Geothermal Power Generation in The World 2005-2010 Update: Geothermics

Geothermics 41 (2012) 129
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Geothermics
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Geothermal power generation in the world 20052010 update report

Ruggero Bertani
Enel Green Power, via Regina Margherita 135, 00198 Rome, Italy
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: We have analyzed the major activities carried out for geothermal electricity generation since WGC2005.
Received 26 June 2010 New data have been taken from WGC2010 country update reports, private communications from IGA
Accepted 11 October 2011 members and afliated organizations. Other updates have been collected from websites of private and
Available online 16 November 2011
public organizations involved in geothermal development. Plants commissioned in 2010 (after WGC2010)
have been included in the installed capacity, even though their produced energy has not been accounted
Keywords:
for. An increase of about 2 GW (herein we use MW and GW for the electrical capacity and MWth and
Geothermal
GWth for thermal capacity) in the ve year term 20052010 has been achieved (about 22%), following
World installed capacity
Electricity generation
the rough linear trend of approximately 400 MW/year, with an evident increase of the average value of
Geothermal potential about 200 MW/year in the 20002005 period (Bertani, 2005a,b, 2006, 2007). The most signicant data to
be highlighted from this paper are:
a total of 24 countries now generate electricity from geothermal resources;

the total installed capacity worldwide is 10,898 MW, corresponding to about 67,246 GWh of electricity
(early 2010 data);
Germany, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Turkey, Iceland, Portugal, New Zealand, Guatemala, Kenya,
and Indonesia have increased the capacity of their power plant installations by more than 50% with
respect to the year 2005;
the top ve countries for their electricity production are USA, Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico and Italy;
ve countries realized an increase above 100 MW with respect to 2005: USA, Indonesia, Iceland, New
Zealand and Kenya.
The prospective for growth during 20102015 are good, with a strong possibility of realizing a big
increase in the installed capacity up to 19 GW, if all the currently identied projects would be realized
all around the world.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Data of Table 2 can be aggregated for each continent for an easy
comparison of the differences in geothermal development and per-
The total installed capacity from worldwide geothermal power spectives. In Fig. 4 the present installed capacity both for electricity
plants is given in Table 1 and Fig. 1. For reaching the forecast for and direct utilization (Lund et al., 2010b) are presented. Figs. 5 and 6
installed capacity in 2015, based on an accurate accounting of all the show the expected growth from 2010 to 2015, both in MW and in
projects under development, a change in the present linear growth the number of countries with geothermal electricity.
trend is necessary. The number of geothermal countries is expected to increase
In Table 2 data from all the countries currently generat- from 24 in 2010 to 46 in 2015, almost doubling the present value.
ing geothermal electricity are presented, with the 2005 and the Binary plant technology is playing a very important role in
updated 2010 values of installed capacity and the produced energy the modern geothermal electricity market. The binary plants can
per year, the increment since 2005 both in absolute terms and in be used to generate additional electricity from the reservoir uid
percentage, and the forecast to year 2015 for the installed capac- after its primary utilization in standard ash plants, achieving a
ity. In Fig. 2 the world map of the year 2010 installed capacity is better energy efciency for the overall system. In the dry steam
presented. In Fig. 3 the forecast for year 2015 is shown. reservoirs (Larderello Italy, The Geyser USA), a large fraction
of the energy of the steam can be utilized to produce electric-
ity. In liquid-dominated systems the majority of the thermal
Tel.: +39 3299506574. energy from the extracted uid is lost, being injected at high
E-mail address: ruggero.bertani@enel.com temperature (typical value 100180 C) and not-used. The binary
0375-6505/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2011.10.001
2 R. Bertani / Geothermics 41 (2012) 129
Table 1 Moreover, the utilization of low temperature resources can be

Total worldwide installed capacity from 1950 up to the end of 2010 and forecast for
achieved only with binary plants, increasing the overall exploitable
2015.
potential worldwide. The ambitious target presented in this paper
Year Installed capacity (MW) Produced energy (GWh/year) can be attained only though an extensive use of binary plants. The
1950 200 binary generation in 2010 was only 1.1 GW, even though 44% of the
1955 270 geothermal power plants are of the binary type.
1960 386
1965 520
1970 720 2. Geothermal power generation
1975 1180
1980 2110 2.1. Armenia
1985 4764
1990 5834 The recent eld investigations, supported by World Bank-
1995 6833 38,035
GeoFund program, discovered a promising resource with a
2000 7972 49,261
2005 8903 55,709 potential capacity of 150 MW in the Jermaghbyur area, where a
2010 10,898 67,246 rst unit is planned.
2015 19,800
2.2. Algeria (Fekraoui, 2010)
plants on the injection stream could be a very effective way of
producing cheap energy, because there will not be any addi- The geothermal resources of the country are used only for direct
tional uid production costs associated with this extra electricity utilization. A pilot binary plant is planned near Guelma, in the NE
generation. of the country.
Table 2
Installed capacity and produced energy for 2005, 2010, and forecast for 2015.
Country Installed in 2005 Energy in 2005 Installed in 2010 Energy in 2010 Forecast for 2015 Increase since 2005
MW GWh/year MW GWh/year MW MW GWh/year Capacity (%) Energy (%)
Algeria 0 0 0 0 1
Argentina 0 0 0 0 30
Armenia 0 0 0 0 25
Australia 0.2 0.5 1.1 0.5 40 1 0 633 5
Austria 1.1 3.2 1.4 3.8 6 0 1 27 19
Bolivia 0 0 0 0 100
Canada 0 0 0 0 493
Chile 0 0 0 0 160
China 28 96 24 150 64 4 54 13 57
Costa Rica 163 1145 166 1131 207 3 14 2 1
Czech Rep. 0 0 0 0 5
Djibuti 0 0 0 0 50
El Salvador 151 967 204 1422 287 53 455 35 47
Ethiopia 7.3 0 7.3 10 47 0 10 0
France 15 102 16 95 41 2 7 10 7
Germany 0.2 1.5 7.1 50 15 7 49 2987 3249
Greece 0 0 0 0 18
Guatemala 33 212 52 289 121 19 77 58 36
Honduras 0 0 0 0 35
Hungary 0 0 0 0 5
Iceland 202 1483 575 4597 1285 373 3114 184 210
Indonesia 797 6085 1197 9600 3451 400 3515 50 58
Iran Isl. Rep. 0 0 0 0 50
Italy 791 5340 843 5520 923 52 180 7 3
Japan 535 3467 535 3064 568 0 404 0 12
Kenya 129 1088 202 1430 585 73 342 57 31
Latvia 0 0 0 0 3
Mexico 953 6282 958 7047 1115 5 766 1 12
Nevis 0 0 0 0 35
New Zealand 435 2774 762 4055 1237 327 1281 75 46
Nicaragua 77 271 88 310 248 11 39 14 15
Papua New Guinea 6.0 17 56 450 75 50 433 833 2547
Peru 0 0 0 0 40
Philippines 1930 9253 1904 10,311 2519 26 1058 1 11
Poland 0 0 0 0 1
Portugal 16 90 29 175 60 13 85 78 94
Romania 0 0 0 0 5
Russia 79 85 82 441 194 3 356 4 419
Slovakia 0 0 0 0 5
Spain 0 0 0 0 40
Switzerland 0 0 0 0 3
Thailand 0.3 1.8 0.3 2.0 1 0 0 0 11
The Netherland 0 0 0 0 5
Turkey 20 105 91 490 206 71 385 356 368
UK 0 0 0 0 13
USA 2534 16,840 3098 16,603 5437 564 237 22 1
Total 8903 55,709 10,898 67,246 19,803 1995 11,538 22 21
R. Bertani / Geothermics 41 (2012) 129 3
World Geothermal Electricity

20,000 80,000
Produced Electricity, GWh

Installed Capacity
Installed Capacity, MW
Produced Electricity
60,000
10,000 40,000
20,000
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Years
Fig. 1. Installed capacity from 1950 up to 2015 (left, MW) and produced electricity (right, GWh).
2.3. Argentina (Pesce, 2010) Several projects are under development, and many new leases
have been awarded to a number of companies. There is the hope to
The only geothermal plant in the country, the small demon- have in the near future the rst industrial scale exploitation of EGS.
stration binary unit at Copahue (670 kW), installed in 1988 was The Birdsville geothermal power plant was Australias only
decommissioned in 1996. It was powered by a single well with operating source of geothermal electric power at the end of 2009.
171 C uid, at 8001200 m depth and ow rate of about 2 kg/s. The organic Rankine cycle binary plant operates on 98 C water sup-
A new 30 MW plant at that site is under consideration. Six other plied at a rate of 27 kg/s from a 1200 m deep well generating net
projects are at different stage of development. 80 kW. Additional 300 kW capacity is planned.
Geodynamics Ltd. plans to commission a new 1 MW pilot plant
2.4. Australia (Beardsmore and Hill, 2010) at its Habanero EGS project at Innamincka. This plant is the rst
stage in a planned 40 MW initial development at the site. A tem-
Despite the low inventory of traditional hydrothermal resources perature of 250 C at a depth of 4400 m has been reported.
in Australia, a big effort is on the way, both from the government Panax Geothermal Ltd. operates the Penola Geothermal
and the private sector, to exploit the EGS prospects in the country. Project. The reservoir at about 3500 m depth yields water at
Fig. 2. Worldwide installed capacity in 2010 (10.9 GW).

Fig. 3. Forecast of the installed capacity in 2015 (19.8 GW).
an average temperature of 145 C from a naturally permeable At Altheim a 106 C uid is utilized both for district heating
formation. and for electricity production using a binary plant. The net out-
Petratherm Ltd. is developing a project at Paralana to put is 500 kW, after accounting for a parasitic load of 350 kW for
extract heat from meta-sedimentary formations at a depth of the submersible pump.
35004000 m. The Bad Blumau project with 110 C uid includes heat-
The total geothermal EGS installed capacity is expected to reach ing for a Spa facility and a binary plant of 180 kW net
100 MW by 2020. output.
At Simbach/Braunau, the district heating project utilizes
2.5. Austria (Goldbrunner, 2010) 40 MWth of geothermal heat in addition to a small binary unit of
200 kW.
Three small binary plants are operating: Altheim, Bad Blumau The obstacles and barriers to the geothermal development in
and the cross-border project of Simbach/Braunau, commissioned this country are quite severe, and only a moderate increase up to
in 2009 (Fig. 7). 6 MW is forecast for the year 2015.
Installed Capacity for Direct Uses and Electricity
30,000
DIRECT USE
ELECTRIC POWER
23,608
Installed Capcity, MW
20,000
14,600
11,819
10,000
4565
3717
1643
130 209 427 763
0
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
Fig. 4. 2010 installed capacity (electricity and direct utilization) by continent.

Installed Capacity: present value and short term forecasting

8308
2015
8000
2010
6753
6000
4565
4000 3717
2833
2000 1643
1277
633 763
209
0
Fig. 5. 2010 installed capacity and forecast for 2015 by continent.
Number of Countries with Geothermal Electricity:

2010 and 2015
20 19
2015
2010
15
Number of Countries
13
10
8 8
6
5
5 4
3
2 2
0
Fig. 6. Number of countries in 2010 and 2015 with geothermal electricity by continent.
2.6. Bolivia high elevation, in severe climatic and logistic conditions, without
an easy access to the national electricity grid. A joint venture of
The Bolivian state power company, ENDE, is starting the Enel Green Power and the ENAP (Chilean national oil company) is
exploitation phase of Laguna Colorada, after a hiatus following the going to develop four projects, in different locations of the country,
exploration done by the Italian company Enel in 1990.
AUSTRIA
2.7. Canada (Thompson, 2010)
Installed Capacity Produced Electricity
Produced Electriciy, GWh
8 6
The geothermal potential of the country is still untapped. By the
year 2015, the rst plant, the South Meager Creek project, owned 6
by Ram Power, where an hydrothermal reservoir at 220275 C has 6
4
been conrmed by 8 wells, is likely to become operational.
Seven other projects are in advanced stages of planning, with 4
an expected output of about 500 MW, a very ambitious target for
2
2015. 2 1
1
00
2.8. Chile (Lahsen et al., 2010) 0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Although no geothermal power plant has been installed to-date, Year
a vigorous geothermal exploration program is under way. The high
temperature elds are located in the Andes mountains, at very Fig. 7. Installed capacity and electricity in Austria.
CHINA COSTA RICA


