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Michael K. Rulison
(http://sites.oglethorpe.
edu/mrulison/)
Professor of Physics

Chapter 5: Telescopes
Telescopes (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/chapter-5-
telescopes/telescopes/)
Optical Telescopes
The first telescope is believed to have been constructed by a Dutch optician in 1608 or 1609. Use of the
telescope spread quickly, and Galileo was the first to put it to meaningful astronomical use. With his
30X telescope Galileo made observations which forever changed the course of astronomy and
cosmology.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/jup1/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/jup30/)
Jupiter 1X Jupiter 30X

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/moon1/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/moon30/)
Moon 1X Moon 30X

Reection and Refraction

In order to take the (essentially) parallel rays of light coming from distant astronomical objects and
bring them to a focus it is necessary to redirect them using either refraction or reflection. The light
must be focussed in order to increase its intensity. The image formed in this way can then be analyzed,
recorded, measured, etc.
Image Formation by Lens

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/prisms/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/lens1/)

Image Formation by Mirror

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/mirror1-21yva50.jpg)

Focus Focal Length

Aperture

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mruliso
n/files/2016/07/refrrefl-
2dftwgd.jpg)

Focus Focal Length Aperture

Effect on Image of Blocking Aperture

Image of Extended Source

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/imagflip-

z1fm9o.jpg)
Scale of Image

The scale of an image is the distance in the image corresponding to a certain angular distance in the
sky. For example if the image of the moon were 1 cm in size, since the moon has an angular size of
about o, the scale is 2 cm per degree. The scale of an image depends on the focal length of the lens or
mirror that produces it. The scale s in an image corresponding to 1o in the sky is given by

s = 0.01745f

Most telescopes have scales ranging from 10-200 arcsec/mm.

Brightness of Image

Brightness of an image is the amount of light energy per unit area of the image. The brightness will
determine whether or not the image is above the threshold of visibility, or in the case of a photographic
image the exposure time. The brightness of the image of an extended object increases with the
aperture of the telescope objective, but decreases with the image size.

B = (constant) X (a/f)2

Here a is the aperture and f the focal length of the objective. The constant depends on the units used
and the luminosity of the object.
Resolution

The angular size of an image of a point source of light depends on the diameter of the objective and the
wavelength of light involved. This spreading is due to diffraction. The smallest angle in arcseconds
that can just be resolved is approximately (Dawes criterion)

a = 2.1 X 105 X (l /d).

For visible wavelengths around 550 nm and d measured in meters the resolution is about

a = 0.116/d.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/resol0-1vfbfkl.gif)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/resol00-

29ifzuw.gif)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/resol1-16u3ng4.jpg)
Magnication

The magnifying power of a telescope is the ratio of the angular size of the image to the angular size of
the object. For example if a particular telescope produces an image of the moon that is 10o, then since
the angular size of the moon is o, the magnifying power is 20. The magnifying power is dependent
upon the eyepiece used.

m = fobj/feye

Aberrations
Spherical aberration
Chromatic aberration
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/chroma-

176thp2.jpg)
Coma

Telescope Designs

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/teletype-1b5zvhk.jpg)

Prime focus Newtonian focus Cassegrain

focus Coud focus

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/teltype2-

15lyvqx.jpg)

Detection and Recording

Very little astronomy is done today by actual visual inspection of telescopic images. Rather,
photographic or electronic recordings are made for detailed analysis later.
Telescopic photography

Primary astronomical detector for most of the 20th century. Using photographic plate long exposure
images can be built up of objects far too faint (100X) to be seen with the eye. Limitations of
photographic plates include non-linearity (equal differences in exposure do not produce equal
differences in darkening of the plate), saturation(with long exposures the plate becomes completely
blackened), and sensitivity (quantum efficiency of about only 1%).
Electronic detectors
Photoemissive
In this type of detector photons striking the light-sensitive surface with sufficient energy cause
electrons to be freed from the surface. A common example of this type is the photomultiplier tube
These are most commonly used in the precise determination of the brightness of stars. Photomultiplier
can be used to measure the brightness of one source at a time.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/phtomult-

22wzhrh.jpg)

