PP Notes

Particle Physics
experimental insight
e+e- W+W- qq
Oxana Smirnova Particle Physics Department

2001 Spring Semester Lund University
Basic concepts Particle Physics
I. Basic concepts
Particle physics studies the elementary building

blocks of matter and interactions between them.
Matter consists of particles and fields.
Particles interact via forces caused by fields.
Forces are being carried by specific particles,
called gauge [gejdz] bosons.
Forces of nature:
1) gravitational
2) weak
3) electromagnetic
4) strong
Oxana Smirnova Lund University 2

Forces of nature
Stable Induced
Name Acts on: Carrier Range Strength
systems reaction
long
Gravity all particles graviton 2 1039 Solar system Object falling
F1r
bosons W 17 5
Weak force fermions 10
< m 10 None -decay
and Z
particles with long Atoms, Chemical

Electromagnetism photon 2 1 137
electric charge F1r stones reactions
quarks and 15 Hadrons, Nuclear

Strong force gluons 10 m 1
gluons nuclei reactions

The Standard Model

Electromagnetic and weak forces can be
described by a single theory the Electroweak
Theory was developed in 1960s (Glashow,
Weinberg, Salam).
Theory of strong interactions appeared in 1970s:
Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD).
The Standard Model (SM) combines both.
Main postulates of SM:
1) Basic constituents of matter are quarks and

leptons (spin 1/2).
2) They interact by means of gauge bosons
(spin 1).
3) Quarks and leptons are subdivided into 3
generations.

Figure 1: The Standard Model Chart
SM does not explain neither appearance of the mass

nor the reason for existence of 3 generations.

Figure 2: History of the Universe

Units and dimensions

The energy is measured in electron-volts:
-19
1 eV 1.602 10 J
1 keV = 103 eV; 1 MeV = 106 eV; 1 GeV = 109 eV

The Planck constant (reduced) is then:
_
h h / 2 = 6.582 10-22 Mev s
and the conversion constant is:
_
h c = 197.327 10-15 MeV m
For simplicity, the natural units are used:

_
h =1 and c=1
so that the unit of mass is eV/c2, and the unit of
momentum is eV/c

Antiparticles
Particles are described by a wavefunction:
( x, t ) = Nei ( px Et ) (1)
x is the coordinate vector, p - momentum vector, E

and t are energy and time.
For relativistic particles, E2=p2+m2, and the

Shrdinger equation (2) is replaced by the
Klein-Gordon equation (3):
1
i ( x, t ) = ------- 2 ( x, t ) (2)
t 2m

2
2
= 2 ( x, t ) + m ( x, t ) (3)
t2

There exist negative energy solutions!
i ( px + E+t )
( x, t ) = N e
The problem with the Klein-Gordon equation: it is

second order in derivatives. In 1928, Dirac found the
first-order form having the same solutions:

i -------- = i i -------- + m (4)
t i x i
where i and are 44 matrices and are

four-component wavefunctions: spinors (for particles
with spin 1/2).
1 ( x, t )
2 ( x, t )
( x, t ) =
3 ( x, t )
4 ( x, t )

Dirac-Pauli representation of matrices i and :
0 I 0
i = i ,

=

i 0 0 I
Here I is 22 unit matrix and i are Pauli matrices:
0 1 0 i 1 0
1 = , 2 = , 3 =
1 0 i 0 0 1
Also possible is Weyl representation:
0 0 I
i = i ,

=
0 i I 0

Diracs picture of vacuum
Figure 3: Fermions in Diracs representation.
The hole created by the appearance of the electron

with a positive energy is interpreted as the presence
of electrons antiparticle with the opposite charge.
Every charged particle has the antiparticle of the
same mass and opposite charge.

Discovery of the positron

1933, C.D.Andersson, Univ. of California (Berkeley):
observed with the Wilson cloud chamber 15 tracks in
cosmic rays:
lead plate
positron
track
Figure 4: Photo of the track in the Wilson chamber

Feynman diagrams
In 1940s, R.Feynman developed a diagram
technique for representing processes in particle
physics.
Figure 5: A Feynman diagram example
Main assumptions and requirements:

Time runs from left to right
Arrow directed towards the right indicates a
particle, and otherwise - antiparticle
At every vertex, momentum, angular
momentum and charge are conserved (but not
energy)
Particles are usually denoted with solid lines,
and gauge bosons - with helices or dashed lines

Virtual processes:
a) e- e- + b) + e- e-
c) e+ e+ + d) + e+ e+
e) e+ + e- f) e+ + e -
g) vacuum e+ + e- + h) e+ + e- + vacuum
Figure 6: Feynman diagrams for basic processes involving

electron, positron and photon

Real processes
A real process demands energy conservation,
hence is a combination of virtual processes.
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Electron-electron scattering, single photon

exchange
Any real process receives contributions from all

possible virtual processes.
Figure 8: Two-photon exchange contribution

Number of vertices in a diagram is called its

order.
Each vertex has an associated probability
proportional to a coupling constant, usually
denoted as . In discussed processes this
constant is
2
e 1
em = ------------ ---------
4 0 137
For the real processes, a diagram of order n

gives a contribution to probability of order n.
Provided sufficiently small , high order contributions

to many real processes can be neglected, allowing
rather precise calculations of probability amplitudes
of physical processes.

(a) (b)
Figure 9: Lowest order contributions to

e +e -
Diagrams which differ only by time-ordering are

usually implied by drawing only one of them
Figure 10: Lowest order of the process

e+e -
This kind of process implies 3!=6 different time

orderings

Only from the order of diagrams one can estimate

the ratio of appearance rates of processes:
+ -
Rate ( e e -)
R -------------------------------------------
+ - = O( )
Rate ( e e )
This ratio can be measured experimentally; it
appears to be R = 0.9 10-3, which is smaller than
em, but the equation above is only a first order
prediction.
Figure 11: Diagrams are not related by time ordering
For nucleus, the coupling is proportional to Z2,

hence the rate of this process is of order Z23

Exchange of a massive boson
Figure 12: Exchange of a massive particle X
In the rest frame of particle A:

A ( E 0, p 0 ) A ( E A, p ) + X ( E x, p )
where E 0 = M A , p 0 = ( 0, 0, 0 ) ,
2 2 2 2
EA = p + MA , EX = p + MX
From this one can estimate the maximum distance

over which X can propagate before being absorbed:
E = E X + E A M A M X , and this energy violation
_
can exist only for a period of time th /E, hence
the range of the interaction is
_
rRh
/ MX c

For a massless exchanged particle, the interaction

has an infinite range (e.g., electromagnetic)
In case of a very heavy exchanged particle (e.g., a
W boson in weak interaction), the interaction can
be approximated by a zero-range, or point
interaction:
Figure 13: Point interaction as a result of

Mx
_ _
RW = h /MW = h /(80.4 GeV/c2) 2 10-18 m
Considering particle X as an electrostatic potential

V(r), the Klein-Gordon equation (3) for it will look like
1 2 V 2
2V ( r ) = ----- ------- r ------- = MX V ( r ) (5)
2
r r r

Yukawa potential (1935)
Integration of the equation (5) gives the solution of

2
g r R
V ( r ) = --------- e (6)
4r
Here g is an integration constant, and it is interpreted

as the coupling strength for particle X to the particles
A and B.
In Yukawa theory, g is analogous to the electric

charge in QED, and the analogue of em is
2
g
X = ------
4
X characterizes the strength of the interaction at

distances r R.
Consider a particle being scattered by the potential
(6), thus receiving a momentum transfer q
Potential (6) has the corresponding amplitude,
which is its Fourier-transform (like in optics):
iqx 3
f ( q ) = V ( x )e d x (7)
Using polar coordinates, d 3 x = r 2 sin ddrd , and
assuming V ( x ) = V ( r ) , the amplitude is

sin ( qr ) g 2
f ( q ) = 4g V ( r ) ------------------ r dr = --------------------
2 (8)
qr q 2 + M X2
0
For the point interaction, M X2 q 2 ,hence f(q )

becomes a constant:
4 X
f ( q ) = G = -----------------
M X2
That means that the point interaction is characterized

not only by X, but by MX as well.

Leptons, quarks and hadrons Particle Physics
II. Leptons, quarks and hadrons
Leptons are spin-1/2 fermions, not subject to

strong interaction

e , ,
- - -
e
Me < M < M
Electron e-, muon - and tauon - have
corresponding neutrinos e, and .
Electron, muon and tauon have electric charge
of -e. Neutrinos are neutral.
Neutrinos possibly have zero masses.
For neutrinos, only weak interactions have
been observed so far

Antileptons are positron e+, positive muon and

tauon (pronounced mju-plus and tau-plus),
and antineutrinos:
+ + +
e , ,

e

Neutrinos and antineutrinos differ by the lepton

number. Leptons posses lepton numbers L=1 (
stands for e, or ), and antileptons have L=-1.
Lepton numbers are conserved in any interaction

Neutrinos can not be registered by any detector,
there are only indirect indications of their quantities.
First indication of neutrino existence came from
-decays of a nucleus N:
N(Z,A) N(Z+1,A) + e- + e

-decay is nothing but a neutron decay:
n p + e- + e
Necessity of a neutrino existence comes from

the apparent energy and angular momentum
non-conservation in observed reactions
Note that for the sake of the lepton number
conservation, electron must be accompanied by
an antineutrino and not neutrino!
Mass limit for e can be estimated from the precise
measurements of the -decay:
me Ee MN - me
The best results are obtained from the tritium decay:

3H 3He + e- +
e
It gives me 15 eV/c2, which usually is considered

as a zero mass.

An inverse -decay also takes place:
e + n e- + p (9)
or
e + p e+ + n (10)
However, the probability of these processes is very

low, therefore to register it one needs a very intense
flux of neutrinos
Reines and Cowan experiment (1956)
Using antineutrinos produced in a nuclear
reactor, it is possible to obtain around 2 events
(10) per hour.
Aqueous solution of CdCl2 used as the target
(Cd used to capture neutrons)
To separate the signal from the background,
the delayed coincidence scheme was used:
signal from neutron comes later than one from
positron

Shielding
Detector (c) (a)
e+
n
(b)
Target e
Figure 14: Schematic representation of the Reines and

Cowan experiment
Main stages:
(a) Antineutrino interacts with proton, producing
neutron and positron
(b) Positron annihilates with an atomic electron,
produces fast photon which gives rise to softer
photons through the Compton effect
(c) Neutron captured by a Cd nucleus, releasing
more photons

Muons were first observed in 1936, in cosmic rays

Cosmic rays have two components:
1) primaries, which are high-energy particles
coming from the outer space, mostly hydrogen
nuclei
2) secondaries, the particles which are produced
in collisions of primaries with nuclei in the Earth
atmosphere; muons belong to this component
Muons are 200 times heavier than electrons
and are very penetrating particles.
Electromagnetic properties of muon are
identical to those of electron (upon the proper
account of the mass difference)
Tauon is the heaviest of leptons, was discovered in
e+e annihilation experiments in 1975
e- -
e+
+
Figure 15: pair production in e+e annihilation

Electron is a stable particle, while muon and tauon

have a finite lifetime:
= 2.2 10-6 s and = 2.9 10-13 s
Muon decays in a purely leptonic mode:
e + e + (11)
Tauon has a mass sufficient to produce even

hadrons, but has leptonic decay modes as well:
e + e + (12)
+ + (13)
Fraction of a particular decay mode with respect to

all possible decays is called branching ratio.
Branching ratio of the process (12) is 17.81%, and of
(13) -- 17.37%.
Note: lepton numbers are conserved in all
reactions ever observed

Important assumptions:
1) Weak interactions of leptons are identical, just
like electromagnetic ones (interactions
universality)
2) One can neglect final state lepton masses for
many basic calculations
The decay rate of a muon is given by expression:
G F2 m 5
( - e - + e + ) = ---------------- (14)
195 3
Here GF is the Fermi constant.
Substituting m with m one obtains decay rates of

tauon leptonic decays, equal for both processes (12)
and (13). It explains why branching ratios of these
processes have very close values.

Using the decay rate, the lifetime of a lepton is:
B ( l - e- e l )
l = ------------------------------------- (15)
( l - e- e l )
Here l stands for or . Since muons have basically

only one decay mode, B=1 in their case. Using
experimental values of B and formula (14), one
obtains the ratio of muon and tauon lifetimes:
m 5 7
----- 0.178 ------- 1.3 10
m
This again is in a very good agreement with

independent experimental measurements
Universality of lepton interactions is proved to big

extent. That means that there is basically no
difference between lepton generations, apart of
the mass.

Quarks are spin-1/2 fermions, subject to all kind of

interactions; possess fractional electric charges
Quarks and their bound states are the only
particles which interact strongly
Some historical background:
Proton and neutron (nucleons) were known
to interact strongly
In 1947, in cosmic rays, new heavy particles
were detected (hadrons)
By 1960s, in accelerator experiments, many
dozens of hadrons were discovered
An urge to find a kind of periodic system lead
to the Eightfold Way classification, invented by
Gell-Mann and Neeman in 1961, based on the
SU(3) symmetry group and describing hadrons in
terms of building blocks
In 1964, Gell-Mann invented quarks as the
building blocks (and Zweig invented aces)

The quark model: baryons and antibaryons are

bound states of three quarks, and mesons are
bound states of a quark and antiquark.
Analogously to leptons, quarks occur in three
generations:
u c t
, ,
d s b
Corresponding antiquarks are:
d s b
, ,
u c t
Name Charge Mass

Symbol
(Flavour) (units of e) (GeV/c2)
Down d -1/3 0.35
Up u +2/3 0.35
Strange s -1/3 0.5
Charmed c +2/3 1.5
Bottom b -1/3 4.5
Top t +2/3 170

Free quarks can never be observed

There is an elegant explanation for this:
Every quark possesses a new quantum number:
the colour. There are three different colours, thus
each quark can have three distinct colour states.
Coloured objects can not be observed.
Therefore quarks must confine into hadrons
immediately upon appearance.
Three colours are usually called red, green and blue.
Baryons thus are bound states of three quarks of
different colours, which add up to a colourless state.
Mesons are represented by colour-anticolour quark
pairs.
Strange, charmed, bottom and top quarks each have
an additional quantum number: strangeness S ,
charm C , beauty B and truth T respectively. All these
quantum numbers are conserved in strong
interactions, but not in weak ones.

Some examples of baryons:

Q
Mass Quark
Particle (units S C B
(Gev/c2) composition
of e)
p 0.938 uud 1 0 0 0
n 0.940 udd 0 0 0 0
1.116 uds 0 -1 0 0
c 2.285 udc 1 0 1 0
Strangeness is defined so that S=-1 for s-quark and

S=1 for s respectively. Further, C=1 for c-quark, B =-1
for b-quark, and T=1 for t-quark.
Since the top-quark is a very short-living one,
there are no hadrons containing it, i.e., T=0 for all
hadrons.
Quark numbers for up and down quarks have no
name, but just like any other flavour, they are
conserved in strong and electromagnetic
interactions.
Baryons are assigned own quantum number B: B=1
for baryons, B=-1 for antibaryons and B=0 for
mesons.

Some examples of mesons:

Q
Mass Quark
Particle (units S C B
of e)
+ 0.140 ud 1 0 0 0
K- 0.494 su -1 -1 0 0
D- 1.869 dc -1 0 -1 0
Ds+ 1.969 cs 1 1 1 0
B- 5.279 bu -1 0 0 -1
9.460 bb 0 0 0 0
Majority of hadrons are unstable and tend to

decay by the strong interaction to the state with
the lowest possible mass (lifetime about 10-23 s).
Hadrons with the lowest possible mass for
each quark number (S, C, etc.) may live
significantly longer before decaying weekly
(lifetimes 10-7-10-13 s) or electromagnetically
(mesons, lifetimes 10-16 - 10-21 s). Such hadrons
are called stable particles.

