Corrosion Monitoring Techniques & Surveys: A short

Presentation

Pipeline Infrastructure is a Critical element of Energy Delivery Systems

Its Failure can affect both public health & safety directly & indirectly through impacts on the Energy
supply
In USA with passage of Pipeline Safety Improvement act (PSIA) in 2002, the pipeline Owners are
required to invest significantly more capital to Inspect and maintain their systems
PSIA Stipulates Enhanced Monitoring & Maintenance Programmes for continuing Integrity Inspection
of all Pipelines located within high consequence areas (HCA) where a Pipeline failure could Threaten
Public Safety, Property and Environment
For this Reason it is vitally important that Pipeline Operators Maintain accurate, Integrated Information
on their Pipeline system from construction and Installation through Operataion, Inspection &
Maintenance
Ever Increasing Number of Energy Pipelines Operating Already & More Being Laid particularly in
Urban Environments, Data Collection & Integration Assumes even more Importance to ensure that the
Current Condition of the Pipeline system is well managed to Prevent Adverse Impacts to the
Population centres they serve
The Key to Integrity Management Programme is:

To Know where Potential Problems Lie

To Understand How Severe the Problem might be

How Best to Manage these Problems

PIPELINE FAILURES:

Once pipeline leak commences it progresses in exponential rate.

Corrosion can be controlled within acceptable limits by application of cathodic protection from
construction stage.
 Fig. 1:Common Causes of Pipeline Failure

Cathodic Protection (C P) Of Pipelines Ensures Prevention of Loss of Metal to Earth due to

Soil-side Corrosion. This is a Dynamic Process & Requires Close Monitoring of C P
Parameters

If C P System Fails or is not performing as per Design, Corrosion Protection is In-Effective.

The Efficacy of C P depends on continuous Monitoring to Ensure Desired Level of

Parameters.

Pipe to Soil Potential [P-S-P] (Fig. 2) is monitored

[P-S-P] Vs CSE to be in the Range

(-) 0.85 Minimum to (-) 1.5 V Maximum when Anaerobic Bacteria are absent [No SRB] and (-)
0.95 Minimum to (-) 1.5 V Maximum when [SRB] are present.
Fig. 2: Typical Pipe to Soil Potential Measurement
 Fig. 3: Various test techniques and data
Corrosion Monitoring:

CSE to be calibrated daily

 One Standard CSE and at least Three more CSE should be in field

Field Manpower should be skilled,trained & experienced

All Rectifiers should be switched On & Off simultaneously

Same time cycle to be used throughout

AC measurement Voltmeter should also be available

Only High Impedance Voltmeter to be used

Equipment of Standard make & proven capability to be used

Multichannel Recording capability

The Record should be field verifiable through computer display in field

Recorded Data should be Downloaded

Surveys:

Fig. 4: DCVG Survey

Pearson Survey (Fig. 5):

This is an A C Technique
 50 HZ A C Interferes

Effective upto 80% due to field variations

Defect Sizing not possible

Defect Pinpointed location within 5M

Bore-Hole checks reveal survey efficacy

Gives the operator a fast and reliable way to narrow down the areas of concern where more
detailed and time consuming surveys can be performed.

Fig. 6: Pearson survey

CAT Surveys:
This is an A C technique
Current Attenuation can be performed with various electromagnetic tools including the Pipeline
Current Mapper and Precision Pipe Locator for AC attenuation and the Stray Current Mapper for DC
attenuation. The pipe is located and depth of cover is determined while simultaneously obtaining
current measurement and current direction. All the data is captured and stored into a portable
submeter GPS instrument for later download into a computer for data compilation and interpretation.
Some advantages of current attenuation include:

Measurements can be taken at 50 foot, 100 foot or larger intervals. Does not need to be take
every 5 feet to be effective.

Measurements can be taken over many types of cover including concrete, rocks, pavement
and water with no detrimental effect.
 Allows the operator a quick way to determine the overall pipeline coating condition.

Allows the operator to obtain information very quickly on the electrical CP circuit and whether
there are shorts, bonds or other unknown areas of concern.

Alternating Current Voltage Gradient:

An ACVG survey is a very accurate and precise technique for identifying cable breaks, holidays and
even the position of anodes. It can be used as a macro and micro tool to pinpoint large to very small
holidays in a pipeline section. It will give readout in dBmV which is used in conjunction with the other
surveys to allow the operator to determine the severity class of minor, moderate or severe. It is
generally quicker than a DCVG survey.
Some advantages of an ACVG survey include:

Works in various soil conditions (although ground contact can affect readings).

More sensitive over pavement than other voltage gradient surveys (must wet down the
pavement and may require holes in new oily pavement).

Less susceptible to existing or stray direct currents.

Identifying shorted casings.

High accuracy in locating defects.

Suitable for complex piping arrangements and in congested city areas.

