Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

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Reinforced concrete perforation and penetration simulation using

AUTODYN-3D
C.Y. Tham
Computational Mechanics Division, Institute of High Performance Computing, 1 Science Park Road, #01-01 The Capricorn,
Singapore Science Park II, Singapore 117528
Received 18 January 2004; accepted 6 August 2004
Available online 8 June 2005

Abstract
3D hydrocode simulation on the perforation and penetration of reinforced concrete target has been performed.
The simulation aims to examine the inuence of the following constitutive models for concrete on a projectiles
residual velocity: (1) constant-yield strength (2) pressure-dependent yield strength (3) pressure-dependent yield
strength + fracture damage + strain-rate hardening. In the simulation, steel ogival-nose projectile with a diameter of
25.4 mm and a mass of 0.5 kg is red against 406.4406.4178 mm reinforced concrete target with striking velocity
ranging from 300 m/s to 1000 m/s. The results obtained from the simulation are compared with experimental residual
velocities and post-test damage results. The result from the constitutive model that includes strain-rate and damage
with a pressure-dependent yield surface shows relatively good agreement with experimental residual velocities. The
damage contours at the impact and exit surface from the simulation are also consistent with the post-test damage
results.
2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Hydrocode; Projectile; Reinforced concrete; Perforation; Constitutive model

1. Introduction

Concrete has been used extensively as a construction material for buildings, bridges, tunnels and
nuclear reactor containment. In defense applications, concrete is used as a structural material for runways,
command bunkers and hardened shelters. Concrete which we encounter in all aspects of our everyday
Tel.: +65 6419 1235; fax: +65 6419 1280.
E-mail address: thamcy@ihpc.a-star.edu.sg

0168-874X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nel.2004.08.003
1402 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

life is a mixture of cement grout, water, air and quartz aggregates. Variation of any of these components
will lead to a change in the mechanical properties. Concrete is well known for its high compressive
strength as compared to metals. Despite its strength and ubiquity, this heterogeneous material suffers
certain limitationslow tensile strength, permeability and shrinkage. Low tensile strength has long been
recognized as a shortcoming of concrete. However, structural engineers have circumvented this weakness
through the use of reinforced steel beams. This combination of concrete and steel serves to enhance the
overall bending strength of concrete.
In many defense agencies, the complex interaction of a projectile with concrete has been a subject
of interest to both civil engineers and weapon designers. To the civil engineers the results provide an
indication on the survivability of structural elements, while to the weapon designers the outcome is a
means to assess the lethality of projectiles. In this computing age, the proliferation of faster and cheaper
computing power is beginning to allow numerical simulation to play a more dominant role in predicting
complex interaction of projectile with concrete. With hydrocode simulation becoming a popular tool,
complementing full-scale testing, an understanding of the constitutive models becomes pertinent. Hence,
this paper seeks to examine the inuence of constitutive model in hydrocode simulation on the penetration
and perforation of concrete targets.

2. Numerical tool: hydrocode

A computer program that is capable of computing strains, stresses, velocities and propagation of shock
waves as a function of time and position is known as a hydrocode. In a hydrocode simulation, the response
of a continuous media subjected to dynamic loading is governed by the conservation of mass, momentum
and energy, and also the equation-of-state and constitutive relation of the media. The equation-of-state
takes into account the effects of compressibility of the continuous media and is a function of internal
energy and density, whereas the constitutive relation represents the medias resistance to shear. In this
paper the hydrocode simulations on the penetration and perforation of concrete target are performed
using AUTODYN-3D [1], a fully integrated and interactive hydrocode developed by Century Dynamics.
In AUTODYN-3D the following fundamental equations together with the initial and boundary conditions
are solved using a nite difference scheme.
D
jvi
Conservation of mass: +
= 0. (1)
Dt jxi
Dv i jP jSj i
Conservation of momentum:
= + +
fi . (2)
Dt jxi jxi


De j jT jvi jvi
Conservation of energy:
=
q + k P + Sj i . (3)
Dt jx jx jxi jxj
Decomposition of stresses: ij = Sij ij P . (4)
Equation-of-state: P = P (
, e). (5)
The nite difference scheme is based on an explicit time-integration. For an explicit time-integration,
the control of the time-step is based on the CourantFriedrichLevy (CFL) criterion. The CFL condition
 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410 1403

demands that the time step
t is less than the time for a sound signal with velocity c to traverse the grid
spacing
x.