Brief history of hadron discoveries

First known hadrons were proton and neutron
The lightest are pions (pi-mesons). There are
charged pions +, - with mass of 0.140 GeV/c2,
and neutral ones 0, mass 0.135 GeV/c2.
Pions and nucleons are the lightest particles
containing u- and d-quarks only.
Pions were discovered in 1947 in cosmic rays, using
photoemulsions to detect particles.
Some reactions induced by cosmic rays primaries:
p + p p + n + +
p + p + 0
p + p + + + -
Same reactions can be reproduced in accelerators,

with higher rates, although cosmic rays may provide
higher energies.

Figure 16: First observed pions: a + stops in the emulsion

and decays to a + and , followed by the decay of +

In emulsions, pions were identified by much more

dense ionization along the track, as compared to
electrons
Figure 16 shows examples of the reaction
+ + + (16)
where pion comes to the rest, producing muons

having equal energies, which in turn decay by the
reaction + e+e.
Charged pions decay mainly to the muon-neutrino

pair (branching ratio about 99.99%), having
lifetimes of 2.6 10-8 s. In quark terms:
(ud) + +
Neutral pions decay mostly by the electromagnetic

interaction, having shorter lifetime of 0.8 10-16 s:
0 +

Discovered pions were fitting very well into Yukawas

theory -- they were supposed to be responsible for
the nuclear forces:
n n n p n p
0 -
+
p p p np n
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 17: Yukawa model of direct (a) and exchange (b,c)

nuclear forces
The resulting potential for this kind of exchange

is of Yukawa type (6), and at the longest range
reproduces observed nuclear forces very well,
including even spin effects.
However, at the ranges comparable with the
size of nucleons, this description fails, and the
internal structure of hadrons must be taken into
account.

Strange mesons and baryons

were called so because, being produced in strong
interactions, had quite long lifetimes and decayed
weakly rather than strongly.
The most light particles containing s-quark are:
mesons K+, K- and K0, K0:kaons, lifetime of
K+ is 1.2 10-8 s
baryon , lifetime of 2.6 10-10 s
Principal decay modes of strange hadrons:
+
K+ + (B=0.64)
K+ + + 0 (B=0.21)
- + p (B=0.64)
0 + n (B=0.36)
While the first decay in the list is clearly a weak one,

decays of can be very well described as strong
ones, if not the long lifetime: (udd) (du) + (uud)
must have a lifetime of order 10-23 s, thus can not
be another sort of neutron...

Solution: to invent a new strange quark, bearing a

new quark number -- strangeness, which does not
have to be conserved in weak interactions
S=1 S=-1
(1116) = uds
K+(494) = us K-(494) = su
K0 (498) = ds K0(498) = sd
In strong interactions, strange particles have to be

produced in pairs in order to conserve total
strangeness (associated production):
- + p K0 + (17)
In 1952, bubble chambers were invented as particle

detectors, and also worked as targets, providing, for
instance, the proton target for reaction (17).

0 +
-
p

Figure 18: A bubble chamber picture of the reaction (17)
How does a bubble chamber work:

It is filled with a liquid under pressure (hydrogen)
Particles ionize the liquid along their passage
When pressure drops, liquid boils preferentially
along the ionization trails

Bubble chambers were great tools of particle

discovery, providing physicists with numerous
hadrons, all of them fitting u-d-s quark scheme
until 1974.
In 1974, a new particle was discovered, which
demanded a new flavour to be introduced. Since it
was detected simultaneously by two rival groups
in Brookhaven (BNL) and Stanford (SLAC), it
received a double name: dzei-psai
J/ (3097) = cc
The new quark was called charmed, and the
corresponding quark number is charm, C. Since J/
itself has C=0, it is said to contain hidden charm.
Shortly after that particles with naked charm were
discovered as well:
D+(1869) = cd, D0(1865) = cu

D-(1869) = dc, D0(1865) = uc
c+ (2285) = udc

Even heavier charmed mesons were found -- those

which contained strange quark as well:
D s+ (1969) = cs, D s- (1969) = sc
Lifetimes of the lightest charmed particles are of

order 10-13 s, well in the expected range of weak
decays.
Discovery of charmed particles was a triumph
for the electroweak theory, which demanded
number of quarks and leptons to be equal.
In 1977, beautiful mesons were discovered:
(9460) = bb
B+(5279) = ub, B0(5279) = db

B-(5279) = bu, B0(5279) = bd
and the lightest b-baryon: b0 (5461) = udb
And this is the limit: top-quark is too unstable to form

observable hadrons

Experimental methods Particle Physics
III. Experimental methods
Before 1950s, cosmic rays were source of high

energy particles, and cloud chambers and photo-
emulsions were the means to detect them.
The quest for heavier particles and more precise
measurements lead to the increasing importance of
accelerators to produce particles and complicated
detectors to observe them.
Figure 19: A future accelerator

Accelerators
Figure 20: The Cockroft-Walton generator at CERN:

accelerates particles by an electrostatic field
Basic idea of all accelerators: apply a voltage to

accelerate particles
Main varieties of accelerators are:
Linear ( linacs )
Cyclic ( cyclotrons, synchrotrons )

Linear accelerators
cavity
Figure 21: A traveling-wave linear accelerator schematics
Linacs are used mostly to accelerate electrons

Electrons are accelerated along a sequence of cylindrical vacuum cavities
Inside cavities, an electromagnetic field is created with a frequency near
3,000 MHz (radio-frequency) and electric component along the beam axis
Electrons arrive into each cavity at the same phase of the electric wave

Figure 22: Standing-wave linac
Standing-wave linacs are used to accelerate heavier particles, like

protons
Typical frequency of the field is about 200 MHz
Drift tubes screen particles from the electromagnetic field for the periods
when the field has decelerating effect
Lengths of drift tubes are proportional to particles speed

Cyclic accelerators.
Figure 23: Cyclotron, the first resonance accelerator
The vacuum chamber is placed inside a magnetic

field, perpendicular to the rotation plane
Dees (for D) are empty boxes working as
electrodes; there is no electric field inside them
Particle is accelerated by the high frequency field
between the dees (maximal energy achieved for
protons: 25 MeV)
Figure 24: Schematic layout of a synchrotron

Synchrotrons are the most widely used accelerators

Beam of particles is constrained in a circular path
by bending dipole magnets
Accelerating cavities are placed along the ring
Charged particles which travel in a circular orbit
with relativistic speeds emit synchrotron radiation
Amount of energy radiated per turn is:
q234
E = ------------------ (18)
3 0
Here q is electric charge of a particle, v/c ,

(1-2)-1/2, and is the radius of the orbit.
For relativistic particles, =E/mc2, hence energy

loss grows dramatically with particle mass
decreasing, being especially big for electrons
Limits on the amounts of the radio-frequency power
mean that electron synchrotrons can not produce
beams with energies more than 100 GeV

From the standard expression for the centrifugal

force, momentum of the particle with the unit charge
in a synchrotron is
p = 0.3B
Hence the magnetic field B has to increase, given
that must be constant and the goal is to increase
momentum.
Maximal momentum is therefore limited by both
the maximal available magnetic field and the size
of the ring.
To keep particles well contained inside the

beam pipe and to achieve the stable orbit,
particles are accelerated in bunches,
synchronized with the radio-frequency field
Analogously to linacs, all particles in a bunch has to
move with the circulation frequency in phase with the
radio-frequency field.

Requirement of precise synchronisation, however, is

not very tight: particles behind the radio-frequency
phase will receive lower momentum increase, and
other way around.
Figure 25: Effect of the electric field onto the particles in

accelerator cavities
Therefore all particles in a bunch stay basically on

the same orbit, slightly oscillating
To keep particle beams focused, quadrupol and

sextupol magnets are placed along the ring and act
like optical lenses

Depending on whether beam is deposited onto a

fixed target or is collided with another beam, both
linear and cyclic accelerators are subdivided into two
types:
fixed-target machines
colliders (storage rings in case of cyclic
machines)
Some fixed target accelerators:
Machine Type Particles Ebeam (GeV)
KEK, Tokyo, Japan synchrotron p 12
SLAC, Stanford , California, USA linac e- 25
SPS, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland synchrotron p 450
Tevatron II, Fermilab, Illinois, USA synchrotron p 1000
Much higher energies for protons comparing to

electrons are achieved due to smaller losses caused
by synchrotron radiation
Fixed-target machines can be used to produce
secondary beams of neutral or unstable particles.

Centre-of-mass energy, i.e., energy available

for particle production during the collision of a
beam of energy EL with a target is :
E CM = m b2 c 4 + m t2 c 4 + 2m t c 2 E L (19)
Here mb and mt are masses of the beam and target

particles respectively, and increase of EL does not
lead to big gains in EMC.
More efficiently high centre-of-mass energies can be

achieved by colliding two beams of energies EA and
EB (at an optional crossing angle ), so that
2
E CM = 2E A E B ( 1 + cos ) (20)
Some colliders:
Machine Particles(Ebeam, GeV)
TRISTAN, Tokyo, Japan e+(32) + e-(32)
SLC, Stanford, California, USA e+(50) + e-(50)
LEP, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland e+(94.5) + e-(94.5)
HERA, Hamburg, Germany e-(30) + p(820)
Tevatron I, Fermilab, Illinois, USA p(1000) + p(1000)
LHC, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland (planned) p(7000) + p(7000)

Particle interactions with matter

All particle detecting techniques are based on the
properties of interactions of particles in question
with different materials
Short-range interaction with nuclei
Probability of a particle to interact (with a
nucleus or another particle) is called
cross-section.
Cross-sections are normally measured in milibarns:
1mb 10-31 m2
Total cross-section of a reaction is sum over all
possible processes
There are two main kinds of scattering processes:
elastic scattering: only momentae of incident
particles are changed, for example, -p -p
inelastic scattering: final state particles differ from
those in initial state, like in -p K0

Figure 26: Cross sections of - on a fixed proton target
For hadron-hadron scattering, cross-sections are of

the same order with the geometrical cross-sections
of hadrons: assuming their sizes are of order
1 fm 10-15 m r2 30 mb
For complex nuclei, obviously, cross-sections are
bigger, and elastic scattering on one of the nucleons
can lead to nuclear excitation or break-up -- so-called
quasi-elastic scattering.

Knowing cross-sections and number of nuclei per

unit volume in a given material n, one can introduce
two important characteristics:
collision length : lc 1/ntot
absorption length : la 1/ninel
At high energies, hadrons comprise majority of

particles subject to detection.
Neutrinos and photons have much smaller
cross-sections of interactions with nuclei, since
former interact only weekly and latter -- only
electromagnetically
Ionization energy losses

Appear predominantly due to Coulomb scattering
of particles from atomic electrons
Energy loss per travelled distance: dE dx

Bethe-Bloch formula for spin-0 bosons with charge

e:
Dn
e 2mc 2 2 2 ()
------- = ---------- ln --------------------------- 2 ----------
dE

(21)
dx 2 I 2
4 2 h 2 25
D = -------------------- = 5.1 10 MeV cm 2
m
Figure 27: Energy loss rate for pions in copper

In Equation (21), ne, I and () are constants which

are characteristic to the medium:
ne is the electron density, n e = N A Z A ,
where is the mass density of the medium and A
is its atomic weight. Hence, energy loss is strongly
proportional to the density of the medium
I is the mean ionization potential, I10Z eV for
Z>20
() is a dielectric screening correction,
important only for very energetic particles
Radiation energy losses

Electric field of a nucleus accelerates or
decelerates particles, causing them to radiate
photons, hence, lose energy : bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung is a very important contribution to
the energy loss of light particles like electrons.


e-
e- e-
e-
e-
e-
nucleus nucleus
Figure 28: The dominant Feynman diagrams for the

bremsstrahlung process e -+ (Z,A) e -+ + (Z,A)
Contribution to bremsstrahlung from the field of

nucleus is of order Z23 , and from atomic
electrons -- of order 3 (3 from each electron).
For relativistic electrons, average rate of
bremsstrahlung energy loss is given by
dE E
------ = ------ (22)
dx LR
The constant LR is called the radiation length:
h 2

------ = 4 ------- Z ( Z + 1 ) 3 n a ln -----------
1 183
mc Z 1 / 3
(23)
LR

In Equation (23), na is the density of atoms per cm3 in

medium.
Radiation length is a very important characteristics
of a medium, meaning the average thickness of
material which reduces the mean energy of the
particle (electron or positron) by a factor e.
Bremsstrahlung is an important component of
energy loss only for high-energetic electrons and
positrons
Interactions of photons in matter

Main contributing processes to the total cross-section
of photon interaction with atom are (see Fig.29):
1) Photoelectric effect (p.e.)
2) Compton effect (incoh)
3) Pair production in nuclear and electron field

(N and e)

Figure 29: Photon interaction cross-section on a lead atom
At high energies, pair production is the dominant

process: pair=7/9naLR , and number of photons
travelled distance x in the matter is
7x 9L R
I ( x ) = I0 e

Particle detectors
Main types of particle detectors:
1) Tracking devices coordinate measurements
2) Calorimeters momentum measurements
3) Time resolution counters
4) Particle identification devices
5) Spectrometers
Figure 30: STIC detector for the DELPHI experiment

Position measurement
Main principle: ionization products are either
visualized (as in photoemulsions) or collected on
electrodes to produce a computer-readable signal
Basic requirements of high-energy experiments:
High spacial resolution ( 102 m)
Possibilities to register particles at the proper
moment of time and with the high enough rate
(good triggering)
To fulfil the latter, electronic signal pick-up is
necessary, therefore photoemulsions and bubble
chambers were abandoned...
Modern tracking detectors fall in two major
categories:
a) Gaseous detectors (gas chambers),
resolution 100-500 m
b) Semiconductor detectors, resolution 5m

Proportional and drift chambers
radiation
+
gas
-
H.V.
pulse
Figure 31: Basic scheme of a wire chamber
A simplest proportional chamber:

A conducting chamber, filled with a gas mixture and
serving as a cathode
A wire inside serves as an anode
Gas mixture adjustment: number of secondary
electrons caused by the primary ionization electrons
is proportional to the number of primary ion pairs
( 105 per pair for voltage of 104-105 V/cm)
Several anode wires coordinate measurement
(Multi-Wire Proportional Chamber, MWPC)

Alternative to MWPC : drift chambers
gas
+ -
electrons
particle
H.V.
Figure 32: Basic scheme of a drift chamber
Ionization electrons produced along the particle

passage arrive to the pick-up anode at different times
Knowing (from other detectors) the moment of
particles arrival and field in the chamber, one can
calculate coordinates of the track
Streamer detectors are wire chambers in
which secondary ionization is not limited and
develops into moving plasmas streamers
If H.V. pulse in a wire chamber is long enough,
a spark will occur, which is achieved inspark
chambers

Semiconductor detectors
In semiconducting materials, ionizing particles
produce electron-hole pair, and number of these
pairs is proportional to energy loss by particles
Equipping a slice of silicon with narrow pick-up
conducting strips, and subjecting it to a high voltage,
one gets a detector , analogous to MWPC, with far
better resolution.
However, semiconductor detectors have rather
limited lifetimes due to radiation damages.
Calorimeters
To measure energy (and position) of the particle,
calorimeters use absorbing material, which
occasionally can change the nature of the particle
Signals produced by calorimeters are proportional to
the energy deposited by a particle (eventually, all the
energy it had)

During the absorption process, particle interacts

with the material of the calorimeter and produces
a secondary shower
Since electromagnetic and hadronic showers are
somewhat different, there are two corresponding
types of calorimeters
Electromagnetic calorimeters
The dominant energy loss for electrons (or
positrons) is bremsstrahlung
Produced via the bremsstrahlung photons are
absorbed producing e+e- pairs
Hence, an initial electron in an absorber produces a
cascade of photons and e+e- pairs, until its energy
falls under the bremsstrahlung threshold of
EC 600 Mev/Z
To construct a proper calorimeter, one has to

estimate its size, which has to be enough to
absorb all the possible energy

Main assumptions for electromagnetic showers:

a) Each electron with E>EC travels one radiation
length and radiates a photon with E=E/2
b) Each photon with E>EC travels one radiation

length and creates a e+e- pair, which shares
equally E
c) Electrons with E<EC cease to radiate; for E>EC

ionization losses are negligible
These considerations lead to the expression:
ln ( E 0 E C )
tmax = ---------------------------- (24)
ln 2
where tmax is number of radiation lengthes needed to

stop the electron of energy E0.
Electromagnetic calorimeters can be, for example,

lead glass blocks collecting the light emmited by
showers, or a sort of a drift chamber, interlayed with
absorber.

