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In this work, an effort has been designed to raise the reliability of engine
fuel efficiency using Al-Si composites with other alternatively materials
for the Bumper guides. Aluminium matrix composites have found the
most suitable inside automotive, aerospace and aircraft industries and
contain the greatest promise for future years growth.
INTRODUCTION
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
II. Bumper
The bumper is a safety system is used to observe the low speed collision. It is
placed in car body. The car bumper is designed to prevent or reduce physical
damage to the front and rear ends of passenger motor vehicles in low-speed
collisions.
Automobile bumpers are not typically designed to be structural components that
would significantly contribute to vehicle crashworthiness or occupant protection
during front or rear collisions. It is not a safety feature intended to prevent or
mitigate injury severity to occupants in the passenger cars. Bumpers are
designed to protect the hood, trunk, grille, fuel, exhaust and cooling system as
well as safety related equipment such as parking lights, headlamps and taillights
in low speed collisions. The national highway traffic safety administration
(NHTSA) produces some bumper standard to the light passenger vehicle. The
bumper standard, prescribes performance requirements for passenger cars in
low-speed front and rear collisions. It applies to front and rear bumpers on
passenger cars to prevent the damage to the car body and safety related
equipment. The bumper standards are,
The front and rear bumpers on passenger cars should prevent the damage
to the car body.
Bumper should withstand at a speed of 2 mph across the full width and 1
mph on the corners.
Bumper should also withstand 5 mph crash into a parked vehicle.
Placement of the bumper is 16 to 20 inches above the road surface. So all
bumpers should satisfy the above standards.
In recent days, various materials like composites are experimented in almost all
parts of the automobiles and it has also ventured into bumper. Due to reduction
in weight, composite materials are preferred over conventional steel bumper.
Composite bumper absorbs more collusion energy than steel bumper.
Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In their paper says that bumper beams are one of the main structures of
passenger cars that protect them from front and rear collisions. In this paper, a
commercial front bumper beam made of glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) is
studied and characterized by impact modeling using according to the E.C.E.
UNITED NATIONS AGREEMENT [UNITED NATIONS AGREEMENT,
Uniform Provisions concerning the Approval of Vehicles with regards to their
Front and Rear Protective Devices (Bumpers, etc.), E.C.E., 1994]. Three main
design factors for this structure: shape, material and impact condition are
studied and the results are compared with conventional metals like steel and
aluminum. Finally the aforementioned factors are characterized by proposing a
high strength SMC bumper instead of the current GMT. In this paper,
Marzbanrad JM et.al
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Chapter-3
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Introduction of composites
Examples:
CLASSIFICATION
HYBRID:
Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the
main commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:
Matrix materials:
Reinforcement materials:
Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina
C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.
Applications:
Advantages:
Uses of composites
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.
Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium
APPLICATIONS
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
Chapter-4
Most modern cars use a reinforced thermoplastic bumper, as they are cheap to
manufacture, easy to fit and absorb more energy during a crash. A majority of
car bumpers are custom made for a specific model, so if you are looking to
replace a cracked bumper with a similar one, you would have to buy from a
specialist dealer. However, many companies now offer alternative designs in
thermoplastic, with a range of fittings designed for different models.
Modified cars often now have a full body kit rather than just a front and rear
bumper. These kits act as a skirt around the entire body of the car and improve
performance by reducing the amount of air flowing underneath the car and so
reducing drag. Due to each car's specifications, these have to be specially
purchased and can be made from thermoplastic, like a standard bumper, or even
out of carbon fiber.
4.3 Carbon Fiber Bumper
Carbon fiber body work is normally the thing of super-cars, but many car
companies, and specialist modifiers, are starting to use it for replacement body
part on everyday cars. This is because it is very light and is safe during a crash.
It is, however, a lot more expensive than normal thermoplastic.
Originally plated steel was used for the entire body of a car, including the
bumper. This material worked well, as it was very strong in a crash, but it was
very heavy and dented performance. As car engine design has improved, steel
bumpers have pretty much disappeared for anything except classic cars.
Replacing one involves a lot of searching for scrap cars or having one specially
made. Improving passenger car damageability and repairability has been an
important RCAR topic since the Council was established in 1972.
Such sub-optimised designs are in most cases not robust and often lead to
expensive damage in car-to-car crashes. Insurance claims data indicate that rear
bumpers are often under-ridden by a striking vehicle due to bumper system
instability or vertical dive of vehicles during braking. In these cases it is
desirable to have bumper systems that have sufficient vertical overlap to
maintain engagement. To this end, bumpers should ideally be mounted at
slightly different heights front and rear but have sufficient height to maintain
engagement over a wide range of circumstances. However, insurance data also
show that rear bumpers are overridden when struck by high ride-height vehicles
(SUVs, pickup trucks). Vehicle damageability would be improved in both these
situations with taller front and rear bumper beams.
