Lecture 2: Review of Limits and Continuity II

Aug. 28, 2015

Lecturer: Chandra Vaidyanathan

1 Limits
Theorem 1. Limits of Polynomials can be found by substitution

If P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a0 , then

lim P (x) = P (x0 ) = an xn0 + an1 x0n1 + . . . + a0
xx0

Theorem 2. Limits of Rational Functions can be found by substitution, if the denominator is not zero

If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials, and Q(x0 ) 6= 0, then

P (x) P (x0 )
lim =
xx0 Q(x) Q(x0 )
Remark 1. The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational functions is not zero at
the limit point. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator
will sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at x0 . When this happens,
we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.
x2 + x 2
EXERCISE: 1.1. Evaluate lim
x1 x2 x

2+h 2
EXERCISE: 1.2. Find lim
h0 h

Remark 2. The above example is the definition of the derivative of x at x0 = 2. We shall dwell more on
this in later classes.
Theorem 3. The Sandwich Theorem
Suppose that g(x) f (x) h(x), for all x, in some open interval containing x0 , except possibly at
x = x + 0 itself. Suppose also that

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L.

xx0 xx0

Then, lim f (x) = L.

xx0

EXAMPLE: 1.1. Given that

x2 x2
1 u(x) 1 + for all x 6= 0
4 2
find lim u(x).
x0

EXERCISE: 1.3. Show that if lim |f (x)| = 0, then lim f (x) = 0.

xx0 xx0

1
1.3 Infinite Limits
We get infinite limits, when f (x) lies far away from any number L, rather than be close to L, as x approaches
x0 . Hence, the formal definition for Infinite limits are as follow:

lim f (x) = ,
xx0

if for every positive real number B, there exists a corresponding > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x x0 | < = f (x) > B
We can similarly, write the definition for the limit going to negative infinity.
lim f (x) = ,
xx0

if for every negative real number B, there exists a corresponding > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x x0 | < = f (x) < B
1 1
EXAMPLE: 1.2. Find lim and lim .
x1+ x1 x1 x 1
One can come up with the solution for these limts using either a geometric way or an analytic way of argue-
ment. We shall provide the hints for both of these approaches.

Geometric Solution
This function is a shifted version of a well known function and hence, the limits directly follow if one can
visualise the parent function from which this function can be obtained.

Analytic Solution
Look at the behaviour of (x 1), as x approaches 1 from the right or left. One can then obtain the limits
easily by looking at the reciprocal.
1 1 x2 x3
EXERCISE: 1.4. Find (i) lim 2 (ii) lim 2
(iii) lim 2 (iv) lim 2 .
x0 x x3 (x + 3) x2 x 4 x2 x 4

2 Continuity
We shall restrict our study of functions to those that are defined on an open interval, (a, b), or on unions of
such open intervals. All points x, such that a < x < b in an open interval (a, b) are called interior points.
The endpoints a and b are called left endpoint and right endpoint respectively.
We are now ready to define a continuous function at an interior point x = c in its domain:
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c in its domain if
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

QUESTION: 2.1. A function f is continuous at a left endpoint x = a, of its domain, if and

continuous at a right endpoint x = b, of its domain if
Thus, a function f is continuous at every point on its domain, if .

2
 1
y = sin (1/x)
400
y = 1/x^2 For the functions depicted to the right, find if the
0.5 200
function is continuous and name the discontinu-
0 0
ity. There are four types of discontinuities: Oscil-
-0.5 -200
latory discontinuity, Jump discontinuity, Infinite
-1 -400
discontinuity and Removable discontinuity.
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x x

y = U(x) y = x + 1 with a twist

3
1

2
0.5

0 1

-0.5
0

-1
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x x

We can now summarize our findings for a continuous function, as follows.

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following three conditions:

f (c) exists

lim f (x) exists

xc

lim f (x) = f (c)

xc

Remark 3. For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in above need to be replaced
by the appropriate one-sided limits.
Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and g, which are continuous at x = c,
since continuity is based on the existence of limits:

f + g and f g

fg

kf , where k is any number

f /g, provided g(c) 6= 0

(f (x))m/n , provided f (x)m/n is defined on an interval containing c and m and n are integers

are all continuous at x = c. As a consequence, polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every
point where they are defined.
QUESTION: 2.2. Is the function f (x) = |x|, continuous on all reals, R?
Now, the question arises about the continuity of composition of functions.
Theorem 4. If f is continuous at g(c), and g is continuous at c, then f g is continuous at c.

lim f (g(x)) = f (g(c)) = f (lim g(x))

xc xc

3
Proof: Let > 0 be given. Since f is continuous at g(c), there exists 1 > 0 such that

|f (y) f (g(c))| < whenever 0 < |y g(c)| < 1

Since lim g(x) = g(c), there exists a > 0 such that

xc

|g(x) g(c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

If we let y = g(x), we then have that

|y g(c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

which implies that |f (g(x)) f (g(c))| < whenever 0 < |x c| < .

EXERCISE: 2.1. Are the following functions continuous everywhere on their respective
 domains:
x cos(x 2/3 )  x2 
i)f (x) = x ii)f (x) = x2 2x 5 iii)f (x) = iv)f (x) =  2 
1 + x4 x 2