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MODULE 1 Sessions 2 - 3
INTRODUCTION
A.
BACKGROUND
- Building Construction, procedures involved in the erection of various types of structures.
The major trend in present-day construction continues away from handcrafting at the building
site and toward on-site assembly of even larger, more integrated subassemblies manufactured
away from the site.
- Another characteristic of contemporary building, related to the latter trend, is the greater
amount of dimensional coordination; that is, buildings are designed and components
manufactured in multiples of a standard module, which drastically reduces the amount of
cutting and fitting required on the building site.
- for example:
Geographical Location Conditions Result
New York City Rocky base Skyscrapers
Los Angeles/Japan Likelihood for Innovations in
earthquakes construction methods;
expansion joints
Egypt/London Clay soil Brick construction
Philippines Timber and stone Timber structures
- climatic conditions
B.
Terminology
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION is the manner in which materials are ordered, assembled and
united into a whole based on standard construction techniques.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY is a general term including all processes and materials used to
assemble a complete building.
1 Tomasetti, Richard L. "Building Construction." Microsoft Encarta 2006 [CD]. Redm ond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
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Equivalent of Building Construction Terms in Vernacular
English Vernacular
C.
Advantages of knowing materials of building construction:
- aid in designing
- specifications of materials for construction
- preparation of bill of materials
D.
Performance Characteristics of Materials
a. Structural Serviceability
- resistance to natural forces
- structural adequacy
- physical properties (strength):
a. compression
b. tension
c. shear
d. torsion
e. modulus of rupture
f. indentation
g. hardness
- availability
- ease of installation
b. Fire Safety
- Fire Resistance: capacity of a material or an assembly of materials to withstand fire;
also characterized by the ability of a material to confine fire
- Fire Endurance: a measure of the elapsed time a material is capable to withstand fire
- Flame Spread: depends on flammability of the surface of the material
- Flame Spread Rate/Index: measure of how fast fire will spread in a material; also refers
to the numerical designation or classification of a material
- Smoke Development index/Density: numerical classification based on test method
ASTM E84
- Toxicity: testing of materials for amount or level of produced lethal gases
c. Habitability
Characterized by:
Thermal Efficiency
- Thermal Expansion: change in size or dimension of a material due to exposure to
temperature change
- Thermal Transmittance or Heat Transfer: heat flow from the warmer side to the
cooler side of a material or an assembly of various materials; also U or U-value; overall
coefficient of heat transfer; U = 1/ R1+R2+R3+
- Thermal Resistance: measure of the impedance of flow of heat through a material
or an assembly of materials; also R or R-value; reciprocal of heat transfer
- Thermal Conductance (C or C-factor): time rate at which heat flows through a
material with a known thickness in one hour when the temperature difference between
the surfaces is 1F; expressed as (heat flow rate) (distance) / (area) (temperature
difference);
Btu per (hour) (square foot) (F per inch)
Btu: British thermal unit
Note: Btu conversion to SI units
1 Btu = 1055 joules or 0.293 watt-hour or 251.9 calories
1 Watt = 3.4 Btu/h
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1 Btu: quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1lb (0.45 kg) of water
from 59.9F (15.3C) to 60.5F (15.8C) at constant pressure of 1 atmosphere.
- Thermal Shock: sudden stress in a material as a result of abrupt change in
temperature
Acoustic Properties
- Sound Absorption
- Sound Transmission
- Noise Reduction Coefficient
Water Permeability
- Dimensional changes
- Chemical Attack
- Efflorescence and leaching
- Blistering
- Freeze-thaw
- Water vapor transmission
- Dew point
- Relative humidity/Moisture
MODULE 2 Sessions 4 5
WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Wood: xylem
Log:
Lumber: term applied to wood after it is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, etc.
Timber: piece of lumber five inches or larger in its smallest dimension
Flitch: thick piece of lumber
Slab: kind of lumber cut tangent to the annual rings of wood running the full length of the log and
containing at least one flat surface
Kerf: the path cut through the log
B. BACKGROUND
The use of timber or wood for building construction dates back to thousands of years ago.
C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
C.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES
a. Classification of Wood according to:
1. Growth
- endogenous
- exogenous
2. Density
- Hardwood: flooring, stairs, paneling, furniture and
interior trim
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- Softwood: general construction
3. Leaves
- Needle-shaped (conifers)
- Broad-shaped (deciduous)
4. Color
- white
- yellow
- red
- brown
- black
5. Grain
- Straight (summer)
- cross
- fine
- coarse (winter)
b. Components
- cell: cellulose
- lignin: covering of cells
c. Properties of Wood
- Hardness: resistance to indentation; dependent on
weight of wood
- durability: ; resistance to decay; lifespan of wood
- strength: ability to resist stress and strain
- flexibility: bending capability of wood before breaking
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C.3 STRUCTURE OF WOOD
a. Pith: black sticky substance
b. heartwood: central core of log
c. sapwood: portion near periphery; lighter in color than
heartwood
d. cambium: new wood fibers between old and new bark
e. modular rays: cells arranged perpendicular to the axis
which bind the entire structure together
f. annual rings: annual growth of wood; concentric circles
around the pith
g. inner bark: inner covering
h. outer bark: outer covering of the log that protects the
internal layer
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C.4 MOISTURE IN WOOD
Freshly cut lumber begins to lose moisture immediately if the surrounding air
is less than 100 percent relative humidity.
Wood loses water by evaporation until equilibrium is reached between the
moisture content (MC) in the wood and that in the air.
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Abnormal Growth
a. Checks cracks or length wise separation across the annual rings of growth
b. Knots irregular growths in the body which interrupts smooth curve.
c. Pitch pockets well refined openings between annual rings containing solid or
liquid pitch.
d. Heart shakes radial cracks originating at the heart of the logs
e. Wind shakes or cup shakes - cracks or breaks across the annual rings caused
by excessive bending
f. Star shakes composed of several heart shakes radiating from center of log in
a star-like manner
Wane is the lack of wood on the edge or corner of a piece
Warping any variation with the plain surface of the piece caused by unequal
shrinkage of the board.
Types of warping:
Cupping is a distortion of the board in which the face is convex/ concave
across the board.
Bowing is a distortion of the board in which the face is convex/ concave
longitudinally.
Twisting is a distortion of the board in which one corner is raised.
