The Big 20

Critical media theory, issues and debates

Theory Basic Key theory/theorists Key words Good
Issue/Debate Overview examples
1. Representatio This is the Male Gaze Selection Print online and
n medias way of Female Gaze Construction moving image
making Mediation adverts
meaning Lacan and Mulvey the idealized mirror
everything is a Semiotics Magazine front
construction Bell Hooks western (white) ideals Signification (2 covers
News stories /bias levels) Tabloid front covers
Music cd and album
covers

Select your own

examples;
Mainstream film
products e.g. trailers
Essentially very straightforward and film posters
conventional representations that
reinforce dominant ideologies about
gender, race, age, class, nationality
etc.

But of course EVERYTHING in the media

is a construction a selective
representation
2. Stereotyping A short hand/a As above and Shared Adverts
simple way/an The theoretical perspectives of understanding Magazines
easy process Medhurst (1995) has suggested that Mainstream News
that the media stereotypes can be seen as a type of Ideology Mainstream film
uses to create media shorthand that provides an easy Repetition Sit com
meaning in point of contact when the text needs to Normalizing Soap Operas
media texts communicate quickly with the audience. Hegemony Tabloids
 Theoretical perspective of Perkins Acceptance
(1979) suggested that stereotypes are Cultivation
not always negative and that they often (Gerbner)
contain an element of truth.
3. Media Effects A debate that Gramsci and Hegemony Links to moral Video Games
considers the A great way to look at it is how can the panics Advertising
potential power media affect society and how society can Desensitization
of the media affect the media? hegemony
(links to a
passive http://www.slidesha
audience) re.net/Fludvd/medi
now becoming a-effects-theory
more outdated
in the world of
online / social
media.

4. Reality TV A popular Genre http://www.theguardi

genre based on Economy an.com/tv-and-
elaborate Cheap disposable radio/2011/jun/01/re
construction / Format ality-tv-only-way-
format and Postmodern essex
hyper reality valuable to
insitutions
Reductionist
Dumbing down?

5. News Values The basis of Gultang and Ruge Democracy

selecting the Chomsky Passivity
news agenda Professionalism Dumbing down
who decides Agenda Hegemony
whats Bias Ownership
important and Threshold Public service
how willingly Negativity Corporate agenda
audiences just Ratings
go along with
it? ownership
6. Moral Panics A public Stanley Cohen the media starts moral Directing debate
reaction to a panics and makes them worse after a Engineering
moral / value significant event Hegemony
/crisis e.g. The Media was often seen as the trigger News agenda
video games, for a decline in moral standards in Currency
violence, society. Marxist perspective
sexual
permissiveness

7. Post 911 and The shattering Creation of US paranoia, insecurity and Passive audience
the Media of the American islamaphobia. Is it the shattering of US Audience http://www.theguardia
Dream. 9/11 self- confidence or is there a backlash? Ownership n.com/film/filmblog/20
was a E.g. a reassertion of US supremacy and Self preservation 11/sep/08/9-11-films-
fundamental invincibility hollywood-handle
and profound think of disaster films hyperbolic - good
http://www.huffingtonp
turning point v evil the crystallizing of concepts like ost.com/entry/new-
and some war on terror think year zero! york-daily-news-palin-
media texts are trump_us_569f04fce4b
constructed 04c813761fc2b
under the http://www.theguardia
direct influence n.com/us-
of this seismic news/2015/dec/08/mu
event. There slims-us-islam-
was cultural islamophobia-data-
polls
and
psychological
change
8. Ownership MEDIA Concentration of media ownership The Music Industry Great link on who
and Control OWNERSHIP (also known as media consolidation or The Big Four owns UK Media
Print or media convergence) is a process The Film Industry
Broadcast whereby progressively fewer individuals The Hollywood http://www.mediaref
media are or organizations control increasing machine orm.org.uk/who-
normally owned shares of the mass media.[1] News Corp owns-the-uk-media
by individuals, Contemporary research demonstrates
government, increasing levels of consolidation, with
group of many media industries already highly Great link on who
individuals, concentrated and dominated by a very owns UK press
etc. small number of firms http://leftfootforward
.org/2013/06/everyo
There are Globally, large media conglomerates ne-should-know-
different types include Viacom, CBS Corporation, Time who-owns-the-press-
of ownership as Warner, 21st Century Fox and News Corp for-the-sake-of-our-
follows: (the former News Corporation, split in democracy/
Government, 2013), Bertelsmann AG, Sony, Comcast,
Private, Joint Vivendi, Televisa, The Walt Disney
and Party Company, Hearst Corporation,
ownership. Organizaes Globo and Lagardre
Group.[4][5][6]