Hadron calorimeters
Hadronic showers are similar to the
electromagnetic ones, but absorption length is
larger than the radiation length of electromagnetic
showers.
Also, some contributions to the total absorption
may not lead to a signal in the detector (e.g.,
nuclear excitations or neutrinos)
Main characteristics of an hadron calorimeters are:
a) It has to be thicker than electromagnetic one
b) Often, layers of 238U are introduced to

compensate for energy losses (low-energy
neutrinos cause fission)
c) energy resolution of hadron calorimeters is
generally rather poor
Hadron calorimeter is usually a set of MWPCs or
streamer tubes, interlayed with thick iron absorber

Scintillation counters
To signal passage of particles through an
experimental setup and to measure the
time-of-flight (TOF), scintillation counters are
widely used.
Scintillators are materials (crystals or organic)
in which ionizing particles produce visible light
without losing much of its energy
The light is guided down to photomultipliers
and is being converted to a short electronic pulse
Particle identification
Knowing momentum of particle is not enough to
identify it, hence complementary information is
needed
For low-energy particles, TOF counters can provide
this complementary data
Energy loss rate dE/dx depends on particle mass
for energies below 2 GeV

The most reliable particle identification device :

Cherenkov counters
In certain media, energetic charged particles move
with velocities higher that the speed of light in these
media
Excited atoms along the path of the particle emit
coherent photons at a characteristic angle C to the
direction of motion
Figure 33: Cherenkov effect in the DELPHI RICH detector

The angle C depends on the refractive index of the

medium n and on the particles velocity v:
cosC = c / vn (25)
Hence, measuring C , the velocity of the particle can

be easily derived, and the identification performed
Transition radiation measurements

In ultra-high energy region, particles velocities do
not differ very much
Whenever a charged particle traverses a border
between two media with different dielectric
properties, a transition radiation occurs
Intensity of emitted radiation is sensitive to the
particles energy E=mc2.
Transition radiation measurements are particularly
useful for separating electrons from other particles

Spectrometers
Momenta of particles are measured by the
curvature of the track in a magnetic field
Spectrometers are tracking detectors placed inside a
magnet, providing momentum information.
In collider experiments, no special spectrometers are
arranged, but all the tracking setup is contained
inside a solenoidal magnet.
Figure 34: A hadronic event as seen by the DELPHI detector

Figure 35: The DELPHI detector at LEP

Space-time symmetries Particle Physics
IV. Space-time symmetries
Many conservation laws have their origin in the

symmetries and invariance properties of the
underlying interactions
Translational invariance
When a closed system of particles is moved
from from one position in space to another, its
physical properties do not change
Considering an infinitesimal translation:
x i x' i = x i + x
the Hamiltonian of the system transforms as
H ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) H ( x 1 + x, x 2 + x, , x n + x )
In the simplest case of a free particle,
1
2 2 2
1 2
H = ------- = ------- + + (26)
2m 2m x 2 y 2 z
2

From Equation (26) it is clear that
H ( x' 1, x' 2, , x' n ) = H ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) (27)
which is true for any general closed system: the

Hamiltonian is invariant under the translation
operator D , which is defined as an action onto an
arbitrary wavefunction ( x ) such as
( x ) ( x + x )
D (28)
For a single-particle state ' ( x ) = H ( x ) ( x ) , by

definition (28) one obtains:
' ( x ) = ' ( x + x ) = H ( x + x ) ( x + x )
D
further, since the Hamiltonian is invariant under

translation, D ' ( x ) = H ( x ) ( x + x ) and using
definitions once again,
H ( x ) ( x ) = H ( x )D
D (x) (29)
This means that D commutes with Hamiltonian (a

standard notation for this is [ D , H ] = 0)

Since x is an infinitely small quantity, translation (28)

can be expanded as
( x + x ) = ( x ) + x ( x ) (30)
Form (30) includes explicitly the momentum operator
can be
p = i , hence the translation operator D
rewritten as
= 1 + i x p
D (31)
Substituting (31) to (29), one obtains
[ p , H ] = 0 (32)
which is nothing but the momentum conservation law
for a single-particle state whose Hamiltonian in
invariant under translation.
Generalization of (31) and (32) for the case of
multiparticle state leads to the general momentum
n
conservation law for the total momentum p = p i
i=1

Rotational invariance
When a closed system of particles is rotated
about its centre-of-mass, its physical properties
remain unchanged
Under the rotation about, for example, z-axis through
an angle , coordinates x i, y i, z i transform to new
coordinates x' i, y' i, z' i as following:
x' i = x i cos y i sin

y' i = x i sin + y i cos
z' i = z (33)
Correspondingly, the new Hamiltonian of the rotated

system will be the same as the initial one,
H ( x 1, x 2, , x n )=H ( x' 1, x' 2, , x' n )
Considering rotation through an infinitesimal angle

, equations (33) transforms to
x' = x y , y' = y + x , z' = z

A rotational operator is introduced by analogy with

the translation operator D :
R z ( x ) ( x' )= ( x y , y + x,z ) (34)
Expansion to first order in gives

( x' ) = ( x ) y x ( x ) = ( 1 + i L z ) ( x )
x y
where L z is the z-component of the orbital angular

momentum operator L :

L z = i x y
y x
For the general case of the rotation about an

arbitrary direction specified by a unit vector n , L Z
has to be replaced by the corresponding
projection of L : L n , hence
R n = 1 + i ( L n ) (35)

Considering R n acting on a single-particle state

' ( x ) = H ( x ) ( x ) and repeating same steps as for
the translation case, one gets:
[ R n, H ] = 0 (36)
[ L , H ] = 0 (37)
This applies for a spin-0 particle moving in a central

potential, i.e., in a field which does not depend on a
direction, but only on the absolute distance.
If a particle posseses a non-zero spin, the total
angular momentum is the sum of the orbital and
spin angular momenta:
J = L + S (38)
and the wavefunction is the product of [independent]
space wavefuncion ( x ) and spin wavefunction :
= ( x )

For the case of spin-1/2 particles, the spin operator is

represented in terms of Pauli matrices :
1
S = --- (39)
2
where has components :

(recall page 10 of these notes)

= 0 1 , = 0 i , = 1 0 (40)
1 1 0 2 i 0 3 0 1
Let us denote now spin wavefunction for spin up

state as = (S z = 1 2 ) and for spin down state
as = (S z = 1 2 ), so that
1 0
= , = (41)
0 1
Both and satisfy the eigenvalue equations for

operator (39):
1 1
S z = --- , S z = ---
2 2

Analogously to (35), the rotation operator for the

spin-1/2 particle generalizes to
R n = 1 + i ( J n ) (42)
When the rotation operator R n acts onto the wave

function = ( x ) , components L and S of J act
independently on the corresponding wavefunctions:
J = ( L + S ) ( x ) = [ L ( x ) ] + ( x ) [ S ]
That means that although the total angular

momentum has to be conserved,
[ J , H ] = 0
but the rotational invariance does not in general lead

to the conservation of L and S separately:
[ L , H ] = [ S , H ] 0
However, presuming that the forces can change only

orientation of the spin, but not its absolute value
[ H, L 2 ] = [ H, S 2 ] = 0

Good quantum numbers are those which are

associated with conserved observables
(operators commute with the Hamiltonian)
Spin is one of the quantum numbers which
characterize any particle - elementary or composite.
Spin S P of the particle is the total angular
momentum J of its constituents in their
centre-of-mass frame
Quarks are spin-1/2 particles the spin quantum
number SP=J can be either integer or half-integer
Its projections on the z-axis Jz can take any of
2J+1 values, from -J to J with the step of 1,
depending on the particles spin orientation
spin-1
spin-1/2
z
Jz: -1 -1/2 0 1/2 1
Figure 36: A naive illustration of possible Jz values for

spin-1/2 and spin-1 particles

Usually, it is assumed that L and S are good

quantum numbers together with J=SP , while Jz
depends on the spin orientation.
Using good quantum numbers, one can refer to a
particle via spectroscopic notation, like
2S + 1
LJ (43)
Following chemistry traditions, instead of numerical
values of L=0,1,2,3..., letters S,P,D,F... are used
correspondingly
In this notation, the lowest-lying (L=0) bound state
of two particles of spin-1/2 will be 1S0 or 3S1
1S 3S
L=0 0 1
S=1/2-1/2=0 S=1/2+1/2=1
J=L+S=0 J=L+S=1
Figure 37: Quark-antiquark states for L=0
For mesons with L 1, possible states are:

1L , 3L 3L , 3L
L L+1 , L L-1

Baryons are bound states of 3 quarks there are

two orbital angular momenta connected to the
relative motion of quarks.
q1 q3
L3
L12
q2
Figure 38: Internal orbital angular momenta of a

three-quark state
total orbital angular momentum is L=L12+L3 .

spin of a baryon S=S1+S2+S3 S=1/2 or S=3/2
Possible baryon states:
2
S1/2 , 4S3/2 (L = 0)
2
P1/2 , 2P3/2 , 4P1/2 , 4P3/2 , 4P5/2 (L = 1)
2
LL+1/2 , 2LL-1/2 , 4LL-3/2 , 4LL-1/2 , 4LL+1/2 , 4LL+3/2 (L 2)

Parity
Parity transformation is the transformation by
reflection:
x i x' i = x i (44)
A system is invariant under parity transformation if
H ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) = H ( x 1, x 2, , x n )
Parity is not an exact symmetry: it is violated in

weak interaction!
A parity operator P is defined as
P ( x, t ) P a ( x, t ) (45)
Since two consecutive reflections must result in the

identical to initial system,
2
P ( x, t ) = ( x, t ) (46)
From equations (45) and (46), P a = +1 , -1

Considering then an eigenfunction of momentum:

( x, t ) = e i ( px Et ) , it is straightforward that
p
P ( x, t ) = P a ( x, t ) = P a ( x, t )
p p p
The latter is always true for p = 0 , i.e., a particle at

rest is an eigenstate of the parity operator with
eigenvalue Pa.
Different particles have different values of parity Pa.

For a system of particles,
P ( x 1, x 2, , x n, t ) P 1 P 2 P n ( x 1, x 2, , x n, t )
In polar coordinates, the parity transformation is:

r r' = r , ' = , ' = +
and a wavefunction can be written as

m
nlm ( x ) = R nl ( r )Y l ( , ) (47)

In Equation (47), Rnl is a function of the radius only,

m
and Y l are spherical harmonics, which describe
angular dependence.
Under the parity transformation, Rnl does not change,
while spherical harmonics change as
m m m
Y l ( , ) Y l ( , + ) = ( 1 ) l Y l ( , )
P nlm ( x ) = P a nlm ( x ) = P a ( 1 ) l nlm ( x )
which means that a particle with a definite orbital

angular momentum is also an eigenstate of parity
with an eigenvalue Pa(-1)l.
Considering only electromagnetic and strong

interactions, and using the usual argumentation, one
can prove that parity is conserved:
[ P , H ] = 0

Recall: the Dirac equation (4) suggests a

four-component wavefunction to describe both
electrons and positrons
Intrinsic parities of e- and e+ are related, namely:

Pe + Pe - = 1
This is true for all fermions (spin-1/2 particles), i.e.,

Pf P = 1 (48)
f
Experimentally this can be confirmed by studying the

reaction e+e- where initial state has zero orbital
momentum and parity of Pe - Pe + .
If the final state has relative orbital angular

2 l 2
momentum l, its parity is P ( 1 ) . Since , P = 1
from the parity conservation law stems that
l
Pe - Pe + = ( 1 )
Experimental measurements of l confirm (48)

While (48) can be proved in experiments, it is

impossible to determine Pe - or Pe + , since these
particles are created or destroyed only in pairs.
Conventionally defined parities of leptons are:
P =P = P -1 (49)
e- -
And consequently, parities of antileptons have

opposite sign.
Since quarks and antiquarks are also produced
only in pairs, their parities are defined also by
convention:
Pu = Pd = Ps = Pc = Pb = Pt = 1 (50)
with parities of antiquarks being -1.

For a meson M=(ab), parity is then calculated as
PM = Pa P ( 1 ) L = ( 1 ) L + 1 (51)
b
For the low-lying mesons (L=0) that means parity

of -1, which is confirmed by observations

For a baryon B=(abc), parity is given as

L 12 L3 L 12 + L 3
PB = Pa Pb Pc ( 1 ) ( 1) = ( 1 ) (52)
and for antibaryon P B = P B , similarly to the case of

leptons.
For the low-lying baryons (52) predicts positive
parities, which is also confirmed by experiment.
Parity of the photon can be deduced from the

classical field theory, considering Poissons equation:
1
E ( x, t ) = ----- ( x, t )
0
Under a parity transformation, charge density

changes as ( x, t ) ( x, t ) and changes its
sign, so that to keep the equation invariant, the
electric field must transform as
E ( x, t ) E ( x, t ) (53)

On the other hand, the electromagnetic field is

described by the vector and scalar potentials:
E = A
------ (54)
t
For the photon, only the vector part corresponds to

the wavefunction:
A ( x, t ) = N ( k )e i ( kx Et )
Under the parity transformation,
A ( x, t ) P A ( x, t )
and from (54) stems that
E ( x, t ) P E ( x, t ) . (55)
Comparing (55) and (53), one concludes that parity

of photon is
P = 1

Charge conjugation
Charge conjugation replaces particles by their
antiparticles, reversing charges and magnetic
moments
Charge conjugation is violated by the weak
interaction
For the strong and electromagnetic interactions,
charge conjugation is a symmetry:
[ C , H ] = 0
It is convenient now to denote a state in a compact

notation, using Diracs ket representation: | +, p
denotes a pion having momentum p , or, in general
case,
| + 1 ; - 2 | + 1 | - 2 (56)
Next, we denote particles which have distinct

antiparticles by a , and otherwise - by

In these notation, we describe the action of the

charge conjugation operator as:
|, = C |,
C (57)

meaning that the final state acquires a phase factor

C, and otherwise
|a, = |a,
C (58)
meaning that the from the particle in the initial state
we came to the antiparticle in the final state.
Since the second transformation turns antiparticles
back to particles, C 2 = 1 and hence
C = 1 (59)
For multiparticle states the transformation is:

| , , , a , a , ; =
C 1 2 1 2
= C C | 1, 2, , a 1, a 2, ; (60)
1 2

From (57) it is clear that particles =,0,... etc., are

eigenstates of C with eigenvalues C=1.
Other eigenstates can be constructed from
particle-antiparticle pairs:
|a, ;a, = |a, ;a = |a, ;a,
C 1 2 1 2 1 2
For a state of definite orbital angular momentum,

interchanging between particle and antiparticle
reverses their relative position vector, for example:
+ L +
C | - ;L = ( 1 ) | - ;L (61)
For fermion-antifermion pairs theory predicts
|ff ;J, L, S = ( 1 ) L + S |ff ;J, L, S

C (62)
This implies that 0, being a 1S0 state of uu and dd,

must have C-parity of 1.

Tests of C-invariance
Prediction of C = 1 can be confirmed
0
experimentally by studying the decay 0 . The
final state has C=1, and from the relations
| 0=C | 0
C 0
|=C C |= |
C
it stems that C = 1.
0
C can be inferred from the classical field theory:
A ( x, t ) C A ( x, t )
under the charge conjugation, and since all electric

charges swap, electric field and scalar potential also
change sign:
E ( x, t ) E ( x, t ) , ( x, t ) ( x, t ) ,
which upon substitution into (54) gives C = 1 .