D. PREPARATION OF WOOD
1. Logging: harvesting
2. Lumbering: operation performed in preparation of wood for
commercial purposes
3. Sawing
- types of saw:
frame saw
band saw
sash gang or gang saw
circular saw
- methods or manner of sawing:
plain or bastard sawing
quarter or rift sawing
- saw cuts in timber conversion:
boxed heart
halved
quartered
slabbed
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E. WOOD PRESERVATIVES
1. Pressure treated: when lumber is subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals or salts
to ensure it from rots
a. Wolmanized (wolman salt
b. Tanalized lumber
c. Permanized
d. Boliden
2. Hot and Cold treatment
3. piping
4. brushing
a. oily in nature
- coal tar creosote
- creosote petroleum solution
- pentachlorophenol solution
b. clean preservatives
- cremated zinc oxide
- copperized zinc chloride
- tanalith (wolman salt)
- sodium fluoride
- sodium arsenate
F. BY-PRODUCTS
D.1 LUMBER
Yard lumber used for ordinary light construction and finishing work. Commonly used for flooring, plank
siding, trim and moulding
Shop lumber it is intended for use in shops or in mills making sash, doors, and cabinets
Structural lumber is intended for use in heavy construction for load-bearing purposes and is cut into
timbers of larger size; derived from the wood of tree trunks
Types of boards:
Plywood is made of an odd number veneer sheets glued
together with the grains running at right angle to each other. It is
light in weight and strong that screw or nail can be driven close
to the edges without danger of splitting; 3 to 7 plies of wood with
grains at right angle to the adjacent layer
G. APPLICATION/CONSTRUCTION
- scaffolding or levers
- centering for masonry
- formwork and lining for concrete
- fixings for steelwork
- construction of roofs (including stone vaults and domes)
- piles for foundation on stable ground
H. BUILDING TECHNIQUES
1. HISTORICAL METHODS
a. Solid timber construction
- Building with logs set close together; also known as
blockwork; used for log cabin construction
b. Half timber construction: framework of structural timber
(usually hardwood) infilled with lathing or other materials;
prefabricated and assembled on the ground; developed to
become the balloon or platform framing.
2. MODERN METHODS
- Timber-framed structures are assembled from standardized
softwood components. Contemporary timber building methods
are:
a. Stick construction;
b. Balloon frame construction;
c. Platform frame construction; and
d. Volumetric construction
- Most everyday buildings can be built in other materials can be copied
entirely using wood materials but opposite is unachievable.
- Reason: the fibrous nature of wood, combined with the use of shaped
and pegged joints enable it to accommodate both linear and rotational
tension in structures.
MODULE 3 Sessions 6 - 7
MASONRY AND MASONRY PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Masonry
Stone
Clay
Ceramics
Masonry units
B. BACKGROUND
Stones are considered as the oldest building material known to man. Building in stone evolved as a
result of satisfying two basic human needs: the secular and the sacred and has the following
advantages:
shelter from weather
protection from enemies
storage and industry
C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
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C.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES
a. Building Stones
b. Masonry Units
Building Stones:
1. Agrilite: a rock containing chiefly clay materials derived from claystone, siltstone
or shale. Commonly with faint shades of green; used for floor tiles, stair treads,
coping stones, interior wall base and exterior window sill.
2. Granite: an igneous rock having crystals or grains of visible size, consists mainly
of quartz, feldspar, and mica or other minerals.
3. Limestone: a rock of sedimentary origin composed principally of dolomite or
calcite or both.
a. Oolitic: a calcite-cemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell
fragments
b. Dolomite: a limestone rich in magnesium carbonate; crystalline in character
c. Crystalline: a limestone which is predominantly composed of calcium
carbonate crystals
4. Travertine: a variety of limestone deposited by springs; for interior facing and
flooring
5. Marble: a metamorphic, recrystallized limestone composed predominantly of
crystalline grains of calcite or dolomite or both; mosaic structure
6. Serpentine: igneous rock with color ranging from olive green to greenish black
7. Sandstone: a sedimentary rock consisting usually of quartz cemented with silica,
iron oxide or calcium carbonate
8. Slate Rock: a hard brittle, metamorphic rock consisting of many clay minerals,
characterized by good cleavage along parallel lines
Clay
- made of very finely divided particles usually derived from aluminums silicate
rocks; can be plastic when wet and hard when fixed
Forms of Clay
1. surface clay
2. shale
3. fire clay
Classes of Clay
1. Calcareous: 15% calcium carbonate; yellowish
2. Non-calcareous: silicate of alumina with feldspar and iron oxide; red or salmon
Clay Deposits
1. Residual Clay: formed in place from the deteriorations of pre-existing rocks bay
various agents
2. Sedimentary Clay: transported by water and wind: marine clay, shales, lacustrine
clay
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Steps for Manufacturing of Clay
1. Surface digging or Quarrying
2. Preparation and cleaning
3. Grinding and screening
4. Pugging: mixing to produce a plastic mass and homogenous material
5. Shaping and forming
6. Drying
7. Burning in kilns
Basic brickwork terminology:
Course is a horizontal layer of bricks or other masonry
units.
Bed joint is the horizontal mortar in every course.
Head joint is the vertical mortar in every masonry unit.
Stretcher is a brick laid with its face parallel to the wall and
its long dimension horizontal.
Header is a brick laid so as to bond two wythes together.
Wythe is a vertical layer of masonry units, one unit thick.
Soldier is a brick laid on its end with its face parallel to the
wall.
Rowlock is a brick laid on its face with its end visible in the
wall face.
Structural bonds for brickwork:
Running bond consists entirely of stretchers.
Common bond has a header course every sixth course
English bond alternates courses of headers and stretchers.
Flemish bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course
Gypsum
A. Gypsum Plasters
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- adaptable for ornamental molded plaster work
4. Hardwall Plaster a neat gypsum plaster which contains hair or fiber
- used for first or scratch and second or brown coatings on plastered walls and
ceilings
5. Finish Plaster mixed with hydrated lime and water for finish coat of plastered
surfaces
6. Cement Band Plaster used for application to concrete surfaces wherein any
finish of plaster may be applied
7. Prepared Finish Plaster no lime added
8. Texture Plaster used for rough surfaces
9. Acoustical Plaster calcined gypsum added with lightweight mineral aggregate
10. Joint Filler covering joints or plaster board
B. Gypsum Boards
C. Gypsum Tile
D. APPLICATION/CONSTRUCTION
Building Stones
Construction Methods:
Paneling consist of using slabs of stone cut to dimension and
thickness to cover back-up walls and provide a finished exterior.
As Jambs stones which form the sides of the window and door
openings.
As Lintels stones which bridge the top of the door and widow
openings.
MODULE 4 Sessions 9 - 11
CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Concrete: Concrete is a mixture of inert materials of varying sizes which
are bound together with a cement paste. Concrete is an artificial
conglomerate stone which is made by uniting into the cement fine materials
of sand and coarse material such as broken stone, gravel, slag or cinders
and formed into a paste by the addition of water.