Photoconductive
It is desirable to combine the quantum efficiency of the photomultiplier and the ability of a
photographic plate to image several sources (or an extended source) at once. These two characteristics
are found in the charge-coupled device (CCD). A CCD is an example of a photoconductive detector. In
this type of detector the energy of an incident photon is used to free an electron from the
photosensitive surface (made of a semi-conducting material such as silicon). The freed electron is
stored in the absorbing region. The amount of charge stored is proportional to the number of photons
which have struck this portion of the detector.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/ccd1-

1lg3olx.jpg)

CCDs have the advantage of high quantum efficiency (~60-70%), and also CCDs are sensitive to red and
near infrared radiation, while photographic plates work best in the blue region. Most astronomical
sources are brighter in the red and infrared regions. CCDs are also linear and not easily saturated.
Spectroscopy

Telescope Size
Observatory Location
The performance of a telescope is determined not only by mirror size, but also by observatory location.
This is a relatively recent realization. (Lick obs. San Francisco, Yerkes obs. So. Wisconsin, Kitt Peak
obs. <8000 ft. altitudes only, etc.)

Atmospheric Limitations
Atmospheric Limitations
Earths atmosphere places severe restrictions on observatory site locations. These are in addition to the
absorbing qualities considered earlier for various portions of the spectrum.

Weather
Observatory must be located where the weather (clouds, rain, wind, etc.) is conducive to observation.
The sky should be clear most of the time.

Humidity
Low humidity is important because the transparency of the atmosphere in the infrared part of the
spectrum is strongly dependent on water vapor content.

Darkness

Even on moonless nights, the sky is not completely dark. Near large cities and other sources of strong
artificial light the air scatters the light producing airglow which limits the faintness of stars which can
be imaged.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/uslight-

2b31vfv.jpg)

See updated image of Earths artificial lights

(http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0011/earthlights_dmsp_big.jpg)

Seeing
So-called seeing is the condition of the atmosphere with regard to the steadiness of the air. Most of
the objects of interest are so small that they should appear appear as points of light in a telescopic
image limited only by the resolving power of the telescope. However, the stability of the air can have
a significant affect on this theoretical resolution. For example star images are typically 1-2 in
diameter, and under the very best conditions only about 0.3.

When a ray of light traverses the atmosphere it encounters turbulence cells in each of which the
temperature (and density), and therefore the index of refraction, vary slightly from that in neighboring
cells. As a result the beam is slightly refracted when passing from one cell into a neighboring one. A
nearby ray will generally pass through different cells, resulting in a slightly different amount of
refraction. As a result, the two rays are no longer parallel, resulting in a smeared image or bad
seeing.

When the typical size of the turbulence cells that are present is roughly the same as the aperture of the
telescope being used, good seeing is said to exist. Conversely, turbulence cells which are small
compared with the telescope aperture result in bad seeing conditions.
While site selection can to some extent reduce bad seeing conditions, there are some additional
techniques which have recently come into use. The most promising so far has been the use of
adaptive optics, in which the variations in the atmosphere are sampled many time per second, and
the information is used to computer control the precise shape of the objective mirror of the telescope to
correct for those variations.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/adaptive-

1y78s1m.jpg)

Geographic Considerations
Clear skies 50-60% of the time, with only thin cirrus clouds an additional 25-30% of the time.

Good seeing most of the time. The most stable air is found to occur in coastal mountain ranges and on
isolated peaks surrounded by ocean. This is due to (1) the moderating effect of large bodies of water on
temperature variations, and (2) the laminar flow of air which occurs as air rises and flows over high
altitude mountain peaks. Examples: Mauna Kea, Canary Islands, Chilean coastal mountains.

Skies must be dark. Even at distances of 100 miles city lights produce a significant amount of
brightening of the sky. Thus observatories must generally be at remote sites. Note the advantages of
using low-pressure sodium lamps for city lighting.

Low humidity for infrared astronomy. Water vapor absorbs infrared strongly in the range of 2-30
microns. High altitudes place the observatory above a significant portion of the atmospheric water
vapor.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/cerroto-

1ziuv0a.jpg)

New Technology Telescopes

Refracting telescopes are severely limited by the sheer size of the pice of optical quality glass required
for the objective lens. The practical limit seems to have been reached with the 40 refractor at Yerkes
observatory. The size of a traditional reflecting telescope also is limited by the size of the objective
mirror. One limiting consideration is the weight of the mirror which must be supported without
distortion of the figure of the mirror. A second consideration is the thermal mass of the mirror. (6-m
Mt. Pastukhov) Thus the single monolithic mirror seems to be limited to around 5 meters in diameter.
Recent telescopes have pushed telescope apertures beyond these limits by using novel approaches to
telescope design. These designs include segmented mirrors (Keck I and II), multiple-mirror telescopes,
thin deformable mirrors (ESOs VLT), honey-comb mirrors.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/evening-1vni0mu.jpg)