To check predictions of the C-invariance and of the

value of C, one can try to look for the decay
0 + +
If both predictions are true, this mode should be

forbidden:
C | = ( C ) 3 | = |
which contradicts all previous observations.

Experimentally, this 3 mode have never been
observed.
Another confirmation of C-invariance comes from
observation of -meson decays:
+
0 + 0 + 0
+ + - + 0
They are electromagnetic decays, and first two

clearly indicate that C=1. Identical charged pions
momenta distribution in third confirm C-invariance.

Hadron quantum numbers Particle Physics
V. Hadron quantum numbers
Characteristics of a hadron:
1) Mass
2) Quantum numbers arising from space
symmetries : J, P, C. Common notation:
JP (e.g. for proton: 1--- + ), or
2
JPC if a particle is also an eigenstate of
C-parity (e.g. for 0 : 0-+ )
3) Internal quantum numbers: Q and B (always
conserved), S, C, B , T (conserved in e.m. and
strong interactions)
How do we know what are quantum numbers of
a newly discovered hadron?
How do we know that mesons consist of a
quark-antiquark pair, and baryons - of three
quarks?

Some a priori knowledge is needed:

Mass Quark
Particle Q B S C B
p 0.938 uud 1 1 0 0 0
n 0.940 udd 0 1 0 0 0
K- 0.494 su -1 0 -1 0 0
D- 1.869 dc -1 0 0 -1 0
B- 5.279 bu -1 0 0 0 -1
Considering the lightest 3 quarks (u, d, s), possible

3-quark and 2-quark states will be (qi,j,k are u- or d-
quarks):
sss ssqi sqiqj qiqjqk
S -3 -2 -1 0
Q -1 0; -1 1; 0; -1 2; 1; 0; -1
ss sqi sqi qiqi qiqj

S 0 -1 1 0 0
Q 0 0; -1 1; 0 0 -1; 1
Hence restrictions arise: for example, mesons

with S=-1 and Q=1 are forbidden

Particles which fall out of above restrictions are

called exotic particles (like ddus , uuuds etc.)
From observations of strong interaction processes,
quantum numbers of many particles can be
deduced:
p + p p + n + +
Q= 2 1 1
S= 0 0 0
B= 2 2 0
p + p p + p + 0
Q= 2 2 0
S= 0 0 0
B= 2 2 0
p + - 0 + n
Q= 1 -1 0
S= 0 0 0
B= 1 0 1
Observations of pions confirm these predictions,

ensuring that pions are non-exotic particles.

Assuming that K- is a strange meson, one can

predict quantum numbers of -baryon:
K- + p 0 +
Q= 0 0 0
S= -1 0 -1
B= 1 0 1
And further, for K+-meson:
- + p K+ + - +
Q= 0 1 -1
S= 0 1 -1
B= 1 0 1
All of the more than 200 observed hadrons satisfy

this kind of predictions , and no exotic particles
have been found so far
It confirms validity of the quark model, which
suggests that only quark-antiquark and 3-quark
(or 3-antiquark) states can exist

Even more quantum numbers...

It is convenient to introduce some more quantum
numbers, which are conserved in strong and e.m.
interactions:
Sum of all internal quantum numbers, except of Q,

hypercharge Y B + S + C + B + T
Instead of Q :
I3 Q - Y/2
which is to be treated as a projection of a new vector:
Isospin
I (I3)max
so that I3 takes 2I+1 values from -I to I
It appears that I3 is a good quantum number to

denote up- and down- quarks, and it is convenient
to use notations for particles as I(JP) or I(JPC)

B S C B T Y Q I3
u 1/3 0 0 0 0 1/3 2/3 1/2
d 1/3 0 0 0 0 1/3 -1/3 -1/2
s 1/3 -1 0 0 0 -2/3 -1/3 0
c 1/3 0 1 0 0 4/3 2/3 0
b 1/3 0 0 -1 0 -2/3 -1/3 0
t 1/3 0 0 0 1 4/3 2/3 0
Hypercharge Y, isospin I and its projection I3 are

additive quantum numbers, so that corresponding
quantum numbers for hadrons can be deduced from
those of quarks:
Y a + b = Y a + Y b ; I 3a + b = I 3a + I 3b
I a + b = I a + I b, I a + I b 1, , I a I b
Proton and neutron both have isospin of 1/2,

and also very close masses:
1 1 +
p(938) = uud ; n(940) = udd : I ( J ) P = --- ---
2 2
proton and neutron are said to belong to the
isospin doublet

Other examples of isospin multiplets:
K+(494) = us ; K0(498) = ds : I ( J ) P 1
= --- ( 0 ) -
2
+(140) = ud ; -(140) = du : I ( J ) P = 1 ( 0 ) -
0(135) = (uu-dd)/2 : I ( J ) PC = 1 ( 0 ) - +
Principle of isospin symmetry: it is a good

approximation to treat u- and d-quarks as having
same masses
Particles with I=0 are isosinglets :
1 +
(1116) = uds, I ( J ) P = 0 ---
2
By introducing isospin, we imply new criteria for

non-exotic particles:
sss ssqi sqiqj qiqjqk
S -3 -2 -1 0
Q -1 0; -1 1; 0; -1 2; 1; 0; -1
I 0 1/2 0; 1 3/2; 1/2

ss sqi sqi qiqi qiqj

S 0 -1 1 0 0
Q 0 0; -1 1; 0 0 -1; 1
I 0 1/2 1/2 0; 1 0; 1
In all observed interactions these criteria are satisfied

as well, confirming once again the quark model.
This allows predictions of possible multiplet
members: suppose we observe production of the
+ baryon in a strong interaction:
K- + p - + +
which then decays weakly :
+ + + n
+ 0 + p
It follows that + baryon quantum numbers are: B=1,

Q=1, S=-1 and hence Y=0 and I3=1.
Since I3>0 I 0 and there are more multiplet

members!

If a baryon has I3=1, the only possibility for isospin is

I=1, and we have a triplet:
+, 0,
Indeed, all these particles have been observed:
K- + p 0 + 0
+
K- +p + + -
- + n
Masses and quark composition of -baryons are:
+(1189) = uus ; 0(1193) = uds ; -(1197) = dds

It clearly indicates that d-quark is heavier than
u-quark under following assumptions:
a) strong interactions between quarks do not
depend on their flavour and give contribution of
Mo to the baryon mass
b) electromagnetic interactions contribute as

e i e j , where ei are quark charges and is a
constant

The simplest attempt to calculate mass difference of

up and down quarks:
M(-) = M0 + ms + 2md + /3
M(0) = M0 + ms + md + mu - /3
M(+) = M0 + ms + 2mu
md - mu = [ M(-) + M(0) -2M(+) ] / 3 = 3.7 MeV/c2
NB : this is a very simplistic model, because under

these assumptions M(0) = M() , however, their
mass difference M(0) - M() 77 Mev/c2 .
Generally, combining other methods:
2 md - mu 4 ( MeV/c2 )
which is negligible comparing to hadron masses (but

not if compared to estimated u and d masses
themselves)

Resonances
Resonances are highly unstable particles which
decay by the strong interaction (lifetimes about
10-23 s)
1S 3S
0 1
L=0
u d u d
I(JP)=1(0-) I(JP)=1(1-)
ground state resonance
Figure 39: Example of a q q system in ground and first

excited states
If a ground state is a member of an isospin

multiplet, then resonant states will form a
corresponding multiplet too
Since resonances have very short lifetimes, they can
only be detected by registering their decay products:
- + p n + X
A+B
Invariant mass of the particle is measured via
masses of its decay products:
W 2 ( EA + EB )2 ( pA + pB ) 2 = E 2 p 2 = M 2 (63)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
-200
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Figure 40: A typical resonance peak in K+K- invariant mass

distribution
Resonance peak shapes are approximated by the

Breit-Wigner formula:
K
N ( W ) = ---------------------------------------------- (64)
( W W0 )2 + 2 4
N(W)
Nmax
Nmax/2

W0 W
Figure 41: Breit-Wigner shape
Mean value of the Breit-Wigner shape is the

mass of a resonance: M=W0
is the width of a resonance, and is inverse
mean lifetime of a particle at rest: 1/

Internal quantum numbers of resonances are

also derived from their decay products:
X0 + + -
and for X0: B = 0 ; S = C = B = T = 0 ; Q = 0

Y=0 and I3=0.
To determine whether I=0 or I=1, searches for

isospin multiplet partners have to be done.
Example: 0(769) and 0(1700) both decay to +-

pair and have isospin partners + and - :
+ p p +
+ 0
By measuring angular distribution of +- pair, the

relative orbital angular momentum of the pair L can
be determined, and hence spin and parity of the
resonance X0 are:
J = L ; P = P 2 ( 1 ) L = ( 1 ) L ; C = ( 1 ) L

Some excited states of pion:

resonance I(JPC)
0(769) 1(1- -)
f 20 (1275) 0(2++)
0(1700) 1(3- -)
Resonances with B=0 are meson resonances,

and with B=1 baryon resonances.
Many baryon resonances can be produced in
pion-nucleon scattering:

}X
R
N
p
Figure 42: Formation of a resonance R and its subsequent

inclusive decay into a nucleon N
Peaks in the observed total cross-section of the

p-reaction correspond to resonances formation

Figure 43: Scattering of p + and p- on proton

All resonances produced in pion-nucleon scattering

have the same internal quantum numbers as the
initial state:
B = 1 ; S = C = B = T = 0
and thus Y=1 and Q=I3+1/2
Possible isospins are I=1/2 or I=3/2, since for pion

I=1 and for nucleon I=1/2
I=1/2 N-resonances (N0, N+)
I=3/2 -resonances (, 0, +, ++)
At Figure 43, peaks at 1.2 GeV/c2 correspond to

++ and 0 resonances:
+ + p ++ + + p
- + p 0 - + p
0 + n

Fits by the Breit-Wigner formula show that both

++ and 0 have approximately same mass of
1232 MeV/c2 and width 120 MeV/c2.
Studies of angular distributions of decay
products show that I ( J P ) = 3--- 3---
+
2 2
Remaining members of the multiplet are also
observed: + and -
There is no lighter state with these quantum
numbers is a ground state, although a
resonance.
Quark diagrams
Quark diagrams are convenient way of illustrating
strong interaction processes
Consider an example:
++ p + +
The only 3-quark state consistent with ++ quantum

numbers is (uuu), while p=(uud) and +=(ud)

u
d +
u
++ u
u
d
u p
u
Figure 44: Quark diagram of the reaction ++ p + +
Analogously to Feinman diagrams:

arrow pointing to the right denotes a particle,
and to the left antiparticle
time flows from left to right
Allowed resonance formation process:
+
u u +
d ++ d
d d
p u u p
u u
Figure 45: Formation and decay of ++ resonance in +p

elastic scattering

Hypothetical exotic resonance:
u u
+ s ++ s +
d d
p u u p
u u
Figure 46: Formation and decay of an exotic resonance Z++

in K+p elastic scattering
Quantum numbers of such a particle Z++ are

exotic, moreover, there are no resonance peaks in
the corresponding cross-section:
Center of mass energy (GeV)
Figure 47: Cross-section for K+p scattering

Quark states and colours Particle Physics
VI. Quark states and colours
Forces acting between quarks in hadrons can be

investigated by studying a simple quark-antiquark
system
Systems of heavy quarks, like cc (charmonium)
and bb (bottomium or bottomonium), are
essentially non-relativistic (masses of quarks are
much bigger than their kinetic energies)
Charmonium and bottomium are analogous to
a hydrogen atom in a sense that they consist of
many energy levels
While the hydrogen atom is governed by the
electromagnetic force, the charmonium system is
dominated by the strong force
Like in hydrogen atom, energy states of a
quarkonium can be labelled by their principal
quantum number n, and J, L, S, where L n-1 and S
can be either 0 or 1.

Mass
(MeV) _
3900 DD* threshold
+
1
D2 (2 )
3
D 2(2 )
_
DD threshold
3700 3 S1
c 1 S
0000
1111
1111
0000
0
00000
11111
1111100000
00000
2
hc 1 P1
1111
0000 11111

3500 e+e-

0000
1111} 3P
J
1
0000
1111
0

3300
3100
c 1S0 3S
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
-+
e+e-
0 1-- 1+- 0,1,2++
2900

2-body electromagnetic decay: e+e- or

E1 radiative transition
M1 radiative transition
Hadronic transition
Note: The thickness of the line representing each charmonium state

is roughly proportional to the states observed total width.
States which are labeled in cyan are either unconfirmed or
Figure 48: The charmonium spectrum

From Equations (51) and (62), parity and C-parity of

a quarkonium are:
P=PqPq(-1)L=(-1)L+1 ; C=(-1)L+S
Predicted and observed charmonium and bottomium

states for n=1 and n=2:
JPC cc state bb state
1
n=1 S0 0- + c(2980)
3
n=1 S1 1- - J/(3097) (9460)
1
n=2 S0 0- +
3
n=2 S1 1- - (3686) (10023)
3
n=2 P0 0++ c0(3415) b0(9860)
3
n=2 P1 1++ c1(3511) b1(9892)
3
n=2 P2 2++ c2(3556) b2(9913)
1
n=2 P1 1+-
States J/ and have the same JPC quantum

numbers as a photon: 1- -, and the most common
way to form them is through e+e--annihilation,
where virtual photon converts to a charmonium
state

e+
J/ ,
hadrons

e-
Figure 49: Formation and decay of J/ () mesons in e +e -

annihilation
If centre-of-mass energy of incident e+ and e- is

equal to the quarkonium mass, formation of the
latter is highly probable, which leads to the peak in
the cross-section (e+e-hadrons).
Still, a +- pair can be produced as a final
state too:
4 2
( e e ) = ---------------
+ - + - (65)
3E CM 2
( is calcullated theoretically whithin the field theory)

6
charm threshold
5 2
{ MARK I
MARK I/LGW
4 MEA
R
3
2
J / (1S) (2S)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
5 beauty threshold
4
R
3 AMY CRYSTAL BALL JADE MARK J TASSO

CELLO CUSB LENA MD1 TOPAZ
(nS)
n = 1 234 CLEO DASP II MAC PLUTO VENUS
2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Ecm (GeV)
Figure 50: Cross-section ratio R in e+e - collision
Convenient way to represent cross-sections in e+e-

annihilation:
( e + e - hadrons )
R ------------------------------------------------ (66)
( e+e- +- )
Charm threshold (3730 MeV): twice mass of

the lightest charmed meson, D

Wide peaks above charm threshold: short-living

resonances
c
q
c
c
q
c
Figure 51: Charmonium resonance decay to charmed

mesons
Narrow J/ and peaks below charm threshold:

can not decay by the mechanism on Fig.51 due to
the energy conservation, hence have very long
lifetimes (annihilation of a heavy quark-antiquark
is suppressed as opposed to light ones)
u
+
d
c d 0
c d
d
u
Figure 52: Charmonium decay to light non-charmed mesons

Charmonium states with quantum numbers

different of those of photon can not be produced
as in Fig.49, but can be found in radiative decays
of J/ or :
(3686) ci + (i=0,1,2) (67)
(3686) c(2980) + (68)
J/(3097) c(2980) + (69)
Bottomium spectrum is observed in much the

same way as the charmonium one
Beauty threshold is at 10560 MeV/c2 (twice
mass of the B meson)
Similarities between spectra of bottomium and
charmonium suggest similarity of forces acting in
the two systems

