REINFORCEMENT

Introduction

Education aims at full development of an individuals potentialities, abilities, skills

as well attitudes, values and personality. But due to lack of motivation and other
factors the expected level of objectives are not achieved. In such a situation,
reinforcement principles may prove to be useful.

Meaning

1. The act or process of reinforcing.

2. Something that reinforces.
3. The occurrence or experimental introduction of an unconditioned stimulus
along with a conditioned stimulus.
4. The strengthening of a conditioned response by such means.
5. An event, a circumstance, or a condition that increases the likelihood that a
given response will recur in a situation like that in which the reinforcing condition
originally occurred.

Concept of reinforcement

Reinforcement is an event that increases behavior OR Reinforcement refers to any

environmental event that increases the probability of a response. The
environmental event acts as a stimulus or reinforce which is presented to a
particular person before or after she makes a response. The responses produced
in connection with a particular stimulus show the change in behavior of the
student nurse so as to prepare her for the practice of nursing in the clinical field.

In the reinforcement procedure, a stimulus is either added or withdrawn from the

environment. The resultant effect is evident in the future behavior.

Nature of reinforcement

Unlike primary reinforcement (as reinforcing the value of food for hunger), most
reinforcement used in education is secondary or learned. Money, affection,
approval and attention are appropriate examples. Another major secondary
reinforce within the educators control is confirmation or knowledge of results.
Knowing that you have behaved correctly or adequately is highly reinforcing. Self
instructional programmed material is sequenced by such small steps as to
virtually ensure correct responses and subsequent reinforcement the learner
derives from knowledge of his correctness.

Types of reinforcement
Reinforcement comes in two typespositive and negative.

Positive reinforcement occurs when desired behavior is strengthened by the

presentation of a contingent stimulus. The attractive, behavior-increasing,
contingent stimulus used during positive reinforcement is referred to as a positive
reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is defined as any environmental event that, when
given in response to the behavior, increases the strength and frequency of that
behavior. Some commonly used positive reinforcers in the classroom are praise,
attention, tokens, and stickers.

e.g:- A first year student nurse would feed a patient through ryles tube more
efficiently if her clinical instructor approves and appreciates her nursing activity.
Here the correct response/desired behavior has been rewarded, hence, there is
modification of behavior.

Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is

stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior/ the taking away of an
aversive stimulus to increase certain behavior or response.

e.g :- Driving in heavy traffic is a negative condition for most of us. You leave
home earlier than usual one morning, and don't run into heavy traffic. You leave
home earlier again the next morning and again you avoid heavy traffic. Your
behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the
avoidance of heavy traffic.

Turning off distracting music when trying to work. If the work increases when the
music is turned off, turning off the music is a negative reinforcer.

Types of reinforcers

Primary reinforcers

A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus

that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has
obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.
Examples of primary reinforcers include sleep, food, air, water, and sex. Some
primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary
reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and
across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due
to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one
type of food while another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food while
another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both
individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.
Secondary reinforcers

A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or

situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus
that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or
another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary
reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound
of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the
sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an
organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.

Reinforcement schedules

The effectiveness of reinforcement programs is determined not only by

establishing close temporal relation between reinforcement and behavior and by
type of reinforcement selected, but also by scheduling or frequency of
reinforcement. In skinners opinion, reinforcement should be continuous as
possible, occurring after every response. Research on reinforcement schedules
shows that continuous reinforcement contributes to the most rapid acquisition of
behavior but does not engender the most retention strength

Fixed ration schedule (FR) Response occur at certain number of times before
reinforcement occurs.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Subjects are reinforced after a variable number of responses.

Fixed Interval schedule

No reinforcement is given until certain interval of time has elapsed. The first
response after the time interval results in the reinforcement and then no more
reinforcement is given again until the first response after the interval has
elapsed again.

Variable interval Schedule

Based on time, Individual are reinforced for the first response they make after
various time intervals have passed.