Twin Keck Telescopes at Dusk

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/bigtele-

1arn3ft.jpg)

Radio Astronomy
History
Karl Jansky (1931) initial radio antenna array. In addition to intermittent interference from
thunderstorms, etc. observed steady static from unknown source which peaked 4 minutes earlier each
successive day. Source was determined to be Milky Way.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/jansky-

v8kydv.jpg)
Grote Reber (1936) first radio telescope designed specifically for receiving cosmic radio signals.
Contour maps of radio brightness of Milky Way. Discrete sources: galactic center, Cygnus, Cassiopeia,
sun.

After WWII rapid development of radio astronomy in Australia, Netherlands, England, and (later) US.

Detection of Cosmic Radio Energy

Note that cosmic radio waves are not modulated (as are AM and FM radio signals) and therefore have
no connection with sound.

Only the radio waves that can penetrate the ionized layers of the earths atmosphere with
wavelengths between a few millimeters and twenty meters can be detected by ground-based radio
telescopes. Radio waves induce minute currents in the metallic conductors which comprise the
antenna. These currents are then amplified by the receiver circuitry.

However, a simple radio receiving antenna is useful only for detecting the presence of a radio source,
not its direction. To determine directionality the waves must be focused. This is analogous to placing a
photographic plate on the ground during the day. The film will be exposed, confirming the presence of
a visible light source, but not producing an image or indicating the location of the source.

Radio Reecting Telescopes

Just as visible light is reflected from an optically shiny surface, radio waves are reflected by
electrically conducting surfaces. Since the same law of reflection applies, a radio reflecting telescope
consists of a parabolic reflector similar to the objective mirror in an optical reflecting telescope. The
reflecting dish may be solid, or a wire mesh. When the dish is pointed toward a radio source in the
sky, the collected radio waves are focused at the focal point of the paraboloid where the radio image is
formed.

The receiver and associated circuitry record the strength of signal at various frequencies, producing a
radio spectrum just as a spectrograph attached to an optical telescope produces an optical spectrum.
Radio astronomy enjoys several advantages over optical astronomy. In particular atmospheric seeing
conditions are not a concern, there is less dependence on weather conditions and sky brightness. At
some wavelengths observations can be made day or night. Note however

http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/2003-allochrt.pdf
(http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/2003-allochrt.pdf)

Typically, the energy emitted by a source in the radio spectrum is small compared with the energy in
the optical part of the spectrum. As a result, large apertures are the rule for radio telescopes. Note,
however, that due to the wavelengths involved, the tolerance on the shape of the dish surface is less
stringent in absolute terms than for an optical telescope. (Compare 5X10-6cm/4X10-7cm for the 5-m
Hale telescope mirror, with 3cm/25cm for a typical radio telescope dish.)

Resolving Power
Recall that the theoretical resolving power of a telescope is given by

a = 2.1 X 105 X (l /d)

Since turbulence is not a problem for radio wavelengths, this equation can be applied directly for radio
telescopes. Since radio wavelengths are about 400,000 times longer than visible wavelengths, a radio
telescope would have to be 400,000 times larger than an optical telescope to achieve comparable
resolution. For a resolution of 1 at 20 cm wavelength an aperture of 40 km is required!! The largest
steerable radio telescopes today are about 100 m in diameter. At 20 cm such a telescope has a
resolution of 400 far worse than the human eye.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/arecibo1/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/arecibo2/)
Old Arecibo Radio Telescope New Arecibo Radio Telescope

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/greenbnk/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/mp100/)
Green Bank 100-m (constr.) Max Planck 100-m

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/radiolst-

13n7vec.jpg)

See http://www.nrao.edu/ (http://www.nrao.edu/) for the National Radio Astronomy Observatory page.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/site-

1p8v3jj.gif)

Interferometry
Radio Interferometry
To overcome the practical limitations on resolving power of radio telescopes, two or more radio
telescopes can be employed in the technique of interferometry. The resulting resolution in this
arrangement is determined by the telescope separation rather than individual apertures.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/intf1-

1jezkgb.jpg)

Two separated dishes will (in general) receive waves from the same source at slightly different times.
The waves will thus be out of phase with each other. This phase in turn depends on the angle to the
source in the sky. Thus the direction of the radio source along the axis or baseline between the two
telescopes can be determined much more accurately than with a single telescope. This is known as
aperture synthesis.