Cement
Aggregate
Placing
Setting
Hardening
B. BACKGROUND
The factors which make concrete a universal building material are so
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pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at
present, for thousands of years, probably beginning in the Egyptian
antiquity. The facility with which, while plastic, it can be deposited and
made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these
factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages. Most
of the constituent materials, with the possible exception of cement, are
usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the
construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones is
high, which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to
compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as
natural stones, it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is
small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its
economical use in structural members which are subject to tension either
entirely (such as tie rods) or over part of their cross sections (such as
beams or other flexural members).
To offset this limitation, it has been found possible in the second half of the
nineteenth century, to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce
concrete, chiefly in those places where its small tensile strength would limit
the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round
steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is
placed in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely
surrounded by the concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.
The resulting combination of the tow materials, known as reinforced
concrete, combines many of the advantages of each: the relatively low
cost, good weather and fire resistance of concrete and the high tensile
strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel. It is this
combination which allows the almost unlimited range of uses and
possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of building bridges,
dams, tanks, reservoirs and a host of other structures.
C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
C.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES
Inert Materials
1. Aggregates
a. natural sand or other material which have same
characteristics having clean, hard and durable grains free
from organic matter or loam
b. Coarse aggregates - crushed stone or gravel having
clean, hard, strong, durable uncoated particles free from
injurious amount of soft alkali or organic matter; elongated
or laminated; - 1.5 limestone, soft stones or adobe
stones are not allowed to be used
2. Water free from oils, acids or vegetable matters;
sea or blackish water is prohibited
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cinder concrete burned anthrache coal used for
fireproofing
slag concrete blast furnace slag suitable for
lightweight construction
1 bag cement = 40 kg.
1 measuring box = 1 cu. ft.
1 U.S. gallon of water = two (2) standard pails; 3.62
liters
concrete conveyors
a. buckets
b. wheel barrow
c. buggies
d. chutes
e. conveyors
f. trans mixers
Concrete Mixtures
Class Use Ratio (c:s:g) Strength
AA Concrete under water retaining 1:1.5:3 4500 psi
walls
A Footings, columns, R.C. slabs 1:2:4 4000 psi
B Slab on fill, non-bearing walls 1:2.5:5 3500 psi
C Plant boxes 1:3:6 2500 psi
Concrete elements/ingredients/composition
Sand
Water
Gravel
Cement
Hydration crystallization
Proper curing (28 days)
1. Burlap jute sack (abaca / sack)
2. old news paper
3. sand
Testing of concrete
1. Slump Test
freshly mixed concrete
1/3 layer 25 times tamping
2. Compression test 14 & 28 days
The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being tamped or rodded
25 times with a standard 5/8 bullet nosed rod. When the cone has
been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully and the amount of slump
is measured.
Construction Uses
1. cast-in place concrete
2. pre-cast concrete
3. pre-stressed concrete (pre-tensioned/post-tensioned refers to the
bars)
Silt Test
To test the amount of clay or silt present in the sand:
A quart jar is filled in with 2 sand.
Fill the jar with full of clean water.
Shake the contents well and allow settling for several hours
(The fine material settles down on top of the sand forming a layer).
When the water is clear, measure the depth of the silt deposit (1/8 inches thick
deposit indicates the sand contains too much silt).
Setting
It is the condition which is a physical property of hydraulic cements that when
sufficiently gauged with water and then left undisturbed loses its plasticity and
reaches a state in which its form cannot be changed without producing rupture.
This is caused by the hydration and crystallization of the cement.
Hardening
Hardening or final setting is a gradual progress of crystallization which
increases the strength of the cement. Setting and hardening are two distinct
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conditions. Setting takes place only in a few hours or even minutes whereas
hardening proceeds for months or even years.
Mixing Concrete
The best way of mixing concrete is by mechanical mixer for small or large
projects. It is by far superior to hand mixed concrete. Mechanical mixers are made
of drums or barrels rotated by gasoline engines. The drums have paddles inside
which stir or mix the materials inside while the drum rotates.
Sizes
Size is from 2 cu. ft. to 4 cu. yard
Time of Mixing
One minute per batch of 1 cu. yard; 15 seconds added for each extra cu. yard.
Placing of Concrete
Samples of concrete are taken at the job as it is unloaded after 28 days and
submitted to a compression test. The samples are cylindrical 6 diameter and 12 in
height. Compressive load is applied until it fails. This load divided by the cross
sectional area (L/A) of the specimen gives the ultimate compressive unit stress in
#/sq.in.
After mixing, concrete should be placed in the forms as quickly as possible with a
minimum segregation or separation of aggregates.
Chutes are used on large scale construction and a tower or steel mast with hopper
chutes which can be easily shifted up and down the mast, concrete is hoisted in
self-dumping buckets. Slope of the chutes is made to conform to the newness of
the concrete mix.
Pouring
This should be done with care so that aggregates are not separated, and
honeycomb are not formed and is avoided. Reinforcement should be well
embedded and all parts of the forms are completely filled. Avoid a fall of more than
4. Require sufficient tamping to eliminate air holes and spading along the sides of
the form to produce smooth outside surface, avoid pits and honeycomb and
reinforcement thoroughly embedded. Excessive tamping should also be avoided by
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the proper plasticity of concrete. Concrete may be place by pumping through pipe
to the forms. It is required to have a working pressure of at least 300#/sq. in. The
hose should not be bent less than 45.6 with 7-8 hose diameter.
Gunnite
Gunnite is the placing of concrete by pneumatic gun. The concrete is place in the
forms under air pressure. Dry sand and cement are placed in the gun. The
pneumatic placing is applied to tanks, waterproofing, fireproofing of steel truss shell
construction and swimming pools.
Vibrators
Vibrators are machines that vibrates 13,000 vibrations/minute or also known as a
high frequency vibrator which is applied in the concrete mass or upon the outside
of the forms to compact concrete and reduce the amount of honeycomb and
surface irregularities.
Construction Joints
Construction joints are either horizontal or vertical planes separating the stoppage
of pouring operation. The planes of separation or construction joints should be
introduced where they will contribute to the minimum amount of weakness to the
structure.
Reinforcing bars should not be allowed to extend thru the joint. Double columns at
expansion joints and double footings may be required.
Seal joints from weather with flexible covers installed inside and out of the walls
and roof.
Curing
Right proportioning, correct mixing and careful placing of concrete can only be
successful when proper curing has been given due consideration.
Hardening of concrete depends in the reaction that takes place between water and
cement.
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FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS
KEYWORDS
Ferrous- metal in which iron is the principal element
Nonferrous- containing no, or very little iron
FERROUS METALS:
Steel- a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig
iron and/ or scrap steel; graded according to the carbon content.
Produce by three basic raw materials, iron ore, and limestone. Five particles of all
three basic ingredients of steel, which otherwise would be waste, are blended and
burned on a moving gate to cause the formation of clinkers. These are called
sinter, a high- grade blast-furnace charge material.