250 1200

100 200
207
200
80 163 166
150
64 143 800
150
60
100 100
40 55 400
29 29 28 24 50
50
20
0 0
0 0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year
Year
Fig. 9. Installed capacity and electricity in Costa Rica.
Fig. 8. Installed capacity and electricity in China.
2.13. El Salvador (Herrera et al., 2010)

for an aggregate capacity of about 150 MW. The expected reservoir
temperature is above 200 C at depths of less than 2000 m.
There are two major geothermal elds in this country:
Several other geothermal developers are also active in Chile. The
Ahuachapn and Berln (95 and 109 MW, respectively), for a total
growth of the geothermal market in this country is impressive.
capacity of about 200 MW, producing 26% of the electricity needs of
the country. Both the elds are operated by LaGeo, in partnership
2.9. China (Zheng et al., 2010) with Enel Green Power (Fig. 10). The increase in installed capac-
ity since 2005 was 53 MW (35% in capacity, 47% in energy), for the
At present, only electric production is from the Yangbajain eld, two new units at Berlin of 44 MW (ash type) and 9 MW (binary
in Tibet (24 MW, Fig. 8). Its exploitation (operated by Electric Power type).
Tibet) started in 1977, and its installed capacity increased contin- In the Ahuachapn area (temperature of 250 C) two 30 MW
uously up to 1991, when further investments were halted, despite single ash and one 35 MW double ash are currently online
the discovery of the high temperature deep geothermal resources (19751981); due to the reservoir decline, only 84 MW is currently
below the shallow one. A 2500 m deep well was drilled in 2004, being generated. A project for reaching the full capacity loading of
reaching the deep reservoir. Temperatures in the 250330 C range the units (Ahuachapn optimization) is under study. In the injec-
have been measured at 15001800 m depth. Geothermal potential tion reached the target of 100% of the exploited uid. The possibility
for Yangbajain is estimated at about 5090 MW. of repowering unit 2, which will add 5 MW to the total capacity of
the eld, is under consideration.
2.10. Czech Republic (Delbos, 2009) At Berln (with a temperature exceeding 300 C) two 28 MW
single ash units were installed before 2005 (19921999); two
The total exploitable capacity of the country is not exciting, and major additions have been placed online since 2005: a bot-
only recently a project for a rst small pilot plant in Liberec region toming cycle binary unit for 9.4 MW (on line in 2008) and a
has been announced. single ash 44 MW unit (commissioned in 2006), built by Enel
Green Power under an agreement with LaGeo. In 2003, the
2.11. Costa Rica (Protti, 2010) most productive well in Latin America was drilled at Berln,
with a production capacity of 2030 MW from the steam cap
No new geothermal power plant was added during 20052010. at about 1000 m depth. A new unit for 28 MW is planned. In
The current geothermal capacity, 165 MW at Miravalles, constitutes the Chinameca eld feasibility studies for a 50 MW units are
13% of the electric generation in the country. Costa Rica has a mix ongoing (a single well at 1900 m reached temperature around
of renewable energy generation, with hydro accounted for 80% of 240 C).
the total electricity, and wind for an additional 2%. The total installed capacity of the country is forecasted to be
The exploitation of Miravalles, operated by Instituto Costar- about 290 MW by 2015.
ricense de Electricidad (ICE), with temperature of about 240 C,
started in 1994, and it reached its steady state in 2003 (Fig. 9). Two
new projects are at different stages of planning: a 41 MW binary El SALVADOR
plant from reservoir uid at 260 C is under construction at Las
Pailas, and a feasibility plan has been completed at Borinquea. The 400 3000
installed capacity of the country is expected to exceed 200 MW in
a few years. 287
By 2020, electricity produced from renewable sources is planned 2000
to constitute 94% of total generation, and geothermal energy will 204
200 161
reach 8% of installed capacity and 12% of generation. 151
105 1000
2.12. Djibuti (Houssein, 2010)
0 0
The geothermal potential of the country in estimated at about 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
300400 MW, and is still untapped. The project for a 50 MW unit in Year
Asal area in currently on going, and is expected completed in a few
years by Reykjavik Energy. Fig. 10. Installed capacity and electricity in El Salvador.
FRANCE GERMANY
Installed Capacity Produced Electricity Installed Capacity Produced Electricity


100 120 20 60
80
15
80 40
60
41 10
40 7
40 20
20 15 16
4 4 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Year
Fig. 11. Installed capacity and electricity in France. Fig. 12. Installed capacity and electricity in Germany.
at Bruchsal for 0.5 MW was commissioned in 2009, and is operated

2.14. Ethiopia (Teklemariam, 2010)
by EnBW.
For a minimum of at least three projects (Hagenbach/Upper
Despite the great geothermal potential of the country (esti-
Rhine Graben and two in the Munich region), drilling works
mated at about 5000 MW), and its location on the African rift
are already scheduled. Construction has also started on a
geothermal anomaly, no new plant has been commissioned since
biomass/geothermal energy hybrid plant at Neuried (Upper Rhine
1999. The 7.3 MW unit at Aluto-Langano eld (Ethiopian Electric
Graben). Research activities at the EGS R&D site at Gro Schneck
Power Corporation), after several operational problem, is currently
are ongoing.
producing about 3 MW, from a reservoir with 300 C at 2000 m
According to ofcial statements by German Geothermal Asso-
depth. According to a feasibility study, the second proven eld
ciation, about 150 geothermal projects are expected to produce
of the country (Tendaho, 250 C at shallow depth) can sustain a
280 MW of electricity by 2020.
power project of about 20 MW. Six additional geothermal prospects
have been identied, but the lack of foreign investors is the most
important limiting factor for the future development of geothermal 2.17. Greece (Andritsos et al., 2010)
resources in this country.
Geothermal energy in Greece, despite its relative high potential
in the volcanic arc islands, does not have the support of the govern-
2.15. France (Boissier et al., 2010) ment and local population. The small 2 MW unit at Milos, installed
in 1987, has been decommissioned and dismantled.
The electricity production in France is only in the French Over- Several other projects are under evaluation (Nisyros, Thrace),
seas Department, at Bouillante on Guadeloupe island (Geothermie both by PPC/Renewables (the Greek electricity company for renew-
Bouillante). Its exploitation started in 1984, and a second unit was ables) and foreign investors, but the authorization process (from
commissioned in 2004. The reservoir temperature is 250 C at shal- the Ministry issuing the tender of geothermal leases) is slowing the
low depths between 300 and 1200 m. The total capacity of 15 MW, development. The most advanced is the 8 MW binary plant project
not increased since 2005, produces 95 GWh, corresponding to 8% in Lesvos, where few wells have already been drilled, and a shallow
of the local consumption. After completion of a planned third unit resource has been identied.
of 20 MW, geothermal contribution will reach 20% of the electric-
ity usage (Fig. 11). On the islands of La Martinique and La Runion,
2.18. Guatemala (Asturias and Grajeda, 2010)
geothermal exploration programs are planned in the near future.
The EGS project at Soultz-sous-Forts is now operating a sci-
The geothermal resource potential of Guatemala is about
entic pilot plant of 1.5 MW. The enhanced geothermal system,
4000 MW. Two geothermal elds, Zunil and Amatitn (28 and
exploited with a three-well system in the granite formation at
24 MW, respectively), are currently under production. These elds
a depth of 5000 m, is expected to stabilize its operation in the
are operated by Instituto Nacional de Electricatin (INE) and
near future. In December 2008, the thermal output ranged around
Ormat.
12 MWth from a ow-rate around 28 l/s.
The decline of production from 200 GWh in 2000 down to
142 GWh in 2006, due to low permeability and poor hydrogeolog-
2.16. Germany (Schellschmidt et al., 2010) ical connection between injection and production areas, has been
partly reversed and a new 24 MW binary unit has been installed at
High-enthalpy reservoirs do not occur in Germany. Its electricity Amatitln (Fig. 13). The increment in electric production, compared
production, strongly supported by local administration and central to 2005, was about 58%.
government, is limited to binary plant applications, along with uti- Zunil, located to the west of Guatemala City, is divided into two
lization of the hot water for district heating. The rst geothermal areas; the rst has temperatures up to 300 C, and an estimated
plant for electrical power generation in Germany was commis- capacity of 50 MW whereas the second one, with 240 C has an
sioned at NeustadtGlewe, with an installed capacity of about estimated capacity of 50 MW. The installed capacity is 28 MW, but
230 kW with a binary cycle using 98 C geothermal uid. In addition only 16 MW is being generated, due to reservoir decline. Drilling
10.7 MWth are used for district and space heating. and testing of new wells is in progress.
Two new plants at Landau and Unterhaching started in 2008, Amatitln geothermal area is located about 25 km to the south of
each with a capacity of about 3 MW, and a heating capacity of about Guatemala City in the active volcanic chain. This eld, with a tem-
3.5 and 38 MWth respectively. Additional projects totaling about perature of 285 C, has an estimated total capacity of 200 MW. After
10 MW are planned at several sites (Fig. 12). A binary Kalina unit decommissioning the old 5 MW backpressure unit (to be moved to
GUATEMALA Kraa is in the northern part of the island; its operation started
in 1977. There were some initial difculties in producing enough

steam for the plants, due to the volcanic activity in the area. Now,
150 300
121
after 20 years, some degassing of the productive reservoir has been
achieved, and two 30 MW double ash turbine are in operation with
100 200 an additional 40 MW planned.
Bjarnaag (Nmafjall) is the oldest geothermal eld in Iceland,
52 and has been in operation since 1969, with an old 3 MW back-
50 33 33 100 pressure unit.
In Husavik an experimental Kalina binary unit (using 120 C hot
0 water, operated by Orkuveita Husavikur) of 2 MW was installed in
0 0 2000, commercial operation was commenced in 2008.
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Hellisheidi is located on the active volcanic system of Hengill; it
Year generates 210 MW of electricity, and provides 400 MWth of thermal
output for district heating of the Reykjavik area (27 km away). The
Fig. 13. Installed capacity and electricity in Guatemala.
electricity is supplied mainly to local aluminum reneries. All the
plants at Hellisheidi were commissioned after 2005 by Orkuveita
Zunil), a new 24 MW binary plant was commissioned in 2007, and Reykjavikur: 2 45 MW in 2006 (Unit I), 35 MW in 2007 (Unit II)
a second one is under construction. and 2 45 MW in 2008 (Unit III).
An exploration of the Tecuamburro eld, with a projected capac- Nesjavellir, located in the southern part of the country, has four
ity of 40 MW, is currently under preliminary stage of permitting. 30 MW units (total 120 MW), and provides 300 MWth for district
There is another development project in the Moyuta area. Both of heating (about 1800 l/s of hot water). The most recent unit was
these projects are being undertaken by Enel Green Power. commissioned in 2005.
Reykjanes, located in south-western peninsula, is operated by
2.19. Honduras (Lagos and Gomez, 2010) Hitaveita Sudurnesja, and was commissioned in 2005 and 2006,
with two 50 MW units, and an additional 50 MW is under construc-
Although several geothermal resources are present only the tion.
Platanares project is in an advanced stage of development, with Svartsengi is near the international airport and the famous out-
indications for a 200220 C geothermal resource at 12001500 m. door swimming/spa facilities of Blue Lagoon (visited yearly by
A 35 MW plant is planned. about 400,000 people, probably the most popular Icelandic touris-
tic attraction), which is fed by the discarded geothermal water (rich
2.20. Hungary (Toth, 2010) in surplus mineral). In addition to two ash units (reservoir uid at
240 C) for about 66 MW and an 8 MW binary; hot water (energy
Low and medium temperature geothermal resources are abun- content of about 150 MWth ) is provided for district heating. The
dant in Hungary. The national oil company (MOL) has drilled several most recent addition was a 30 MW unit in 2005.
wells, and some of these can be used for geothermal energy gener- Other projects are also ongoing in Iceland. The Icelandic Deep
ation. A pilot project of 5 MW is planned at Ortahza. Drilling Project (IDDP) is situated near Kraa geothermal area, in
the northern part of the country. The goal of the project is the
2.21. Iceland (Ragnarsson, 2010) exploitation of supercritical uids at 45 km depth and 400600 C
of temperature. Unfortunately, in 2009, the well reached a magma
The geothermal electricity production in Iceland has increased body and the project was placed on stand-by.
signicantly since 2005 (about 370 MW representing 18% of 2005 An agreement has been signed between the Century Aluminum
value, the highest among the countries with signicant geother- Co. and two major Icelandic geothermal producers (Hitaveita
mal electricity production), with the installation of new plants at Sudurnesja and Orkuveita Reykjavikur) for supplying electricity
Nesjavellir (30 MW), Hellisheidi (5 units for 213 MW), Svartsengi for the production of 150,000 tons of aluminum per year, utilizing
(30 MW) and Reykjanes (100 MW). 250 MW of geothermal electricity. The initial stage of the project
The currently producing elds of the island are: Bjar- was commissioned in 2010. The agreement is expandable up to
naag (3 MW), Husavik (2 MW), Kraa (60 MW), Nesjavellir 435 MW, for the production of 250,000 tons of aluminum.
(120 MW), Svartsengi (76 MW), Hellisheidi (213 MW), and Reyk- The total installed capacity of the country is 575 MW, and an
janes (100 MW). additional 230 MW is under construction (Fig. 14a). The country
Fig. 14. (a) Installed capacity and electricity in Iceland. (b) Primary Energy Consumption in Iceland (from Orkustofnun Energy Statistics 2008).
INDONESIA production area is conrmed by the surface exploration activities

being carried out by Pertamina Geothermal Energy.