The quark-antiquark potential

Assume the qq potential being a central one,
V(r), and the system to be non-relativistic
In the centre-of-mass frame of a qq pair, the
Schrdinger equation will be
1
------ 2 ( x ) + V ( r ) ( x ) = E ( x ) (70)
2
Here = m q 2 is the reduced mass of a quark,

and r = x is the distance between quarks.
Mass of a quarkonium state in this framework is
M ( qq ) = 2m q + E (71)
In the case of a Coulomb-like potential V(r) r-1,

energy levels depend only on the principal quantum
number n:
2
E n = ----------
2n 2

In the case of a harmonic oscillator potential V(r) r2,

the degeneracy of energy levels is broken:
3s 3p 3s
2s 2p 3p
2s
2p
1s 1s
(a) Coulomb (b) Oscillator
Figure 53: Energy levels arising from Coulomb and

harmonic oscillator potentials for n =1,2,3
Comparing with Fig.48, one can see that heavy

quarkonia spectra are intermediate between two
possibilities; it can be fitted by:
V ( r ) = a--- + br (72)
r
Coefficients a and b are determined by solving
Equation (70) and fitting results to data
a=0.48 b=0.18 GeV2

V(r) , GeV 0.5
-0.5
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
r , fm
Figure 54: Modified Coulomb potential (72)
Other forms of the potential can give equally good

fits, for example
V ( r ) = a ln ( br ) (73)
where parameters appear to be
a=0.7 GeV b=0.5 GeV

0.5
V(r) , GeV
-0.5
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
r , fm
Figure 55: Logarithmic potential (73)

In the range of 0.2r0.8 fm potentials like (72)

and (73) are in good agreement in this region
the quark-antiquark potential can be considered
as well-defined
Simple non-relativistic approach using the
Schrdinger equation explains existance of
several energy states for a given quark-antiquark
system
Light mesons; nonets
Mesons with spin J=0 are called pseudoscalar
mesons (spins of quarks are counter-directed)
Mesons with spin J=1 are vector mesons
(co-directed spins of quarks)
There is nine possible qq combinations containing
lightest quarks (u,d,s).
Pseudoscalar meson nonet: 9 mesons with JP=0-
Vector meson nonet: 9 mesons with JP=1-

Y=S Y=S
0 + 0 +
1 1
0 + 0 +
I3 I3
-1
' 1 -1

1
-1 -1
0 0
JP=0- JP=1-
Figure 56: Light meson nonets in (I3,Y) space

(weight diagrams)
In each nonet, there are three particles with

equal quantum numbers Y=S=I3=0
They correspond to a qq pair like uu, dd , ss, or they
can be a linear combination of these states (it follows
from the isospin operator analysis):
1
------- ( uu dd ) I = 1 , I3 = 0 (74)
2
1
------- ( uu + dd ) I = 0 , I3 = 0 (75)
2

0 and 0 mesons are linear combinations of uu

and dd states (74): ( uu dd ) ( 2 )
meson is assigned linear combination (75):
( uu + dd ) ( 2 )
Inclusion of ss pair leads to some more possible

combinations:
( dd + uu 2ss )
( 547 ) = -------------------------------------- I = 0 , I3 = 0 (76)
6
( dd + uu + ss )
' ( 958 ) = ----------------------------------- I = 0 , I3 = 0 (77)
3
Meson (1019) is a quarkonium ss, having I=0
and I3=0
Light baryons
Three-quark states of the lightest quarks
(u,d,s) form baryons, which can be arranged in
supermultiplets (singlets, octets and decuplets).

The lightest baryon supermultiplets are octet of

1+ 3+
J P = --- particles and decuplet of J P = ---
2 2
particles
Y=S+1 Y=S+1
n p 0 + ++
1 1
0 + 0 +
I3 I3
-1
1 -1 1
-1 -1
0
0
JP=1/2+

-2
JP=3/2+
Figure 57: Weight diagrams for light baryons
Weight diagrams of baryons can be deduced

from the quark model under assumption that the
combined space-spin wavefunctions are
symmetric under interchange of like quarks

Parity of a 3-quark state qiqjqk is P=PiPjPk=1

Spin of such a state is sum of quark spins
From presumption of symmetry under exchange of
like quarks, any pair of like quarks qq must have
spin-1

there are six distinct combination of the form qiqiqj:
uud, uus, ddu, dds, ssu, ssd

each of them can have spin J=1/2 or J=3/2
three combinations of the form qiqiqi are possible:
uuu, ddd, sss

spins of all like-quarks have to be parallel (symmetry
presumption), hence J=3/2 only
the remaining combination is uds, with two distinct
states having spin values J=1/2 and one state with
J=3/2

By adding up numbers, one gets 8 states with

JP=1/2+ and 10 states with JP=3/2+, exactly what
is shown by weight diagrams
Measured masses of baryons show that the
mass difference between members of same
isospin multiplets is much smaller than that
between members of different isospin multiplets
In what follows, equal masses of isospin multiplet
members are assumed, e.g.,
mp=mnmN
Experimentally, more s-quarks contains a particle,

heavier it is:
0(1315)=(uss);+(1189)=(uus); p(938)=(uud)
-(1672)=(sss); 0(1532)=(uss);
+(1383)=(uus); ++(1232)=(uuu)

There is evidence that main contribution to big

mass differences comes from the s-quark
Knowing masses of baryons, one can calculate 6
estimates of the mass difference between s-quark
and light quarks (u,d):
For the 3/2+ decuplet:

M M = M M = M M = m s m u,d
and for the 1/2+ octet:

M M = M M = M M N = m s m u,d
Average value of those differences gives
m s m u,d 160 MeV/c 2 (78)
BUT quarks are spin-1/2 particles fermions

their wavefunctions are antisymmetric and all the
discussion above contradicts Pauli principle!

COLOUR
Experimental data confirm predictions based
on the assumption of symmetric wave functions
That means that apart of space and spin degrees
of freedom, quarks have yet another attribute
In 1964-1965, Greenberg and Nambu with
colleagues proposed the new property the colour
with THREE possible states, and associated with the
corresponding wavefunction C:
= ( x ) C (79)
Conserved quantum numbers associated with
C are colour charges in strong interaction they
play analogous role to the electric charge in e.m.
interaction
Hadrons can exist only in colour singlet states,
with total colour charge of zero
Quarks have to be confined within the hadrons,
since non-zero colour states are forbidden

Three independent colour wavefunctions are

represented by colour spinors :

1
0
0
r = 0 , g = 1 , b = 0 (80)

0 0 1
They are acted on by eight independent colour

operators which are represented by a set of
3-dimensional matrices (analogues of Pauli
matrices)
Colour charges IC3 and Y C are eigenvalues of
corresponding operators
Values of IC3 and Y

C
for the colour states of quarks
and antiquarks:
Quarks Antiquarks
C C C C
I3 Y I3 Y
r (red) 1/2 1/3 r -1/2 -1/3
g (green) -1/2 1/3 g 1/2 -1/3
b (blue) 0 -2/3 b 0 2/3

Colour hypercharge YC and colour isospin

charge I C3 are additive quantum numbers, having
opposite sign for quark and antiquark
Confinement condition for the total colour charges of
a hadron:
C C
I3 = Y = 0 (81)
The most general colour wavefunction for a baryon is

a linear superposition of six possible combinations:
BC = 1 r 1 g 2 b 3 + 2 g 1 r 2 b 3 + 3 b 1 r 2 g 3
(82)
+ 4 b 1 g 2 r 3 + 5 g 1 b 2 r 3 + 6 r 1 b 2 g 3
where i are constants. Aparently, the color

confinement demands the totally antisymmetric
combination:
1
BC = ------- ( r 1 g 2 b 3 g 1 r 2 b 3 + b 1 r 2 g 3
6 (83)
b1 g2 r3 + g1b2 r3 r1 b2 g3 )

Colour confinement principle (81) implies certain

requirements for states containing both quarks and
antiquarks:
consider combination qmqn of m quarks and n
antiquarks, m n
for a particle with quarks in r-state, quarks in
g-state, quarks in b-state (++=m) and , ,
antiquarks in corresponding antistates (++=n),
the colour wavefunction is
r gbr gb (84)
Adding up colour charges and applying the
confinement requirement,
C
I3 = ( ) 2 ( ) 2 = 0
YC = ( ) 3 + ( ) 3 2( ) 3 = 0

= = p
Here p is a non-negative integer, and hence m-n=3p

The only combination qmqn allowed by the colour

confinement principle is
( 3q ) p ( qq ) n, p, n 0 (85)
Form (85) forbids states with fractional electric
charges
However, it allows exotic combinations like
qqqq, qqqqq. Existence of such is not confirmed
experimentally though.

QCD, jets and gluons Particle Physics
VII. QCD, jets and gluons
Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD): the theory of

strong interactions
Interactions are carried out by a massless
spin-1 particle gauge boson
In quantum electrodynamics (QED) gauge
bosons are photons, in QCD gluons
Gauge bosons couple to conserved charges:
photons in QED to electric charges, and gluons
in QCD to colour charges
Gluons have electric charge of 0 and couple to
colour charges strong interactions are
flavour-independent
u u
s s
Figure 58: Gluon exchange between quarks

Gluons carry colour charges themselves!

Colour quantum numbers of the gluon on Fig.58 are:
1
I3C = I 3C ( r ) I 3C ( b ) = --- (86)
2
YC = YC( r ) YC( b ) = 1 (87)

In general, gluons exist in 8 different colour states
Gluons can couple to other gluons!
Figure 59: Lowest-order contributions to gluon-gluon

scattering
Bound colourless states of gluons are called

glueballs (not detected experimentally yet)

Gluons are massless long-range interaction

Principle of asymptotic freedom:
At short distances, strong interactions are
sufficiently weak (lowest order diagrams)
quarks and gluons are essentially free particles
At large distances, high-order diagrams dominate
anti-screening of colour charge interaction
is very strong
Asymptotic freedom thus implies the requirement of
colour confinement
Due to the complexity of high-order diagrams,
the very process of confinement can not be
calculated analytically only numerical models
are available
At short distances, the quark-antiquark potential is:
4 s
V ( r ) = --- ------ <(r0 .1fm) (88)
3 r

Strong coupling constant s
Constant s in Equation (88) is QCD analogue

of em and is a measure of the interaction
strength
However, s is a running constant, and increases
with increase of r, becoming divergent at very big
distances.
At large distances, quarks are subject to the
confining potential which grows with r:
V ( r ) r (r > 1fm ) (89)

Short distance interactions are associated with the
large momentum transfer:
q = O ( r 1 ) (90)
Lorentz-invariant momentum transfer Q is defined as
Q 2 = q 2 E q2 (91)

In the leading order of QCD, s is given by
12
s = ------------------------------------------------------ (92)
( 33 2N f ) ln ( Q 2 2 )
Here Nf is the number of allowed quark flavours, and

0.2 GeV is the QCD scale parameter which has to
be defined experimentally.
0.5
NNLO
Lattice
Theory
NLO
s(Q) Data
Deep Inelastic Scattering
e+e- Annihilation
0.4 Hadron Collisions
Heavy Quarkonia
(5) s ( Z)
{
MS
275 MeV 0.123
0.3 QCD
220 MeV 0.119
O( 4s )
175 MeV 0.115
0.2
0.1
1 10 100
Q [GeV]
Figure 60: Running of s

Electron-positron annihilation
A clean laboratory to study QCD:
e+ + e- hadrons (93)
e+ q
jets of hadrons

e- q
Figure 61: e+e - annihilation into hadrons
At energies between 15 GeV and 40 GeV, e+e-

annihilation produces a photon which converts into a
quark-antiquark pair
Quark and antiquark fragment into observable
hadrons
Since quark and antiquark momenta are equal and
counterparallel, hadrons are produced in two
opposing jets of equal energies
Direction of a jet reflects direction of a
corresponding quark

Comparison of the process (93) with the reaction
e+ + e- + + - (94)
must show the same angular distribution both for
muons and jets:
d 2 2
--------------- ( e e ) = ---------- ( 1 + cos )
+ - + - (95)
d cos 2Q 2
where is the production angle with respect to the

initial electron direction in CM frame.
For a quark-antiquark pair,
d d
--------------- ( e + e - qq ) = 3e q2 --------------- ( e + e - + - ) (96)
d cos d cos
where the fractional charge of a quark eq is taken into

account and factor 3 arises from number of colours.
If quarks have spin 1/2, angular distribution of jets
goes like (1+cos2); if quarks have spin 0 like
(1-cos2)

Figure 62: Angular distribution of the quark jet in e +e -

annihilation, compared with models
Experimentally measured angular dependence is

clearly proportional to (1+cos2) jets are
aligned with spin-1/2 quarks

If a high-momentum (hard) gluon is emitted by a

quark or antiquark, it fragments to a jet of its own,
which leads to a three-jet event:
Figure 63: A three-jet event in e +e -annihilation as seen by

the DELPHI detector

In three-jet events, it is difficult to distinguish

which jet belongs to the gluon, hence a specific
sensitive variable has to be chosen
Figure 64: Distribution of Z (as in Eq.(97)) in 3-jet e +e -

annihilation events, compared with models
A standard procedure is to measure relative jet

energies E1>E2>E3, and define
1
Z = ------- ( E 2 E 3 ) (97)
3
since the most energetic jet has to belong to a quark
Angular distributions of jets confirm models where

quarks are spin-1/2 fermions and gluons are
spin-1 bosons
Observed rate of three-jet and two-jet events
can be used to determine value of s (probability
for a quark to emit a gluon is determined by s):
s=0.15 0.03 for ECM=30 to 40 GeV
Figure 65: Principal scheme of hadroproduction in e +e -

annihilation. Hadronization (=fragmentation) begins at
distances of order 1 fm between partons

The total cross-section of e+e- hadrons is often

expressed as in Eq.(66):
( e + e - hadrons )
R ------------------------------------------------ (98)
( e+e- +- )
where the denominator is (see also Eq.(65))
4 2
( e e ) = -------------
+ - + - (99)
3Q 2
Using the same argumentation as in Eq.(96), and

assuming that the main contribution comes from
quark-antiquark two-jet events,
( e + e - hadrons ) = ( e + e - qq )=
q
(100)
= 3 e q2 ( e + e - + - )
q
and hence
R = 3 e q2 (101)
q

R is a good probe for both number of colours in

QCD and number of quark flavours allowed to be
produced at a given Q: from Eq.(101) it follows
that:
R(u,d,s)=2 ; R(u,d,s,c)=10/3 ; R(u,d,s,c,b)=11/3
If the radiation of hard gluons is taken into account,
the extra factor proportional to s arises:
s ( Q 2 )
R = 3 e q2 1 + ------------------ (102)
q
4
R
3 AMY CRYSTAL BALL JADE MARK J TASSO

CELLO CUSB LENA MD1 TOPAZ
(nS)
n= 1 234 CLEO DASP II MAC PLUTO VENUS
2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Ecm (GeV)
Figure 66: Measured R (Eq.(98)) with theoretical predictions

for five available flavours (u,d,s,c,b), using two different s
calculations

Elastic electron scattering

Beams of structureless leptons are a good tool for
investigating properties of hadrons
Elastic lepton-hadron scattering can be used to
measure sizes of hadrons
l-(p,E) l-(p,E)
p p
Figure 67: Dominant one-photon exchange mechanism for

elastic lepton-proton scattering
Angular distribution of an electron of momentum p

scattered by a static electric charge e is described by
the Rutherford formula:
-------
d m22
d R
= ----------------------------------- (103)
4
4p sin ( 2 )
2

If the electric charge is not point-like, but is spread

with a spherically symmetric density distribution, i.e.,
e e(r), where (r) is normalized:
3
(r)d x = 1
then the differential cross-section (103) is replaced
by
------- = ------- G E2 ( q 2 )
d d
d R
(104)
d
where the electric form factor
3
GE ( q 2 ) = ( r )e iq x d x (105)
is the Fourier-transform of (r) with respect to the

momentum transfer q = p p' .
For q = 0 , G E ( 0 ) = 1 (low momentum transfer)
For q 2 , G E ( q 2 ) 0 (large momentum

transfer)

Measurements of cross-section (104)

determine the form-factor and hence the charge
distribution of the proton
The RMS charge radius is given by
3 dG E ( q 2 )
r E2 r 2 = r 2 ( r ) d x = 6 ---------------------- (106)
dq 2
q2 = 0
In addition to GE, there is also GM the magnetic

form factor, associated with the magnetic moment
distribution within the proton
At high momentum transfers, the recoil energy of
the proton is not negligible, and q is replaced by
the Lorentz-invariant Q, given by
Q 2 = ( p p' ) 2 ( E E' ) 2 (107)

at high Q, static interpretation of charge and
magnetic moment distribution breaks down
Eq.(106) is valid only for low Q2=q2.