As of 2012, The Walt Disney Company is

the largest media conglomerate in the
Trends in US, with News Corporation, Time Warner
ownership and Viacom ranking second, third and
and control fourth respectively.[7]
KEY POINT -
In nations described as authoritarian by
Recent trends
most international think-tanks and NGOs,
in media
media ownership is generally something
ownership and
very close to the complete state control
control suggest
over information in direct or indirect
that the
ways.
number of
companies
Government ownership
controlling Here the government is in charge of the funding of
global mass the media organization or has greater control of
media has the shares. The funding of the media could be
significantly direct funding, loans and overdrafts from banks.
Where this is the situation, the editorial contents
shrunk in of such media are being influenced by the
recent years. government. The effect is that government in one
way or the other will make sure that it determines
what may or may not be published and the
medium will want to toe the line of government.
New Nigeria, for example, was completely funded
by government. Think about the recent Media
show story about Polish Press and the pressure
coming from the Govt to control it or the
pressure for C4 to be privatised even the public
service remit of the BBc is under threat

Private ownership
This could be cross media, chain or corporate
ownership. The owner or body concerned has a
larger share in the funding or it is fully owned by
the person or body concerned.

Chain ownership
In chain ownership, newspaper houses or radio
stations are owned by one person. In order words,
a particular person or group of persons possess a
particular type of media like the radio stations
owned by one person or group.

Cross media ownership

Suggests the possession of a combination of
several media. The inference here is that both
broadcast and print media are owned by an
individual or group at the same time. A best
description of this pattern of ownership would be
for an organization to own newspapers and
television at the same time or newspaper and
radio or the combination of the three.

Conglomerate
This is a situation whereby an owner of a media
organization runs other types of business. The
media so owned will try to cover issues affecting
other business branches of the business of the
owner.

Joint ownership
This means that the government and individuals
jointly owns it. There is equal partnership
between the government and individual. The two
parties finance the medium.

Party ownership
This is the ownership of a media by the political
party. The party funds it and therefore controls it.
It could be owned by the contesting parties. So,
the parties interests influence the content of their
publication. There is party ownership in a
democratic multi party state and party ownership
in a socialist one party state.

MASS MEDIA CONTROL

The control of mass media means the checks and
controls of the media which is based on legal
demands, the influence of proprietors, restrictions
on what to publish or what not to publish,
observance of the regulatory bodies stipulations,
etc. This control to a great extent affect what
their editorial contents should eventually be.
9. Regulation Media
and regulation is Film - regulated by the British Board of http://www.theguardi
censorship the control or Film Classification, visit www.bbfc.co.uk an.com/media/2015/
guidance of or www.sbbfc.co.uk if you would like a oct/18/newspaper-
mass media range of case studies. Main BBFC site regulator-impress-
by also has comments about every film that repressive-menace-
governments they have rated, so you can see if but-ludicrous
and other anything was cut.
institutions.
TV - Now under the control of OFCOM, so
Media next time you see Christina Aguilera
Censorship is humping a chair during the X-factor, you
the suppression know who to call (just don't mention it to
of speech, the Daily Mail)
public
communication MUSIC - Self regulatory, their issues
or other come with piracy and copyright
information, infringement mainly, all thanks largely to
which may be the internet. Developments are
considered happening all the time.
harmful,
sensitive, Internet - Ofcom is now able to enforce
politically some standards against advertisers, I
incorrect or would certainly recommend you visit the
inconvenient Ofcom website and see what their remit
it is controlled is for yourself. www.ofcom.gov.uk
by
governments,
Advertising - regulated by the
media outlets,
Advertising Starndards Authority
and
www.asa.org.uk if you want to see heaps
institutions.
of case studies and understand their
ideology.