4000 10000
3451
2.22.3. Java
8000
3000 A new unit of 60 MW was commissioned at Kamojang in 2007,
6000 increasing the total generation to 200 MW. Kamojang, a steam-
2000 dominated geothermal eld, was the rst exploited geothermal
797 1197 4000 eld in Indonesia, when in 1978 a small 250 kW unit was commis-
590
1000 sioned. The three power units have performed quite well since their
2000
310 installation (unit 1, 30 MW in 1982, units 2 and 3, 55 MW each, in
0 0 1987 and 2007). An additional 60 MW unit is currently under con-
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 struction by Pertamina Geothermal Energy and PLN (Perusahaan
Year Listrik Negara, i.e., State Electricity Company).
At Dieng, one 60 MW unit was installed in 1998, rst step of
Fig. 15. Installed capacity and electricity in Indonesia.
a four-plant project. The ownership of the eld was transferred
to Geodipa and the plant started its operative life. Two additional
with 300,000 inhabitants is 100% powered by renewable energy, 55 MW plants are planned. In 2009 a new 117 MW plant was added
with 25% of its electricity and 90% of heating needs provided by to the old 110 MW plant at Wayang Windu, in operation since 2000.
geothermal energy (Fig. 14b). The total geothermal electric gener- The eld is operated by Star Energy, an Indonesian oil company.
ation capacity is well above 4000 MW, almost twice the present Drilling activity and resource evaluation are ongoing with the goal
country consumption. Geothermal energy contribution to the total of doubling the production from the eld.
energy consumption in Iceland is 62%, probably the highest in the Since 1997, no new plants have been constructed at Gunung
world. Salak. The six 65 MW units are currently operated 20% above the
Space heating is the main use of geothermal power in Iceland reference installed capacity (55 MW), due to the power shortage
which amounts to about 25 PJ/year; an extensive district-heating in Java/Bali, for a total of 375 MW. The BOT (Build, Own, Transfer)
system has been established. The share of geothermal in space heat- scheme will end in 2012, and the three units currently operated
ing is almost 90%, whereas the remainder is provided by electricity, by Chevron will be transferred to PLN. The geothermal resource
so that fossil fuels account for only a small fraction of the total. at Darajat is vapor dominated, and has been exploited since 1994.
As an example, the Reykjavik district heating system, serv- A new unit of 110 MW was commissioned in 2008; further devel-
ing 200,000 inhabitant of the capital, with a thermal capacity of opment of an additional 110 MW is ongoing. The eld and power
1.2 GWth and about 80 million m3 of hot water provided yearly, is plant are operated by Chevron since 2006, and the two old units
one of the largest in the world; 100% of the heat for this system is have been upgraded to a total of 15 MW.
derived from geothermal energy.
2.22.4. Bali
The Bedugul eld is a liquid reservoir at 280320 C and
2.22. Indonesia (Darma et al., 2010)
15002000 m depth. Bali Energy Ltd. plans to develop a total of
175 MW, with a 10 MW pilot plant and three 55 MW units.
Indonesia has embarked on a geothermal power plant con-
struction and exploration, strongly supported by Government,
through regulation and policies (Fig. 15). The new plants com- 2.22.5. New areas
missioned since 2005 are 110 MW at Darajat, 117 MW at Wayang At Sarulla, in North Sumatra, the development of three 110 MW
Windu, 2 20 MW at Lahendong, 60 MW at Kamojang, and 10 MW projects has been assigned to an international consortium, includ-
at Sibayak, reaching a total installed capacity of about 1.2 GW ing Medco Power, Itochui, Ormat, Kyushu Electric and Pertamina
(including the upgrading of the six units of Salak, 60 MW and two as eld operator. The plan is to reach 330 MW in 2013.
in Darajat, 15 MW). Indonesia is currently ranked third among In Central Sumatra, Hulu Lais eld has been explored and a
the countries producing geothermal electricity. The geothermal development plan has been initiated.
elds of the country are as follows: Sibayak (13 MW), Lahen- In Ulu Belu, South Sumatra, the liquid reservoir at 240260 C is
dong (60 MW), Gunung Salak (MW), Kamojang (200 MW), Wayang at an advanced exploration stage, and four 55 MW unit will be com-
Windu (227 MW), Darajat (260 MW) and Dieng (60 MW). missioned in the coming years. A similar development is scheduled
for the areas of Lumut Balai and Sungai Penuh, where the rst units
are expected in 2012.
2.22.1. Sulawesi
At Pathua, Java, the original exploration was done before the
At Lahendong, three 20 MW units have been installed (the rst
economic crisis. After the arbitration, the resource was transferred
in 2002, the other two in 2008 and 2009, respectively) and a fur-
to Geodipa. Three 60 MW units are planned. In the nearby area of
ther 20 MW is under construction, following a development plan
Karaha Bodas, 140 MW are planned, with the rst 30 MW for 2012.
of an additional 60 MW. After the past negative experience with
Finally, in Sulawesi two new projects at Kotamobagu and
binary plants in Indonesia (only an old 2.5 MW experimental unit,
Tompasu identied a 250290 C reservoir; 120 MW in total are
which has never been operated), the rst new generation 7.5 MW
planned.
binary bottoming unit is planned at Lahendog for year 2012. The
A great amount of effort will be required to reach the tar-
eld is operated by Pertamina Geothermal Energy and the national
get of 3.5 GW in 2015. It is a very challenging task to triple the
electrical utility PLN.
present capacity in only ve years. However, as evident from Fig. 15,
this tremendous increase in installed capacity in only ve years is
2.22.2. Sumatra unlikely. A value in the range of 22.4 GW can be considered as an
At Sibayak, the exploitation started in 1996, with a small 2 MW affordable and realistic goal. In the last ve-year term (20052010),
unit. Two new units, for a total of 13.3 MW were commissioned in the installed capacity increased of 400 MW, corresponding to an
2007; a further 10 MW are planned provided an expansion of the increment of about 50%.
Fig. 16. (a) History of net electricity generation and steam ow at Larderello. (b) Installed capacity and electricity in Italy.
2.23. Iran (Youse et al., 2010) 2.24.1. New projects

Projects for a further 112 MW have been approved and
An active exploration program has resulted in an advanced will be developed in the coming years (Fig. 16b): new plants
project in the Sabalan eld, where a rst 50 MW plant is planned by in Larderello/Travale, Bagnore and Piancastagnaio, with a net
the Ministry of Energy (MOE) and Renewable Energy Organization increase of 80 MW (including the decommissioning of some older
of Iran (SUNA). units).
In southern Italy, the drilling of a 4 km depth well in the vol-
canic area of Campi Flegrei (Naples) will evaluate the possibility
2.24. Italy (Cappetti et al., 2010)
of supercritical uid utilization. This project, funded by public
research bodies, if successful, may be able to generate up to
There are two major geothermal areas in Italy:
50 MW/well.
LarderelloTravale/Radicondoli and Mount Amiata. In the year
In Tuscany several new geothermal leases have been released
2008, with the installed capacity of 810.5 MW (711 MW available
to different private investors for binary plant projects.
capacity) the gross electricity generation reached 5.5 TWh, and
In response to the growing demand for renewable energy, and
in 2009 two additional units were commissioned, increasing the
as a result of commitments signed by many governments to reduce
capacity to 843 MW (Larderello 594 MW, Travale/Radicondoli
CO2 emissions, a new company, Enel Green Power, fully owned by
160 MW, Bagnore 20 MW and Piancastagnaio 68 MW). All the
Enel Group, was established in December 2008. At present, Enel
Italian elds are operated by Enel Green Power. The geothermal
Green Power operates in 16 countries and is one of the world
production is only 1.8% of total national electricity production, but
leaders in renewable energy sector, with about 20 TWh annual gen-
it is about 25% for the Tuscany region.
eration (equivalent to the energy consumption of 8 million families
Larderello and Travale/Radicondoli are two parts of the same
and avoiding 16 million tons of CO2 emissions every year). The
eld, covering a huge area of approximately 400 km2 , produc-
installed renewable capacity is around 4.5 GW and there are over
ing super-heated steam at a pressure of 2 MPa and temperature
500 plants currently in operation or under construction around the
in the range 150270 C. At Larderello, the exploited area is
world. For the zero-emission in geothermal program, an invest-
250 km2 , with 22 units for a total of 594 MW installed capacity; the
ment plan has been launched to eliminate the release of H2 S and
Travale/Radicondoli, covers a surface of 50 km2 , and the installed
Hg to the environment using a technology designed and developed
capacity is 160 MW (6 units). The condensed water from Travale
by Enel. AMIS plant (Baldacci et al., 2005) has a very high efciency
is injected into the core of the Larderello eld through a 20 km
in H2 S and Hg removal, lower capital and O&M costs in compar-
long water pipeline. Four additional units (Nuova Lagoni Rossi,
ison with other commercial process, no solid sulfur by-products
20 MW; Nuova Larderello, 20 MW; Nuova San Martino, 40 MW;
(liquid streams injected in the reservoir) and unattended oper-
and Sasso 2, 20 MW) were installed in the period 20052009
ation (remote control). Approximately 80% of the efuents from
with a total capacity of 100 MW, of which 52 MW represent a
Enel Green Power geothermal plants are currently treated by AMIS
net capacity increase, while 48 MW replaced old units that were
systems.
decommissioned. The very long exploitation of Larderello and
Travale/Radicondoli elds is an excellent example of sustainable
production from a geothermal system (Fig. 16a). After the stabi- 2.25. Japan (Sugino and Akeno, 2010)
lization of production in the period 19701980, the exploitation of
the deep reservoirs (with pressure of 67 MPa and temperature of Japan is one of the most tectonically active countries in the
300350 C, at depth of 30004000 m) and injection into the eld world, with nearly 200 volcanoes and tremendous geothermal
have contributed to a large increase in steam extraction. The much energy resources. Geothermal development started in 1925, with
greater increase in electricity production is a consequence of the an experimental unit, and the rst commercial plant at Matsukawa
introduction of new and more efcient power plants after year started in 1966.
2000. About 20 geothermal power plants are in operation at 17 loca-
Mount Amiata area includes two water dominated geother- tions nationwide, scattered all over the country. Most are located
mal elds: Piancastagnaio and Bagnore. Their exploitation started in the Tohoku and Kyushu districts. In recent years, only two small
in 1960. In both the elds a deep water dominated resource has binary units, at Hatchobaru and at Kirishima Kokusai Hotel, have
been discovered under the shallow one, with a pressure of 20 MPa been commissioned.
and a temperature around 300 C. Opposition from local com- Total geothermal power capacity in Japan has changed lit-
munities is slowing down the project for the full exploitation of tle since 1995. No new plants are planned in the coming years
this high potential deep reservoir. Presently, there are 5 units (Fig. 17a). The only exception is an early stage 30 MW project at
with 88 MW of installed capacity: one in Bagnore and four in Wasabizawa, in Akita, being undertaken by Mitsubishi Material
Piancastagnaio. Company and J-Power.
Fig. 17. (a) Installed capacity and electricity in Japan. (b) History of l installed capacity and energy production in Japan.
The historical trend is shown in Fig. 17b. The reduction in new an additional Elliot 2 MW steam turbine in 2007, making the com-
investment in geothermal power plants and eld maintenance has pany self-sufcient in electricity needed for heating and controlling
resulted in a decrease in energy production. the humidity in the greenhouses, which in turn protects the owers
from fungal diseases and reduces the usage of fungicides.
2.26. Kenya (Simiyu, 2010) The only other eld outside of Olkaria is the adjacent region of
Eburru, where a small 2,5 MW single ash pilot plant is planned.
An important addition since 2005 has been the installation of The geothermal potential of Kenya is very high, about 7000 MW,
a 36 MW unit at Olkaria III by Ormat; this completes, the initial and there are plans to develop 2000 MW by 2020.
planned target of 48 MW at Olkaria III. In addition, projects for addi-
tional units at Olkaria I, II and IV (a total of 202 MW) have been
2.27. Latvia (Fortins et al., 2010)
approved and are expected to be completed within two years. The
35 MW Olkaria II unit 3 become operational in 2010.
A small EGS project of few MW for electricity and heating is
During the period 20052010, the installed capacity at Olkaria
under development in the capital city of Riga. The pilot project will
increased of 57%. The contribution of geothermal energy in Kenya
include a geothermal power plant with a capacity of 34 MW for
is signicant: 14% of the capacity and 22% of the energy.
electricity generation and 3040 MW for heating. The developers
The geothermal production at Olkaria started in 1981, with a
intend to tap international nancial funds (still to be identied) for
15 MW unit. Since then, the power generation has been expanded
the project, under the coordination of Rigas Energy Agency.
and the resource has been continuously exploited, with the power
plants at Olkaria I and II, operated by KenGen (Fig. 18).
Two small power plants with a capacity of 2 MW are operared 2.28. Mxico (Gutirrez-Negrn et al., 2010)
by Oserian Development Company.
Oserian began as a 5 hectares vegetable-growing farm in 1969. The installed geothermal capacity in Mxico is 958 MW from 37
Today it has grown to be a 210 hectares farm specializing in ori- units, currently operating in four geothermal elds: Cerro Prieto
culture with an annual export of 400 million stems to Europe, about (720 MW), Los Azufres (188 MW), Los Humeros (40 MW) and Las
30% of the cut-owers market in Europe. The company has to make Tres Vrgenes (10 MW). The only new power plant since 2005 has
sure that the thousands of owers growing in its massive green- been one 5 MW unit at Los Humeros. However, two new projects,
houses have a constant mild temperature. The wells Oserian uses Cerro Prieto V (100 MW) and Los Humeros 910 (50 MW), have
are not suitable for the mass power production (e.g., KenGen power been approved and both will be completed soon (Fig. 19a). All the
plants), but are perfect for supplying the heat and CO2 needed for geothermal elds are operated by Comisin Federal de Electricidad
growing roses. The greenhouse heating system is powered by a (CFE).
2 MW Ormat binary-cycle power plants commissioned in 2004 and The project Cerritos Colorados (75 MW), formerly known as La
Primavera, has been programmed for completion in 2014. With
the planned decommissioning of some old units, the net increase
KENYA in installed capacity over the next ve years (20102015) will be
Installed Capacity Produced Electricity about 160 MW.
600 535 2000 Cerro Prieto is the oldest and largest Mxican geothermal eld
in operation. It is located in the northern part of Mexico, and its

rst power units were commissioned in 1973. There are currently
400 13 operating units of condensing type: four 110 MW double-ash,
1000 four 37.5 MW single-ash, four 25 MW single-ash, and one 30 MW
129 202 single-ash (low pressure), for a total of 720 MW.
200
45 45 Los Azufres is the second largest geothermal eld operating in
Mxico. It is located in the central part of the country, 250 km
0 0
from Mxico City. The rst power units were commissioned in
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1982, and presently there are 14 power units in operation: one
Year 50 MW condensing unit, four 25 MW condensing units, seven 5 MW
back-pressure units, and two 1.5 MW binary cycle plants. The total
Fig. 18. Installed capacity and electricity in Kenya. installed capacity is 188 MW.
MEXICO (b) Mexico