x
Courant .Friedrich.Levy criterion:
t < . (6)
c
In high velocity impact problems shock waves are generated in the continuous media. These shock waves
are mathematical discontinuities. These discontinuities are fountainheads of spurious high-frequency
signals that occur at the shock regions. To overcome the problem, an articial viscosity is introduced into
the solution to smear out shocks over a few cells and thus allow the hydrocode to continue to compute a
smooth solution. The articial viscosity implemented in AUTODYN is based on two terms, a quadratic
term and a linear term. The quadratic term, which smears out the shock, is proportional to the square of
the velocity gradient. In contrast, the linear term, which reduces the oscillations in the smeared solution, is
proportional to the velocity gradient. The articial viscosity, denoted as q, is implemented by adding it to
the hydrostatic pressure in the energy and momentum equations. The articial viscosity has the following
form:




V V V
q =
CQ d CL c for < 0, (7)
V V V
V
q =0 for > 0, (8)
V
where CQ and CL are constants,
is the current local density, d is a typical length (here dened to be the
area of the zone divided by the longest diagonal of the zone), c is the local sound speed and V /V is the
volume change.

3. Hydrocode model

This paper presents 3D hydrocode simulations on the perforation and penetration of reinforced concrete
target. The set of experimental data published by Hanchak et al. [2] for concrete with an unconned
compressive strength of 48 MPa is used for verication. Included in Ref. [2] are isotropic and triaxial
shear test data curves for the concrete target. In the experiments, CRH3 steel ogival-nose projectiles (see
Fig. 1) with a diameter of 25.4 mm and a mass of 0.5 kg were red against 610610178 mm reinforced
concrete target with striking velocity ranging from 300 m/s to 1000 m/s. The results from the experiments

Fig. 1. Steel projectile geometry.

1404 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

Fig. 2. The dimensions and conguration of the reinforced concrete target.

Fig. 3. The hydrocode model of the reinforced concrete target.

contain residual velocities of the projectile and post-test damage at the entry and exit face of the target.
Using these results as a benchmark, these simulations seek to examine the inuence of constitutive
models on the perforation and penetration calculations. The following constitutive models are being
evaluated: (1) constant-yield strength (2) pressure-dependent yield strength (3) pressure-dependent yield
strength + damage + strain-rate hardening.
In the simulation, the projectile and the concrete target (240825 nodes) are modeled as Lagrangian
meshes, while the reinforced steel bars are described using 1152 BelytschkoSchwer beam elements.
 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410 1405

Fig. 4. The maraging steel projectile modeled using a Langrange mesh.

Table 1
Properties of maraging steel

Density,
(g/cm3 ) Youngs modulus, E (Mbar) Poisson ratio, v Yield stress, y (Mbar)

8.000 2.069 0.3 0.0172

The geometry of the concrete target, dened using a structured mesh, has 65 indices in the I-direction, 65
indices in the J-direction and 57 indices in the K-direction. The IJK-index corresponds to the Cartesian
co-ordinate system. The mesh size, along the three indices, is maintained at 0.3175 cm. The reinforcement
embedded within the concrete target consists of three layers of steel meshes in the Z-direction. In each
layer there are three beams lined orthogonally in the X-direction and Y-direction, respectively. Each
beam is modeled using 64 beam elements, and it is bonded to the concrete target and attached to one
another at the intersections. Figs. 2 and 3 show the dimensions and hydrocode model of the reinforced
concrete target, respectively. The maraging steel projectile which experiences only minor nose erosion is
assumed to have an elastic-perfectly plastic yield function. Fig. 4 features the maraging steel projectile
modeled using a Langrange mesh. The mechanical properties of the maraging steel are taken from [4]
(see Table 1). The initial condition for the hydrocode model is shown in Fig. 5. Since the projectile does
not impact the reinforcement, the steel bars for the reinforcement are modeled using an elastic-perfectly
plastic constitutive model. Symmetry boundary conditions are imposed on X = 0 and Y = 0 planes to
reduce the size of the computational domain. Fig. 6 illustrates the boundary conditions that are applied
on the numerical model. Interaction of the projectile with the concrete target was achieved using the gap
interaction logic. In the gap interaction logic, each surface segment is surrounded by a contact detection
zone. The radius of this contact detection zone is called the gap size. Any node entering the contact
detection zone of a surface segment are repelled by a force proportional to the depth of penetration of the
node into the contact detection zone. In this hydrocode model the gap size is set at 0.014 cm.
For the case of the constitutive model with constant-yield strength, the concrete is assumed to have an
elastic-perfectly plastic behavior with the yield strength equal to the unconned compressive strength of
the concrete target (i.e., 48 MPa). As for the case of the constitutive model with pressure-dependent yield
strength, the shear response of the concrete is represented using the DruckerPrager model better known
as the MohrColoumb model as described in Refs. [1,3]. The parameters for this model are derived from
the triaxial test data in Ref. [2]. The values and parameters for the DruckerPager model are presented in
Table 2.
In these two cases, the compression and compaction of the concrete is being represented using the porous
equation-of-state (EOS). For this EOS, a constant bulk modulus is assumed for the unloading and reloading
of the partially compacted material supporting the assumption that the unload/reload characteristics were
less signicant than the main load curve. Recognizing the fact that concrete is an order of magnitude
1406 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

Fig. 5. Initial-condition for the numerical model.