Video Games - Used to be BBFC until

June 2010, now it's PEGI or www.pegi.eu
they aim to provide a clearer and
universal code for classifiying all video
games sold in the UK.

Search for "cemp and media regulation"

 to see what you can find. Often,
regulation questions are the least
popular to answer but do actually give
you heaps to talk about.
10. Media This Veblen Multi-platform http://www.business
Tech and the perspective TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM the e.g. 2community.com/co
revolution recognizes the way in which technology literally shapes NME/Kerrang/EMPIR ntent-
21st century changes global impact culture and how we live and E marketig/netflix-
of technological communicate power-simplicity-
change on rise-content-
media and marketing-01414243
audiences. PART EXAM QUESTION
(BRILLIANT RESOURCES
FOR Q3)
https://prezi.com/lt3zkcwlolq
1/how-important-is-it-for-
producers-of-print-products-
to-have/
11. Globalis Globalisation: The Global Village
ation a complex US dominance
term but put Global culture?
simply; the Cross national boundaries
process by Cultural homogenization
which the Dominance
people of the This is a good link
world are Related to: referring to Brazils
unified into a Ethnocentrism: the tendency to believe resistance to the US
single society that one's own race or ethnic group is mighty force of the
and sees the most iconic Star Wars -
western culture important and that some or all aspects of http://www.theguardi
increasingly its culture are superior to those of other an.com/world/2016/j
more valued. groups. an/29/the-ten-
Critics Since within this ideology, individuals will commandments-
obviously see it judge other groups in relation to their film-biggest-box-
as diluting the own office-hit-brazil
diversity of particular ethnic group or culture,
culture globally especially with concern to language,
the loss of behaviour, customs,
identity, the and religion. These ethnic distinctions
loss of cultural and sub-divisions serve to define each
(ethnic) ethnicity's unique cultural identity.
uniqueness. post 911 there has been an anxiety from
This also links the US that is reflected in a lot of Media
 to US cultural texts. Globalisation recognises an
Imperialism increasing homogoneity Globalisation is
think - pre 911 often used to refer to economic
was globalisation; the integration of national
unstoppable ;, economies into the international
economy through trade, ( Think about
the Media show story about the Financial
Times an English Institution taken over
by Japan foreign direct investment,
capital flows, migration and the spread of
technology. Key terms to recall; Global
society / Global Village ; dominance of a
cultural viewpoint. Key words and key
texts to consider: cultural imperialism,
cultural dominance, economic,
commodity, Star Wars
12. Identity Gauntlett
Gender and sexuality are a result of
conditioning
They are imposed shaped and influenced
by societys expectations and media
representations
Fluid identities