From these, raw materials which are melted into ingots place in molds, a great
variety of products used in construction are made. These include:
Cold-rolled sheets are galvanized (given a zinc coating). Pig iron is used to
make cast iron which is high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength,
and has little use for construction. However since it is cheap and easy to cast, it is
used for pumps, motors, engines and because of its corrosion resistance it is used
for pipes to some extent.
Cast iron is the simplest and cheapest product of iron; made by melting of pig
iron
Wrought iron is produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove
nearly all of the carbon and other impurities. It is easily worked and is tough and
ductile. Its main uses are for wire and metal ornaments.
Copper- bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making
sheet steel and metal lath.
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BLAST FURNACE
Forms of Steel
Cold rolled steel
Cold drawn steel
Billet steel
Structural steel
STEEL PRODUCTS
1. Rolled Structural Shapes
2. Sheet Piling
3. Steel Pipe
4. Reinforcing Steel
5. Welded Wire Fabric
6. Steel Wire
7. Bolts and Nuts
8. Steel Strapping
9. Open Web Steel Joists
10. Sheet Steel
11. Steel Studs
12. Pans and Domes
Sizes-start with no.2 or in. (divide a number of bar by 8 to get the equivalent in
inch diameter)
No. 2= = 6 mm.
No. 3= 3/8 = 10 mm.
No. 4= = 12mm.
No. 5= 5/8 = 16mm.
No. 6= = 20mm.
No. 7= 7/8 = 22mm.
No. 8= 1 = 25mm.
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.
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Steel studs lightweight, requiring minimum storage space and does not warp
or shrink. Fasteners do not pop, and joints stay closed. Much faster to install than
wood stud installation. Available in 1 5/8, 2 and 3 5/8 inches. Plumbing stacks
and electrical components fit easily into a steel-frame wall.
Pans and dones manufactured for use in forming one-way and two-way
ribbed concrete floor systems.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum its ore, bauxite, requires 10 kilowatt hours for each pound of metal
aluminum extracted. The reddish brown ore is washed and treated in a soda
solution to yield a chalky-white powder called alumna, containing a high
concentration of aluminum.
Aluminum foil used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective
insulation.
Copper a lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable; has high tensile
strength, is an excellent electrical and thermal conductor, is available in a wide
variety of shapes; widely used for downspouts, electrical conductors, flashings
gutters, roofing, etc.
Copper alloys are brasses, and bronzes which contain primarily zinc and tin,
respectively, and the alloys containing nickel.
Brasses are used in architectural and hardware applications. Bronzes are used in
the production of springs.
Lead a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a high coefficient
of thermal expansion; very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted over
uneven surfaces; used for roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.
Tin a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point;
relatively unaffected by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in
coating sheet metal.
Structural shapes
The most common shapes of structural steel used in building construction are the
American standard forms such as:
Square bars
Round bars
Plate bars
Angle bars
Channels
I beam
T beam
H - column
Wide flange
Zee
Standard channel
The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two
flanges on one side. It therefore requires lateral support to prevent its tendency to
buckle. The standard channels are generally used as elements of built-up sections
for columns and are also suitable for framing around floor openings, spandrels, and
lintels attributed to the absence of flange on the other side. The channel section is
identifird as c 15 x 20 which means that the channel has a depth of 20 cm. And
weights 15 kg. Per meter length.
Wide flange
Wide flange sections are designated as w 12 x 24 which means that the flange has
a depth of 24 cm. And it weighs 12 kg. Per meter length. All wide flange sections
are generally with parallel face flange except those with 5% slope inside face
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produced by Bethlehem steel company. Comparatively, wide flange sections are
more efficient than standard i beam with respect to bending resistance.
Standard I-beam
The use of I-beam as a column is uneconomical, because the whirl or revolving
action of the structure about an axis through the centroid parallel to the web of the
I-beam is comparatively small.
H-bearing piles
H-bearing piles although suitable for pile driving on deep excavations are much
more suitable than the I-beam for columns.
Zee sections
The zee section is another structural form in a letter z which is not frequently used
in building construction except on the fabrication of steel windows and other
frames.
Wrought iron a commercially pure iron of fibrous nature, valued for its
corrosion resistance and ductility.
Cast iron an iron alloy usually including carbon and silicon which has high
compressive strength but low tensile strength.
Welding is the process by which two metals are so joint that there is an
actual union of the inter-atomic bonds.
Extrusion the process of producing metal shapes of a constant cross section
by forcing the hot metal through an orifice in a die by means of a pressure ram.
Red oxide protective coat for iron.
Lap seam a joint formed by overlapping the edges of metal sheet or plates
and joining them by riveting or soldering or bracing.
Rivets
A rivet is a fastener consisting of a cylindrical body and a formed head which is
brought to a white heat, inserted through holes in the members to be joined, and
hot-worked with a pneumatic hammer to produced a second head opposite the first
head.
Process of riveting:
A. A hot steel rivet is inserted in holes through the two members to be joined,
B. Its head is then held with hand hammer with a cup-shaped depression,
C. While a pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly against the body
of the rivet to form the second head,
D. The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing members tightly together.
Bolts
The bolts commonly used in steel frame construction fall into two general
categories:
1) Carbon steel bolts or common bolts are similar to the ordinary machine bolts
that can be purchased in hardware stores.
2) High-strength bolts are heat treated during manufacture to develop the
necessary strength. It is usually tightened using pneumatic or electric impact
wrench.
Welding
Welding can join the members of a steel frame as if they were a monolithic whole.
Welded are stronger than the members they join in resisting both shear and
moment forces.
BASIC SYMBOLS
Back
Fillet
Plug or slot
Groove or butt
Square v
Bevel u
Flare v
Flare bevel
The arrow
The reference line carries the descriptive symbols the arrow points to the weld
The basic weld symbol is located on either side of the reference line as follows:
Symbols on the top of the reference line refer to welds on the side of the joint
opposite the arrow
Symbols on the bottom of the reference line refer to welds on the same side of the
joint as the arrow
Supplementary symbols
Field weld this weld be done in the field during erection. Other welds are done
earlier in the fabricators shop.
Weld all around this indicates that the weld should be carried fully around the
perimeter of the joining pieces.
Backup bar as indicated in this example, a backup bar to support the first pass of
the weld must be placed on the side of the joint opposite the arrow.
Spacer small metal spacers are used to maintain a gap between the pieces to be
joined, prior to welding.
A sharp bend near the end of the arrow indicates that the arrowhead is pointing
toward the grooved side of the bevel or j-grooved joint.
36
MODULE 6 Sessions 15-16
GLASS AND GLAZING
KEYWORDS
Glass
Melting
Annealing
Oxidizing
Glazing
The major ingredient of glass is sand (silicon dioxide). A hard brittle inorganic
substance, ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by melting a mixture of
silica, a flux and a stabilizer; while molten maybe blown, drawn, rolled, pressed or
cast to a variety of shapes.