(a) 8000
Electricity Generated, GWh


1500 8000 6000
953
1115
958 6000 4000
1000
753 755
4000
2000
500
2000
0
0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Year
Fig. 19. (a) Installed capacity and electricity in Mxico. (b) Geothermal Electricity production in Mexico since 1990 (from UN statistic division web site).
The geothermal eld of Los Humeros is located in the eastern- have been installed: a binary unit of 14 MW at Wairakei, a second
central part of Mxico, at the eastern end of the Mxican Volcanic stage at Mokai (19 MW ash and 17 MW + 4 MW 5 MW of binary
Belt. The rst two power units started to commercially operate in units), 100 MW ash plus an 8 MW binary unit at Kawerau, 15 MW
1990, and currently there are eight back-pressure units of 5 MW binary at Ngawha and 132 MW ash at Rotokawa.
each with a total operating capacity of 40 MW. The most recent The total geothermal capacity is over 760 MW, and geothermal
unit (Unit 8) was commissioned in April 2008. generation is about of 10% of the total electricity generation. Sev-
Las Tres Vrgenes is located in the middle of the Baja Califor- eral additional geothermal projects are under development, with
nia peninsula, in the north of the state of Baja California. There a target for year 2015 to reach 15% of total electricity generation
are only two condensing 5 MW power units in operation that were (Fig. 20a).
commissioned in 2002. In 2008, Wairakei celebrated 50 years of operation, since the
The electricity production from geothermal resources is quite commissioning of its rst turbo-generator in 1958. It is operated
stable and plays a very important role in the energy market of the by Contact Energy. Many modications have been made over the
country, despite of its minimal value of 3% on the national basis. years, the latest being the installation of a 14 MW net binary plant in
The long term yearly production is shown in Fig. 19b. 2005. Future plans call for the replacement of several old units with
a new power plant at Te Mihi, with a net increase in installed capac-
2.29. Nevis (Huttrer, 2010) ity of 65 MW. At Reporoa, the Ohaaki plant was originally rated at
114 MW, and after the decommissioning of one unit it was down-
In 2008, West Indies Power drilled three 1000 m deep slim holes, graded to 103 MW; however, the actual electricity production was
and conrmed temperatures up to 225 C. A 35 MW project has dramatically lower at 25 MW. Since 2006 the operator (Contact
been launched. The excess of production could be exported to St. energy) has invested in new wells, and increased electricity pro-
Kitts via sub-sea cable crossing the narrow strait that separates the duction to 65 MW. Alternative production and injection strategies
two islands. are used to minimize concerns over subsidence affecting Waikato
River.
2.30. New Zealand (Harvey et al., 2010) Since 1999, Mokai has been progressively developed (current
installed capacity is 112 MW, including the new 39 MW unit in 2005
All the geothermal projects in this country are in the central and 17 MW of repowering of the rst stage in 2007) using binary
North Island or the Northland region (Ngawha), Wairakei 232 MW, cycle technology. It is operated by Tuaropaki Power Company.
Reporoa 103 MW, Mokai 112 MW, Kawerau 122 MW, Rotokawa Kawerau eld started electricity production with a small gen-
167 MW, and Ngawha 25 MW. Since 2005 the following new plants erator in 1966, which was replaced in 2005. Mighty River Power
(a) NEW ZEALAND (b) Ngawha 2, 15MW

10,000 Kawerau 100MW,
Annual Generation (GWh/year)

Produced Electricity, GWh
KA24 8.3MW (2008)

9,000
Wairakei Bin 14.4MW,
8,000 Mokai 2 39MW (2005)

1500 5000
1237 7,000 Rotokawa
4000 Ext 6MW
6,000 (2003)
Kawerau
1000 5,000 TG2 Mokai 1
762 3000 Ohaaki 3.5MW 55MW
4,000 114MW, (1993) (1999) Mokai 1A
Wairakei TPP Kawerau 17MW
437 435 2000 (2007)
500 3,000 192MW 8MW TG1 2.4MW
286 (1958-64) (1966) (1989)
Ngawha 10MW (1998)
1000 2,000 Rotokawa 29MW(1997)
1,000 Wairakei BP 5MW (1996),
0 0 Poihipi 50MW (1996)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Fig. 20. (a) Installed capacity and Electricity in New Zealand. (b) Annual geothermal electricity production in New Zealand since 1950.
From Harvey et al. (2010).
NICARAGUA PAPUA-NEW GUINEA


500 800 100 800
400 80 75
600 600
300 60 56
248
400 400
200 40
70 70 77 88 200 200
100 20 6
0 0
0 0 0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Year
Fig. 21. Installed capacity and electricity in Nicaragua. Fig. 22. Installed capacity and electricity in Papua New Guinea.
commissioned a 100 MW double ash power station in August an unusual combination of the geothermal resource, the gold mine
2008. The eld is operated by Ngati Tuwharetoa Geothermal Assets. and the isolated location remote from the power grid.
In addition, a 8 MW binary unit (KA24) has been added to the overall The geothermal resource has a temperature of 240250 C at
eld capacity. a depth of about 1000 m. The wells have good productivity: some
Rotokawa eld is large, hot and permeable and has signicant with an output up to 10 MW. An initial 6 MW plant was constructed
potential for large scale development (Ngati Tuwharetoa Geother- in 2003. Five additional units for a total of 50 MW were commis-
mal Assets and Mighty River Power). The rst development for sioned in stages (three 10 MW modules in 2005 and two 10 MW
electricity generation took place in 1997 with the commissioning modules in 2007).
of a 29 MW binary cycle plant, later expanded to 35 MW. The new The total capacity of 56 MW, provides 75% of the current elec-
Nga Awa Purua triple ash, single Fuji unit of 132 MW, was com- tricity needs of the island, with savings estimated at approximately
missioned in May 2010: it is the largest single geothermal turbine 40 million USD, replacing heavy fuel oil for power generation. It will
in the world. also generate revenues of 4.5 million USD per year from the sale of
Top Energy in association with local Maori Trusts, installed in carbon credits on global market.
1998 a 10 MW Ormat binary plant at Ngawa. In October 2008 a This geothermal power plant was the rst project in Papua New
15 MW binary extension was commissioned. The eld capacity is Guinea to be registered for carbon credit trading under the Clean
estimated to be larger than the current installed capacity, but it is Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol. The plant reduces
not known when further development will be undertaken. greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 280,000 tons/annum,
The geothermal electricity generation in New Zealand, started which equates to approximately 4% of Papua New Guineas total
in 1950, had a long stabilization in production. An impressive new CO2 emissions (Fig. 22).
construction phase started in late 1990s; the target is to double the Several new areas are under exploration.
present capacity by 2015.
The 20052010 period had about 200 MW of new generation 2.33. Peru (Vargas and Cruz, 2010)
capacity installed, which amounts to an increase of 44% (Fig. 20b).
No geothermal electricity has been produced till now, despite
2.31. Nicaragua the estimated geothermal potential of 3000 MW.
Recently two foreign companies (Hot Rock Ltd., Australia and
Despite the impressive geothermal potential of the country Magma Energy, Canada) started exploration in the southern areas
(estimated at about 1500 MW), only a minor addition has been of the country.
made since 2005. Polaris (now Ram Power) installed two 5 MW
back pressure units in 2007 at San Jacinto-Tizate. A project for an 2.34. Philippines (Ogena et al., 2010)
expansion to 34 MW and subsequently to 72 MW is on-going.
At Momotombo, three units with a capacity of 77 MW were The Philippines is the worlds second largest producer of
installed in 1983, but the current generation is only 28 MW. This geothermal energy for power generation, with an installed capac-
eld is operated by Ormat. ity of 1.9 GW for an available capacity of about 1.8 GW (Fig. 23a),
An exploration program at El Hoyo-Monte Galan and Managua- accounting for 12% of the nations total electric generation capac-
Chiltepe, for two 44 MW projects each has been launched jointly by ity. The relatively high availability of the geothermal plants resulted
Enel and LaGeo; the exploration project is expected to be completed in the delivery of about 10 TWh of generation in 2010, 17% of the
by year 2011 (Fig. 21). In the rst eld a shallow well showed high nations electricity production.
temperature (220 C), but the permeability was low. In the second The most important event in the period was the expiration of
area, a slim hole registered a very low temperature (80 C). several BOT contract, with the transfer of ownership of the plants in
Lyete and Mindano from Cal Energy, Ormat and Marubeni to EDC.
2.32. Papua New Guinea (Melaku and Mendive, 2010) In addition, state-owned PNOC (Philippines National Oil Company)
was privatized, and now as EDC operates steam elds and power
The geothermal potential of Papua New Guinea is estimated plant in the country. EDC is 100% owned by Red Vulcan, a subsidiary
to be about 3000 MW. A geothermal power project has been devel- of the FirstGen group. The Government plans to double the current
oped at a major gold mine on the tiny Lihir Island, located about installed capacity from renewable energy in the next decade and
900 km northeast of the national capital. Its exploitation arises from the geothermal sector will undoubtedly see an expansion.
(a) PHILIPPINES (b) Philippines

Installed Capacity Produced Electricity 15000
Electricity Generated, GWh

4000 12000
10000
3000
2519 8000
1909 1930 1904
2000
1227 5000
4000
1000
0
0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Year
Fig. 23. (a) Installed capacity and electricity in the Philippines. (b) Geothermal electricity production in The Philippines since 1990 (from UN statistic division web site).
The Northern Negros plant with a capacity of 49 MW, operated 2.35. Poland (Kepinska, 2010)
by Energy Development Corporation (EDC), was completed in 2007.
Also, the plant at Mak-Ban was upgraded and rehabilitated in 2009 In Lodz, a small heating and electricity project has been
for a net addition of 25 MW. The decrease of installed capacity launched, on the premises of the Technical University of Lodz. The
between 2005 and 2010 is mainly due to the decommissioning of total cost of the project will be approximately 22 million euros, of
a 110 MW unit at Tiwi. which 50% will be nanced by the European Union.
The geothermal areas in the Philippines are listed below.
Leyte (Tongonan) has ve ash (661.5 MW), and 3 topping cycle 2.36. Portugal (Cabecas and Carvalho, 2010)
back pressure turbines, 1 bottoming cycle ash, and 1 bottoming
cycle binary plant, with a total capacity of 61 MW, The total installed Geothermal resources are being exploited for electric power
capacity of 722 MW. All plants were transferred from CalEnergy and generation on Sao Miguel, the largest and most populous island
Ormat to EDC at the end of the BOT period. in the Azores), by SOGEOSociedade Geotrmica dos Acores S.A.,
At Bac-Man (Bacon-Manito, Sorsogon/Albany), exploitation part of EDO Electricidade dos Acores.
started in 19931998 (EDC and National Power Corporation NPC) A binary unit of 13 MW was installed at Pico Vermelho area of
with a small 1.5 MW back pressure turbine plant (combined with the Ribeira Grande eld (temperature about 250 C) in 2006. The
drying plant). Since then, two 55 MW units and two for 20 MW units geothermal eld now has a total installed capacity of 28 MW, and
have been added, for a total installed capacity of 152 MW. provides a about 40% of the electricity needs of the island (23 MW
Mindanao (Mount Apo, North Cotabato/Davao): has two ash net). The contribution of geothermal electricity is expected to dou-
units (one single and one dual pressure) for a total of 103 MW. ble in the coming years (Fig. 24).
These plants were transferred from Marubeni to EDC in 2009. A On Terceira island a project for installing 12 MW is ongoing
new 50 MW unit is planned. (Pico Alto eld with temperatures above 300 C), Despite the poten-
At Northern Negros (Negros Occidental), EDC commissioned in tial presence of good geothermal resources on other small islands,
2007 one ash (dual pressure) unit of 49 MW. It is operated by EDC development is hindered by a lack of interest.
as merchant plant, selling electricity to the local consumers. It will
provide stability in the supply of power in Negros Island. In terms of 2.37. Romania (Rosca et al., 2010)
power generation mix, Negros Island now utilizes 100% renewable
energy with geothermal providing 99.6% while the remaining 0.4% The geothermal electricity potential of the country is not great.
comes from hydro. In Oradea, a medium-temperature reservoir (about 120 C) was
South Negros (Palinpinon, Negros Oriental) has ve ash units
for 192.5 MW which have been in stable operation since 1982; an PORTUGAL
optimization project for 20 MW binary is under development by
EDC/NPC. Installed Capacity Produced Electricity
Mak-Ban (Mount Makiling-Banahaw, Laguna/Quezon) is owned
by Chevron and has been in operation since 1979. There are 72 80 200
production and 16 reinjection wells; the average production is

60
6 MW/well. The total installed capacity is 458 MW with 10 ash 60
plants and one 15.7 MW binary plants. Four units were rehabili-
tated by Chevron in 2005.
40 100
Tiwi (Albany) started operations in 1979. Today there are four 29
operating ash units (out of a total of six) for 234 MW, rehabil-
16 16
itated in 2005. The eld is exploited through 38 production and 20 5
21 reinjection wells, with 5.5 MW/well. The eld is operated by
Chevron. 0 0
The electricity production from geothermal resources shows 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
period of stable generation, followed by a jump over 10 TWh Year
around year 2000. The long term yearly production is shown in
Fig. 23b. Fig. 24. Installed capacity and electricity in Portugal.
RUSSIA TURKEY