The above can be achieved by introducing better design concept, better material
and effective manufacturing process. Steel bumper have many advantages such
as good load carrying capacity. In spite of its advantages, it stays back in low
strength to weight ratio. It is reported that weight reduction with adequate
improvement of mechanical properties has made composites as a viable
replacement material for Al-Ni-Si. In the present work, the steel bumper used in
passenger vehicles is replaced with a composite bumper made of composites.
The thickness of the composite bumper is calculated by bending moment
equation and other dimensions for both steel and composite bumper is
considered to be the same. The objective was to compare the stress, weight, and
cost savings.
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are
1. Aluminium alloy(6063)
2. Silicon carbide
3. Nickel alloy
ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable has wide variety
of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective
to heat and light.
The history of the light metal industry, as that of many other industries in this
century, is one of notable and ever accelerating expansion and development.
There are few people today who are not familiar with at least some modern
application of aluminium and its alloys.
The part it plays in our everyday life is such that it is difficult to realise
that a century ago the metal was still a comparative. The excellent corrosion
resistance of pure aluminium is largely due to its affinity for oxygen; this results
in the production of a very thin but tenacious oxide film which covers the
surface as soon as a freshly cut piece of the metal is exposed to the atmosphere.
This oxide coating is of great significance in the production of practically every
type of surface finish for the metal. It is, of course, the basis of what is probably
the most corrosion-resistant finish of all, namely, that group of finishes which
involves the technique of anodic oxidation in its varied forms.
Effect of aluminium
Corrosion of aluminium
Whilst aluminium and its alloys generally have good corrosion resistance,
localised forms of corrosion can occur, and it is important to understand the
factors contributing to these of corrosion. Corrosion may be defined as the
reaction between a metal and its immediate environment, which can be natural
or chemical in origin. The most recognisable form of corrosion is, perhaps, the
rusting of iron. All metals react with natural environments but the extent to
which this happens can vary; for noble metals like gold the amount is
insignificant whereas for iron it is considerable. Aluminium is no exception but,
fortunately, it has the propensity of self passivation and for many applications
corrosion is not a problem.
PROPERTIES OF AL-ALLOY
(i) Heat treatable and age hardenable.
Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability, it is not
only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has
been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example
of its structural use was the aluminum bridge. (Gilbert Kaufman, 2000). The
alloy has versatile application as given below
Pressure vessels
Pipelines
Cryogenic tanks
Properties value
Elastic Modulus 69000 N/mm2
Poisson's Ratio 0.33
Thermal Expansions Co-efficient 2.4x10-5 /K
Thermal Conductivity 170 w/mk
Specific Heat 1300 J/kg k
2. SILICON CARBIDE
Silicon carbide is formed in two ways, reaction bonding and sintering. Each
forming method greatly affects the end microstructure. Reaction bonded SiC is
made by infiltrating compacts made of mixtures of SiC and carbon with liquid
silicon. The silicon reacts with the carbon forming more SiC which bonds the
initial SiC particles. Sintered SiC is produced from pure SiC powder with non
oxide sintering aids.
The high thermal conductivity coupled with low thermal expansion and
high strength give this material exceptional thermal shock resistant qualities.
Silicon carbide ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain
their strength to very high temperatures, approaching 1600C with no strength
loss. Chemical purity, resistance to chemical attack at temperature, and strength
retention at high temperatures has made this material very popular as wafer tray
supports and paddles in semiconductor furnaces.
The electrical conduction of the material has lead to its use in resistance
heating elements for electric furnaces, and as a key component in thermostats
(temperature variable resistors) and in varistors (voltage variable resistors).
Low density
High strength
Good high temperature strength (Reaction bonded)
Oxidation resistance (Reaction bonded)
Excellent thermal shock resistance
High hardness and wear resistance
Excellent chemical resistance
Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity
Typical silicon carbide applications include:
Fixed and moving turbine components
Seals, bearings, pump vanes
Ball valve parts
Wear plates
Kiln furniture
Heat exchangers
Semiconductor wafer processing equipment
Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and
carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and
made into grinding wheels and other abrasive products for over one hundred
years. Today the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade
ceramic with very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives,
refractories, ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. The
material can also be made an electrical conductor and has applications in
resistance heating, flame igniters and electronic components. Structural and
wear applications are constantly developing.
Properties value
METHODS
Melt stirring is used to stir the reinforcement particles into an alloy melt. The
particles often tend to form agglomerates, which can only be dissolved by
intense stirring. Atmospheric gas access into the melt is avoided as it leads to
unwanted porosities or reactions. To avoid dissolution of the reinforcement
components attention must be paid to the dispersion of the reinforcement
components, temperature of the melt and the duration of stirring, as it could lead
to dissolution of the reinforcement component. Because of the lower surface to
volume ratio of spherical particles, reactivity is usually less critical with stirred
particle reinforcement than with fibers. The melt can be cast directly or
processed with alternative procedures such as squeeze casting.