Taking into account magnetic moment of the electron

itself, and neglecting its mass as compared with
energy, one obtains
2
------- = ----------------------------------- ---- [ G 1 ( Q 2 ) cos ( 2 )+
d E' 2
d 4 E
4E sin ( 2 )
2 (108)
2
+2G 2 ( Q 2 ) sin ( 2 ) ]
Here
G E2 + G M 2
Q 2
G 1 ( Q ) = -------------------------- ; G2 ( Q ) = G M ; = -----------
2 2 2
1+ 4M p2
and form factors are normalized so that

G E ( 0 ) = 1 and GM ( 0 ) = p = 2.79
Experimentally, it is sufficient to measure E and

of outgoing electrons in order to derive GE and
GM using Eq.(108)

Results of proton size measurements are

conveniently divided into three Q2 regions:
1) low Q2 is very small GE dominates the

cross-section and rE can be precisely
measured:
r E = 0.85 0.02 fm (109)
2) intermediate range: 0.02 Q2 3 GeV2 both

GE and GM give sizeable contribution they
can be defined through parameterization:
GM( Q2) 2 2

G E ( Q ) --------------------- -------------------
2 (110)
p 2 + Q 2
with 2=0.84 GeV
3) high Q2>3 GeV2 only GM can be measured

accurately

GE
GM
Figure 68: Electric and magnetic proton form-factors,

compared with different parameterizations
Inelastic lepton scattering

Historically, was first to give evidence of quark
constituents of the proton
In what follows, only one-photon exchange is
considered

l-(p,E) l-(p,E)
hadrons
p (P,Ep)
Figure 69: One-photon exchange in inelastic lepton-proton

scattering
The exchanged photon acts as a probe of the

proton structure
The momentum transfer p p' corresponds to the

photon wavelength which must be small enough
to probe a proton big momentum transfer is
needed
When a photon resolves a quark within a
proton, the total lepton-proton scattering is a
two-step process:

l-(p,E) l-(p,E)

zP
p (P,Ep)
k
ns
ro
d
ha
Figure 70: Detailed picture of deep-inelastic lepton-proton
scattering
1) First step: elastic scattering of the lepton from

one of the quarks:
l- + q l- +q (l = e, )
2) Second step: fragmentation of the recoil quark
and the proton remnant into observable
hadrons
Angular distributions of recoil leptons reflect
properties of quarks from which they scattered

For further studies, some new variables have to be

defined:
Lorentz-invariant generalization for the transferred
energy , defined by:
2M p W 2 + Q 2 M p2 (111)
where W is the invariant mass of the final hadron

state; in the rest frame of the proton =E-E
Dimensionless scaling variable x:
Q2
x -------------- (112)
2M p
For Q M p and a very large proton momentum

P Mp , x is the fraction of the proton momentum
carried by the struck quark; 0 x 1
Energy E and angle of scattered lepton are
independent variables, describing inelastic
process

d 2 1 2 2
----------------- = ----------------------------------- --- [ cos ( 2 ) F 2 ( x, Q )+
dE'd' 4
4E 2 sin ( 2 )
(113)
2 Q2
+ sin ( 2 ) ----------- F 1 ( x, Q 2 ) ]
xM p2
Form (113) is a generalization of the elastic

scattering formula (108)
Structure functions F1 and F2 parameterize the
interaction at the quark-photon vertex (just like G1
and G2 parameterized the elastic scattering)
Bjorken scaling:
F 1, 2 ( x, Q 2 ) F 1, 2 ( x ) (114)
At Q M p , structure functions are approximately

independent on Q2.
If all particle masses, energies and momenta
are multiplied by a scale factor, structure functions
at any given x remain unchanged

Figure 71: Structure functions F 2 of proton from

different experiments
SLAC data from 69 were first evidence of quarks

Scaling violation is observed at very small and
very big x

The approximate scaling behaviour can be

explained if protons are considered as composite
objects
The trivial parton model: proton consists of some
partons; interactions between partons are not
taken into account.
The parton model can be valid if the target proton
has a sufficiently big momentum, so that
z=x
Measured cross-section at any given x is
proportional to the probability of finding a parton
with a fraction z=x of the proton momentum
If there are several partons,
F 2 ( x, Q 2 ) = e a2 xf a ( x ) (115)
a
where fa(x)dx is the probability of finding parton a with

fractional momentum between x and x+dx.

Parton distributions fa(x) are not known

theoretically F2(x) has to be measured
experimentally
While form (115) does not depend on the spin of a
parton, predictions for F1 do:
F 1 ( x, Q 2 ) = 0 (spin-0)
(116)
2xF 1 ( x, Q 2 ) = F 2 ( x, Q 2 ) (spin-1/2)
The expression for spin-1/2 is called

Callan-Gross relation and is very well confirmed
by experiments most evidently partons are
quarks.
Comparing proton and neutron structure
functions and those from neutrino scattering,
squared charge e a2 of Eq.(115) can be evaluated;
it appears to be consistent with square charges of
quarks.

Weak Interactions: W and Z bosons Particle Physics
VIII. Weak Interactions: W and Z bosons
Like in QED and QCD, the force carriers are

spin-1 bosons that couple to quarks and leptons
Force carriers of weak interactions are three
intermediate vector bosons: W+ and W- (mass
80.4 GeV), and Z0 (91.2 GeV)
W+, W- and Z0 bosons are very massive

particles, hence weak interactions have very short
range (order of 2 10-3 fm)
Before the Electroweak Theory was
developed, all observed weak processes were
charged current reactions (e.g. -decay) mediated
by W+ or W- bosons
Electroweak theory predicted a neutral current
caused by the Z0 boson

0
h
a
d
r
o
n
nucleon s
Figure 72: Predicted neutral current reaction: no muon in

final state
Figure 73: One of the first neutral current reactions as seen

by the Gargamelle bubble chamber in 1973
First dedicated experiment to study vector bosons:

SPS proton-antiproton collider at CERN (detectors
UA1 and UA2):
p + p W++ X
l+ + l (117)
p + p W-+ X
l- + l (118)
p + p Z0 + X
l+ + l- (119)
p
q
W , Z 0
q
p
Figure 74: Mechanism of W and Z production in pp

annihilation

From the quark point of view, processes (117)-(119)

are quark-antiquark annihilations:
u + d W+ , d + u W- (120)
u + u Z0 , d + d Z0 (121)
To obtain sufficient centre-of-mass energies, proton
and antiproton beams at SPS had energy of
270 GeV each.
W bosons
Figure 75: A W boson observed by UA1 detector in 1982;

high transverse momentum electron is arrowed

Signature of a W boson:
a lepton with large momentum ( >10 GeV/c )
emitted at a wide angle to the beam ( >5 )
large missing transverse momentum carried
out by neutrino
If pT(W)=0 pT = pT(l) : the missing transverse

momentum is equal to the transverse momentum of
the detected lepton
From 43 events observed by UA1, the mass of W+

and W- was defined as
M W = 80.33 0.15 GeV/c 2 (122)
and the decay width as

W = 2.07 0.06 GeV (123)
which corresponds to a lifetime of 3.2 10-25 s
Branching ratios of leptonic decay modes of W are

about 11% for each lepton generation

number of events
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55
pT(e) (GeV)
Figure 76: Recent result from the D0 experiment at the

Tevatron; fit gives MW=80.48 0.09 GeV
W bosons can be pair-produced in e+e- annihilation,

and the up-to-date world average for the W mass is
M W = 80.39 0.06 GeV/c 2 (124)
Z0 boson
Signature of a Z0 boson in pp collision: pair of

leptons (e+e-) with very large momenta.
Mass of the Z0 is then invariant mass of leptons

Figure 77: Z0 production event in UA1 detector.
Knowing MW, MZ was predicted to be 90 GeV/c2
100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Figure 78: Dilepton mass spectra near the Z 0 peak as

measured by the CDF collaboration

More precise methods give world average values of
M Z = 91.187 0.007 GeV/c 2 (125)
Z = 2.490 0.007 GeV/c 2 (126)
which corresponds to a lifetime of 2.6 10-25 s.
Branching ratios of leptonic decay modes of Z0 are

around 3.4% for each lepton generation
Charged current reactions

1) purely leptonic processes:
- e- + e + (127)
2) purely hadronic processes:
+ p (128)
3) semileptonic reactions:
n p + e- + e (129)

Recall: all the electromagnetic interactions can be

built from eight basic interactions:
e- e- e-
e-
+ + ...
e-

e+
Figure 79: The basic vertex for electron-photon interactions
In a similar way, leptonic weak interaction processes

can be built from a certain number of reactions
corresponding to basic vertices:
l l- l l+
(a) (b)
W W
Figure 80: The two basic vertices for W-lepton interactions

a) l l- + W+ b) W+ l l-
+ -
W W
l l-
l+ l
c) l+ W+ + l d) W-+ l+ l
+ -
W W
l+ l
l l+
e) l+ + l W+ f) W- l- + l
l l-
+ -
W W
l+ l
g) vacuum l- + l + W+ h) l+ + l + W- vacuum
l- l
+ -
W W
l l+
Figure 81: Eight basic reactions derived from the vertex of

Fig.80(a)
Analogous diagrams can be plotted for Fig.80(b)

simply replacing particles with antiparticles
Weak interactions always conserve lepton

quantum numbers
Diagram-wise this conservation is guaranteed by:
at each vertex, there is one arrow pointing in and
one pointing out
lepton indices l are the same on both lines
e- e-
e-
+ + ...
W-
W
W+
Figure 82: Vertices violating lepton number conservation
Processes of Fig.81 are virtual, so that two or

more have to be combined to conserve energy
However, processes like 81(e) and 81(f) do not
violate energy conservation if
MW > Ml + Ml (l = e, , )

In particular, reactions (117) and (118), used to

detect the W bosons, are dominated by
mechanisms like of Fig.81(e) and (f).
Leptonic vertices are characterized by the
corresponding strength parameter W
independently on lepton type involved
Knowing the decay rate of W e, one can estimate
W to the first order:
( W e ) 0.2 GeV (130)

Since the process involves only one vertex and
lepton masses are negligible
( W e ) W M W 80 W GeV (131)
which gives
W 1 400 = O ( ) (132)
hence the strength of the weak interaction is

comparable with the e.m. one

Analogues of electron-electron scattering by photon

exchange:
+ e- + e (133)
(a) (b)

W- W+
e- e e- e
Figure 83: Time-ordered diagrams for inverse muon

decay (133)
Time ordering implies changing the sign of the

current!
A conventional muon decay is depicted like:

e-
W-
Figure 84: Dominant diagram for muon decay

Including higher order diagrams, inverse muon decay

(133) can look like:
W- W+ W-
e- e e
e-
Figure 85: Some higher order contributions to inverse muon

decay
A diagram like Fig.86 gives a contribution of

order W
6 to the total cross section, analogously to
the e.m. case.
Since W bosons are very heavy, interactions like
(133) can be approximated by a zero-range
interaction:

gW
W+ GF
MW
e-
gW e e- e
Figure 86: Low-energy zero-range interaction in muon decay

Taking into account spin effects, the relation between

W and GF in zero-range approximation is:
GF gW 2 4 W
------- = --------- = --------------- (134)
2 MW 2 MW 2
where gW is the coupling constant in W-vertices,

W gW
2 4 by definition.
This gives the estimate of W=4.2 10-3=0.58 ,

which is perfectly compatible with estimate (132).
Weak interactions of hadrons: constituent

quarks emit or absorb W bosons
Lepton-quark symmetry: corresponding
generations of quarks and leptons have identical
weak interactions:

e u , c , etc.
- d - s
e

e-
gW
W-
d gud e
n d
u
u
d
u
p
Figure 87: Neutron -decay
The corresponding coupling constants do not

change upon exchange of quarks/leptons:
g ud = g cs = g W (135)
d
u d
u
W-
d

s
u s W-
d u u d
u p u p
d u
Figure 88: Dominant quark diagrams for decay

u d u d
gud gud
W W
c s c s
gcs gcs
W W
Figure 89: W-quark vertices assumed by lepton-quark

symmetry
For example, allowed reaction is:
+ (du + ) (136)
However, some reactions do not comply with the

lepton-quark symmetry:
K- + (su + ) (137)

To solve the contradiction, the quark mixing

hypothesis was introduced by Cabibbo:
d- and s-quarks participate the weak interactions via
the linear combinations:
d' = d cos C + s sin C
(138)
s' = d sin C + s cos C
Parameter C is Cabibbo angle, and hence the

quark-lepton symmetry applies to doublets like
u c
and
d' s'
u d u d u s
gW gud gus
+
W W W
gud=gWcosC gus=gWsinC
Figure 90: Interpretation of quark mixing

Quark mixing hypothesis allows some more W-quark

vertices:
u s u s
gus gus
W W
c d c d
gcd gcd
W W
Figure 91: Additional W-quark vertices assumed by

lepton-quark symmetry with quark mixing
g ud = g cs = g W cos C (139)
g us = g cd = g W sin C (140)

Cabibbo angle is measured experimentally, for

example, comparing decay rates:
( K - - ) g us 2
2
----------------------------------- --------- = tan C
( - - ) g ud 2
which corresponds to
C = 12.7 0.1 (141)
Charmed quark couplings gcd and gcs are measured

in neutrino scattering experiments and give
C = 12 1
It can be seen that decays involving couplings (140)

are suppressed: they rates are reduced by an order
g us2 g cd2
2 1
--------- = -------- = tan C = ------
g ud2 g cs2 20
On the other hand, decays like c sl+l and c sud

are Cabibbo-allowed, hence charmed particles
almost always decay into strange ones.

The third generation

Existence of c-quark was first predicted from the
lepton-quark symmetry
After discovery of , , and b, the sixth quark has
been predicted to complete the symmetry: the
top-quark was confirmed in 1995 with mass of
180 GeV/c2.
Form (138) is conveniently written in matrix form as:
d' cos sin

= C C d
(142)
s' sin C cos C s
Adding the third generation, mixing between all of

them must be allowed:
V V V
d' ud us ub d
s' = V cd V cs V cb s (143)

b' V td V ts V tb
b

3x3 matrix of (143) is the so-called CKM matrix

V (Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa)
Coupling constants are then:

g = gW V ( = u , c ,t ; = d , s, b ) (144)
In the limit that mixing between the b quark and (d,s)

ones can be neglected, the CKM matrix is
V V V
ud us ub cos C sin C 0
V V V (145)
cd cs cb sin C cos C 0

V td V ts V tb 0 0 1
and hence b=b
l- q
W- W-
l q
b b
g g
b b
=u,c =u,c
Figure 92: Dominant decays of b-quark

l- q
W- W-
l q

g g
W W
Figure 93: Dominant decays of lepton
Decay modes of Fig.92 have rates proportional to

squared couplings:
g ub 2 = V ub 2 g W
2 or g
cb
2= V 2g 2
cb W (146)
Since Vub and Vcb are 0, b-quark should be stable.

Experimentally,
b 10 12 s (147)
If otherwise gub=gcb=gW , lifetime has to be shorter,

like in case of decays (Fig.93).