Involves no trailing wires.

Can be used in combination with other techniques.

Readings are digitally displayed and no side drain is necessary.

Requires only a single operator.

Survey Data to be collated for Deciphering Problem Areas & Effective Measures to counter the
problems detected
Post Mitigative Measures installation further surveys to evaluate Adequacy of installed mitigative
measures
Frequency of such surveys thereafter periodically
Conclusion:
The Safety factor question has been settled many times by Research, Experience and Tests. In
service underground pipelines are safe if they are maintained properly and protected against
Corrosion, that Devours the Vitals unchecked and undetected, and third party damage.

Related Posts:

1. A PRESENTATION ON CATHODIC PROTECTION BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

2. FORMS OF CORROSION: An article

3. A Presentation on Pipelines Material Selection in Oil & Gas Industry

 4. SOUR EXPERIENCES AND HICCUPS OF HIC: A Presentation

5. An article on APPLICATION OF ANTI-CORROSIVE LININGS & COMPOSITES : Part 1

of 2

6. An article on APPLICATION OF ANTI-CORROSIVE LININGS & COMPOSITES : Part 2

of 2

7. PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEM: An article

FORMS OF CORROSION: An article

Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of materials under the influence of an environment.
Without exception, the corrosion of metals and alloys (majority of materials used in industry) in
aqueous environments (the most often encountered environment) is an electrochemical reaction.
UNIFORM CORROSION:
Though uniform corrosion is an idealized form of corrosion and because less damage than the other
forms of corrosion, it is more appropriate to understand this form of corrosion. This leads to uniform
thinning of the structures. The attack is measured in terms of penetration. They have the units mpy
(mills per year) or mm per year. This can be determined by any gravimetric method.
One or more of the following methods can be adopted to prevent uniform corrosion.

Cathodic Protection

Inhibitors

Protective Coatings

Selecting Proper Materials

GALVANIC CORROSION:
When dissimilar metals or alloys differing in their galvanic or corrosion potential are employed and if
they are electrically shorted they induce this type of corrosion. The corrosion rate of the alloy with
lower corrosion potential will be accelerated by that of higher corrosion potential.
Identification

The active metal is corroded

Grooving of the interface

Noble metal deposits from the stream

Graphite lining or bricks

Prevention

Provide electrical insulation between the metal

Choose alloys closer in the galvanic series

 Provide design in structure so as to make anodic to cathodic ratio extremely large.

Coat both anode and cathodic areas. Otherwise coat only the cathode.

Protect the corroding metal with a sacrificial anode, which is anodic to the corroding metal.

CREVICE CORROSION:
Accelerated corrosion occurs if differential aeration exists due crevice, metal joining (lap joints,
flanges etc.)or any deposits. Interestingly the location starving for oxygen is forced to become anodic
and the region having free access to oxygen becomes cathode.
Identification

Rivets, flanges, lap joints are attacked internally.

Deposits such as corrosion products, organic deposits, growth of organisms etc. cause
corrosion.

Improper drainage of vessels, pipelines cause accelerated attack.

Prevention

Avoid riveting, go in for welding

Design for proper drainage

For stainless steels high Mo content (316,317 and Haste alloys) reduces crevice corrosion

Remove the deposits

Use solid non-absorbent gaskets

PITTING CORROSION:
Alloys in presence of certain ions (such as halides) are prone to pitting. The rate of penetration within
the pit can be as high as one million times as compared to the surroundings.
Identification

Pinholes

Normally grow in the direction of gravity

The alloy environment combination is likely to promote pitting

Pitting has taken place along inclusion

Prevention

Eliminate the specific ions responsible for pitting (say halides in the case of SS)

Choose alloy resistant to pitting. In stainless steels high Mo promotes resistance (haste
alloys, duplex stainless steels)
 Mild steels serve better in chloride environment than SS if certain amount of uniform corrosion
is tolerated. Monel has more resistance in this environment.

SELECTIVE LEACHING (DEZINCIFICATION):

When noble and active elements form an alloy it results in selective removal of the latter. As a
consequence the alloy loses its strength and fails prematurely. Cu-Zn alloys are well known where in
dezincification occurs if Zn content exceeds beyond 15 wl. Similarly there is denickelification,
desiliconation, decobaltification.
Identification

They give rise to plug and layered types of attack.

Change in colour (from yellow to brown in the cases of brasses)

X-ray diffraction can sometimes reveal selective removal of one element

There can be a change in density in some cases.