194 300 500
200 500
400
400 206
200
300
300
100 79 82
91 200
200 100 21 20 20
23 100
11 100
0 0 0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Year
Fig. 25. Installed capacity and electricity in Russia. Fig. 26. Installed capacity and electricity in Turkey.
recently considered for a pilot binary unit; unfortunately it did Authority of Thailand (EGAT) is using the 80 C exhaust from the
not reach the construction stage. The possibility of some minor power plant to demonstrate direct heat use to the local population.
development is still under evaluation.
2.43. The Netherlands (Van Heekeren and Koenders, 2010)
2.38. Russia (Povarov and Svalova, 2010)
Dutch interest in geothermal energy is something quite new.
No new geothermal plants have been constructed since 2005. The Oil & Gas industry is very active in the country, bringing drilling
The geothermal resources of the country are located in Kamchatka and geological expertise to the local geothermal sector. The feasi-
and the Kurili islands, and are estimated to be about 2000 MW, Two bility of a pilot binary project is being investigated.
projects, i.e., construction of a binary unit at VerkhneMutnovsky
(6.5 MW) and the second 100 MW plant at Mutnovsky, are under 2.44. Turkey (Mertoglu et al., 2010)
development (Fig. 25).
The two geothermal elds at Pauzhetsky and Mutnovsky on the Since 2005 several new plants have been constructed. Four new
Kamchatka peninsula, are operated by SC Geoterm. Paushetsky has binary units of about 8 MW each have been installed, three for
been in operation since 1967 with a capacity of 14 MW; and a bot- exploiting medium enthalpy reservoir (two by Dora MB group,
tom binary cycle is under construction. Mutnovsky has a shallow in Aydin-Salavatli area, and one by Tuzla Dardanel Energy, at
steam zone, and a liquid reservoir (250310 C) at a depth between Canakkale and one using the separated brine (140 C)) from the
1000 and 2000 m. The current installed capacity is 62 MW; an addi- Kizildere plant, before its use for district heating, operated by
tional 100 MW (ash) unit and a bottoming binary cycle of 6.5 MW Bereket.
are under construction. The old plant at Kizildere, now privatized and owned by Zorlu
An intensive exploitation of the huge potential of Kamchatka group, has been refurbished and is operating at full capacity (15 MW
region is expected in the coming years. as the generator capacity), and a new 60 MW plant is under con-
struction. The reservoir temperature is about 240 C. The plant also
2.39. Slovakia (Fendek and Fendekova, 2010) produces 120,000 tons/year of pure CO2 for the food industry.
A new 47 MW double ash unit was commissioned in 2009 at
In Slovakia the low temperature geothermal potential is located Germencik, by the Gurmis group, with the possibility of a second
in the south-eastern region of Kosice, where a 5 MW binary project 47 MW unit. It is one of the largest plants in Europe, just behind
is under evaluation. the Italian standard 60 MW units. The brine temperature is 230 C.
Several additional areas have been allocated to private companies
2.40. Spain (Sanchez-Guzma and de la Noceda, 2010) for further surface and deep exploration (Fig. 26). Since 2005 an
increase of about 70 MW in installed capacity has been achieved.
The volcanic resources of the Canary islands are still unexploited The target for 2015 is about 200 MW. The geothermal potential
despite several studies. Two 20 MW projects in Tenerife and Gran of the country is estimated to be about 30,000 MW.
Canaria are under evaluation.
2.45. United Kingdom (Batchelor et al., 2010)
2.41. Switzerland (Rybach and Signorelli, 2010)
UK was a pioneer in the EGS research in the past. An EGS project
Despite the closing of the deep drilling project at Basel due to in Cornwall is under consideration.
induced seismicity problems, the geothermal energy is still alive
in Switzerland, with a small heating and electricity project under 2.46. USA (Lund et al., 2010a)
evaluation in St. Gallen.
Geothermal electric power plants are located (or planned) in
2.42. Thailand Alaska, California, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico,
Oregon, Utah and Wyoming. The total installed capacity of the
A small (300 kW) binary-cycle power plant was commissioned country is around 3 GW of which only about 2 GW are available.
in 1989 in Fang. This plant has operated successfully, with an Since 2005, new plants totaling about 560 MW have been commis-
8590% availability factor. In addition, the Electricity Generating sioned, (see Fig. 27a and Table 3). New projects with a capacity of
NEVADA
(a) (b) 2500 500
Gross Production
USA Net Output
Installed capacity, MW
2000 Installed Capacity 400
Electricity Production, GWh

8000 20,000 1500 300
6000 5437
1000 200
2817 2534
2228
4000 10,000
3098
500 100
2000
0 0
0 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Year
Fig. 27. (a) Installed capacity and electricity in USA. (b) Nevada gross/net electricity production and installed capacity.
about 2.4 GW are currently under construction or in advanced plan- The Geysers geothermal eld, the largest geothermal eld in the
ning stages. The total geothermal electricity production is about world, is about 100 km north of San Francisco, California. The
17 GWh, equivalent to 4% of the entire renewable energy produc- eld started production in 1960, and by 1987 the production
tion in the country. peaked at 1500 MW (installed capacity 2043 MW). Unfortunately,
a rapid decline in production occurred. An unique publicprivate
2.46.1. Alaska collaboration between eld developers and several municipalities
The rst geothermal power plant in this state was installed in constructed a 42 km long pipeline to transport treated efuent
2006, at Chena Hot Springs. It is a binary plant, producing 225 kW to The Geysers for injection in 1997 (Ali Khan, 2010). By the
from the coldest geothermal resource worldwide: only 74 C. A sec- end of 2003, another pipeline was completed. The current mass
ond twin unit has been added, and a third one of 280 kW is under replacement from both pipelines and other sources is about 85%
construction; the total installed capacity of 730 kW provides off- of production. This has resulted in sustained steam production,
grid power in a rather remote location. a decrease in non-condensable gases, improved electric genera-
tion efciency, and lower air emissions. The additional electricity
generated as a result of these two pipelines is about 155 MW/year.
2.46.2. California
East Mesa geothermal eld in the Imperial Valley has 6 units
Since 2005, the following new plants have been commissioned
for 120 MW of installed capacity. The eld, in operation since
in California: 10 MW (Gould), 10 MW (Heber South), and 49 MW
19861989, is currently operated by Ormat.
(North Brawley) binary units in the Imperial Valley, and the new
Heber geothermal eld (Imperial Valley) has an installed capac-
55 MW Bottle Rock 2 for dry steam plant at The Geysers. The
ity of 212 MW with 25 binary units, Ormat, the eld operator, is
geothermal capacity of about 2.5 GW contributes about 4.5% of the
planning to increase the installed capacity to 270 MW. Since 2005
electricity generation in the state, with an electricity production
several new plants have been completed at Heber: Gould (2 5 MW
of about 12 TWh. Several new projects are in advanced stages of
binary, in 2006), Heber South (10 MW binary, in 2008) and the
planning or completion. The geothermal power plants in California
North Brawley (7 7 MW binary, in 2009) Salton Sea geothermal
are: Honey Lake 4 MW, The Geysers 1585 MW, Mammoth 40 MW,
eld, operated by CalEnergy, has 13 units for an installed capacity
Coso 270 MW, Salton Sea 329 MW, Heber 212 MW, and East Mesa
of 333 MW. New units for a total of 330 MW are in planning stages.
120 MW.
Coso geothermal eld, operated by Terra Gen, has nine units for
Calpine and Northern California Power Agency own 26 dry
an installed capacity of 270 MW; the eld has been in operation
steam units at the Geysers, for a total of about 1.6 GW installed
since 19871989.
capacity (only 900 MW are available). The newest addition at The
Mammoth geothermal eld with 10 units for a total of 40 MW
Geysers is 55 MW Bottle Rock 2 plant, commissioned in 2007.
is operated by Constellation and Ormat; the plants were commis-
sioned in 1984 and 1990.
Table 3 At Honey Lake, three small binary units have been operating
Installed capacity in USA. since 1988 (Amedee) and 1985 (Wineagle). The geothermal contri-
State 2005 (MW) 2010 (MW) 2015 (MW) bution from the hybrid Honey Lake Power, which uses geothermal
heat for drying wood chips dryer and for preheating uid for the
Alaska 0 0.7 30
California 2239 2559 3400 boiler for a 36 MW biomass unit, is estimated to be about 1.5 MW.
Florida 0 0 0.2 Enel Green Power is launching a 20 MW green eld project in Sur-
Hawaii 30 35 60 prise Valley.
Idaho 0 16 130
New Mexico 0 0.2 20
Nevada 239 440 1300
Oregon 0 0.3 200 2.46.3. Florida
Utah 26 47 240 A small binary unit of 200 kW will be installed in 2015
Wyoming 0 0.2 0.2 (Jay/Mobile ORC project) in Quantum Resources Jay Oil Field,
USA Total 2534 3098 5400
northwestern Florida.
2.46.4. Hawaii 160

140
No new addition to the existing 10 binary units with an installed 140
capacity of 35 MW (30 MW operating capacity, after rehabilita-
120
tion and work over) has been made since 2005. This power plant,
commissioned in 1993, supplies approximately 20% of the total 100
70
GW
electricity needs of the Big Island (160,000 inhabitants). An addi- 80
tion of 25 MW is planned by Ormat, with a target of 60 MW installed 60
capacity in the near future.
40
10
20
2.46.5. Idaho
0
In 2007 the construction of the rst geothermal power plant in
Current Today's Technology Technology
Idaho was completed at Raft River by US Geothermal. The binary
Improvement
plant has a nameplate production capacity of 15.8 MW. Currently,
net electrical power output is between 10.5 and 11.5 MW. The facil- Fig. 28. 2010 installed capacity (red), and forecast of 2050 installed capacity with
ity is using existing wells of the decommissioned 5 MW binary plant present technology (blue) and with EGS (green). (For interpretation of the references
(operated from 1974 to 1982). An expansion to this plant as well as to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)
several other projects in the state are in planning stages.
2.46.7. New Mexico
2.46.6. Nevada Raser Technologies installed a pilot binary unit of 240 kW at
Several companies are actively involved in geothermal devel- Lighting Dock. The Lightning Dock project is designed to produce
opment in Nevada: Enel Green Power, Ormat, TerraGen, Magma 10 MW of electrical power, and is expected to go online in the next
and Nevada Geothermal Power. As of 2010, the geothermal power several years.
plants in Nevada were Beowawe 17 MW, Blue Mountain 50 MW,
S. Emidio 5 MW, Desert Peak 23 MW, Dixie Valley 67 MW, Brady 2.46.8. Oregon
Hot Spring 26 MW, Stillwater 48 MW, Salt Wells 24 MW, Steamboat The Oregon Institute of Technology completed on its campus the
136 MW, Steamboat Hills 14 MW, Soda Lake 26 MW, and Wabuska installation of a small 280 kW binary unit, which will be on line in
2 MW. 2012.
Several of the above listed binary plants were commissioned Two projects at Newberry and Crump Geyser are in advanced
during 20052010: 50 MW at Blue Mountain (Faulkner) in 2009, stages of planning or eld development.
23 MW at Desert Peak II in 2006, the new Enel Green Power plants
at Salt Wells (24 MW) and Stillwater (2 24 MW) in 2009, Galena 2.46.9. Utah
II (13 MW) in 2007, III (30 MW) in 2008 and Burdett (2 15 MW) in The Cove Fort plant has been shut down. The Roosevelt
2005 at Steamboat (5 units for 75 MW). In addition, refurbishment geothermal eld, with two binary units of 25 MW and 11 MW (com-
of the old Steamboat II was completed. missioned in 2007) is operated by Pacic Corporation. Utah got its
At Steamboat Hills (Ormat) a new 12 MW binary plant is second power plant in 2008, when Thermo Hot Springs went online,
planned, as an addition at the existing 20 MW ash unit, commis- with 50 small binary units for an aggregate capacity of 10 MW
sioned in 1988. Ormat also plans to increase the installed capacity (Raser Technologies).
at Desert Peak from 23 MW to 30 MW. Enel Green Power is launching a project to install binary units at
In Fig. 27b shows the impressive trend of gross and net genera- Fort Cove, with an initial capacity of 20 MW projects and a future
tion in the State. expansion to 40 MW.
Fig. 29. Installed capacity for the 18 GEA regions, in TWh/year: 2010 (black), 2015 (blue) and 2050 (red). The total capacity is 10.9 GW for 2010, 19.8 GW for 2015 and 140 GW
for 2050 (the EGS contribution of 70 GW is included in the forecast for 2050). (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of the article.)
Table 4 Installed Capacity (MW)