Knowing the lifetime of lepton 3x10-13 s, and

assuming there is no suppression of b decay, lifetime
of b-quark will be:
m 5
b ---- ------- 10 15 s
1
N m b
where N is number of possible b-quark decays per

analogous t-decays (3 or 4)
This contradicts experimental results; more precise
measurements yield
V ub 2 10 5 and V cb 2 2 10 3 (148)
The top-quark is much heavier then even W

bosons and can decay by
W+
t
q=d,s,b
Figure 94: Decay t W+ + q

As can be seen from CKM matrix, the only

significant decay mode of t-quark is
t W+ + b (149)
with a rate proportional to
3
W = g W 4 4.2 10
2
Estimate of decay width W m t 1 GeV suggests

very short lifetime; more precisely:
25
t 4 10 s (150)
Top-quarks do not form hadrons because of

too short lifetime
l+
q
+
W
l
W+ q
t
b t
b
Figure 95: Decays of top-quark

Electroweak unification Particle Physics
IX. Electroweak unification
Theory of weak interactions only by means of

W bosons leads to infinities
e+ +
e+
W- W+
e

e- W+
W-
e-
Figure 96: Examples of divergent processes
A good theory (such as QED) must be

renormalisable: all expressions can be made finite
by reexpressing them in a finite number of
physical parameters (e, me and h in QED)
Introduction of Z0 boson fixes the problem:
e+ + e+ +
e+ Z0
W-
e- e-
Z0
e- W+
Z0 Z0
e- e-
Figure 97: Additional processes to cancel divergence

Basic vertices for Z0 boson:

Conserved lepton numbers
Conserved flavour
l l l- l- q q
gZ gZ gZ
(llZ0) (llZ0) (qqZ0)
Z0 Z0 Z0
Figure 98: Z 0-lepton and Z 0-quark basic vertices
By applying quark-lepton symmetry and quark

mixing:
d'd'Z 0 + s's'Z 0 = ( d cos C + s sin C ) ( d cos C + s sin C )Z 0 +
+(-dsin C + s cos C ) ( d sin C + s cos C )Z 0 =
= d dZ 0 + ssZ 0
It is not necessary to appeal to quark mixing in Z0

vertices; even if applied it does not yield
contradictions

Experimental test of flavour conservation at Z0

vertex: considering two possible processes changing
strangeness
K+ 0 + + + (a)
and
K+ + + l + l (b)
(a) l
(b)
+ 0
W Z
+
K+ us s
K+ u l
u 0 d +
u u
Figure 99: Decay (a) is allowed; decay (b) forbidden
Measured upper limit on the ratio of the decay rates

(b) to (a) is:
( K + + + l + l )
l - < 10 7
------------------------------------------------------------
( K + 0 + + + )

Comparing vertices involving , W and Z0, one

can conclude that they all are governed by the
same coupling constant ge
The unification condition establishes relation
between coupling constants (em=e2/40):
e - = g sin = g cos
--------------- (151)
W W Z W
2 2 0
W is the weak mixing angle, or Weinberg angle:
MW
cos W = --------- (152)
MZ
The anomaly condition relates electric charges:
Q l + 3 Qq = 0 (153)
l q
In the zero-range approximation (see Eq.(134)):
GF gW 2 gW 2 2

------- = --------- M W
2 = --------------- = --------------------------------
- (154)
MW 2 GF 2
2 2G F sin W

Introducing the neutral current coupling (also in low

energy zero-range approximation)
2
GZ gZ
------- = -------- (155)
2 2
MZ
the weak mixing angle can be expressed as

2 2
GZ gZ MW 2
-------- = ------- --------- = sin W (156)
GW 2 2
gW MZ
From measurements of rates of charged and neutral

currents reactions,
2
sin W = 0.227 0.014
which allowed to predict masses of W and Z:
M W = 78.3 2.4 GeV/c 2 ; M Z = 89.0 2.0 GeV/c 2
The most precise result:

2
sin W = 0.2255 0.0021 (157)

However, the most precise value for mass ratio is

2
MW
1 --------- = 0.22318 0.0052
2
MZ
The difference comes from higher-order diagrams:

W- W-
W- Z0 b t
W- W-
e- e e- e
(a) (b)
Figure 100: Examples of higher order contributions to

inverse muon decay
From higher order corrections, the estimate of

top-quark mass is:
m t = 170 30 GeV/c 2 (158)
Measured value is m t = 174 5 GeV/c 2

In any process in which a photon is exchanged, a

Z0 boson can be exchanged as well
l l l- l- q q
,Z0 ,Z0 ,Z0
Figure 101: Z 0 and couplings to leptons and quarks
Example: reaction e+e- + has two dominant

contributions:
e+ e+
Z0
e- + e- +
Figure 102: Dominant contributions to the e+e - annihilation

into muons
2
2 2
------ Z GZ E (159)
2
E

Figure 103: Schematic layout of the e +e - collider LEP at CERN

Figure 104: Total cross sections of e +e - annihilation
From Eq.(159), ratio of Z and is:
Z E4
------ -------- (160)
M4
Z
At energies ECM=MZ, low-energy approximation fails

Z0 peak is described by the Breit-Wigner

formula:
2
+ - 12M Z ( Z 0 e + e - ) ( Z 0 X )
( e e X ) = ------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------
2 2 2 2 2 2
E CM ( E CM M Z ) + M Z Z
(161)
Here Z is the total Z0 decay rate, and Z(Z0 X)

are decay rates to other final states.
Height of the peak (at ECM=MZ) is then proportional
to the product of branching ratios:
0 + - 0
0 + - 0 (Z e e ) (Z X)
B ( Z e e )B ( Z X ) ----------------------------------- ---------------------------
Z Z
(162)
Fitted parameters of the Z0 peak:
M Z = 91.187 0.007 GeV/c 2

(163)
Z = 2.490 0.007 GeV

Fitting the peak with Eq.(161), not only MZ and

Z can be found, but also partial decay rates:
0
( Z hadrons ) = 1.741 0.006 GeV (164)
0 + -
( Z l l ) = 0.0838 0.0003 GeV (165)
Decays Z0 l+l- and Z0 hadrons account for

only about 80% of all Z0 decays
Remaining decays are those containing only
neutrinos in the final state
0 0 + -
Z = ( Z hadrons ) + 3 ( Z l l )+
(166)
0
+N ( Z l l )
From Eqs.(163)-(165):
0
N ( Z l l ) = 0.498 0.009 GeV

Decay rate to neutrino pairs is calculated from

diagrams of Fig.101:
0
( Z l l ) = 0.166 GeV (167)
which means that N3. More precisely,
N = 2.994 0.011 (168)
There are no explicit restrictions on number of

generations in the Standard Model
However, analysis of Z0 line shape shows that

there are 3 and only 3 kinds of massless
neutrinos.
If neutrinos are assumed having negligible

masses as compared with the Z0 mass, there
must be only THREE generations of leptons and
quarks within the Standard Model.

Gauge invariance and the Higgs boson

Renormalisable theories are gauge invariant
theories
Gauge transformation: certain alteration of a
quantum field variables that leave basic properties
of the field unchanged; a symmetry
transformation
There are several forms of gauge invariance
corresponding to different interactions
In QED, Schrdinger equation must be invariant
under the phase transformation of the wavefunction:
iq ( x, t )
( x, t ) ' ( x, t ) = e ( x, t ) (169)
Here ( x, t ) is an arbitrary continuous function.

If a particle is free, then
( x, t ) 1 2
i ------------------- = ------- ( x, t ) (170)
t 2m

Transformed wavefunction ' ( x, t ) can not be a

solution of the Schrdinger equation (170)
Gauge principle: to keep the invariance condition
satisfied, a minimal field should be added to the
Schrdinger equation, i.e., an interaction should
be introduced
In QED, the transition from one electron state to
another with different phase, e- e-, demands
emission (or absorption) of a photon: e- e-
More generally, transformations like
- - - -
e e e e e e e e
lead via the gauge principle to interactions

- - - + - - 0 0
e eW e e W e e W e e W
W+, W- and W0 are corresponding spin-1 gauge

bosons.

While W+ and W- are well-known charged currents,

W0 has not been identified.
Electroweak unification regards both Z0 and as

mixtures of W0 and yet another neutral boson B0:
0 0
= B cos W + W sin W
(171)
0 0 0
Z = B sin W + W cos W
The corresponding gauge transformation is:
ig Z y l ( x, t )
l ( x, t ) l' ( x, t ) = e l ( x, t ) (172)
Here l stands for electron or neutrino and yl are

corresponding constants
This will lead to extra vertices
- - 0 0
e e B e e B
with new couplings g Z y - and g Z y and they satisfy

e e
the unification condition (151).

Electroweak theory can be made gauge-invariant

by introducing neutral bosons W 0 and B0.
Generally, experimental data agree with gauge
invariant electroweak theory predictions.
However, gauge invariance implies that spin-1
bosons have zero masses if they are only bosons
in theory (photon and gluon comply with this)

a new field should be introduced
The scalar Higgs field solves the problem:
Higgs boson H0 is a spin-0 particle
Higgs field has a non-zero value 0 in vacuum
Figure 105: Comparison of the electric and Higgs fields

The vacuum value 0 is not gauge invariant

hidden gauge invariance, or spontaneously
broken.
Vacuum hence is supposed to be populated with
massive Higgs bosons when a gauge field
interacts with the Higgs field it acquires mass.
In the same way, fermions acquire masses by
interacting with Higgs bosons:
H0 gHff
f
Figure 106: Basic vertex for Higgs-fermion interactions
The coupling constant is related to the fermion mass:

2 2
g Hff = 2G F m f (173)

The mass of the Higgs itself is not predicted by

the theory, only couplings to other particles.
(Eq.(173))
Existence of the Higgs has not been (yet)
confirmed by experiment
Possible signatures of the Higgs:
a) If H0 is lighter than Z0 (rather, MH50 GeV/c2),

then Z0 can decay by
Z0 H0 + l+ + l- (174)
Z0 H0 + l + l (175)
But the branching ratio is very low:

0 0 + -
6 ( Z H l l ) 4
3 10 ---------------------------------------- 10
tot
With the LEP statistics they still must be detectable;

since reactions (174) and (175) had not been
observed, the lower limit is MH>58 GeV/c2

b) If H0 is significantly heavier than 60 GeV/c2, it

can be produced in e+e- annihilation at higher
energies:
e+ + e- H0 + Z0 (176)
e+ H0
Z0*
e- Z0
Figure 107: Higgsstrahlung in e +e - annihilation
In such a reaction, Higgs with mass up 90 GeV/c2

could have been detected. Up-to-date limit is:
M H > 109.7 GeV/c 2 (177)
c) Higgs with masses up to 1 TeV can be

observed at the future proton-proton collider
LHC at CERN:
p + p H0 + X (178)
where H0 is produced in electroweak interaction

between the quarks
u
W+
H0
W-
d
Figure 108: An example of Higgs production process at LHC
Due to heavy background, a good signatures have to

be considered:
If MH > 2MZ, then dominant decay modes are:
H0 Z0 + Z0 (179)
H0 W- + W+ (180)
The most clear signal is when both Z0 decay into

electron or muon pairs:
H0 l+ + l- + l+ + l- (181)
This will mean 200 GeV/2 MH 500 GeV/c2, but

only 4% of all decays
If MH < 2MW, the dominant decay mode is
H0 b + b (182)
but this gives indistinguishable signal. Other mode is
H0 + (183)

W+ t
W+ t
H0 H0
W- t
Figure 109: The dominant mechanisms for the decay (183)
Branching ratio of this kind of processes is about 10-3

The neutral Higgs is the minimal requirement;
there might exist more complicated variants,
including charged higgs-particles.

Charge conjugation and parity Particle Physics
X. Charge conjugation and parity
While conserved in strong and electromagnetic

interactions, parity is violated in weak processes:
Some known decays of K+ are:
K+ 0 + + and K+ + + + +
Intrinsic parity of a pion P=-1, and for the 0+ and
++ states parities are
2 L 3 L 12 + L 3
P 0+ = P ( 1 ) = 1, P ++- = P ( 1 ) = 1
where L=0 since kaon has spin-0.

One of the K+ decays violates parity!
1956: Lee & Yang indicated that parity is violated in

weak processes
1957: Wu carried out studies of parity violation in
-decay

60Co -decay into 60Ni was studied

60Co was cooled to 0.01 K to prevent thermal
disorder
Sample was placed in a magnetic field nuclear
spins were aligned along the field direction
Figure 110: Possible -decays of 60 Co: case (a) is preferred.
If parity is conserved, processes (a) and (b) must

have equal rates
Electrons were emitted predominantly in the
direction opposite the 60Co spin

Another case of parity and C-parity violation was

observed in muon decays:
e- + e + (184)
+ e+ + e + (185)
e

P
Figure 111: Effect of a parity transformation on the muon

decays (184) and (185)
Angular distribution of electrons (positrons) emitted in

- (+) decay has a form of

( cos ) = --- 1 ------- cos

1

(186)
2 3
here are constants asymmetry parameters,

and are total decay rates inverse lifetimes

1
1
= ( cos ) d cos ------- (187)

1
If the process is invariant under charge

conjugation (C-invariance)
+ = - + = - (188)
(rates and angular distributions are the same

for e- and e+)
If the process is P-invariant, then angular
distributions in forward and backward directions
are the same:
( cos ) = ( cos ) + = - = 0 (189)

Experimental results:
+ = - + = - = 1.00 0.04 (190)
Both C- and P-invariance are violated!

Solution: combined operation CP is conserved

( cos ) = - ( cos ) (191)
+

+ = - + = - (192)
Figure 112: P-, C- and CP-transformation of an electron
It appears that electrons prefer to be emitted with

momentum opposite to their spin
Corresponding characteristics: helicity projection of
particles spin to its direction of motion
Jp sp
= ------ = ----- (193)
p p
Eigenvalues of helicity are h=-s,-s+1,...,+s, for

spin-1/2 electron it can be either -1/2 or 1/2
right-handed left-handed
Figure 113: Helicity states of spin-1/2 particle
Helicity of neutrino
1958: Goldhaber et al. measured helicity of the
neutrino using reaction
e- + 152Eu (J=0) 152Sm (J=1) + e (194)

152Sm (J=1) 152Sm (J=0) +
(195)
In reaction (194), 152Sm and e recoil in opposite
directions
152Sm R 152Sm L
(a) (b)
Figure 114: Spin of 152Sm has to be opposite to the

neutrino spin (parallel to the electron spin)

In initial state electron has spin-1/2, 152Eu spin-0,

in final state: 152Sm has spin-1 and e spin-1/2
spin of 152Sm is parallel to the electron spin and
opposite to the neutrino spin.
152Sm 152Sm
152Sm 152Sm
(a) forward-emitted (b) backward-emitted
Figure 115: Forward-emitted has the same helicity as e
Events with emitted in the direction of motion of

152Sm were selected.
Polarization of photons was determined by

studying their absorption in magnetized iron.
It turned out that neutrinos can be only
left-handed!
Antineutrinos were found to be always
right-handed.

V-A interaction
V-A interaction theory was introduced by Fermi
as an analytic description of spin dependence of
charged current interactions.
It denotes polar Vector - Axial vector
interaction
Polar vector is any which direction is reversed by
parity transformation: momentum p
Axial vector is that which direction is not changed
by parity transformation: spin s or orbital angular
momentum L = r p
Weak current has both vector and axial
components, hence parity is not conserved in weak
interactions
Main conclusion: if v c , only left-handed fermions
-
L, e L etc. are emitted, and right-handed
antifermions.
The very existence of preferred states violates
both C- and P- invariance

Neutrinos (antineutrinos) are always relativistic

and hence always left(right)-handed
For other fermions, preferred states are
left-handed, and right-handed states are not
completely forbidden but suppressed by factors
2
1 v-- ---------
m
(196)
c 2E 2
Consider pion decay modes:
+ l+ + l (l=e, ) (197)
l+ + l
Figure 116: Helicities of leptons emitted in a pion decay
+ has spin-0, spins of charged lepton and

neutrino must be opposite
Neutrino is always left-handed charged lepton
has to be left-handed as well. BUT: e+ and + ought
to be right-handed!