Prevention

Addition of any one of the elements namely Sn, As, Sb and P

Al addition reduces overall corrosion and to some extent dezincification.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION:
This type of corrosion occurs as a result of selective attack of the grain boundaries when either grain
boundary becomes highly active or phases prone to selective attack are formed. Stainless steels,
which are normally resistant to inter-granular attack, when subjected to an heat treatment between
400-900 C become sensitive to inter-granular corrosion (IGC). This range can vary depending on the
composition of the alloy. This treatment is called sensitization treatment and alloy is said to be
sensitized. This is mainly due to the formation of Cr23C6 and the consequent grain boundary
depletion. Welding, a common practice in fabrication causes such an IGC attack.
Identification

Attack of the alloy away from the weldment called heat affected zone.

Clear ditch type of attack along the grain boundary and consequent weakening seen at higher
magnification.

Prevention

Choose low carbon and extra low carbon stainless steels (such ss are 3041,3161,3171)

Choose Ti or Ta and Nb containing alloys (321,347)

Provide a solutions treatment to redissolve the carbides (1050 C, 30 m)

EROSION CORROSION:
When there is a relative movement of the corrosive environment with respect to the alloy it can lead to
erosion corrosion. Pipelines and heat exchangers are subjected to such a kind of failure.
Identification
 Attack at the bends in pipelines

Grooves in the direction of liquid flow.

Prevention

Reduce the velocity of the medium

Choose hard materials

Avoid sharp turns

Provide hard coatings.

CAVITATION DAMAGE:
Some variation in erosion corrosion is cavitation damage. Here there is damage due to bubble
formation and collapse when there is hydrodynamic variation in pressure difference along the line. At
low pressure water/liquid vaporizes. When the same is subjected to higher pressure bubble forms and
subsequently implodes. This leads to plastic deformation and formation of cavities as brought out in.
FRETTING DAMAGE:
Moving/vibrating interfaces under load causes damage akin to wear called fretting damage. Here the
relative movement is relatively small in angstroms. Typical failed surface under this process is brought
out in.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING:
When there is a conjoint action of stress and environment. Stress corrosion cracking occurs (SCC).
However SCC is specific to environment. The alloys are susceptible to SCC only when specific ions
are present akin to pitting corrosion. In addition the alloys fail only if the stress exceeds a threshold
level below which they are safe.
Identification

SCC in austenitic stainless steels are predominantly trans-granular in nature.

Failure occurs by brittle mode.

Ions promoting SCC of that particular alloy must be present. Say Cl and O2 for austenitic SS
and ammoniacal solution for Cu base alloys.

If the alloy is sensitized it can promote inter-granular mode of cracking.

Prevention

Select the alloy that is not susceptible to the environment.

In the case of SS, control either Cr or O2 one can keep either one of them low.

Apply load lower than the threshold stress.

Provide compressive stresses by sand blasting or shot blasting.

Avoid stress concentration.

Related Posts:

1. A presentation on PAINTING OR SURFACE COATING

2. A Presentation on Pipelines Material Selection in Oil & Gas Industry

3. Corrosion Monitoring Techniques & Surveys: A short Presentation

4. A PRESENTATION ON CATHODIC PROTECTION BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

5. PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEM: An article

6. SOUR EXPERIENCES AND HICCUPS OF HIC: A Presentation

7. An article on APPLICATION OF ANTI-CORROSIVE LININGS & COMPOSITES : Part 2

of 2

A PRESENTATION ON CATHODIC PROTECTION BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

want2learn June 14, 2016 1 Comment

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WHAT IS CORROSION?

Degradation of metal by its chemical reaction with a non-metallic matter such as oxygen,
sulfur etc.

Return of metal to the form in which it originally existed as an ore with complete loss of its
metallic properties.

Metal electrode through which current flows.

From metal into electrolyte-ANODE

From electrolyte into metal-CATHODE

Effect of Corrosion

One Amp of current can cause a loss of 9 Kg of Steel in One Year.

Even a small amount of Current discharge, 1 mA can result in 7 holes of dia. in a 2steel pipe of
standard thickness in 1-year time.

Corrosion can be mitigated by.

Cathodic Protection
 Selection of Materials

Coatings

Cathodic Protection?

Use of DC Current from an External Source to oppose the discharge of corrosion current from anodic
areas of the structure.

Theory of Cathodic Protection

Steel in soil / water Anodic

Earth / Sea water Cathodic

As a result :-

Steel loses electrons and hence corrosion

To reverse the above:

Make steel Cathodic

Seawater / Earth Anodic

HOW DOES CATHODIC PROTECTION WORK?

Direct Current is forced to flow from an external source to the Structure. When the flow of this current
is so adjusted to over power corrosion current discharging from all anodic areas thereby providing
complete Protection.

Criteria for Cathodic Protection.

Steel in Soil: Pipe to Soil potential must be between

0.85 V to -1.2 V w.r.t Cu/CuSo4 Reference Electrode.

Steel in Water: Pipe to Electrolyte potential must be between 0.8V to 1.10V w.r.t Ag/AgCl
Reference Electrode.

BASIS FOR CURRENT DENSITY.