STIR CASTING
The composites were prepared by stir casting process. Shows schematic
diagram the original setup of the stir casting process. Resistance furnace with a
temperature range of 3000 C was used to melt the matrix material. The furnace
has a temperature controller with k type thermocouple to control and measure
the temperature. An electric motor is fixed at the top of the furnace to provide
stirring motion to the stirrer. The speed of the stirrer can be varied as the setup
has a speed controller attached to it.
In stir casting process the following procedure was adopted for the preparation
of composites. Explains the stir casting process in detail. Aluminium alloy 6063
is cut and weighed to obtain the correct weight as per the stoichio metric
calculations. The metals are then taken in to a crucible along with the coverall.
The furnace is heated to a temperature of 800 C and is constantly maintained at
that temperature throughout the process.
Heat treatment of the particles before dispersion into the melt aids their transfer
by causing desorption of adsorbed gases from the particle surface. Heating
silicon carbide particles to 1000 C. Preheating of SiC particles removing surface
Impurities and in the desorption of gases, and alters the surface composition by
forming an oxide layer on the surface. The addition of pre-heated SiC particles
in Al and Ni melt has been found to improve the wettability property. A clean
surface of SiC provides a better opportunity for melt particles interaction, and
thus, enhances wetting.
When the absorbed hydrogen is unable to escape from the molten metal,
it results in the formation of blow holes.
When coverall 65 is added, it forms a thin film over the molten metal and
prevents contact of molten metal with the atmosphere.
The material is stirred with 300 rpm for thirty minutes. The stirred metal is then
slowly poured into the die which is preheated to a temperature of 973 C. The die
is allowed to cool in air for two hours and then the specimen is removed.
Solution Treatment
During casting low cooling rate of the alloy allows for the strengthening of
aluminium phase to precipitate out of solution and grow into large incoherent
phases within the matrix. In the as cast structure, the large, incoherent nature of
the aluminium phase does little to increase the strength of the alloy. To obtain
finely dispersed AL-Ni-Si, a solution heat treatment should be conducted on the
alloy.
One of the most advantageous reasons for considering their use over steel
is their reduced weight.
Absorb more collision energy.
Excellent corrosion resistance.
High impact strength
It should have good rust resistance.
It should have high strength.
Light in weight.
Easy to manufacture in large quantity.
Low cost.
Chapter-5
SELECTION OF TEST
Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are
used in selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties
frequently are included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile
properties often are measured during development of new materials and
processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Finally,
tensile properties often are used to predict the behavior of a material under
forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.
Stressstraincurves,includingdiscussionsofelasticversusplastic
deformation,yieldpoints,andductility
Truestressandstrain
Testmethodologyanddataanalysis
Itshouldbenotedthatsubsequentchapterscontainmoredetailedinformationon
thesetopics.
Consider the typical tensile specimen. It has enlarged ends or shoulders for
gripping. The important part of the specimen is the gage section. The cross-
sectional area of the gage section is reduced relative to that of the remainder of
the specimen so that deformation and failure will be localizedinthisregion.
The gage length is the region over which measurements are made and is
centeredwithinthereducedsection.Thedistancesbetweentheendsofthegage
sectionandtheshouldersshouldbegreatenoughsothatthelargerendsdonot
constraindeformationwithinthegagesection,andthegagelengthshouldbe
greatrelativetoitsdiameter.Otherwise,thestressstatewillbemorecomplex
than simple tension. Detailed descriptions of standard specimen shapes are
giveninChapter3andinsubsequentchaptersontensiletestingofspecific
materials.
Tensile Strength
The tensile test of the composites was performed as per the ASTM D3039
standards. The test was done using a universal testing machine (Tinius Olsen
H10KS).The specimen of required dimension was cut from the composite cast.
The test was conducted at a constant strain rate of 2 mm/min. The tensile test
arrangement is shown in figure
Tensile test is used to determine the tensile strength of the specimen, %
elongation of length and % reduction of area. Tensile test is usually carried out
in universal testing machine.
Tensile strength
Yield strength
% Elongation
% Reduction
HARDNESS TEST
This gives the metals ability to show resistance to indentation which show its
resistance to wear and abrasion. Hardness testing of welds and their Heat
Affected Zones (HAZs) usually requires testing on a microscopic scale using a
diamond indenter. The Vickers Hardness test is the predominant test method
with Knoop testing being applied to HAZ testing in some instances. Hardness
values referred to in this document will be reported in terms of Vickers Number,
HV.
TOUGHNESS TEST
The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in
fracturing the specimen. Energy expended during fracture is sometimes known
as notch toughness. The energy expended will be high for complete ductile
fracture, while it is less for brittle fracture. However, it is important to note that
measurement of energy expended is only a relative energy, and cannot be used
directly as design consideration. Another common result from the Charpy test is
by examining the fracture surface. It is useful in determining whether the
fracture is fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage fracture), or a mixture of
both.
Fracture toughness test
APPLICATIONS
Automobile components
Chapter-7
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/procedures/TP- 581-01.pdf.
http://www.google.com/patents/about/6817638_Bumper_system.html?
idc1gQAAAAEBAJ