Influence of B.F Skinner on education

Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying
"Teachers must learn how to teach ... they need only to be taught more effective
ways of teaching." Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is more effective
at changing and establishing behavior than punishment, with obvious implications
for the then widespread practice of rote learning and punitive discipline in
education. This is where Skinner's teaching machine came into play since it
reinforced learning, but there was question as to whether it truly benefited
learning or hindered it by making students act like robots. Skinner also suggests
that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment.
In The Technology of Teaching, Skinner has a chapter on why teachers fail (pages
93113): Essentially he says that teachers have not been given an in-depth
understanding of teaching and learning. Without knowing the science
underpinning teaching, teachers fall back on procedures that work poorly or not at
all, such as:

using aversive techniques (which produce escape and avoidance and

undesirable emotional effects);

relying on telling and explaining ("Unfortunately, a student does not learn

simply when he is shown or told." p. 103);

failing to adapt learning tasks to the student's current level;

failing to provide positive reinforcement frequently enough.

Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught. The steps are

1. Clearly specify the action or performance the student is to learn to do.

2. Break down the task into small achievable steps, going from simple to
complex.

3. Let the student perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.

4. Adjust so that the student is always successful until finally the goal is
reached.

5. Transfer to intermittent reinforcement to maintain the student's

performance.

According to skinner, reinforcement must immediately follow a response if it is to

be effective. Delayed reinforcement is much less effective in modifying behavior.

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

Educational practice and current reinforcement principles

Shortcomings
Behavior is dominated by
aversion, simulation, i.e student
usually learns to avoids the threat.
Because of improper planning
there is absence of programme of
continuous reinforcement
Great lapse of time between
behavior and its reinforcement
Infrequency of reinforcement
Suggested improvement
Teacher can use a combination of
positive and negative
reinforcements. A teachers job is
to persistent and independent
behavior by application of
reinforcement and then withdraw
them gradually. This approach
makes the activity itself a
reinforcing factor for students and
develops in them intrinsic
motivation.
Teacher can use reinforcement
continuously to observe its effect
of behavior and may change it if
necessary for instance to low
grade student is found to do
better in nursing practice once she
is appreciated and approved. She
can be continuously approved or
rewarded for her best
performance so that she reaches
average level.
It is best to reinforce the desired
behavior immediately and
appropriately e.g:- daily evaluation
of the students on the tast taken
at the end of month/session.
Learning efficiency often increases
if the student received feedback
on the quality of her efforts.
A teacher can use a variety of
reinforcements throughout the
learning process because a simple
nod/smile may have different
meaning for different students.
E.g:- a teacher can use verbal
reinforcement along with gestures.
Micro-teaching techniques of
student-teachers can prove
effective in improving the skill of
 reinforcement and interaction.

Teacher cannot schedule She can plan her teaching process

reinforcement in crowded syllabus and can utilize different schedules
of reinforcement process and can
modify it whenever and whatever
it is necessary.

Reinforcement is not generalized A teacher needs to reinforce her

across time and setting students at the place of work e.g:-
she can improve communication
skill of a preliminary student, while
she interacts with patients and not
necessarily while delivering health
talk to a group of patients.
How to Change Behavior through reinforcement
I. Four ways to change behavior
a. Decrease behavior
i. Punishment get something you dont want (e.g. a
verbal reprimand)
ii. Penalty lose something you do want (freedom to
choose how you complete a job)
b. Increase behavior
i. Negative Reinforcement escape or avoid something
you dont want (e.g. someone yelling at you)
ii. Positive Reinforcement get something you want (e.g.
praise, recognition, monetary bonus)

II. Advantages and disadvantages of punishment and penalty

a. Advantages
i. Changes behavior very quickly, especially if the
punisher is severe
ii. Could lead to the behavior completely stopping
b. Disadvantages
i. Doesnt tell people what to do; it just tells them what not
to do 1

ii. Negative emotional reactions

III. Advantages and disadvantages of negative reinforcement

a. Advantages
i. Increase behavior
ii. Provides compliance to minimum standards of
performance1
b. Disadvantages 1
 i. Only produces enough to meet minimums (will not
provide maximum behavior). People experiencing negative
reinforcement will only work as hard as they have to in order to
avoid the consequences; does not encourage their maximum effort
ii. Negative emotional reactions