SOIL RESISTIVITY

>1000 ohm-cm 10 mA/m2

100-1000 ohm-cm 20 mA/m2

<100 ohm-cm 35 mA/m2

WATER RESISTIVITY

>150 ohm-cm 50 mA/m2

50-150 ohm-cm 75 mA/m2

<50 ohm-cm 110 mA/m2

Application of Cathodic Protection

Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes.

Magnesium Anodes

Zinc Anodes

Aluminium Anodes

Cathodic Protection with Impressed current Anodes.

High silicon chromium cast iron Anodes

Mixed Metal Oxide Anodes

Graphite Anodes

Fig. 1: Galvanic Anode System

Advantages of Galvanic Anode System

Simple in Installation

No External Power Source

No Maintenance

No Power Bills

Easy to Design

No expensive accessories like cables etc

Economical for small structures

Limitation of Galvanic System

Low Driving Voltage

Poor performance due to passivation

Limited Current

Low life

Typical Application of Galvanic anode System

Small Pipelines with good Coating

Harbor Facilities, Steel piles, Jetties etc

Vessels, Tanks

Plant facilities and Equipment, Seawater intakes, Screens, Condensers, Heat Exchangers
etc.
Fig. 2: Typical Anode and Monitoring
Fig. 3: Impressed current cathodic protection system

Advantages of Impressed Current CP System

Current and Voltage can be varied

Can be used in almost any resistivity Environment

Can be designed for remote monitoring and control

Can be designed for measurement of Instant OFF / ON

No limitation of driving Voltage

System is extremely flexible

Limitations of ICCP Systems

Regular monitoring and maintenance required

Requires Main supply or another source of electric Power

Interference Problem must be considered.

Main data required for deciding a CP System

Details of Structure Dimensions

 Surface Coating Scheme

Details of Soil Strata / Terrain

Presence of Foreign Metallic Structures.

Details of cased crossings

History of corrosive areas

Stray current conditions

Operating Temperature

Availability of AC Power

Planning a CP System

Factors that govern the Design:

Choice of Cathodic Protection system

Amount of Total Current to achieve CP

No of CP Installations

o Spacing between them &

o Current Output of each Installation

Type of anodes and ground bed configuration

Any special conditions at certain locations needing modification of general CP Plan

Location of CP Test station.

Why do we need Plant Cathodic Protection

Initial Investment for Petrochemical complexes, Fertilizer Plants and Refineries are very high.

The corrosion problems are not detected until some leak appears.

Leakages can be extremely disastrous causing fatal accidents and great financial loss.

Increases maintenance cost of repairs of leakages.

The corrosion problem can also cause plant shut down there by losing production.

Cathodic Protection can be installed at the time of erection of the plant at a very low cost.
 The CP cost could be 5-6 times, if it is installed after completion of project as it involves lot of
excavation and restoration of structures.

Complexities of Plant CP

Scattered Underground Pipelines

o -Pipes in Parallel

o -Bifurcations

o -Closely grouped network

Different pipes could be of different materials and coatings.

Area of influence shall vary from pipe to pipe.

Heavy underground civil structure reinforcements

Earthing network.

Tank Bottoms

Corrosion Control for Above Grade Storage Tanks..

The Tank bottom in contact with soil undergoes corrosion. This could lead to leakage, loss of
product and cause environmental hazards.

It is much simpler and economical to install CP system during the construction stage.

Cathodic Protection for Pipelines

Main data required for deciding a CP System

Details of Structure Dimensions

Surface Coating Scheme

Details of Soil Strata / Terrain

Presence of Foreign Metallic Structures.

Details of cased crossings

History of corrosive areas

Stray current conditions

Operating Temperature
 Availability of AC Power

MAJOR EQUIPMENT USED FOR CP SYSTEM

ANODES

MMO ANODES

SILICON IRON ANODES

GRAPHITE ANODES

The anodes are installed in deep well borehole groundbeds.

Fig. 4: TYPICAL DEEPWELL INSTALLATION WITH MMO ANODES

SOLAR GENERATORS:

CP Stations where input power is not available, Solar generators are used to power the CP system.
ANODE JUNCTION BOX:

The anode junction boxes are used to distribute the DC power from the T/R unit to the anodes at each
CP station. The anode tail cables and the positive header (from T/R) is terminated inside the AJB.One
circuits with suitably rated shunts for monitoring the current output of the anode string.

NEGATIVE DISTRIBUTION BOX:

The negative header cable (from T/R) and negative drain cable from the pipeline are terminated inside
the NDB at each CP station. Each circuit shall have a variable resistor to control the current and
suitably rated shunt to monitor the current.

SOLID STATE POLARIZATION CELL:

Pipeline to be earthed at all overhead powerline crossings where the voltage is greater than 100 kV.
Connected across the pipeline and the system earthing. Prevents the CP current drain from the
structure to the system earthing. Shunts all fault currents and induced currents to the earth.