13. Semiotic The study of Narrative theory

s Signs Todorov
(Sassure) There Barthes
are two levels Prop
of signification Strauss
denotation Stuart Hall
and
connotation Barthes argues that connotation is the
or as Sassure primary way in which mass media
described them communicate ideological meaning
the signifier E.g. the failure of the space shuttle
and the challenger was described in the news as
signified hall a tragic loss of noble and patriotic
recognizes that cause rather than False hope in
we are technology
positioned to
take the
dominant
 reading
14. Structur Structuralism is All signs are cultural constructs that have
alism and Post a method of taken on their meaning through repeated
Structuralism analysis and learned collective truth. so obviously
links closely to postmodernism is a real challenge to this
semiotics it order it enjoys breaking up established
provides a meanings and agreed definitions it
structure for constantly plays with established
analyzing meanings
it depends on a wider understanding of
how different signs relate to each other
each element derives its meaning from
its relationship with the other elements
15. Post Culture eating Jean Baudrillard Simulacrum: from
Modernism itself Jean-Franois Lyotard the Latin
and the decline of Meta-narrative simulacrum which
Constant means "likeness,
reinvention and Simulacrum similarity", i
reimagining it is used to describe a representation
of another thing, such as a statue or a
The idea that painting, especially of a god; by the late
nothing is new 19th century, it had gathered a
or original secondary association of inferiority: an
image without the substance or qualities
Blurred of the original. Modern French social
boundaries theorist Jean Baudrillard argues that a
simulacrum is not a copy of the real, but
becomes truth in its own right; the hyper-
real. Where Plato saw two steps of
reproduction faithful and intentionally
distorted (simulacrum) Baudrillard
sees four:
basic reflection of reality; perversion of
reality; pretence of reality (where there is
no model); and simulacrum, which
bears no relation to any reality
whatsoever. Baudrillard uses the
concept of God as an example of
simulacrum.
16. Politics This concept Feminism http://www.theguardi
and the media recognizes that Patriarchy an.com/australia-
 e.g. gender there are Objectification news/2016/jan/16/ga
and ethnicity established John Berger me-rewarding-
hierarchies of Scopophilia players-for-killing-
who and what Crisis of masculinity indigenous-
is important in australians-prompts-
the world At its heart politics involves the practice outrage
(Think Gramsci) and theory of influencing others it
Traditionally involves the making of a common
marginalized decision for groups of people so who http://news.sky.com/
areas of life e.g makes decisions? What impact does this story/1625292/calls-
women, ethnic have on people not involved in decision for-oscars-boycott-
minorities, making. Notions of democracy, and over-white-
anything not organized control distribution of power nominations
belonging to and resources all come to mind here
the ultimate http://poly-
white graph.co/bechdel/
patriarchal
establishment
is constructed
as different ,
the other etc ..
17. Marxism/ Marxists would Karl Marx Gramsci
Hegemony argue that the Karl Marx was a philosopher Consent of the
media operates and was interested in who masses
in the interests held the power in society Entertainment/false
of the rich and consciousness =
(society is the country's
powerful. Marx
community)
Hegemony is
ideological He said that power in society
positioning. came in two ways:
The idea that
the media has 1. Economic power
led society to
2. Social power
totally accept
certain
ideologies. Antonio Gramsci
The power of a ruling minority over a
majority
It is interesting
to note that
Gramsci said
that society (the
 public) often
accept to being
controlled and
actively agree
to be under the
influence of more
powerful
organisations.

18. Liberal Liberal pluralism is the

Pluralism perspective/point of view that the
public should have a variety of
media texts to choose from

Liberal pluralism is the

perspective/point of view that the
media is free to construct what they
wish within reason. The public can
then watch, listen and consume
whatever they wish. Liberal pluralists
believe that this is right and should
 be accepted.

19. Coloniali Colonialism Imperialism Post Colonialism - http://www3.dbu.ed

sm and Post occurs when a A policy of extending a countrys power A study of the u/mitchell/postcold.
Colonialism country (nation) and influency through diplomacy or effects of htm
takes control of military force. colonialism on
other lands, cultures and
regions, or societies. It is
territories Cultural imperialism - an important
concerned with how
outside of its function of the media is the winning of European nations
borders. public support for the dominant classes. conquered and
controlled "Third
World" cultures and
how these groups
have since responded
to and resisted that
take over.

20. Consum Audience Two step Flow Gatekeeping http://www.theguar

ption and Theory why (Katz and Lazersfeld) Opinion leaders dian.com/uk-
production do audiences Active (Reception analysis) v Passive Opinion shaping news/2016/jan/03/li
e.g. audience choose to audience You tubers ke-a-beautiful-
and genre consume Uses and gratifications (Blumler / Katz) Stuart Hall encoding painting-image-of-
theory certain texts? Cultivation Theory dominant negotiated new-years-
How do they and oppositional mayhem-in-
consume? Steve Neale (repetitions) ( links to manchester-goes-
What happens ( Miss Brennans Chinese meal story) stereotyping viral
when they Always motivated
consume? U2s new album automatically Newspapers The recent
downloaded onto ITUNEs for everyone to editorial phenomenal
enjoy Frankfurt School success of Adele
http://uk.businessinsider.com/everyone- Adorno http://www.digitalm
is-freaking-out-over-u2s-new-album- Horkeimer usicnews.com/2015
2014-9?r=US&IR=T /12/07/adeles-25-
False needs is-cruising-towards-
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/a 7-million-sold/
rticle-2753549/Apple-outrages-users-
automatically-installing-U2-album-
devices-firm-paid-100-million-
privilege.html