Interferometer Arrays
For example, the VLA (Very Large Array) uses Y-shaped array of 27 telescopes, each of aperture 25
meters which can be arranged to span roughly 36 km. Thus the VLA achieves a resolution comparable
to that of optical telescopes.

An even more ambitious application of the interferometry concept is found in VLBI (Very Long
Baseline Interferometry). Using very widely separated radio telescopes in conjunction with an
extremely precise standard clock, the interferometry technique can be applied over distances of
several thousand kilometers. (VLBA for example) The resulting resolution is a few ten-thousandths of
an arcsecond far surpassing optical telescopes. It is possible that in the future radio telescopes in
orbit will allow for effective apertures exceeding the limitations currently imposed by the size of the
earth.
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/vlba-

1dl0ere.jpg)

Radar Astronomy
While radio astronomy involves detection of radio waves emitted by astronomical objects, radar
astronomy uses transmitted radio waves which are reflected off the object of interest. This method can
be used to determine distances to obects very precisely, as well as their size, surface features, and
composition. Note particularly Mercury and Venus, comet nuclei, asteroids, planetary moons and ring
systems. Note the ability to control the transmitted radio wave characteristics. Arecibo dish is used in
this active mode as well as the traditional passive mode.

Observing Other Portions of the Spectrum

Chromoscope (http://www.chromoscope.net/)

You may find it helpful to view the Electronic Picture Book, Windows on Orion, at this point.

To obtain software necessary to use the Electronic Picture Books go to:

ftp://ftp.stsci.edu/pub/ExInEd/windows_epb/runtime.exe
(ftp://ftp.stsci.edu/pub/ExInEd/windows_epb/runtime.exe)

The Electronic Picture Books themselves can be downloaded from:

http://www.stsci.edu/exined/exined.home.html (http://www.stsci.edu/exined/exined.home.html)

Infrared Astronomy
Infrared Portion of Spectrum

Infrared (IR) radiation lies in the wavelength range from about 0.7 m to the short end of the radio
spectrum at about 1 mm. This portion of the spectrum includes what is usually referred to as heat
radiation. Sources which emit primarily in this range will have temperatures of 50K-1000K. This
temperature range includes interstellar material, regions where stars are forming, dust clouds near the
centers of active galaxies, and planets.

Earths atmosphere is to some degree opaque in the infrared range, depending largely on the amount of
water vapor present. From the end of the visible band at 0.7 m to about 2.5 m the same techniques
used for visible astronomy are applicable. The same telescopes may actually be used, but with slightly
modified detecting equipment. (Recall properties of CCDs however.)
Often the term infrared astronomy is used to refer to the range from 1 m to 40 m. Here the
atmosphere gradually becomes to opaque for even low humidity conditions. The short wavelength
part of this range was first investigated by Kuiper in the 1940s using detectors designed by the military
in WWII. Later in the 1960s Leighton and Neugebauer completed a full-sky survey at 2.2 m using a
specially designed 1.6 m telescope on Mt. Wilson.
Telescopes and Instrumentation

Basically the same structure is used for an IR telescope as for a visible telescope. IR radiation must be
focused by mirrors rather than lenses. For wavelengths below 2.5 m large optical telescopes are also
used for IR observations.

Below 2.5 m differences become important. Since surface temperatures on the earth are about 300K
and the atmosphere is only slightly cooler, the surroundings of the telescope are radiating strongly at
about 10 m. To see weak astronomical IR sources through this haze of environmental IR radiation is
difficult. To shield the IR detector (just as one shields a photographic film from light) from this
pervasive heat radiation requires that it be isolated in very cold surroundings (liquid He ~4K).

A second problem involves radiation from the telescope structure and optics. To reduce IR emission
from these, the optics are kept extremely clean, and the detector is designed to only look out through
the optics at the sky, not seeing the structure itself.