Utilization of geothermal energy in the 18 GEA regions.
(a) 0%
GEA region Electricity (TWh/year)
11% 1%
2000 2005 2010 2015 2050
Binary
USA 14.0 16.8 16.6 38.1 508 27% Back Pressure
Canada 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.5 8.3
West Europe 3.9 7.1 10.9 18.3 125 Single Flash
Central/East Europe 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 25
Former USSR 0.0 0.1 0.4 1.6 67 Double Flash
North Africa 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
East Africa 0.4 1.1 1.4 4.4 25 Dry Steam
West/Central
41% Hybrid
Africa 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
South Africa 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
20%
Middle East 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.05 17
China 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 42
East Asia 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
India 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17
South Asia 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Japan 1.7 3.5 3.1 4.0 17
0%Electricity Produced (GWh)
Pacic Asia 8.3 15.4 20.4 42.4 166 (b)
Oceania 2.4 2.8 4.1 9.0 25 9% 4%
Latin America 7.3 8.9 10.2 16.7 125 Binary
World 38 56 67 139 1167 24%
Back Pressure
Single Flash
2.46.10. Wyoming Double Flash
The Rocky Mountain Oileld Testing Center (RMOTC) is located Dry Steam
at the Teapot Dome oil eld, also known as the Naval Petroleum
21% 42% Hybrid
Reserve, operated by the Department of Energy as a test site for oil
and gas and renewable energy related technologies.
A small binary unit of 250 kW was installed in 2009.
In summary, In the USA there are about 2 million km2 of
geothermal areas, with an estimated potential of 9 GW. Most of
the resources are located in the western states, with Nevada and (c) Number of Units
California representing more than 80% of all the planned projects. 0%
Strong legislative support to reduce the duration from the begin-
ning of a geothermal project (lease acquisition) to the generation 12% Binary
of electricity, which can range from ve to eight years, is needed Back Pressure
for reaching the ambitious target of an exponential increase in the 11% Single Flash
geothermal electricity in the US. 45%
Double Flash
Dry Steam
3. Long term forecast Hybrid
27%
Table 4 shows the recent rapid expansion in the utilization of
geothermal energy for 18 world regions. The data are taken from 5%
the Global Energy Assessment (GEA), produced by International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Austria, under the Fig. 30. (a) Percentage of installed capacity by power plant type. (b) Percentage of
produced energy by power plant type. (C) Percentage of units by power plant type.
sponsorship of the United Nations and the World Energy Confer-
ence (WEC) organizing committee (UNDP, 2004; WEC, 2004, 2007;
IEA, 2007).
Growth rates in many regions have been over 10%. At the The geothermal exploitation techniques are being rapidly devel-
end of 2010, geothermal energy supplied 67 TWh/year of electric- oped, and the understanding of the geothermal reservoirs has
ity. The forecast for 2015 indicates a generation of 140 TWh/year, improved considerably over the past years.
and the expected maximum achievable for year 2050 is about In the broadest sense, the geothermal resources refer to the
1200 TWh/year. thermal energy stored below earths surface. Globally the energy
Several authors (Bertani, 2003; Mufer and Cataldi, 1978; stored in the earths crust up to a depth of 5000 m is estimated to be
Fridleifsson et al., 2008; Fridleifsson and Ragnarsson, 2007) have 140 106 EJ (WEC, 1994, 1998) an enormous theoretical resource
estimated the global geothermal potential. base. A detailed estimate of the heat stored to a depth of 3 km under
The estimated potentials differ by orders of magnitude depend- the continents dates back to 1978 (EPRI, 1978). The study applied an
ing on the inclusion or exclusion of enhanced geothermal systems average geothermal temperature gradient of 25 C/km for normal
(EGS) technology and on the type of energy conversion technologies geological conditions and accounted separately for diffuse geother-
being considered. For example, low-temperature power genera- mal anomalies and high enthalpy regions located nearby plate
tion with binary plants has opened up the possibilities of producing boundaries or in regions of recent volcanism. The high enthalpy
electricity in countries which do not have high-temperature elds. regions cover about 10% of the Earths surface. The total amount of
EGS technologies are still under development. If EGS proves to be heat is huge, about 42 106 EJ. With the present world energy con-
economically feasible at commercial scale, the development poten- sumption of 500 EJ/year, the geothermal heat can fulll the world
tial of geothermal energy will be enormous in most countries. needs for about 100,000 years.
3.1. Theoretical potential for each range of temperature and the temperature distribution of
the geothermal resource.
The value of 42 106 EJ represents the theoretical potential. It According to the effective efciency in the transformation
is practically impossible to extract all the heat from underground, of heat to electricity for different temperature ranges (10% for
both because of technical difculties in using the lowest tempera- 120180 C, 20% for temperature 180300 C, 5% for EGS system- in
ture resource, and also because of the inaccessibility of the bulk of comparison with a standard binary plant in an hydrothermal sys-
the rock to water, which is required to mine the heat energy. tem, an efciency reduction by a factor two is used for EGS when
The rate at which the heat is continuously replenished from converting the available heat to the accessible one), it is possible
the higher temperature regimes below the 35 km depth is about to evaluate the temperature weighted average of the amount of
65 mW/m2 which corresponds to an average thermal energy equivalent energy extracted per year from the about 660 EJ/year of
recharge rate of about 315 EJ/year (Stefansson, 2005). This value heat, which is similar at the value estimated by Stefansson as the
should be considered only as a rough approximation of the natural heat ow (315 EJ/year).
expected geothermal potential. However, from this evaluation From the distribution of the geothermal resources over different
the expected value of 10 TWth (obtained simply by transforming temperature regimes, it is possible to estimate the low tempera-
EJ/year in a more suitable unit) of thermal energy can be used ture potential (for direct utilization or low-temperature electricity
per year as an indication of the overall technical potential of the cycles) using an empirical function (Stefansson, 2005).
geothermal energy utilization. Of interest, however, is the resource The value of 61 EJ/year, corresponding to a thermal capacity of
base that may be accessible over the next several decades with 5000 GWth has been assumed (corresponding to a capacity factor
current or future technology, i.e., technical potential. of 40%), and it has been split among the different regions according
To derive the technical potential from the theoretical poten- to the amount of low temperature areas.
tial, it is necessary to exclude the heat which cannot be accessed
through natural or articial circulation, and the surface of the con- 3.3. Economic potential: 2050 target
tinents which is remote from any user of heat and electricity.
Since the economically drillable depth is presently limited to 5 km, For policy and investment decisions, it is the economic poten-
the earth regions with temperatures too low for electric genera- tial that matters. The economic resource base is that part of the
tion would need to be excluded. The missing information makes technical resource base that can be exploited economically in a
it virtually impossible to obtain the technical potential from the competitive market setting at some specied time in the future
theoretical potential. (up to 2050 and beyond). Over the short-to-medium term, the eco-
nomic base consists of geothermal eld that are known and have
3.2. Technical potential been characterized by drilling or by geochemical, geophysical and
geological surveys. The economic hydrothermal potential for year
Starting from a general correlation between the existing 2050 is about 70 GW. This value has been calculated using all the
geothermal high temperature resources and the number of vol- identied and inferred geothermal resources to a depth of 34 km.
canoes, Stefansson (2005) inferred a total electricity generation To evaluate the contribution of EGS to the economic potential, it
potential of 200 GW. This value is only for the traditional hydrother- is important to note the lack of any commercial experience to-date
mal resources. Based on a statistical analysis of heat distribution, for EGS systems. This technology is still in the experimental phase,
Goldstein et al. (2009) concluded that there is a 70% chance that and its commercial viability has yet to be proven. A successful EGS
EGS systems have a potential of 1000 MW. Thus the total technical installation will need to meet certain conditions: a minimum heat
potential is about 1200 GW. exchange surface of over 1 million m2 , a reservoir volume of several
It is possible to calculate the amount of heat needed for achiev- cubic kilometers, maximum ow impedance of a few MPa/l/s, and
ing this electrical potential, considering the conversion efciency a water loss of less than 10%.
Table 5
Geothermal potential for the 18 GEA regions. The values refer to the underground heat available for direct utilization or electricity, with the exception of the expected
electricity production, calculated using a weighted average conversion efciency (about 17 J of heat for 1 J of electricity) and 95% capacity factor. For the direct utilization,
the thermal capacity is calculated with an average 40% capacity factor.
GEA region Theoretical potential Technical potential Economic potential

(106 EJ)
Heat for direct Heat for electricity Heat for direct Heat for electricity Produced electricity
utilization (EJ/year) (EJ/year) utilization (EJ/year) (EJ/year) (TWh/year)
USA 4.738 7.0 75 1.215 34.9 508

Canada 3.287 4.8 52 0.099 0.307 8.3
Western Europe 2.019 3.0 32 4.311 6.216 125
Central and Eastern Europe 0.323 0.5 5.1 0.852 1.243 25
Former Soviet Union 6.607 9.9 104 0.508 3.097 67
Northern Africa 1.845 2.8 29 0.103 0.0 0.0
Eastern Africa 0.902 1.3 14 0.004 0.918 25
Western and Central Africa 2.103 3.2 33 0.0 0.0 0.0
Southern Africa 1.233 1.8 19 0.0 0.0 0.0
Middle East 1.355 2.0 21 0.175 0.612 17
China 3.288 4.7 52 1.764 1.856 42
Other East Asia 0.216 0.3 3.4 0.018 0.0 0.0
India 0.938 1.4 15 0.062 0.613 17
Other South Asia 2.424 3.7 38 0.002 0.0 0.0
Japan 0.182 0.2 2.9 0.201 0.612 17
Other Pacic Asia 1.092 1.4 17 0.004 7.424 166
Oceania 2.304 3.5 36 0.391 1.568 25
Latin America 6.886 9.9 109 0.383 6.216 125
World 41.743 61.4 657 10.092 65.582 1167
Equivalent capacity 5000 GWth 1200 GWel 800 GWth 140 GWel
Table 6 Table 7
Top ve countries for installed capacity and electric generation. Top ve countries for an increase in capacity during 20052010.
Country 2005 (MW) 2005 (GWh/year) 2010 (MW) 2010 (GWh/year) Country MW GWh/year % MW % GWh/year
USA 2534 16,840 3098 16,603 USA 564 237 22 1

Philippines 1930 9253 1904 10,311 Indonesia 400 3515 50 58
Indonesia 797 6085 1197 9600 Iceland 373 3114 184 210
Mexico 953 6282 958 7047 New Zealand 327 1281 75 46
Italy 791 5340 843 5520 Kenya 73 342 57 31
Table 8
To disseminate EGS installations widely, a technology would be Top countries ranked by percentage increase in installed capacity.
needed to create EGS reservoirs independent of local ground con-
Country MW GWh/year % MW % GWh/year
ditions. Such a technology is yet to be developed (MIT-Led Report,
2006): a large number of problems remain to be solved. As an Germany 7 49 2987 3249
example, unless the fractures are evenly distribute in the reservoir, Papua New Guinea 50 433 833 2547
Australia 1 0 633 5
hydraulic short-circuiting may lead to rapid thermal drawdown. Turkey 71 385 356 368
We hypothesize that in the near future, EGS technology will make Iceland 373 3114 184 210
it possible to produce geothermal electricity all around the world. Portugal 13 85 78 94
In particular, it is assumed that it will be possible to reach at New Zealand 327 1281 75 46
Guatemala 19 77 58 36
least 200 C at an economically drillable depth, and that would be
Kenya 73 342 57 31
possible to create enough articial permeability for ensuring the Indonesia 400 3515 50 58
necessary circulation of geothermal uid among the wells.
Goldstein et al. (2009), suggests that there is an 85% probability
of producing at least 70 GW of EGS power by year 2050. Adding
the 70 GW of the identied and inferred hydrothermal resources population; 40 countries (located mostly in Africa, Central/South
to the probabilistic estimation of 70 GW from Goldstein, we arrive America, Pacic) can be 100% powered by geothermal energy. The
at a value of 140 GW for the year 2050, corresponding to 66 EJ/year, overall CO2 saving from geothermal electricity can be about 1000
using the same heat/electricity conversion ratio (Fig. 28). million tons/year, if the 2050 target of 140 GW is reached.
The economic potential of direct geothermal heat utilization
depends to a large extent on the technology associated with its 4. Statistical highlights
utilization (heat pumps, binary cycles, etc.). By 2050 the global
potential is estimated at 800 GWth , corresponding to 10 EJ/year. 4.1. Some ranking
Geothermal potential estimates (theoretical, technical and eco-
nomic) are presented in Table 5 and Fig. 29. 4.1.1. Top ve
It should be possible to produce up to 8.3% of the worlds total The Top Five Countries for installed capacity and produced
electricity production (IPCC, 2000, 2007), serving 17% of world energy are listed in Table 6: with an impressive increase both
20,000
10,000
Year
Fig. 31. Cumulative installed geothermal capacity since 1945.