During its manufactured, ordinary window glass is annealed, cooled slowly under
controlled condition, to avoid locked-in thermal stresses that might cause it to
behave unpredictably in use.
Naturally occurring glass, such as obsidian, has been used since the Stone Age.
According to Pliny the Elder, the Phoenicians made the first glass. Pliny wrote:
"The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum (soda and potash) being
moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and
not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship,
which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a
new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass." That the Phoenicians
used glass as a glaze for pottery was known as early as 3000 BC. However, there
is archaeological evidence to support the claim that the first glass was made in
Mesopotamia. Glass beads, seals, and architectural decorations date from around
2500 B.C.
The color of "natural glass" is green to bluish green. This color is caused by
naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a
slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities.
The earliest known beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom, about
1500 BC and came in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass
around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue
ones because they were reported to have magical powers.
STRUCTURE OF GLASS
- It is an arrangement of atoms quite like that in the liquid state, therefore, a long
37
range order
- In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in regular repeating pattern
MELTING
- Production of glass articles begins with batch mixing of raw materials (sand
and limestone) and then undergo a process of melting.
- Melting is done in pots for small production; contains about 1 to 2 tons of glass
- For large production in factories, batches of pots can be melted at the same
time in a central furnace
HEAT TREATMENT
- After forming, glass must be slowly cooled or annealed usually in long oven
called a lehr
- Purpose of annealing is to reduce the internal stress which can be great
enough to crack the glass during cooling
- Opposite method of annealing is dis-annealing or tempering
- In tempering, glass is rapidly chilled by a blast of air or by immersion in liquid;
by-product: tempered glass
- lime (CaO) is then added to form the basic soda-lime-silica glass composition
Thicknesses of glass
Glass is typically manufactured in a series of thicknesses ranging from
approximately 2.5mm, through 3mm, is called single-strength, or 6mm to 22mm, is
called double-strength, and on special order, 25mm is available.
Types of Glasses
Window glass / heavy sheet glass
Plate glass ground and polished on both sides and a perfectly flat plane
Wired glass hexagonal twisted wire or diamond shaped welded wire mesh is
embedded; fire resistant
Heat Absorbing and Glare Reducing Glass
Insulating Glass two or more sheets of glass of various types separated by a
captured air space
Patterned Glass semi-transparent with geometric linear designs
Structural Glass ground and polished opaque colored glass for surfaces of walls
Laminated Glass two or more layers of plate glass with a layer or more of
transparent / pigmented plastic sandwiched between
Tempered Glass reheated to below softening point and suddenly cooled
Corrugated Glass rolled glass with patterns on both sides forming corrugations
Mirrors reflecting surface of thin coat of metal
GLASS BLOCKS
Types:
Hollow Block
Types:
Functional blocks directs or diffuse the daylight that passes through them to
improve the illumination of the building interior
Light directing block directs incoming light upward toward the ceiling; used above
eye level
Light diffusing clock diffuses light evenly throughout the interior of the room
General Purpose block
Size: 8 x 8 inches and 12 x 12 inches; 4 inches thick
Decorative or Architectural Glass available in a wide range of styles and patterns;
provides almost unlimited design versatility when used in window, openings and
38
facades, as interior walls and divider paneling and ceiling; method of attachment is
by gluing to a plywood background using rugby.
Insulation
Horizontal reinforcement at every 2 in height
inch mortar joint slightly concave in surface
inch clearance at heads and jambs for installation of expansion materials
2. Heat-strengthened glass
The heat strengthened process is similar to tempering, but its, about one-third
as high as tempered glass in terms of bending and strength.
3. Laminated glass
It is made by sandwiching a transparent vinyl interlayer between sheets of
glass and bonding the three layers together under heat and pressure. When it
breaks, the soft vinyl holds the shards of glass in place rather than allowing
them to fall out of the frame.
5. Spandrel glass
Special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area (the
bands of wall around the edges of floors) in glass curtain. It is usually
tempered or heat-strengthened to resist the thermal stresses that can caused
by accumulations of solar heat behind the spandrel.
6. Wired glass
A rolled glass into which a wire mesh is inserted during the process of
manufacturing
The wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering through impact. Its use
for safety glazing, when it breaks from thermal stress, the wires hold the sheet
of glass together.
1) Tinted glass
Tinted glass is made by adding small amounts of selected chemical elements
to the molten glass mixture to produce the desired hue and intensity of color in
grays, bronzes, blues, green, and gold.
39
3) Insulating glass
A second sheet of glass applied to a window with airspace between the sheets
cuts this rate of heat loss in half. Two kinds of edges seals are fused glass
edges and a metal spline and organic sealant.
Glass products
I. Glass blocks
Comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of
transmitting light. They are made into two separate halves, which are heat-
sealed together to form a hollow unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency
and sound insulation. The edge surfaces of the block are coated with a gritty
mortar bond.
Two types:
1. Functional blocks direct or diffuse the daylight which passes through
them to improve the illumination of the building interior.
GLAZING
- installation of glass; fitting of glass into suitable frames in order to form a
window which will admit light into a building
- in the middle Ages and up to the 17th century, this meant the use of leaded
lights with small areas of glass fastened together with special formed strips of lead
- the making of large sheets of glass caused an increase in the size of panes
and window areas
- the development of the use of steel, reinforced concrete and construction of
th
cast-iron buildings in the 20 century altered the small area used for glazing
METHOD
- previously, the normal process of glazing windows into a wooden or metal
frames uses the diamond for cutting as well as straight edges and measuring tools;
for setting out glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer
- additional materials: putty, priming or paint glazier sprigs, leather or synthetic
rubber strip
- putty: whiting and linseed oil; should be kept moist for workability
Glazing Materials
Wood Sash Putty cement of fine powdered chalk (white or lead oxide) white lead
mixed with raw linseed oil
Metal Sash Putty - made of material that adheres to non-porous materials
Elastic Plastic Compound made from selected oil and color pigments; remains
plastic and resilient for a long time
Polybuthane Tape non-drying mastic compound
Polysulfide Elastomer sealing compound made of two parts synthetic rubber
Compression Materials extruded or molded shapes made of rubber neoprene,
vinyl or other plastics
40
MODULE 7 Sessions 19-21
PLASTICS AND PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Plastic substances such as salt water, natural gas, wood and water; derived from
the Greek word plastics meaning to form product of synthetic origin capable of
being shaped in some stage of manufacture which is not rubber, wood, metal or
leather
Composition
Monomers simple chemicals which are capable of reacting with one another
Polymers monomers built up into chain-like molecules of high molecular weight
Types of Plastics
1. Thermosetting plastics
2. Thermoplastics
Thermosetting Plastics
o melamine and urea resistant to chemical and electrical potential heat
o Epoxy adhesive qualities, special panels
o Alkyds molded electrical parts, paints
o Phenolic paints, baked enamels, adhesives, impregnating resins
o Polyester large glass fiber reinforced translucent panels
o Urethane coatings, self-adhesive foams
Plastic sheets
sheets flat, corrugated and other deformed shapes used in skylights
film damp proofing
foam insulating piping and refrigerated areas
Plastic laminates
Kraft paper with phenolics
Aluminum foil to dissipate heat and laminate flame proof
Pattern sheet with melamine
final hard wearing surface sheet of melamine
41
Waterproofing a method of protecting surfaces against the destructive effects
of water.