SURGE DIVERTERS:

Surge Diverters are used across Isolating Joints Facilities. Provides surge protection to Isolating
Joints in case of a lightning strike or other faults.

MONITORING

For routine maintenance and monitoring of effectiveness of the CP system the following test facilities
are provided along the pipeline.

1) POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT FACILITY: For measurement of the pipe to soil potential with
respect to a portable reference cell. These facilities are provided at a regular interval of one facility
every two kilometers

2) DRAIN POINT TEST FACILITY: At each CP station a drain point test facility is provided. Two
permanent reference cells, two polarization coupons, and one corrosometer probe are used to
measure the pipe to soil potential with respect to a permanent buried Cu/CuSO4 reference cell and
the instant OFF potential from a buried coupon. Corrosometer allows monitoring of the corrosion rate
and thereby the performance of the system. Permanent Reference cells are used to feed data for
SCADA system.

3) FOREIGN SERVICE CROSSING/PARALLEL FACILITY: To carry out interference testing at

foreign pipeline crossing or foreign pipeline running parallel to SGP. To facilitate the mitigation of
Interference effects

MONITORING OF CP SYSTEM:

Economic and safety considerations require close supervision and maintenance of all cathodic
protection systems. Monitoring can be divided into three categories:

Monthly Monitoring

Quarterly Monitoring
 Annual Monitoring

MONTHLY MONITORING:

Recording drain point potentials

Ground bed resistance

Anode current output

T/R output and T/R settings

Solar output settings

QUARTERLY MONITORING:

Recording Structure to Electrolyte Potential at measurement location. (Only ON potentials to

be recorded)

Bonding Currents to be measured.

Isolation joints to be tested using Swing Test.

Reports to be generated.

Solar output settings

CLOSE INTERVAL POTENTIAL (CIP) AND DIRECT CURRENT VOLTAGE GRADIENT (DCVG)
SURVEYS:

It is recommended that a Close Interval Potential Survey should be conducted within one year
after commissioning the C.P. system. This should be repeated once every three to five years.

Based on the CIPS data, DCVG survey should be conducted immediately at sites where
under protection has been observed during CIP survey. It is also recommended that DCVG
survey is conducted for the entire pipeline once every three to five years.

Related posts:

1. Corrosion Monitoring Techniques & Surveys: A short Presentation

2. FORMS OF CORROSION: An article

3. A presentation on PAINTING OR SURFACE COATING

4. A Presentation on Pipelines Material Selection in Oil & Gas Industry

 5. SOUR EXPERIENCES AND HICCUPS OF HIC: A Presentation

6. Corrosion under insulation: A Presentation

7. PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEM: An article

Corrosion under insulation: A Presentation

The corrosion under insulation (CUI) war has been fought for many years in the petrochemical
industry. The corrosion processes are well understood but yet CUI often goes undetected until the
damage is significant which may lead to catastrophic failures, e.g. on equipment operating under high
pressure. CUI May occur on:

Carbon steel (general/localised corrosion)

Stainless steel (localised corrosion/stress corrosion cracking)

CUI (Corrosion under insulation) cost studies have shown that:

40 to 60 % of pipe maintenance costs are caused by CUI

NDE/inspection costs with a high confidence level for detecting CUI are equal to or exceed
field painting costs

Approximately 10 % of the total maintenance budget is spent repairing damage from CUl

CUI risk:

General temperature ranges in which risk of CUI is present:

Carbon steel: -4 C to + 175 C: Risk of CUI (highest risk area: +60 C to +120 C)

Stainless steel: +50 C to +175 C

Insulation of process equipment is normally implemented when the outer steel temperature
exceeds 50 C (due to the risk of work-related injuries as well as heat loss).

Carbon steel:

Insulated carbon steel corrodes due to:

Infiltration of water under insulation (rain, process liquids, fire water, etc.)

Condensation water
 Ingress of external contaminants

The insulation material may also contribute to CUI:

Creates a crevice for water retention

May absorb water

May leach contaminants that increase corrosion rate

Temperature and oxygen corrosion rate:

Fig. 1: Curve Showing Corrosion rate of Steel with respect to temperature.

CUI of carbon steel:

Fig. 2: CUI of Carbon Steel

Stainless steel:

Stainless steel (austenitic or duplex) corrodes due to:

1. Chlorides (or other halides) in presence of water are transported to the hot surface

2. The chlorides are concentrated by evaporation of the water

3. The chloride concentration reaches a critical level causing stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

4. (The critical chloride concentration depends on: Temperature and alloy type) The insulation
material may also contribute to CUI:

Creates a crevice for water retention

May absorb water

May leach contaminants (e.g. chlorides) that cause ESCC

Fig. 3: Industry Accepted Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking temperature Limits

How is CUI avoided?