Table 9
Big geothermal plants (COD = commissioning date).
Country Geothermal eld Plant name Unit COD Type Manufacturer Plant owner Installed
capacity
(MW)
New Zealand Rotokawa Nga Awa Purua 1 2010 Single ash Fuji Mighty River Power 132
Indonesia Java Wayang Windu Wayang Windu 2 2009 Single ash Fuji Star Energy Ltd 117
USA CA The Geysers Grant 1 1985 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 113
USA CA The Geysers Lake View 1 1985 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 113
USA CA The Geysers Quicksilver 1 1985 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 113
USA CA The Geysers Socrates 1 1983 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 113
USA CA The Geysers Cobb Creek 1 1979 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 110
USA CA The Geysers Eagle Rock 1 1975 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 110
Mexico Cerro Prieto Cerro Prieto II 1 1986 Double ash Toshiba Comision Federal de Electricidad 110
Mexico Cerro Prieto Cerro Prieto II 2 1987 Double ash Toshiba Comision Federal de Electricidad 110
Mexico Cerro Prieto Cerro Prieto III 1 1986 Double ash Toshiba Comision Federal de Electricidad 110
Mexico Cerro Prieto Cerro Prieto III 2 1986 Double ash Toshiba Comision Federal de Electricidad 110
Indonesia Java Darajat Darajat 3 2008 Dry steam Mitsubishi PLN 110
USA CA The Geysers Sulfur Spring 1 1980 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 109
New Zealand Kawerau Kawerau 1 2008 Double ash Fuji Mighty River Power 100
USA CA The Geysers Big Geyser 1 1980 Dry steam General Electric/ Calpine 97
Nuovo Pignone
USA CA The Geysers Calistoga 1 1984 Dry steam Toshiba Calpine 80
Philippines Tongonan/Leyte Malitbog 1 1997 Single ash Fuji Energy Development Corporation 77.9
USA CA The Geysers Sonoma 1 1983 Dry steam Mitsubishi Calpine 72
USA NV Dixie Valley Dixie Valley 1 1988 Double ash Fuji Terra Gen 67.2
Japan Fukushima Yanaizu-Nishiyama 1 1995 Single ash Toshiba Tohoku Electric Power 65
Indonesia Java Gunung Salak Gunung Salak-IPP 1 1997 Single ash Fuji Chevron 65
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban A 1 1979 Double ash Mitsubishi Chevron 63.2
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban A 2 1979 Double ash Mitsubishi Chevron 63.2
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban B 1 1980 Double ash Mitsubishi Chevron 63.2
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban B 2 1980 Double ash Mitsubishi Chevron 63.2
Indonesia Java Gunung Salak Gunung Salak 3 1997 Single ash Fuji PLN 62
Indonesia Java Dieng Dieng 1 1998 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi Geodipa 60
Indonesia Java Gunung Salak Gunung Salak 1 1994 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi PLN 60
Indonesia Java Gunung Salak Gunung Salak 2 1994 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi PLN 60
Indonesia Java Kamojang Kamojang 4 2007 Dry steam Fuji PLN 60
Italy Larderello Farinello 1 1995 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 60
Italy Larderello Nuova Serrazzano 1 2002 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 60
Italy Larderello Valle Secolo 1 1991 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 60
Italy Larderello Valle Secolo 2 1991 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 60
Philippines Tiwi/Albay Tiwi A 1 1979 Single ash Toshiba Chevron 60
Philippines Tiwi/Albay Tiwi A 2 1979 Single ash Toshiba Chevron 60
Philippines Tongonan/Leyte Mahanagdong A 1 1997 Single ash Toshiba Energy Development Corporation 59
Philippines Tongonan/Leyte Mahanagdong A 2 1997 Single ash Toshiba Energy Development Corporation 59
Philippines Tongonan/Leyte Mahanagdong B 1 1997 Single ash Toshiba Energy Development Corporation 59
Philippines Tiwi/Albay Tiwi C 1 1982 Single ash Toshiba Chevron 57
Philippines Tiwi/Albay Tiwi C 2 1982 Single ash Toshiba Chevron 57
Philippines Bacon-Manito/Sorsogon/Albay Bacman I 1 1993 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi National Power Corporation 55
Philippines Bacon-Manito/Sorsogon/Albay Bacman I 2 1993 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi National Power Corporation 55
USA CA The Geysers Bottle Rock II 1 2007 Dry steam Fuji US Renewables 55
USA CA The Geysers NCPA I 1 1983 Dry steam Fuji Northern California Power Agency 55
USA CA The Geysers NCPA I 2 1983 Dry steam Fuji Northern California Power Agency 55
USA CA The Geysers NCPA II 3 1985 Dry steam Toshiba Northern California Power Agency 55
USA CA The Geysers NCPA II 4 1986 Dry steam Toshiba Northern California Power Agency 55
Indonesia Java Kamojang Kamojang 2 1987 Dry steam Mitsubishi PLN 55
Indonesia Java Kamojang Kamojang 3 1987 Dry steam Mitsubishi PLN 55
Costa Rica Miravalles Miravalles 1 1994 Single ash Toshiba Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad 55
Costa Rica Miravalles Miravalles 2 1998 Single ash Ansaldo/Tosi Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad 55
Japan Oita Hatchobaru 1 1977 Double ash Mitsubishi Kyushu Electric Power 55
Japan Oita Hatchobaru 2 1990 Double ash Mitsubishi Kyushu Electric Power 55
New Zealand Wairakei Poihipi 1 1996 Single ash Fuji Contact Energy 55
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban C 1 1984 Single ash Mitsubishi Chevron 54.6
Philippines Mak-Ban/Laguna Mak-Ban C 2 1984 Single ash Mitsubishi Chevron 54.6
in capacity and produced energy since 2005, Indonesia is now even in countries where geothermal development started more
ranked third. Italy is stable at 5th position. The Top Five Coun- than 50-year ago, the industry is presently proactive in launch-
tries for absolute increase in installed capacity are highlighted in ing new projects, and the economical environment is positive in
Table 7. In USA, Indonesia, Iceland and New Zealand, the increase terms of incentives and support measures. Kenya is not a newcomer
in geothermal capacity was more than 100 MW. This indicates that to geothermal energy. The Olkaria geothermal eld is undergoing
Table 10
Geothermal plants installed since 2005.
Country Geothermal eld Plant name Unit COD Type Manufacturer Plant owner Installed
capacity
(MW)
Italy Larderello Nuova Radicondoli 2 1 2010 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 20
Italy Larderello Chiusdino 1 1 2010 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 20
Turkey Aydin-Salavath Dora 2 2010 Binary Ormat MB 9.5
Kenya Olkaria Olkaria II 3 2010 Single ash Mitsubishi KenGen 35
New Zealand Rotokawa Nga Awa Purua 1 2010 Single ash Fuji Mighty River Power 132
USA AK Chena Hot Springs Chena 3 2009 Binary UTC/Turboden Chena Power, LLC 0.3
Turkey Aydin-Germencik Germencik 1 2009 Double ash Mitsubishi GURMAT 47.4
Germany Bruchsal Bruchsal 1 2009 Binary Null Municipality Germany 0.5
USA CA Heber North Brawley 17 2009 Binary Ormat Ormat 7
Italy Larderello Nuova Lagoni Rossi 1 2009 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 20
Italy Larderello Sasso 2 1 2009 Dry steam General Electric/Nuovo Enel Green Power 20
Pignone
USA NV Blue Mountain Faulkner 1 2009 Binary Ormat Nevada Geothermal Power 50
USA NV Salt Wells Salt Wells 12 2009 Binary Ma Trench Enel Green Power 12
USA NV Stillwater Stillwater 14 2009 Binary Ma Trench Enel Green Power 12
USA OR Klamath Falls OIT 1 2009 Binary OIT 0.3
Austria Simbach Braunau Simbach Braunau 1 2009 Binary Siemens Municipality Austria 0.2
Indonesia Sulawesi Lahendong Lahendong 3 2009 Single ash Fuji BPPT 20
USA UT Thermo Hot Spring Thermo Hot Spring 150 2009 Binary UTC/Turboden Raser Technologies 0.2
USA WY Naval Petroleum Rocky Mountain 1 2009 Binary Ormat DOE 0.2
Reserve Oileld
El Salvador Berlin Berlin 4 2008 Binary Enex LaGeo/Enel Green Power 9.4
USA CA Heber Heber South 1 2008 Binary Ormat Ormat 10
Turkey Denizli Kizildere Kizildere Binary 1 2008 Binary Ormat BEREKET 6.8
Iceland Hellisheidi Hellisheidi III 12 2008 Single ash Mitsubishi Orkuveita Reykjavikur 45
USA ID Raft River Raft River 1 2008 Binary Ormat US Geothermal 15.8
New Zealand Kawerau KA24 1 2008 Binary Ormat Ormat 8.3
New Zealand Kawerau Kawerau 1 2008 Double ash Fuji Mighty River Power 100
Germany Landau Landau 1 2008 Binary Ormat Municipality Germany 3
USA NM Lightening Dock Lightening Dock 1 2008 Binary UTC/Turboden Raser Technologies 0.2
New Zealand Northland Ngawha 2 1 2008 Binary Ormat Top Energy 15
USA NV Steamboat Galena III 1 2008 Binary Ormat Ormat 27.5
Kenya Olkaria Olkaria III 46 2008 Single ash Ormat Ormat 12
France Soultz-sous-Forets Soultz-sous-Forets 1 2008 Binary UTC/Turboden European EGS Interest Group 1.5
Indonesia Sulawesi Lahendong Lahendong 2 2008 Single ash Fuji BPPT 20
Germany Unterhaching Unterhaching 1 2008 Binary Siemens Municipality Germany 3.4
Guatemala Amatitlan Amatitlan 1 2007 Binary Ormat Ormat 24
USA CA The Geysers Bottle Rock II 1 2007 Dry steam Fuji US Renewables 55
Iceland Hellisheidi Hellisheidi II 1 2007 Single ash Toshiba Orkuveita Reykjavikur 33
Russia Iturup Island Okeanskaya 12 2007 Single ash Kaluga Turbine Works SC Energiya 1.8
Indonesia Java Kamojang Kamojang 4 2007 Dry steam Fuji PLN 60
Russia Kunashir Island Mendeleevskaya 1 2007 Single ash Kaluga Turbine Works SC Energiya 1.8
Papua New Guinea Lihir Island Lihir 3ab 2007 Single ash General Electric/Nuovo Lihir Gold Ltd mine 10
Pignone
Mexico Los Humeros Los Humeros 8 2007 Back Pressure Mitsubishi Comision Federal de 5
Electricidad
New Zealand Mokai Mokai 1 A 1 2007 Binary Ormat Tuaropaki Power Co 17
Philippines North Negros Mambucal 1 2007 Single ash Fuji Energy Development 49
Corporation
USA NV Steamboat Galena II 1 2007 Binary Ormat Ormat 15
Kenya Olkaria Oserian 2 2007 Back Pressure Elliot Oserian Development 2
Company
Nicaragua San Jacinto-Tizate San Jacinto-Tizate 12 2007 Back Pressure Alstom Polaris 5
Indonesia Sumatra Sibayak Sibayak 23 2007 Single ash Harbin PT Dizamatra Powerindo 5.6
USA UT Roosvelt Blundell I 2 2007 Binary Ormat Pacic Co 11
USA AK Chena Chena 12 2006 Binary UTC/Turboden Chena Power 0.2
Turkey Aydin-Salavath Dora 1 2006 Binary Ormat MB 7.4
El Salvador Berlin Berlin 3 2006 Single ash General Electric/Nuovo LaGeo/Enel Green Power 44
Pignone
USA CA Heber Gould 12 2006 Binary Ormat Ormat 5
Iceland Hellisheidi Hellisheidi I 12 2006 Single ash Mitsubishi Orkuveita Reykjavikur 45
Japan Kagoshima Kirishima Geothermal 1 2006 Binary Fuji Daiwabo Kanko 0.2
USA NV Desert Peak Desert Peak II 1 2006 Binary Ormat Ormat 23
Japan Oita Hatchobaru 3 2006 Binary Ormat Kyushu Electric Power 2
Iceland Reykjanes Reykjanes 2 2006 Single ash Fuji HS Orka 50
Portugal Ribeira Grande Pico Vermelho 1 2006 Binary ORMATORMAT EDA 13.5
Italy Larderello Nuova Larderello 1 2005 Dry steam Ansaldo/Tosi Enel Green Power 20
Italy Larderello Nuova San Martino 1 2005 Dry steam General Electric/Nuovo Enel Green Power 40
Pignone
Papua New Guinea Lihir Island Lihir 2ac 2005 Single ash General Electric/Nuovo Lihir Gold Ltd mine 10
Pignone
New Zealand Mokai Mokai 2 1 2005 Single ash Mitsubishi Tuaropaki Power Co 19
New Zealand Mokai Mokai 2 25 2005 Binary Ormat Tuaropaki Power Co 5
Iceland Nesjavellir Nesjavellir 4 2005 Single ash Mitsubishi Orkuveita Reykjavikur 30
USA NV Steamboat Richard Burdett 12 2005 Binary Ormat Ormat 15
Iceland Reykjanes Reykjanes 12 2005 Single ash Fuji HS Orka 50
New Zealand Wairakei Binary 1516 2005 Binary Ormat Contact Energy 8
Table 11
Plant types by country (MW installed).
Hybrid Back pressure Binary Single ash Double ash Dry steam Total
Australia 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Austria 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
China 0 0 0 0 24 0 24
Costa Rica 0 5 21 140 0 0 166
El Salvador 0 0 9 160 35 0 204
Ethiopia 0 0 7 0 0 0 7
France 0 0 2 10 5 0 16
Germany 0 0 7 0 0 0 7
Guatemala 0 0 52 0 0 0 52
Iceland 0 0 10 474 90 0 575
Indonesia 0 2 0 735 0 460 1197
Italy 0 0 0 88 0 755 843
Japan 0 0 2 350 160 24 535
Kenya 0 2 14 186 0 0 202
Mexico 0 75 3 410 470 0 958
New Zealand 0 47 138 387 190 0 762
Nicaragua 0 10 8 70 0 0 88
Papua New Guinea 0 6 0 50 0 0 56
Philippines 0 0 209 1330 365 0 1904
Portugal 0 0 29 0 0 0 29
Russia 0 0 0 82 0 0 82
Thailand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Turkey 0 0 24 20 47 0 91
USA 2 0 656 60 796 1584 3098
Total 2 147 1193 4552 2183 2822 10,898
intense development. The future of geothermal energy in Kenya is 4.1.2. Large plants (>55 MW)
very promising. The big plants are not often utilized for generating electricity
The countries with a percentage increase in installed capacity from geothermal resources, even if their economy of scale is advan-
greater than 50% since 2005 are presented in Table 8. Because of the tageous: adequate geothermal uid supply for these plants is only
very small installed capacity, the values for Germany and Australia available where the resource is abundant and well characterized.
are not meaningful. On the other hand, Papua New Guinea, with Table 9 lists plants with an installed capacity greater than
MW in operation, can be proud of its 833% increase since 2005, 55 MW. The average capacity of all the 536 geothermal units in
Turkey and Iceland, with increases of 300% and 200%, respec- operation as of 2010 is only 20 MW, whereas for the 65 units pre-
tively, were among the most active geothermal countries during sented in Table 9 the average is 74 MW.
20052010. Excluding Germany and Australia, the 4th and 5th
geothermal countries in terms of percentage increase are Portugal 4.1.3. Small plants (<10 MW)
(78%) and New Zealand (75%), followed by Guatemala (58%), Kenya It is almost impossible to present a similar list of the small plants,
(57%) and nally by the Indonesian giant, with 50% in the 8th posi- with capacity less than 10 MW: there are about 270 units in oper-
tion. ation, with an average capacity of 3.2 MW. The majority of these
FIELD OWNER
9000
GWh or MW
8260
ENERGY
8000
7160 MW
7047
7000
6017 5931
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1329 1212 1309
958 915
1000
0
Chevron Energy Development Comisin Federal de Calpine Enel Green Power
Corpo ration Electricidad
Fig. 32. Installed capacity and electricity production for the biggest geothermal eld operators.
PLANT OWNER
GWh or MW
8000
7047 ENERGY
7000
MW
6017 5931
6000
5000 4734
4000
3151
3000
2000
1309
958 915 887
1000 756
0
Comisin Federal de Calpine Enel Green Power Energy Development Chevron
Electricidad Corporation
Fig. 33. Installed capacity and electricity production for the biggest geothermal power plant operators.
units are binary (207 units), 23 are back pressure, 21 are single Table 12
Average MW capacity and energy produced for each plant type (hybrid excluded).
ash and 17 double ash.
Since 2005, 146 new units have been commissioned. The New Type Average energy (GWh/unit) Average capacity (MW/unit)
Plants are presented in Table 10, collecting together the units of Binary 27 5
the same plant with same date of starting of operation and equal Back pressure 96 6
capacity. Single ash 199 31
Double ash 236 34
Dry seam 260 46
4.2. Plant classication
We have followed the standard denitions of binary, back pres- (binary, back pressure) about 5 MW/unit, medium (ash plants,
sure, single/double ash and dry steam plants. In the pie charts around 30 MW/unit) and big (dry steam, 45 MW/unit).
of Fig. 30ac, the installed capacity in MW, the produced energy in The plant types for each country are given in Table 11, and the
GWh and the total number of units for each category are presented. average values per unit of the installed capacity and the produced
The average capacities for three major size categories are: small energy are given in Table 12.
PLANT OWNER
8000
GWh
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Fig. 34. Geothermal power plant operators with an annual generation greater than 200 GWh.
Fig. 35. Map of the top 12 geothermal elds. The dots are proportional to the produced energy.
4.3. Commissioning date still linear) increase since 2005. The average increase in installed
capacity since 1990 is about 300 MW/year. In the last ve years,
The geothermal power plant development history can be however, the increase has been about 350 MW/year. Table 13 gives
deduced from the commissioning date of each individual power the starting date for production of geothermal energy for each
plant. country.
Fig. 31 shows the cumulative capacity on a yearly basis. Note The rst double ash plant was installed in 1977 at Hatchobaru,
that decommissioned plants are included in Fig. 31. There was Japan (1 55 MW), whereas large-scale installation of binary plants
an initial exponential growth phase from 1946 to 1990, followed started in 1984 with the commissioning of four 2.5 MW Ormat units
by a linear growth (19912004), and a somewhat greater (but at Mammoth I in California, USA.
Turbine Manufacturer Market