Fig. 6. Boundary conditions applied on the numerical model.

weaker in tension than compression, the tensile failure of the concrete target in these two cases is modeled
using the Hydrodynamic tensile failure criteria. Failure is initiated when the tensile pressure in the concrete
target exceeds 4 MPa. This simple tensile pressure cutoff is an oversimplication of the failure of concrete.
In practice, the failure would be expected to be dependent on the maximum principal tensile strain in
 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410 1407

Table 2
Values and parameters for the DruckerPrager model
Parameter Value Parameter Value

Ref. density (g/cm3 ) 2.684 Pressure #2 (Mbar) 0.000E 00

Solid Sound Speed (cm/s) 3.794E 01 Pressure #3 (Mbar) 1.600E 04
Porous Sound Speed (cm/s) 3.794E 01 Pressure #4 (Mbar) 1.545E 03
Density #1 (g/cm3 ) 2.440 Pressure #5 (Mbar) 2.670E 03
Density #2 (g/cm3 ) 2.442 Pressure #6 (Mbar) 5.193E 03
Density #3 (g/cm3 ) 2.571 Pressure #7 (Mbar) 6.136E 03
Density #4 (g/cm3 ) 2.699 Yield Stress #1 (Mbar) 0.000E 00
Density #5 (g/cm3 ) 2.828 Yield Stress #2 (Mbar) 9.600E 05
Pressure #1 (Mbar) 0.000 Yield Stress #3 (Mbar) 4.800E 04
Pressure #2 (Mbar) 1.600E 04 Yield Stress #4 (Mbar) 1.600E 03
Pressure #3 (Mbar) 3.607E 03 Yield Stress #5 (Mbar) 2.194E 03
Pressure #4 (Mbar) 7.053E 03 Yield Stress #6 (Mbar) 3.194E 03
Pressure #5 (Mbar) 1.050E 02 Yield Stress #7 (Mbar) 3.194E 03
Shear Modulus (Mbar) 1.488E 01 Hydro Tensile Limit (Mbar) 4.000E 05
Pressure #1 (Mbar) 4.000E 05 Erosion Strain 3.5

Table 3
Values and parameters for the RHT concrete model

Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value

porous (g/cm3 ) 2.440 T1 (Mbar) 0.174 D 3.600E 02

cporous (cm/s) 0.3794 T2 (Mbar) 0 PREFACT 1.0
pcrush (Mbar) 1.600E 04 Tref (K) 300 TENSRAT 1.0
plock (Mbar) 0.0105 cv (Terg/gK) 6.540E + 02 COMPRAT 1.0
N 1 G (Mbar) 0.14875 D1 4.000E 02
Solid EOS Polynomial fc (Mbar) 4.800E 04 D2 1.0
Compaction Curve Standard ft /fc 0.0833 EFMIN 1.000E 02

solid (g/cm3 ) 2.684 fs /fc 1.800E 01 B fric 1.600
A1 (Mbar) 0.174 A fail 1.6 N fric 6.100E 01
A2 (Mbar) 0.388 N fail 6.100E 01 SHRATD 1.0
A3 (Mbar) 0.298 Q2 1.0 CAPFLAG 0
B0 1.220E + 00 BQ 1.050E 02 Tens. Failure Model Hydro
B1 1.220E + 00 a 3.200E 02 Erosion strain 3.5

relation to the maximum compaction imparted in the direction of that strain component. In anticipation
of excessive mesh distortion in these two cases, an erosion logic based on incremental geometric strain
of 350% is assigned to the concrete target.
Publications and research reports on the dynamic behavior of concrete have hypothesized that concrete
exhibits a critical strain-rate above which yields signicant increase in strength [5]. They also postulate that
when dynamically loaded, concrete experiences microcracking, which subsequently leads to a reduction
in strength and stiffness [6]. These hypothesis and postulation are considered in the third and the nal
constitutive model. In this nal constitutive model, the RHT concrete model described in Ref. [1,7] is
1408 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

Fig. 7. (a) Projectiletarget interaction at t = 0 s (VS = 749 m/s, target: Y = f (P )). (b) Projectiletarget interaction at t = 100 s
(VS = 749 m/s, target: Y = f (P )). (c) Projectiletarget interaction at t = 200 s (VS = 749 m/s, target: Y = f (P )). (d)
Projectiletarget interaction at t = 300 s (VS = 749 m/s, target: Y = f (P )).

employed to examine the combined effects of damage (i.e., microcracking) and strain-rate hardening on a
pressure-dependent yield surface. This model is a modular strength model for brittle materials developed
by Reidel, Hiermaier and Thoma of Ernst Mach Institute. Due to limited test data on the concrete target,
some of the inputs for the constitutive model are derived from other concrete types. The values and
parameters for the RHT model are presented in Table 3.