Avoid that moisture enters the insulation material and the steel surface:

Correct selection and design of the insulation material

Good design of the item to be insulated e.g. it is difficult to insulate around flanges, taps,
flowmeters, supports, etc.

Cover above the insulated item (against rainfall, etc).

Application of corrosion protection On average, 60 % of all insulation in service for more than 10 years
will contain corrosion-inducing moisture!

Carbon steel:

Organic coatings

Thermal-sprayed aluminum (TSA)

(Personnel protecting cages)

Stainless steel (austenitic or duplex)

Organic coatings

Thermal-sprayed aluminum (TSA)

Al-foil wrapping (prevents ESCC and pitting)

(Personnel protecting cages)

Organic coatings on carbon steel:

 Experience shows that organic protective coatings on piping in CUI service ranges from 5-13
years

Once the protective life is reached, field re-painting is necessary (or periodic NDE in order to
monitor CUI).

Coatings may be damaged during handling and installation leaving unprotected areas.

Important parameters for coatings used for CUI prevention: High permeability resistance
(barrier protection) High flexibility (for cyclic temperature service)

Methods of protection:

Fig. 4: Methods of protection

Thermal Sprayed Aluminium (TSA):

TSA may provide long-term corrosion protection at significant life cycle cost savings, however
at higher initial costs.

TSA provides atmospheric corrosion protection for more than 40 years.

Has been recorded to provide 25-30 years of maintenance and inspection-free CUI service.

Application by electric arc or flame spray.

Requires high quality surface preparation and strict application control.

Advantages:

The coating is robust

 Minor pores/damages are protected by the surrounding coating

No under-rusting

Unlimited construction sizes

No risk of deformations (cold process)

Disadvantages:

No treatment in hollow spaces, inside pipes, etc.

The treatment prescribes a certain structural design

Sharp edges must be chamfered/rounded

Often large variations in layer thickness

Quality control

Price

CUI Prevention Strategy:

Data from operating facilities shows that water-free insulation is not practical in ageing facilities. Thus
a CUI prevention strategy is necessary in order to provide long-term and reliable prevention of CUI:

Choice between strategies:

1. Organic coatings on carbon steel; Ongoing re-painting; NDE (does not prevent CUI but
predicts remaining life).

2. TSA on Carbon Steel

Stainless steel (+ TSA or Al foil wrapping) Initial, maintenance and inspection costs need to be
assessed for each choice in order to give lowest total lifetime cost.

Related posts:

1. A Presentation on Pipelines Material Selection in Oil & Gas Industry

2. SOUR EXPERIENCES AND HICCUPS OF HIC: A Presentation

3. Selection of Pipes for a plant: An article

4. A PRESENTATION ON CATHODIC PROTECTION BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

5. A presentation on PAINTING OR SURFACE COATING

6. FORMS OF CORROSION: An article

 7. A brief presentation on HOT and COLD THERMAL INSULATION

Selection of Pipes for a plant: An article

Proper pipe selection for a plant is really difficult task. Organized effort of Metallurgist and Process
Engineers are required for proper selection. There are two approaches on pipe selection which are
normally followed.

Pipeline Approach:

When pipelines and production facilities are being built the emphasis is placed on pipe wall. Generally
there is a great amount of pipe, and quantities of fittings and valves are small by comparison.
Minimizing of pipe wall is the major economic factor. The extra cost of custom made fittings is far
outweighed by the savings on the pipe. Pipe is purchased by weight, so the added cost of high
strength material to lower the pipe wall is a reasonable consideration. When high strength material is
specified, extra inspection and more stringent interpretation are also necessary. The cost of the extra
inspection is also a reasonable consideration. Spare parts warehousing is a small consideration.

Plant Approach:

When plants are built, the emphasis is on standardized materials. The design is such that materials
made to the specified standard are adequate for the service. Certain specific services may require
additional inspection, or special requirements, but these are for service, and not economics.

Materials are usually purchased from warehousing companies. The relative cost of pipe is a
considerably smaller percentage of the total cost, compared with pipelines. The cost of machinery and
equipment take a large part of the budget. The cost of fittings and particularly valves makes up a large
part of the whole piping budget. The easy, and quick procurement of spare, and replacement parts,
becomes very important. Pipe walls may be bumped up, if the quantity is small, to a greater thickness
that is more available, or already specified in large quantities. There is a price vs. availability
relationship that is easy to overlook.