Three types of waterproofing:
Integral type medium in powder form is added and mixed with the
aggregates of concrete. In this case, one pack of usually .908 kilos is added to
one bag of kilos cement. Some of the known brands are sahara and sakura.
Membrane type recommended for use where direct rain, or standing
water are eminent, there are about 14 uses. The materials used depending on
the manufacturer is either asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt, impregnated
asbestos felt, sometimes thick polyethylene sheets is also used. Other
materials are performed self sealing asphalt.
Fluid applied a fluid applied elastomeric coating based on heavy solids
elastomer compound formulated to waterproof and preserve the substrate, like
concrete, wood, bricks and steel. The waterproofing is monolothic, seamless,
flexible and elastic over a wide temperature range, withstands extreme thermal
movement, settling and cracking. It resists puncture and tearing abrasive
overlayments. This elastomeric fluid can be applied by roller, brush, spray or
squeegee.
Roofing felts the base felts used in built-up roofing are available in two basic
type asbestos felts and organic or rag felts. They look alike, superficially, but
they differ widely in service.
Asbestos:
Asbestos felts composed primarily of asbestos fiber, a non-rotting, non-
wicking inorganic mineral fiber.
Identical expansion and contraction properties to finishing felts.
Minimum stretch and shrinkage or wetting or drying which means minimum
distortion.
Loses strength slowly while aging.
Excellent resistance to burnout in hot climate.
Rat resistant.
Organic:
Organic felts composed of fibrous organic materials. Subject to
deterioration by oxidation and to wicking.
Different expansion and contraction properties from finishing plies.
Maximum stretch and shrinkage on wetting and drying which means
maximum distortion.
Loses strength rapidly while aging.
Poor resistance to burnout in hot climate.
Poor resistance to rot.
Adhesive a substance that joins two surfaces together. The true nature of
adhesion depends mainly upon the force exerted on mutually attractive surfaces
and the mechanical bond theory being a contributory factor.
Shelf Life the length of time that adhesives will last in storage
Pot Life the length of time that mixed adhesive will remain effective before it
starts to set or becomes chemically ineffective
Bonding surfaces to be joined must be closely fitted and free from dirt, grease
and moisture
Hard smooth surfaces such as glass and metals are more difficult to bond than
absorbent materials.
Disadvantages
1. Often difficult to provide for adequate inspection of adhesive bond
2. Difficulty in dismantling bonded structure for repair
3. Tendency to creep under sustained loading
4. Degradation of bond by heat and cold
5. Poor electrical and thermal conductivity of many adhesives
Mostly all materials have at least two common characteristics: cohesiveness and
adhesiveness
Types:
1. Glue
- Animal Glue
- available in either solid or liquid form
- solid glue is melted and applied hot; slow setting; allows time for
adjustment to the glue joint
- has excellent bonding property with wood, leather, paper or cloth
developing up to 12,000 psi in shear
- moderated resistance to heat and cold
44
- poor resistance to water
- blood Aluminum Glue
- a special animal glue made for use particularly with leather and paper
- moderated bonding power with wood
- fair resistance to both heat and cold
- poor resistance to water
- Casein Glue
- Made from protein materials
- Dry powder to be mixed with water
- Has good bonding power to wood-to-wood or paper-to-wood
applications
- Starch and Dextrin Glue
- Available in both dry and liquid state
- Good bond with paper or leather; fair bond with wood
- Asphalt Cement
- Thermoplastic material in nature; made from asphalt emulsions or
asphalt cutbacks
- Good bond to paper and concrete
- Used mainly for roofing applications and laminating layers of wood
fiberboards
- Cellulose Cements
- Thermoplastic in nature; good bond to wood, paper, leather and glass
- Developing up to 1,400 psi in shear with wood
- Moderate resistance to heat and cold
- Good resistance to water
- Chlorinated rubber adhesives
- Usually a liquid; has good bond to paper; fair bond to wood, metal and
glass
- Moderate resistance to heat, cold and water
- Poor resistance to creep
- Natural rubber adhesives
- Usually latex emulsion or dissolved crepe rubber
- Have good bond with rubber, leather and fair bond with wood, ceramic
or glass
- Strength up to 350 psi in tension with wood
- Nitrile or Buna N rubber adhesive
- Available in both thermoplastic and thermosetting types
- Good bond with wood, paper, porcelain, enamel and polyester film and
sheet
- Neoprene rubber adhesive
- Essentially thermoplastic in nature; have excellent bond with wood,
asbestos board, metals, glass and some plastics
- Strength up to 1,200 psi in shear
- Urea formaldehyde Resin Glue
- Available in powder form to be mixed with water and also in liquid form
which requires the addition of a hardener
- Thermosetting in nature
- Excellent bond to wood, leather or paper having a shear strength up to
2,800 psi
- Phenolic Resin Glue
- Available in dry and liquid form
- Thermosetting with excellent bond to wood and paper
- Melamine Resins
- Thermosetting manufactured in powder with a separate catalyst
- Excellent bond to wood or paper
- Excellent resistance to heat, cold, creep and water
- Resorcinol Resins
- Liquid form with separate catalyst
45
- Good bond with wood or paper
- Shear strength up to 1,950 psi with wood
- Very good resistance to heat, cold and creep
- Generally used where a waterproof joint is required
- Epoxy Resins
- Thermosetting in nature; manufactured in liquid form with separate
catalyst
- Excellent bond with wood, metal, glass and masonry
- Widely used in the manufacture of laminated curtain-wall panels of
various kinds
- Polyvinyl resin adhesives
- Emulsion form
- Good bond with wood, paper, vinyl plastics and reasonably good bond
with metals
- Sodium silicate adhesives
- Liquid form; excellent with paper and glass; reasonably good bond with
wood or metal
2. Sealers products which are used to seal the surfaces of various materials
against the penetration of water and other liquids or in some cases to prevent the
escape of water or other liquids or in other cases to prevent the escape of water to
the surface.
