natives are people

who have grown up with the Internet, and as a result are more flexible when it comes to

the quick speed of technological change. There are currently four distinct generations

who are members of the American work force. Generation Y, ages 18 to 30, and

Generation X, ages 31 to 44, outpace the Boomers, ages 45 to 65, and the Seniors,

ages 66 and older, in almost all technology related areas, and many statistics show this.

One example is the difference in how we communicate; 85 percent of Generation Y

sends or receives an SMS or text message every day, whereas just over half of the

entire working population does. Additionally, compared to the Boomers, who spend

about 5.6 hours online each day, Generation Y spends an average of 10.6 hours online

daily. Because of Moores Law states, technologys capacity and speed are increasing

so quickly that it is becoming much more difficult for the digital immigrants to keep up

with the digital natives. Whenever there is this digital divide between people who are

adept and people who are inept with technology, this widens the Generation Gap even

more.

These drastic differences in usage also influence the attitudes about technology,

further broadening the Generation Gap. Because it has been psychologically proven

that the more exposure one has to an object, in this case technology, the less adverse
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the individual becomes to the aforementioned object. More than two thirds of Boomers

believe that technology has led to a decline in proper etiquette in the workplace and that

laptops are distracting in meetings, whereas less than half of Generation Y agrees.

More than a third of Generation Y believes that using said devices during meetings is

more efficient than traditional note taking options; less than 17 percent of Boomers

agree. These differences in belief and attitude create tension in the workplace between

the senior management, which is predominantly run by the Boomer Generation, and

those entering the workplace, Generation Y. For work to flow fluidly, it is vital that all

members are on the same page.

It is obvious that Generation Y is very different from the Boomers, and different

can sometimes be advantageous. Variety is the spice of life is a common phrase, and

does have some benefits. For example, inbreeding is what happens when there is very

little genetic variety, as seen in the Hapsburg Jaw. With the Generation Gap, the older

generations bring to the table their wisdom, experience, maturity, and work ethic.

Generation Y has been educated in a way that focuses on and emphasizes the

importance of diversity, teamwork, and success. This up and coming generation is

known for their can do spirit and plucky optimism, which can be an asset to any work

environment. This generation, contrary to popular belief, is more well behaved that the

previous Generation. Drug use, teen pregnancy, suicide, smoking, drinking and violent

crime have all decreased; standardized test scores, however, continue to increase.

They are also very entrepreneurial; 74 percent of students anticipate being better off

than their parents, and 64 percent say their primary goal is to get rich. This ambition is

possibly the defining feature of the new generation. If all of the generations currently
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employed in the work force join together to work toward a common goal, they have the

potential to be a winning combination that can help shrink the Generation Gap.

The effects of technology on Generation Y are changing not only how the

individual works, but also how these individuals interact with those around them. One

study done by Stanford found that Generation Y does in fact socialize differently than its

predecessors, thus widening the Generation Gap further. Digital natives prefer digital

means of communication, such as texting rather than talking on the phone because it is

considered to be less risky and less awkward. Digital communication is seen by

younger generations as a benefit for this reason, but also because it allows them to

connect with people from around the world more easily.

This digital trading hub is not just vital for human connection on a basic level of

finding friends, but it is also important for sharing ideas. The internet gives people

access to more information than has ever been possible before. This allows new

information to be shared rapidly and prevents outdated information from being the

authority. It is also key in that it allows individuals to fact-check readily, so that they can

ensure that what they are being told is the truth. This ability echoes the skepticism that

appeared in the Enlightenment, and I believe that this ability, along with improved

education, will help to usher in a new Age of Enlightenment.

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Rome wasnt built in a day. Having studied the Enlightenment for this entire

semester, I have realized that it was not a singular event that led to this monumental

shift, but a conglomeration of people and events and ideas. These sorts of things take

time, because the change does not happen all at once to every person. Each individual

must evolve and grow one at a time. Currently on earth there is an estimated 7.4 billion

people, which has increased 307% from 1.82 billion in the last century alone. I believe

that as the cycle of life happens and people are born and people die that there will be a

natural shift of ideas. I think that an applicable example is looking at the stark contrast

of how the country voted vs. how the millennials voted 5. I do not mean to imply that

democrats are inherently more enlightened than republicans by any stretch of the

imagination, however I believe this election highlighted a dichotomy in the American

Society between the educated and the uneducated. As the millenials, who are known

for their passion for values and social collaborative tendencies, become the dominant

generation as baby boomers move on, I think that we will help create our own

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