Price vs. Availability:

The price vs. availability relation can be shown by the following examples. Type 304 stainless steel
costs less than type 316. Many valve manufacturers standardize on type 316, because it is generally
suitable for type 304, and 316 services. If type 304 is the only choice, a valve will have a higher price,
and extended delivery. Even if the price is the same, the lack of availability can slow a project.
The actual material is normally specified by the process licensor, company, project metallurgist, or is
part of the Process Package. The selection of pipe is limited by the design condition and specific
service as mentioned below:

Design Limitations:

Material:

Pipe material is defined by material, type of joint, joint efficiency, wall thickness etc. Pipe has a
material name. Typical name are carbon steel, stainless steel, and chrome moly steel. Pipe has a
material type. Typical types within the material names are, killed steel, low temperature carbon steel,
carbon steel, austenitic stainless steel, ferritic stainless steel, type 316 stainless steel, 11/4 Cr 1/2
Mo, and so on. Pipe has a manufacturing standard. Typical material standards for pipe are
ASTM A106, API 5L, ASTM A333, and ASTM A671, for carbon steel, ASTM A312 and ASTM A358, for
stainless steel, and ASTM A355, and ASTM A691. Again each Pipe has a material grade. Typical
grades are Grade B, X60, TP304, and Gr 11/4 Cr.

Sizes:

The outside diameter of steel pipe shall be in accordance with API Spec 5L Table 6.2.
Intermediate sizes and the sizes NPS 1/8, 1/4, 3/8, 1-1/4, 2-1/2, 3-1/2, and 5 shall not be
used except when necessary to match equipment connections. In this case a suitable
transition shall be made as close as practical to the equipment.

The minimum allowable pipe size, including vents and drains, is NPS 3/4.

Wall Thickness:

Standard for Wall Thickness: Wall thickness may be expressed as wt, std, xs, and xxs,
schedule, and plate thickness. Weight classes and schedules are defined in ASTM A53.

Pipe Made From Plate: Pipe made from plate shall have the wall thickness expressed in mm.

Minimum Wall Thickness: The minimum wall thickness for pipe is generally the minimum
thickness that will stand under its own weight, with minimum deflection. Wall thickness is
always calculated for the design temperature and pressure, in accordance with the
appropriate ASME B31 code.

Wall Thickness Standardization: Wall thickness standardization is necessary to minimize

stocking requirements, and take advantage of quantity pricing. In the plant approach, pipe is
not specified in a vacuum. Pipe is welded to flanges and fittings in relatively large quantities.
The major criterion in pipe wall selection may not be from temperature and pressure, but from
availability of fittings and flanges. Piping is a system, and other items must be considered
during selection. When pipe is made from plate, the accompanying fittings may be special
order, and affect the critical path.

Ends:

Threaded End Pipe: Threaded pipe shall be provided threaded and coupled.

Pipe for Socket weld Systems: Pipe intended for socket welding shall be square cut.
 Butt-welding Ends: Butt welding ends shall be in accordance with the requirements of ASME
B16.25.

Lengths: Pipe shall be supplied in double random lengths.

Galvanizing: Galvanizing shall be applied in accordance with ASTM A53.

Pipe Joints:

Seamless:

Wrought Pipe: Seamless pipe is made by extrusion, or by piercing and rolling

Casting: Cast pipe suitable to be qualified as seamless must be centrifugally cast.

Forging: Seamless pipe can be made by the forging and boring process.

ERW: ERW pipe is Electric Resistance Welded. In this process, flat plate is formed into a cylinder,
and put through energized rollers that press the seam together and provide a resistance weld. ERW
pipe has reduced allowables than seamless.

EFW:

Electric Fusion Welded Pipe: EFW pipe is rolled into a cylinder and welded with filler material.
This is a fusion weld and may be qualified to several levels.

DSAW: Submerged Arc Welding is a common form of EFW. Depending on thickness, the
manufacturing standard calls for a single or double weld. The thinner walls are welded
outside, and thicker walls are welded inside and outside, hence Double Submerged Welding,
or DSAW.

Type-F: Furnace butt-welded pipe, also known as type F, is used in petro-chemical

applications only for water.

Straight Seam: Straight seam refers a straight seam parallel to the longitudinal axis. The hoop stress
has no component in the axial direction. Straight seam is made by drawing a plate through a series of
rollers to make it a cylinder, for welding.

Spiral Seam: Spiral welded pipe is made in a special machine that takes coiled steel and rolls it into a
spiral, which is welded into a pipe. This is a relatively continuous process. The machine makes it
relatively easy to change pipe size. The convertibility of the machine and limited stock required make
this machine ideal for local production. Spiral welded pipe is not readily accepted in the industry for
other than water, despite the favourable cost, and recent tightening-up of the standard.

Joint Efficiency:

All pipes that is not seamless is subject to a joint efficiency. The committees that publish the
codes place restriction on the allowable stress for welded pipe. This restriction is in the form
of a joint efficiency, clearly stated in the codes.
 Pipe can be qualified to a higher joint efficiency by inspection. The major factor is radiography.
The type and extent of radiography are listed in the codes.