4. Results

The interaction between the projectile and the reinforced concrete target, for the case with the pressure-
dependent yield strength, at 100 s time interval is captured in Fig. 7. The computed residual velocities
are compared with the experimental residual velocities in Fig. 8. The results for the case of the constitutive
model with constant-yield strength produce consistently higher residual velocities than those observed
in the experiment. As for the case of the constitutive model with pressure-dependent yield strength,
the results from the low velocity regime tend to exhibit higher residual velocities. In the third and the
nal case, where the effects of strain-rate and damage are included, the simulated residual velocities are
in closest agreement with the experimental results. Comparisons of the impact and exit surface of the
post-test damage with the simulated damage results are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. In these
 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410 1409

1200
Test Data (Hanchak et al.)
Y = Constant
1000
Residual Velocity, VR (m/s)
Y = f (Pressure)
Y = f (Pressure, Damage, Strain-Rate)

800

Craters
600

400

200 Tunnel

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Impact Velocity, VS (m/s)

Fig. 8. Comparison of calculated residual velocities with experimental test results.

Fig. 9. Comparison of post-test damage of the impact surface (VS = 749 m/s).

gures, the damage contours underscore regions in the concrete target that has experienced a reduction
in strength and stiffness. These contoursderived from an accumulated damage modelare consistent
with the cracks and damage region seen in the post-test photographs. A general post-test observation on
perforated concrete slab, illustrated in Ref. [2], is the formation of two craters, at the exit and impact
surface, and a tunnel. The formation of these craters is partly due to the fracturing and fragmentation
caused by the reected tensile waves from the top and bottom free surfaces, while the development of
the tunnel is due to the expansion of the cavity formed by the quasi-steady penetration. In the computed
results, these craters and tunnel have also been observed and are highlighted in the inset in Fig. 8.
1410 C.Y. Tham / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 41 (2005) 1401 1410

Fig. 10. Comparison of post-test damage of the exit surface (VS = 749 m/s).

5. Conclusions

In this paper the inuence of the following constitutive models on concrete penetration and perforation
is examined: (1) constant-yield strength (2) pressure-dependent yield strength (3) pressure-dependent
yield strength + damage + strain-rate hardening. Except for the low velocity regime, the results for the
case of the constitutive model with pressure-dependent yield function exhibit strong correlation with
experimental residual velocities. The result from the constitutive model that includes strain-rate and
damage with a pressure-dependent yield surface shows relatively good agreement with the experimental
residual velocities. The damage contours at the impact and exit surface from the simulation are also
consistent with the post-test damage results.

References

[1] AUTODYN, Theory Manual, Revision 4.0, Century Dynamics Inc., 1998.
[2] S.J. Hanchak, M.J. Forrestal, E.R. Young, J.Q. Ehrgott, Perforation of concrete slabs with 48 MPa (7 ksi) and 140 MPa
(20 ksi) compressive strengths, Int. J. Impact Eng. 12 (1992) 17.
[3] S. Hancock, PISCES 2DELK Application Note 78-14, August 31, 1979.
[4] E.P. Chen, Numerical simulation of perforation of concrete targets by steel rods, in: E.P. Chen, V.K. Luk (Eds.), Advances in
Numerical Simulation Techniques for Penetration and Perforation of Solids, AMD-vol. 171, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, 1993, pp. 181188.
[5] J.W. Tedesco, J.C. Powell, C. Allen Ross, M.L. Hughes, A strain-rate dependent concrete material model for ADINA,
Comput. Struct. 64 (1997) 10531067.
[6] E.P. Chen, Simulation of Concrete Perforation Based on a Continuum Damage Model SAND94-0792C, Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, January 1, 1994.
[7] W. Reidel, K. Thorma, S. Hiermaier, E. Schmolinske, Penetration of reinforced concrete by BETA-B-500, Numerical analysis
using a new macroscopic concrete model for hydrocodes, in: Proceedings of 9th International Symposium on Interaction
of the Effects of munitions with Structures, Berlin, 1999, pp. 315322.