Types:
- Liquid Asphalt
- Either in cutback form or as an asphalt emulsion
- Used to coat the outer surface of concrete below ground level to
prevent the penetration of water to the interior through the pores in the concrete
- To seal inside surface of concrete or wooden water tanks
- As a sealer or primer to concrete slab before asphalt tile adhesive is
applied
- Polysulfide polymers
- Has excellent adhesive qualities; highly flexible; applied by either hand
or spray
- Used in exterior walls of foundations, between two courses of concrete
slab floors, roof decks, swimming pools waterproofing and under roof flashing
- Solution of Sodium Silicate
- Used to seal the inside surface of concrete liquid containers
- Wax Compounds
- Made in the form of emulsions to be sprayed over the surface of newly
placed concrete
- Liquid Silicones
- Used as sealers over concrete brick and tile masonry to prevent the
penetration of water into the surface
- Oils and Turpentine
- Used to seal wood surfaces before the application of paint or varnish
- Penetrate into and absorbed by wood fibers so that the vehicle in
paints and varnish will not be similarly absorbed
- Synthetic Plastic Products
- Sealers for wood which form a film over the surface and allow better
bonding of synthetic lacquers to wood
- Thin Solutions of Animal and Casein Glues
- Used to coat the surface of plaster and gypsum board under paint
- Epoxy Resin Formulation
- Used as sealers over concrete, wood or old terrazzo surfaces before
epoxy resin terrazzo is applied
When using paint, the physiological effects of color and surface texture must
be considered. Certain colors may be stimulating while others are relaxing.
White and light colors reflect size of form and space. Dark color can inhibit
the perception of form and may be used for contrast. Flat paint finishes
soften and distribute illumination evenly. Glossy finishes reflect light and can
cause glare, but they also provide smooth, easily cleaned, non-absorptive
surfaces.
Most paints are carefully formulated to meet specific application that use
requirements and are ready-mixed for application except for thinning, stirring,
or the addition of an activator or catalyst. It is always advisable therefore to
follow the paint manufacturers recommendations in the application and use
of paint or other protective coating.
Considerations in the selection and use of paint include:
Surface preparation
- The foundation of any paint system must be properly prepared to ensure
proper adhesion of the paint film to its surface.
Type of paint
- Paint must be compatible with the material to which it is applied.
- Specifications include the paint vehicle, finish color, exposure, and
manufacturer and/or trade name.
Film thickness
- The dry film thickness (dft) is more important than the number of coats.
- Multiple thin coats are generally more effective than a single thick coat.
- A minimum of 2 coats is required to produce 5 mil dft.
Coverage
- A paints coverage can be estimated by its percentage of volume solids:
- Ie. Paint with 100% volume solids:
(no thinner)
1 gal covers
1600 sf (149 m2) @ 1 mil dft
800 sf ( 74 m2) @ 2 mil dft
400 sf ( 37 m2) @ 4 mil dft
Method
48
- Depending on the type of paint and the material to which it is being
applied. Coatings may be brushed, rolled or sprayed on.
Drying
- The time and conditions necessary for a paint to dry must be checked.
Binder serves to form the paint film and cause it to adhere to the surface
being painted.
Binders are largely responsible for the protective quality and durability of
the paint or protective coating.
Solvents or thinners acts drying agents.
Depending on the type of solvent used, paint may dry or harden by
oxidation, evaporation, chemical action, or by thermosetting action at
elevated temperatures.
Color
Depends on the type of paint and the manufacturer.
Exposure
Exterior or interior
Characteristics:
Pigmented coating
Lacquer and enamel paints
Clear coatings
Varnishes, lacquers, shellac, sealers
Rust inhibitive coatings
Zinc-pigmented coatings
Zinc, silicon, alkyd, or asphalt or base coatings
Asphalt or tar coatings that form non-permeable barriers against water
and oxygen to protect submerged ferrous metal and to waterproof masonry
surfaces.
Chlorinated rubber
Used in coatings highly resistant to alkalis, acids, chemicals, and water
May be removed by coal tar solvents
Has limited resistance to prolonged heat exposure
Used in swimming pools, water treatment plants
Epoxy catalyzed
Two component coatings consisting of a pigmented primer or enamel
and an activator or catalyst.
Mixed just prior to use has limited pot life
Produces by chemical action a dense, hard film similar to baked enamel.
Has excellent resistant to solvents, chemicals, physical abrasion, traffic
wear, a cleaning materials
Have good adhesion properties, color retention and stain resistance.
Has good durability for exterior exposure but may chalk.
Driers organic salts of various metals such as iron, zinc, cobalt, lead,
manganese and calcium; added to paint to accelerate oxidation and
hardening of the vehicle
Types of Paints
1. Oil paint oil base paint
Parts:
Body - solid, finely ground material
Pigment (for white paints)
Products used for paint body: white lead, zinc oxide, Lithopone and
Titanium white
2. Alkyd paint
3. synthetic resin
4. alkyd resin
5. Metallic paint
6. Luminescent paint
50
7. Resin-Emulsion paint (latex) water as thinner
8. Intrumescent paint (fire retardant)
9. Polyesterepoxy coatings
10. Paints for Metal Surfaces
11. Priming Paints red lead, litharge, lead chromate
12. Finish Paints red sulfate, zinc dust
Application of Paint
1. Surface preparation
2. Primer
3. First coat
4. Final top coat
Industrial Application
flow coating
pressure feed spray
special spray systems
airless spray
hot airless spray
hot airless recirculation
electrostatic spray
electrodepositing
powder coating
coil coating roller
plywood coating roller
curtain coater
lithographic roller
Fillers finishing materials used on wood surfaces to fill the pores and
provide a perfectly smooth and uniform surface for varnish or lacquer
Types:
Paste filler used on open-grained woods
Liquid filler used on closed-grained woods
Checking term used when the top coat breaks into tiny irregular areas.
If slight, it does not affect the durability of the paint. It is cased by too soft an
undercoat, can be avoided by giving plenty of drying time between properly
thinned coats of paint.