Special Requirements:

There may be special requirements for the base material, the fabrication, or inspection. These special
requirements shall be clearly indicated in the Purchase Description.

Mill Test and Chemical Analysis Report:

A certified mill test and chemical analysis report shall be submitted by the Seller of all alloy
pipe (including ASTM A333), and all pressure-containing alloy piping components made from
pipe not clearly marked in accordance with MSS SP-25.

A certified mill test and chemical analysis report is also required for carbon steel pipe, nipples
made from pipe, swages, and all pressure-containing carbon steel components made from
pipe not clearly marked in accordance with MSS SP-25, for use in ASME Section I or ASME
B31.1 piping systems.

When alloy material and carbon steel, as noted above, are purchased by an outside shop
pipe spool fabricator, the fabricator shall obtain these reports.

Nipples: Nipples with schedule 160 shall be installed in sizes NPS 2, and smaller pipe sizes in
vibration service where bracing cannot be effectively provided.

Piping Material Classes:

The piping material classes in these standards show the actual selections for piping, as well as all
piping materials, by example. The classes show pipe and all of the associated materials for each
service. These classes are to be used as a basis for new services.

Specific Service Limitations:

Carbon Steels: Carbon steels are used in a variety of cases.

Low Strength: Low strength steels are generally only used for open piping, such as gravity
sewers.

Regular: Regular steels are used for general service, including water, and hydrocarbons.
These are services with no special requirements.

Low Temperature: Low temperature carbon steel is steel that has been killed to improve the
microstructure to raise the fracture toughness, to reduce susceptibility to brittle fracture. Low
temperature carbon steel must be qualified by impact testing.

Killed Steel: Killed steel has the same improved microstructure as low temperature carbon
steel, but the improved microstructure reduces susceptibility to sulphide cracking, as well as
other related cracking. The fine grain structure and quality of structure also provide resistance
to hydrogen attack.
 NACE: When pipe is to be used in wet H2S, NACE MR0175 is invoked to assure resistance
to sulphide cracking, including the use of killed steel.

High Strength: High strength steels are generally not approved for use under ASME B31.1
and B31.3. only the lowest of the grades are listed. High strength steels are used in pipeline
service to reduce the pipe wall.

Chrome alloys:

Corrosion Resistance: Chromium alloy steel also use molybdenum to control the
microstructure. Corrosion resistance is improved.

Hydrogen Resistance: Generally, chrome and Molybdenum are added for hydrogen
resistance. The Nelson Curves show the relationship between the partial pressure of
hydrogen, temperature, and chrome content. The curves are found in API 941.

High Strength: The addition of chrome also improves high temperature strength.

High Temperature: Steam will cause graphitization in carbon steel at temperatures over 425
deg. C, and chrome steel is recommended.

Stainless Steel:

Stainless Steel Types: Stainless steel offers resistance to corrosion in three ways. Higher
percentages of Chromium offer corrosion resistance, as an alloy. Higher percentages of
chrome with nickel alter the microstructure from ferrite to austenite. The austenite offers the
corrosion protection. Certain compositions will produce what is known as duplex steel, which
exhibits the qualities of ferritic and austenitic steels.

300 Series: The 300 series steels are the most common. There are two basic subtypes, in
which the austenite is stabilized, or not. The most common types are type 304 and type 316.
These materials exhibit microstructure problems at various temperatures. The austenite can
be stabilized with Titanium, and Columbium (Niobium). These grades are type 321 and 347. A
metallurgist is required to make the determination. 300 series stainless steels are extremely
susceptible to chloride stress cracking.

400 Series: The 400 series steels are less available, and are more difficult to work with.
These steels are generally only specified for specific fluid conditions. 400 series steels offer
less corrosion resistance than 300 series. Ferritic stainless steel offers better abrasion
resistance than do the 300 series.

Duplex Steels: Duplex steels have the corrosion resistance of 300 series, the abrasion
resistance of 400 series, and are not subject to chloride cracking.

Other Materials:

Some of the materials below are represented by the proprietary name for clarity.

Monel: Monel is a copper nicklel alloy that is usually used around caustic, at higher
temperatures. Monel is not readily available, particularly valves.
 Alloy 20: Alloy 20 is a proprietary name, but most alloys have similar names. Alloy 20 is most
used in acid services.

Nickel Alloys: Nickel alloys such as Incoloy and Inconel are proprietary, and are used for high
temperature services.

Pipe for Pipelines: With the pipeline approach, the material is usually high strength. The specific
composition of the metal depends on the makeup of the fluid carried. The limitations on composition
vary, so there is a separate specification specifically for line pipe. Schedule 40 is usually considered
the minimum pipe wall, for mechanical strength, in small sizes, NPS 10 and smaller. When the pipe
wall calculates at or below sch 40, regular strength material is a considerable cost savings.

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