3500
3000
2500
2000
MW
1500
1000
500
0
hi
ji
AT
om
es
on
ks
g
s
Fu
ib
on
nc
en
To
is
or
tri
st
M
sh
st
ub
re
gn
en
/
us
ou
R
do
Al
To
iT
its
Pi
Ji
O
nd
H
e
al
M
af
in
ao
vo
on
s
lI
rb
M
An
ca
gd
uo
ps
Tu
tri
in
N
om
ec
Q
c/
Th
tri
El
lu
ec
Ka
ed
sh
El
at
iti
al
Br
ci
er
so
en
As
G
Fig. 36. Installed MW capacity by turbine manufacturer.

Table 13 Table 14
Initial geothermal electricity development by country. List of the geothermal elds with production >100 GWh/year.
Country COD Geothermal eld name Nation Installed Produced energy

capacity (MW) (MWh/year)
Italy 1914
Japan 1925 CA The Geysers USA 1584 7062
New Zealand 1958 Cerro Prieto Mexico 720 5176
USA 1960 Tongonan/Leyte Philippines 716 4746
Russia 1966 Larderello Italy 595 3666
Iceland 1969 Java Gunung Salak Indonesia 377 3024
China 1970 CA Salton Sea USA 329 2634
Mexico 1973 CA Coso USA 270 2381
Turkey 1974 Mak-Ban/Laguna Philippines 458 2144
El Salvador 1975 Java Darajat Indonesia 260 2085
Philippines 1977 Java Wayang Windu Indonesia 227 1821
Indonesia 1978 Hellisheidi Iceland 213 1704
Portugal 1980 Wairakei New Zealand 233 1693
Kenya 1981 Java Kamojang Indonesia 200 1604
Taiwan 1981 Los Azufres Mexico 188 1517
Nicaragua 1983 Olkaria Kenya 202 1430
France 1984 Palinpinon/Negros Oriental Philippines 193 1257
Australia 1987 TravaleRadicondoli Italy 160 1209
Greece 1987 Miravalles Costa Rica 166 1131
Argentina 1988 Oita Japan 152 1106
Thailand 1989 Tiwi/Albay Philippines 234 1007
Costa Rica 1994 Nesjavellir Iceland 120 960
Guatemala 1998 Mokai New Zealand 111 927
Ethiopia 1999 Reykjanes Iceland 100 800
Austria 2001 Berlin El Salvador 109 753
Papua New Guinea 2001 Mindanao/Mount Apo Philippines 103 751
Germany 2003 CA Heber USA 212 708
NV Steamboat USA 136 696
Ahuachapan El Salvador 95 669
Svartsengi Iceland 76 611
Akita Japan 88 568
CA East Mesa USA 120 556
From 1980 and 1990 there was an impressive array of Ohaaki New Zealand 103 549
new plants, but the geothermal year can be considered Java Dieng Indonesia 60 481
1997, when a total of 680 MW were commissioned, all single Sulawesi Lahendong Indonesia 60 481
ash. Kraa Iceland 60 480
Mt. Amiata Piancastagnaio Italy 68 475
The largest installation of binary plants, 183 MW was in 2009,
Kawerau New Zealand 122 473
for double ash in 1986 with 368 MW, for dry steam in 1985 with Lihir Island Papua New 56 450
489 MW. Iwate Japan 104 447
NV Dixie Valley USA 67 426
Bacon-Manito/Sorsogon/Albay Philippines 152 390
4.4. Geothermal companies Severo-Mutnovsky Russia 62 381
Fukushima Japan 65 363
Aydin-Germencik Turkey 47 360
4.4.1. Field owners
Kagoshima Japan 60 347
The companies currently operating geothermal elds are UT Roosvelt USA 37 328
shown in Fig. 32, with the installed capacity and produced NV Stillwater USA 48 314
energy. Los Humeros Mexico 40 313
Momotombo Nicaragua 78 275
The ve with the largest capacity are Chevron (USA, operat-
Rotokawa New Zealand 167 273
ing in the Philippines and Indonesia), EDC/Firstgen (Philippines), HI Puna USA 35 237
Comisin Federal de Electricidad (Mxico), Calpine (USA) and Enel CA Mammoth USA 40 236
Green Power (Italy, presently operating in USA). NV Blue Mountain USA 50 177
Ribeira Grande Portugal 29 175
Mt. Amiata Bagnore Italy 20 170
4.4.2. Plant operators Amatitln Guatemala 24 158
Yangbajain China 24 150
The companies currently operating geothermal plants are pre-
Northland New Zealand 25 140
sented in Fig. 33, with the installed capacity and produced Zunil Guatemala 28 131
energy. NV Beowawe USA 17 129
The top ve are Comisin Federal de Electricidad (Mxico), NV Brady Hot Spring USA 27 123
Hokkaido Japan 50 115
Calpine (USA), Enel Green Power (Italy), EDC/Firstgen (Philippines)
NV Desert Peak USA 23 106
and Chevron (USA). Miyagi Japan 13 104
The full list of geothermal plants operators is presented in Sumatra Sibayak Indonesia 13 104
Fig. 34, with the produced energy (only for operators with gen-
eration above 200 GWh).
4.6. Manufacturer ranking

4.5. Field ranking
The turbine manufacturers for the plants currently in operation
The list of all the geothermal elds with an electric generation of are presented in Table 15 and Fig. 36. Although the Japanese compa-
at least 100 GWh is presented in Table 14. The data are also shown nies dominate the turbine business, the construction of geothermal
in Fig. 35 for the largest 12 elds. plants is practically at a stand-still in Japan.
Table 15
List of geothermal turbine manufacturers.
Company Country Total number of units Total MW MW decommissioned MW in operation MW planned
Mitsubishi Japan 100 2882 150 2628 103

Toshiba Japan 44 2746 222 2524 0
Fuji Japan 60 2387 58 2279 50
Ansaldo/Tosi Italy 72 1556 398 1158 0
Ormat Israel 174 1234 55 1152 28
General Electric/Nuovo Pignone USA 23 533 0 533 0
Alstom France 11 155 0 155 0
Associated Electrical Industries New Zealand 3 90 0 90 0
Kaluga Turbine Works Russia 11 82 0 82 0
British Thompson Houston UK 8 82 0 82 0
Ma Trench USA 6 72 0 72 0
Qingdao Jieneng China 9 62 1 21 40
Kawasaki Japan 3 16 0 16 0
Westinghouse USA 1 14 0 14 0
UTC/Turboden USA 57 14 0 13 0
Elliot New Zealand 3 13 0 10 3
Enex Iceland 2 11 0 11 0
Harbin China 2 11 0 11 0
Makrotek Mexico 1 5 0 5 0
Parsons New Zealand 1 5 0 5 0
Siemens Germany 2 4 0 4 0
Barber-Nichols Inc. USA 4 2 0 2 0
Peter Brotherhood UK 1 1 0 1 0
GMK Germany 1 0 0 0 0
Table 16 Small (binary, back pressure) about 5 MW.

Geothermal energy contribution by country in year 2010. Medium (ash plants), around 30 MW.
Country/Region % Of National/Regional capacity Large (dry Steam), 45 MW/unit.
Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea 75
Tibet, China 30
San Miguel Island, Azores, Portugal 25 Four countries installed new plants with a capacity of more than
Tuscany, Italy 25 100 MW since 2005: USA, Indonesia, Iceland and New Zealand. This
El Salvador 15 is an important signal in that the geothermal industry in these coun-
Kenya 12
Philippines 12
tries is proactive in launching new projects, and that the economic
Hawaii, Big Island, USA 11 environment provides the necessary incentives and supporting
Nicaragua 11 measures.
Guadalupe, Caribbean, France 9 The largest three companies, according to the produced electric-
Costa Rica 8
ity, are: Comisin Federal de Electricidad (Mxico), Calpine (USA)
New Zealand 6
California, USA 4 and Enel Green Power (Italy).
Table 16 shows that geothermal energy is playing a very
important in several nations/regions, and makes a signicant con-
tribution to the installed capacity.
World Geothermal Electricity
80,000 The target for hydrothermal resources of 70 GW for year 2050
is very ambitious (Fig. 37). Note that any contribution from EGS
70,000 is not included in Fig. 37. The attainment of this target will likely
60,000
require increasing the number of medium and low temperature
development projects using binary plants, and an all out effort to

50,000 develop the economically viable projects worldwide.
Assuming EGS proves to be economically viable, it may be pos-
40,000
sible to have an installed capacity of 140 GW by 2050. In this case,
30,000 geothermal will make up 8.3% of total world electricity production,
serving 17% of world population. Moreover, 40 countries (located
20,000
mostly in Africa, Central/South America, Pacic) could meet 100%
10,000 of their power needs by geothermal electricity. The overall CO2
saving from geothermal electricity will be in around 1000 million
0 tons/year.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Years
Fig. 37. Forecast of installed capacity up to year 2050. Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his gratitude to the IGA

5. Conclusions Board of Directors and to the IGA afliated organizations for their
contribution of data for this paper. The authors of the country
The 2010 worldwide installed geothermal power plant capacity update reports presented at the World Geothermal Congress 2010
is 10.9 GW, and the average capacity per unit for all the 536 units are also warmly acknowledged for their help in clarifying many
in operation is 20 MW. Typical unit values for each plant type are: points.
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Geothermal Power Generation in The World 2005-2010 Update: Geothermics

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Geothermics 41 (2012) 129

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Geothermal power generation in the world 20052010 update report

a total of 24 countries now generate electricity from geothermal resources;

Table 1 Moreover, the utilization of low temperature resources can be

MW GWh/year MW GWh/year MW MW GWh/year Capacity (%) Energy (%)

World Geothermal Electricity

Produced Electricity, GWh

Fig. 2. Worldwide installed capacity in 2010 (10.9 GW).

Fig. 3. Forecast of the installed capacity in 2015 (19.8 GW).

Installed Capacity for Direct Uses and Electricity

Fig. 4. 2010 installed capacity (electricity and direct utilization) by continent.

Installed Capacity: present value and short term forecasting

Fig. 5. 2010 installed capacity and forecast for 2015 by continent.

Number of Countries with Geothermal Electricity:

CHINA COSTA RICA

Produced Electriciy, GWh

Produced Electriciy, GWh

2.13. El Salvador (Herrera et al., 2010)

Produced Electriciy, GWh

Produced Electriciy, GWh

at Bruchsal for 0.5 MW was commissioned in 2009, and is operated

Produced Electriciy, GWh

INDONESIA production area is conrmed by the surface exploration activities

Produced Electriciy, GWh

2.23. Iran (Youse et al., 2010) 2.24.1. New projects

in operation. It is located in the northern part of Mexico, and its

MEXICO (b) Mexico

Electricity Generated, GWh

Produced Electriciy, GWh

1500 8000 6000

(a) NEW ZEALAND (b) Ngawha 2, 15MW

Installed Capacity Produced Electricity

KA24 8.3MW (2008)

8,000 Mokai 2 39MW (2005)

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0

NICARAGUA PAPUA-NEW GUINEA

Produced Electriciy, GWh

500 800 100 800

(a) PHILIPPINES (b) Philippines

Electricity Generated, GWh

production and 16 reinjection wells; the average production is

Produced Electriciy, GWh

Electricity Production, GWh

2.46.4. Hawaii 160

Table 4 Installed Capacity (MW)

GEA region Theoretical potential Technical potential Economic potential

USA 4.738 7.0 75 1.215 34.9 508

USA 2534 16,840 3098 16,603 USA 564 237 22 1

Fig. 31. Cumulative installed geothermal capacity since 1945.

Turbine Manufacturer Market

Fig. 36. Installed MW capacity by turbine manufacturer.

Country COD Geothermal eld name Nation Installed Produced energy

4.6. Manufacturer ranking

Company Country Total number of units Total MW MW decommissioned MW in operation MW planned

Mitsubishi Japan 100 2882 150 2628 103

Table 16 Small (binary, back pressure) about 5 MW.

development projects using binary plants, and an all out effort to

Fig. 37. Forecast of installed capacity up to year 2050. Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to the IGA

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