It follows that the relativistic charged lepton can not

be emitted in a pion decay!
Muons are rather heavy non-relativistic
can be right-handed (see Eq.(196))
Suppression factor for positron is of order 10-5
Measured ratio:
( + e+ e ) 4
-------------------------------------- = ( 1.230 0.004 ) 10 (198)
( + + )
Muons emitted in pion decays are always

polarized (+ are left-handed)
This can be used to measure muon decay (184),
(185) symmetries by detecting highest-energy
(relativistic) electrons with energy
m m e2
E = ------- 1 + ------- m e (199)
2 m 2

Highest-energy electrons are emitted in decays

when both and e are emitted in the direction
opposite to e-:
e- e-
(a) Allowed e e (b) Forbidden
Figure 117: Muon decays with highest-energy electron

emission
Electron must have spin parallel to the muon spin

configuration (a) is strongly preferred observed
experimentally forward-backward asymmetry (190)
Neutral kaons
CP symmetry apparently can be violated in weak
interactions
Neutral kaons K0(498)=ds and K0(498)=sd can
be converted into each other because they have
same quantum numbers

d u
s
K0 W+ W- K0
s d
u
Figure 118: Example of a process converting K 0 to K0.
Phenomenon of K0K0 mixing : observed

physical particles are linear combinations of K0
and K0, since there is no conserved quantum
number to distinguish them
The same is true for neutral B-mesons: B0 = db,
B0= bd, Bs=sb and Bs=bs, and for neutral
D-mesons D0=cu and D0=uc.
C-transformation changes a quark into antiquark
C |K 0, p = |K 0, p a n d C |K0, p = |K 0, p (200)
Here signs are chosen for further convenience and

do not affect physical predictions

Intrinsic parity of a kaon is PK=-1 for p = ( 0, 0, 0 )
P |K 0, p = |K 0, p a n d P| K,0p = | K 0, p (201)
and the CP transformation is
CP |K 0, p = |K 0, p and | 0, p = |K 0, p (202)
CPK
there are two CP eigenstates :

1
|K 10, p = ------- { |K 0, p + |K 0, p } (203)
2
1
|K 20, p = ------- { |K 0, p |K 0, p } (204)
2
so that
CP |K 10, p = |K 10, p and C PK

| 20, p = |K 20, p (205)
Experimentally observed are two types of neutral

10
kaons: K S0 (S for short, lifetime = 0.9 10 s)
8
and K L0 (long, = 5 10 s ).

K S0 is identified with K 10 CP-eigenstate, and

K L0 with K 20
If CP-invariance holds for neutral kaons, K S0

should decay only to states with CP=1, and K L0
to states with CP=-1:
K S0 + -, K S0 0 0 (206)
Parity of a two-pion state is P = P 2 ( 1 ) L = 1
(kaon has spin-0)
C-parity of 00 state is C = ( C 0 ) 2 = 1 , and of a

+- state: C = ( 1 ) L = 1 , for final states in (206)
CP=1
K L0 + - 0, K L0 0 0 0 (207)
0
+(0)
L3
L12
(0)
Figure 119: Angular momenta in the 3-pion system

L 12 + L 3
Parity of a 3-pion state is P = P ( 1 )
3 = 1
C-parity of 000 is C = ( C 0 ) 3 = 1 , and of the

L 12 L 12
state +-0: C = C 0 ( 1 ) = ( 1 ) . L12 can be

defined experimentally: L12=0 for final states in
(207) CP=-1
However, the CP-violating decay
K L0 + - (208)
was observed in 1964, with a branching ratio B10-3.

In general, physical states K S0 and K L0 dont
have to correspond to CP-eigenstates K 10 and K 20 :
K S0 has admixture of K 20 and K L0 of K 10 .
There can be different mechanisms for

CP-violation, esp. in B0-B0 systems; no
experimental data is available yet though.

Beyond the Standard Model Particle Physics
XI. Beyond the Standard Model
While Standard Model appears to be confirmed in

all ways, there are some unclear points and
possible extensions
Why observed quarks and leptons have the
masses they do?
Do neutrino have actually masses?
If yes, are they the Dark Matter?
Neutrino masses
If neutrinos have non-zero masses, they must be
subject to neutrino-mixing
Recall: quark mixing in weak interactions
d' = d cos C + s sin C

s' = d sin C + s cos C

By analogy, neutrinos can be represented as linear

combinations:
e = 1 cos + 2 sin
(209)
= 1 sin + 2 cos
if neutrinos 1 and 2 have masses m1 and m2.

Mixing angle must be determined from
experiment; neutrino oscillation can be observed
Neutrino oscillation: a beam of e develops
component as it travels through space, and vice
versa
In Dirac notation,
| e, p = cos | 1, p + sin | 2, p (210)
and after period of time t it evolves to:

iE 1 t iE 2 t
e cos |1, p + e sin | 2, p (211)
iE i t
where e are oscillating time factors

Form (211) is not a pure e state anymore:
A ( t ) |v e, p + B ( t ) | , p (212)
where the states are, as in (210):
| , p = sin | 1, p + cos | 2, p (213)
and hence
iE 1 t 2 iE 2 t 2
A(t ) = e cos + e sin
(214)
iE 2 t iE 1 t
B ( t ) = sin cos [ e e ]
Squares of A(t) and B(t) are probabilities to find e

respective in a beam of electron neutrinos:
P ( e e ) = A ( t ) 2 = 1 P ( e ) (215)
( E 2 E 1 )t
2 -------------------------
P ( e ) = B ( t ) = sin ( 2 ) sin
2 2 (216)
2
If neutrinos have equal (zero) masses E1=E2
no oscillations

Ways to detect neutrino oscillations:

e and can be distinguished by their
interaction with neutrons: former produce
electrons and latter - muons
e + n e- + p
+ n - + p
Time t is determined by the distance between

the detector and the source of neutrinos
Several neutrino sources can be considered:
Sun
Cosmic rays (atmospheric neutrinos)
Secondary accelerator beams
Nuclear reactors
Natural radioactivity
Supernova
Big Bang

Atmospheric neutrino anomaly

Was first detected in 1980s: instead of predicted
N()2N(e), rates of both neutrinos were
approximately equal.
Super-Kamiokande detector: measures rates

and flavours of neutrinos coming both from zenith
and nadir
A neutrino created in cosmic rays travels
at maximum 20 km in the atmosphere
have no time to oscillate (proven by
other experiments)
A similar neutrino created on the other
side of the Earth travels 13000 km
has good chances to oscillate
If ratio of e and is different in two
cases above there are oscillations
at least one neutrino is massive.

Figure 120: Neutrino oscillations through Earth

Figure 121: Schematics of the Super-Kamiokande detector
Detector placed in a deep mine to reduce the

background
50 000 m3 of water and 13 000 photomultipliers
work at the Cherenkov detector

Figure 122: Interior of the Super-Kamiokande detector

(during construction)
In 1998, the Super-Kamiokande Collaboration

announced:
a) 4654 observed events by far the largest
statistical sample
b) data exhibit zenith angle dependence of
deficit
c) hence the atmospheric neutrino anomaly can
only be explained by oscillations ,
which leads to muonic neutrino deficiency in
cosmic rays.
d) the mixing angle and neutrino mass difference
m estimated at
2
sin ( 2 ) > 0.82
(217)
4 3
5 10 < m < 6 10 eV 2
2

Solar neutrino problem
Figure 123: Portrait of the Sun in neutrinos
Several (similar) methods are used to detect solar

neutrinos:
e + 37Cl e- + 37Ar
e + 98Mo e- + 98Tc
e + 71Ga e- + 71Ge
Experimental installations typically are tanks filled
with corresponding medium and placed
underground

Homestake gold mine detector (data

taking since 1970, USA) GALLEX detector under the
Gran Sasso mountain (Italy)
Figure 124: Typical layouts of solar neutrino detectors

Solar neutrino flux is measured in SNU (solar

neutrino unit):
1 SNU = 1 capture / 1 second / 1036 target atoms
Solar neutrino problem:
For the Homestake detector, predicted neutrino
flux is 7.3 2.3 SNU, measured 2.5 0.2 SNU
GALLEX: predicted 132 9 SNU, measured
79 11 SNU
Reactions producing solar neutrinos are:
1) p + p 2H + e+ + e E,max=0.42 MeV (85%)
2) e- + 7Be 7Li + e E,max=0.86 MeV (15%)
3) 8B 8Be + e+ + e E,max=15 MeV (0.02%)
GALLEX measures all of them, Homestake only

the last one.
Neutrino oscillations seems to be the most
appealing explanation, although there are many
other hypotheses
Detection of neutrinos from supernovae can

provide information about neutrino mass
Simultaneous observation of neutrinos from the
SN1987a on February 23, 1987 by two
experiments (IMB and Kamiokande) set the upper
limit on the neutrino mass of 20 eV
Figure 125: SN1987a as seen by the Hubble Space

Telescope in 1994

Depth
surface
50 m snow layer
60 m
810 m
1000 m
200 m
120 m
1150 m
1500 m

1980 m
2350 m
AMANDA as of 1998 zoomed in on

Eiffel Tower as comparison AMANDA-A (top) zoomed in on one
(true scaling) AMANDA-B10 (bottom) optical module (OM)
Figure 126: Schematics of the AMANDA neutrino telescope

at the South Pole

Dark matter
Experimental evidence for the Big Bang model:
Universe expands
Cosmic background radiation
Abundance of light elements
Expansion will halt at the critical density of the
Universe:
3H 02
c = ----------- = O ( 10 26 ) kg m 3
8G
H0 is Hubble constant and G is the gravitational
constant.
The relative density is estimated to be close to 1:
c = 1
Relative density of observable (i.e. emitting

electromagnetic radiation) matter in the Universe
is only L0.01
The rest is called dark matter

Possible components of the dark matter:

a) Baryonic matter that emit little or no e.m.
radiation: brown dwarfs, small black holes
MACHOs (for MAssive Compact Halo Object).
There is evidence that B0.06 only.
b) Massive neutrinos (hot dark matter): at the big

bang, rate of neutrino production is the same
as of photons knowing the density of
photons and the expansion rate of the
Universe:
m 100 eV/c 2
Apparently, neutrinos can not be the dominant dark
matter either.
c) Cold dark matter: WIMPs (Weakly Interacting
Massive Particles), non-baryonic objects,
non-relativistic at early stages of the Universe
evolution. Still to be detected...

Grand Unified Theories (GUTs)

Weak and electromagnetic interactions are
unified, why not to add the strong one?
At some very high unification mass electroweak
and strong couplings might become equal
Figure 127: Behavior of coupling constants in GUT; 1 and

2 denote couplings at Z and W respectively

Grand unified theories can be constructed in many

different ways.
Georgi-Glashow model combines coloured
quarks and leptons in single families, like
(dr, dg, db, e+, e)
and hence new gauge bosons appear:
X with Q=-4/3 and Y with Q=-1/3, MX1015 GeV/c2:
d e+
d e
g W-
e+ e
d d
X Y
Figure 128: Standard processes together with predicted by

GUT
The single unified coupling constant is gU, and
gU 2
1
U ------- ------ (218)
4 42

Georgi-Glashow model explains equal

magnitudes of electron and proton charge
Sum of electric charges in any given family must be
zero 3Qd + e =0 down-quark has charge -e/3.
Factor of 3 arises simply from the number of
colors
This model also predicts the weak mixing angle
using values of the coupling constants:
2
sin W = 0.21 (219)
which is very close to experimental results, but not

precisely.
GUT predict that proton is unstable and can decay
by a process involving X or Y bosons
e+
e+
d X d X
pu p u
u
u u
u 0 0
u
u
Figure 129: Proton decays in GUT

In processes like those on Fig.129, baryon and

lepton numbers are not conserved, but their
combination is:
B L B L ( = e, , ) (220)

From the simple zero-range approximation,

lifetime of the proton is (from different GUTs):
p = 10 29 10 30 years (221)
while the age of the universe is about 1010 years...

Same detectors as used in the neutrino
physics (IMB, Kamiokande) are looking for the
proton decays, but have not observed a clear
example so far.
Baryon number non-conservation allows
explanation of excess of baryons in the universe
as compared to antibaryons. However,
CP-violation must be present as well.

Supersymmetry (SUSY)
Most popular GUTs incorporate SUSY
Every known elementary particle has a
supersymmetric partner -superparticle - with
different spin:
Particle Symbol Spin Superparticle Symbol Spin
Quark q 1/2 Squark q 0
Electron e 1/2 Selectron e 0
Muon 1/2 Smuon 0
Tauon 1/2 Stauon 0
W W 1 Wino W 1/2
Z Z 1 Zino Z 1/2
Photon 1 Photino 1/2
Gluon g 1 Gluino g 1/2
Higgs H 0 Higgsino H 1/2
Supersymmetric particles however have to be much

heavier than their counterparts

SUSY shifts grand unification mass from 1015 to

1016 GeV/c2, and hence the lifetime of the proton
increases:
p = 10 32 10 33 years (222)
which is more consistent with experimental

(non)observations.
SUSY also modifies value of the weak mixing
angle (219) to be closer to experimental results.
SUSY even attempts at unifying ALL forces,
including gravity, at the Planck mass of order
1019 GeV/c2 by replacing particles with
superstrings
Lightest superparticles can be candidates for the
cold dark matter; most models introduce
neutralino 0 , which is the mixture of photino,
Higgsino and zino:
-
e + e e + + e -
+ (223)
e + e + + 0 e - e - + 0 (224)

SUSY predictions for reactions (223)-(224):

1) Cross-section of (223) is comparable with
producing ordinary charged particles of the
same mass
2) Selectrons decay before they can reach a
detector
3) Neutralinos are virtually undetectable due to
very weak interaction
Thus only final state electrons in (224) can be
detected, so that they:
a) carry only half of the initial energy of e+e- state,

b) should not be emitted in opposite directions in
CM frame
No signature of this kind has been observed so
far, tests at higher energies needed

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Particle Physics

Oxana Smirnova Particle Physics Department

Particle physics studies the elementary building

Oxana Smirnova Lund University 2

particles with long Atoms, Chemical

quarks and 15 Hadrons, Nuclear

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The Standard Model

Main postulates of SM:

1) Basic constituents of matter are quarks and

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Figure 1: The Standard Model Chart

SM does not explain neither appearance of the mass

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Figure 2: History of the Universe

Units and dimensions

1 keV = 103 eV; 1 MeV = 106 eV; 1 GeV = 109 eV

For simplicity, the natural units are used:

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x is the coordinate vector, p - momentum vector, E

For relativistic particles, E2=p2+m2, and the

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There exist negative energy solutions!

The problem with the Klein-Gordon equation: it is

where i and are 44 matrices and are

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Dirac-Pauli representation of matrices i and :

Here I is 22 unit matrix and i are Pauli matrices:

Also possible is Weyl representation:

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Diracs picture of vacuum

Figure 3: Fermions in Diracs representation.

The hole created by the appearance of the electron

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Discovery of the positron

Figure 4: Photo of the track in the Wilson chamber

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Figure 5: A Feynman diagram example

Main assumptions and requirements:

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Figure 6: Feynman diagrams for basic processes involving

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Figure 7: Electron-electron scattering, single photon

Any real process receives contributions from all

Figure 8: Two-photon exchange contribution

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Number of vertices in a diagram is called its

For the real processes, a diagram of order n

Provided sufficiently small , high order contributions

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Figure 9: Lowest order contributions to

Diagrams which differ only by time-ordering are

Figure 10: Lowest order of the process

This kind of process implies 3!=6 different time

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Only from the order of diagrams one can estimate

Figure 11: Diagrams are not related by time ordering

For nucleus, the coupling is proportional to Z2,

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Exchange of a massive boson

Figure 12: Exchange of a massive particle X

In the rest frame of particle A:

From this one can estimate the maximum distance