IV. Advantages of positive reinforcement

a. Advantages
i. Increase behavior
ii. Maximizes performance
iii. sustains change for a long period of time (if reinforcers
continue to occur)
iv. No negative emotional reactions
b. Disadvantages
Too much positive reinforcement can lead to fatigue or praise
overload, Perone states, which can diminish the results. Positive
enforcement that is administered haphazardly can also cause
problems

V. Positive reinforcement is the best alternative to changing behavior because it

produces the greatest increase in behavior, it is rewarding to the person and
does not produce negative reactions, and will sustain overtime (assuming
that the positive reinforcement continues)

VI. Steps to finding positive reinforcers consequences are defined as positive or

negative by the person receiving them
a. Try something smile at someone or say good job and see if it
increases their behavior
b. Ask them ask him what would be positively reinforcing, but be careful
because asking might lead him to expect to get whatever he says will
reinforce him (like more money) and it may not be something that is
realistic
c. Observe watch a person and see what he spends time doing; what
he appears to like, then use that to positively reinforce him

VII. Sources of positive reinforcement

a. Work-related reinforced by task alone
b. Peer-related
c. Management-related

VIII. Ways to effectively give positive reinforcement

a. Make sure what you give IS actually reinforcing to that person
b. Give the reinforcer only when the behavior is exhibited
c. Give the reinforcer immediately after the behavior
d. Give the reinforcer frequently (when the behavior occurs)
 e. Dont use positive reinforcement as an opportunity to criticize by
sandwiching (e.g. you did great this time, next time I want to see a
10% increase, I know you have it in you)

Reinforcement for improving the quality of patient care

Reinforcement can prove to be an ideal method for improving and modifying the
behavior of students who are new to the nursing profession.

The quality of the patient care can be improved if the nursing staff are awarded
for their performances. Aggarwal (1972), in a study found that nurses who are
rewarded very little for their outstanding performance were least satisfied which
affects the quality of patient care. The verbal and non verbal behavior of the
nursing superintendent can be reinforcing factor in shaping the behavior of nurses
in the wards.

Conclusion

Reinforcement plays an important role in encouraging creative behavior. Teachers

being powerful reinforcing agents can effect creative behavior among nursing
students by the demands they make on student by the expectations they have
form them and by their reactions.

It is best method for modifying behavior with respect to independent study

methods and if practice teaching is combined with positive reinforcement it can
enhance autonomy and confidence in decision making in patient care situations
through its importance diminishes somewhat in higher learning situation because
successful learning at these levels generates its own feedback.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

N.H. Azrin , M.D. Wesolowski, A reinforcement plus interruption method of

eliminating behavioral stereotypy of profoundly retarded persons, Behaviour
Research and Therapy, Volume 18, Issue 2, 1980, Pages 113-119

Stereotyped responses have been shown to be eliminated by an

overcorrection-reinforcement program. The present study evaluated
response-interruption as an alternative to the overcorrection component
with seven profoundly retarded adults. During the baseline praise condition,
stereotypy occurred during 66% of the observations for the seven profoundly
retarded adults but decreased to less than one response per half hour in a
mean of two sessions of individual training. In the subsequent class
situation, stereotypy was reduced to less than 5% on the first day of class, to
less than 1% by the fourth day and less than one stereotypy per hour after
 the third day. The interruption method seems preferable to postural
overcorrection because of its apparent and relative nonaversiveness

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Joyce Bruce, Well Marsha. Reinforcement. Models Of Teaching, Prentice Hall,

New Jersy, 1972,Pp 72-74.

Ms. Munjra Kachroo. Reinforcement as a teaching method in nursing

education. nursing journal of India, volume 85, 1994, pp:207-209.

Aggarwal, K.C. a Comparative Study Of Levels Of Job Satisfaction Of Nurses

In Medical College Associated Group Of Hospital At Ajmer, Rajasthan.
Unpublished Masters Thesis, University Of Delhi,1972.

Munley, M.J. Baccalaureate Nursing Students and Decision Making Doctoral

Thesis, Columbia University, 1975.

Sharma, R.K. The Place Of Reinforcement, A Paper Presented At National

Symposium On Child Centered Education, October 10-12, New Delhi;
Ncert,1988/Pp 593-610.

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