Finally, the IR emission of the sky atmosphere itself must be considered. Ideally, observations are made
from as great an elevation as possible. The sky must be cloudless, since clouds are strong sources of IR
radiation. Usually the brightness of an astronomical source is compared with the surrounding sky
brightness, so that only the differential brightness is measured.
Airborne Observatories

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/kao4/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/kao3/)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/kao1/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/kao2/)

The Kuiper Airborne Observatory site is at: http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/lfs/lfshp.html

(http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/lfs/lfshp.html)
The joint US/Germany SOFIA project site is at:

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/SOFIA/index.html
(https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/SOFIA/index.html)
IR Telescopes in Space

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/iras/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/sirtf/)
IRAS SIRTF

The Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (SIRTF) site is at: http://sirtf.caltech.edu/

(http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/
files/2016/07/cobe_satellite-
1bjsph4.gif)

COBE

The Cosmic Background Explorer site is at: http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/astro/cobe/cobe_home.html

(http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/cobe/)
Ground-Based Observatories
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/ukirt_banner-1yox060.gif)
Sub-Millimeter Astronomy

One of last-explored regions of the spectrum is the sub-millimeter range. Radio astronomers work with
wavelengths as small as about 1 mm, where there are a few intervals of atmospheric transparency.
Observers on Mauna Kea have found that when humidity is low there is sufficient transparency to use
two additional bands at 0.3 mm and 0.7 mm. This is an important range since many components of
interstellar gas (CO and other organic molecules) emit primarily in this sub-millimeter range. (UKIRT,
IRAM, Nobeyama)

See the NASAs Infrared Processing and Analysis Center page at Cal Tech at:
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/education_resources
(http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/education_resources)

High-Energy Astronomy
The atmosphere is completely opaque at wavelengths less than 0.3 m. Thus all ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray,
and gamma ray observations must be made from space-based observatories. This was first done in
1946 with captured German V2 rockets, used to examine the far-UV radiation from the sun. Many
rockets have been used since to explore the UV and X-Ray regions. Beginning in the 1960s earth-
orbiting satellites (including Skylab, Spacelab/Shuttle, and MIR) have been used for such observations.
Ultraviolet Observatories

UV telescopes are similar to optical telescopes, except that the reflecting surfaces need special coatings
having high UV reflectivity.

OAO2 (Orbiting Astronomical Observatory) 1968 [0.12m-0.4m]

OAO Copernicus 1972 [0.8 m UV telescope and 3 small X-Ray telescopes]

Many initial discoveries about the temperature, composition, structure of interstellar gas.

IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer) 1978 [0.115 m 0.32 m; exposure times up to 15 hrs]

The IUE archive can be visited at: http://archive.stsci.edu/iue/ (http://archive.stsci.edu/iue/)

EUE (Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer) 1992 [0.007 m 0.076 m]

UV quarter moon UV Cygnus Supernova Remnant
 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy- (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/astronomy-
web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/uvmoon/) web-lecture-notes/chapter-5-telescopes/uvcygnus/)
UV quarter moon UV Cygnus Supernova Remnant

X-Ray Observatories

X-Rays have wavelengths less than about 0.01 m. In this range (especially) astronomers often refer to
the energy carried by each photon of EM radiation rather than the wavelength. For example, a photon
of wavelength 0.01 m has an energy of about 100 eV (electron volts) or 0.1 keV. X-Rays are typically
emitted from gases at very high temperatures of 106K 108K. X-Rays were first detected from space by
rocket- and balloon-borne instruments, but X-Ray astronomy rapidly advanced with the launch of the
Uhuru observatory (1970-1973), charting ~200 X-Ray sources.

In 1978 HEAO2 the Einstein Observatory was launched. To focus X-Rays they must be reflected at
small angles from very highly polished surfaces. 0.6 m aperture equivalent to a 2.5 m aperture due to
grazing incidence.

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mruli
son/files/2016/07/heao-2-
10fhhsg.gif)

HEAO2 Einstein X-Ray

Observatory
(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/heao2_diagram-1s8be0v.gif)

HEAO2 Schematic Diagram

Gamma Ray Observatories

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/
2016/07/rosat-2cyv5zs.jpg)

Rosat Image of Tychos Supernova

Hubble Space Telescope

 (http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/hubble3-

1m7xao7.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/hubble1-ofsg6h.jpg)

(http://sites.oglethorpe.edu/mrulison/files/2016/07/hubble2-

1818x3v.jpg)

The NASA Multi-Mission Data Archive is at: http://archive.stsci.edu/mast.html

(http://archive.stsci.edu/mast.html)

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