B. FLOORING MATERIALS
Wood
o Wood strip flooring
o T & G 1 thk; 4 6 width; nailed to 2 x 3 / 2 x 4 sleepers
o Ship lap
o Plank flooring square edge 8 or more
o Block flooring 2 x 2 x3
52
o Parquet flooring 12 x 12; 18 x 18; thk
Concrete Products
o Single, monolithic slabs can be covered by a non-skid topping
o Pre-cast non-skid concrete floor tile; 8 x 8, 12 x 12, 16 x 16
o Granolithic & Terrazo flooring
o Granolithic 1 part cement mortar, 1 part sand, 1 part crushed stone
o Terro cement, marble chips, sand
Clay
o Clay Tile Flooring
o Glazed tiles (vitreous, low water absorption)
o Unglazed tiles
o 1 x 12 x 12; 16 x 16
o x 4 x8
Resilient materials
o Asphalt tile
o Thermoplastic binders, asbestos or other fibers, inert fiber materials,
inert color pigments
o 9 x 9; 12 x 12
o adhesives cutback asphalt cement or clay emulsion asphalt cement
Vinyl tile and sheet
o Types: solid vinyl, vinyl asbestos, thin vinyl layer
o Colorful, texture, rough, durable, easily maintained, grease resistant
o Linoleum tile and sheet
o Vinyl in-laid wear with backing covered with thick layer of wearing
surface
o 1/16; 332; 1/8
Rubber tile and sheet
o Made of natural rubber
o 3 ft. wide rolls
o Cork tile
o 6 x 6; 9 x 9; 12 x 12
o not used for heavy traffic areas
Building Stones
o Pebble washout
o Non-slip
o Used for balconies, stairs, walks
o Marble
o Crazy cut marble with granite chips & white cement
o Granite tile
C. WALL MATERIALS
Wood
o Siding Boards external wall covering installed vertically or horizontally
and fastened to the structure - V-cut, S-cut, T&G
o Building Boards
o Plywood layers or piles of wood bonded together permanently with
grain of one or more layers at 90 to the grain of intervening layer or piles of
wood bonded together permanently with grain of one or more layers at 90 to
the grain of intervening layer.
Types of Trusses
A. Light Trusses B. Heavy Trusses
1. Pitched Truss 1. Howe Truss
2. Scissors Truss 2. Belgian Truss
55
3. Sawtooth Truss 3. Fink Truss
4. Howe Truss 4. Prat Truss
5. Raised Chord Truss 5. Scissors Truss
6. 1 Storey Frame Truss 6. Cambered Fink Truss
7. Flat Truss 7. Sawtooth Truss
8. Bowstring Truss 8. Flat Pratt Truss
9. Utility Truss 9. Flat Howe Truss
10. Warren Truss
Purlins the structural member placed on top of a rafter or top chord of a truss that
supports the roof sheating.
The term roof means the top covering of a building that serves as a protective
covering from the weather.
Pantile a roofing tile which has the shape of s laid on its side.
Mission tile a clay roofing tile, approx. Semi-cylindrical in shape laid in
courses with the unit having their convex side alternately up and down.
Roman tile a channel shaped, tapered, single lap roofing tile.
Galvanized zinc coated materials.
A frame a 3-piece rigid structural frame in the shape of the upright capital a.
Chord a principal member of a truss.
Batten wood strips to support roof tiles.
Split ring chord splice connectors for trusses
Kinds of door:
Swinging door
Overhead swing-up garage door a rigid overhead door which opens as an
entire unit.
Overhead roll-up garage door a door which, when open, assumes a
horizontal position above the door opening, made of several leaves.
Roll-up door (solid or see-through aluminum shutters) a door made up of small
horizontal interlocking metal slats which are guided in a track: the configuration
coils about an overhead drum which is housed at the head of the opening, manual
or motor-driven.
Accordion door a hinged door consisting of a system of panels which are
hung from an overhead track. When the door is open, the faces of the panels
close flat against each other. When the door is closed, the edges of adjacent
panels butt against (or interlock) each other to form a solid barrier.
Bi-folding door - one of two or more doors which are hinged together so that
they can open and fold in a confined space.
Revolving door - an exterior door consisting of four leaves (at 900 to each
other) which pivot about a common vertical axis within a cylindrically shaped
vestibule, prevents the direct passage of air through the vestibule, thereby
eliminating drafts from outside.
Sliding door - a door mounted on track which slides in a horizontal direction
usually parallel to one wall.
By-passing sliding door - a sliding door which slides to cover a fixed door of the
same width or another sliding door.
Sliding pocket door - a door which slides inside a hollow of the wall.
Dutch door - a hinged door which is divided to two. The upper part can be
opened while the lower portion is closed.
French door
Finishing hardware:
A. To hung a door
Hinge- a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door about a pivot,
consists of two plates joined together by a pin which support the door and
connect it to its frame, enabling it to swing open or closed.
Types of hinges:
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1. Butt hinge - consists of two rectangular metal plates which are joined with a
pin, in large hinge, the pin is removable, in small hinges, it is fixed.
Fast pin hinge - a hinge in which the pin is fastened permanently in
place.
Full surface hinge - a hinged designed for attachment on the surface of
the door and jamb without mortising.
Loose joint hinge - a door hinged having two knuckles, one of which
has vertical pin that fits in a corresponding hole in the other, by lifting the
door up, off the vertical pin, the door may be removed with unscrewing the
hinged.
Loose pin hinge - a hinge having a removable pin which permits its two
parts to be separated.
Paumelle hinged - a type of door hinge having a single joint of the pivot
type, usually of modern design.
Olive knuckle hinge - a paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an oval
shape.
3. Pivot hinge - the axle or pin about which a window or door rotates.
Vertical spring pivot hinge- a spring hinge for a door which is mortised
into the heel of the door, the door is fastened to the floor and door head
with pivots.
Kind of lockset:
Integral lock a type of mortise lock having its cylinder in the knob.
58
Cylinder lock a bored lock which has a cylindrical case into which a
separate latch case fits.
Latch a simple fastening devise having a latch bolt, but not a dead bolt contains
no provisions for locking with a key.
Night latch key operated latch with safety pin.
Lift latch a type of door latch which fastens a door by means of a pivoted bar that
engages a hook on the door jamb, a lever which lifts the pivoted bar used to
unfasten the door.
Rabbeted lock a lock or latch in which the face is flush with the rabbet on a
rabbeted door jamb.
Roller latch a type of door latch has a roller under spring tension instead of a
beveled spring bolt, the roller engages a strike plate, having a recess formed to
receive.
Screen door latch a small locking or latching device used on screen doors and
generated by a knob or lever handle, sometimes equipped with a dead bolt.
Hasp a fastening device consisting of a loop or staple and a slotted hinge plate
normally secured with a padlock.
Key-padlock a device which fastens in position and maybe operated by a key.
Magnetic padlock a kind of lock which opens by using the corresponding magnet
which goes with it.
Hasplock a kind of hasp that has a built-in locking device which can be opened
only with a key.
Dead bolt a type of door lock, the bolt, which is square in section is operated by
the door key or a turn piece.
Types of knobs:
Screw-in knob
Bolt-on knob
Flush knob
Flush ring
Pull
Rough hardware:
Nails
Common wire nail with head and for strength.
Finishing nail without head and for better appearance
Masonry or concrete nail used for concrete, mortar and brick surface
sizes, 1, 1 , 2 , 2 , 3, 3 , 4, 6
Washers
Flat
Counter sunk
Flush
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Bolts
Bolts have threaded shafts that receive nuts.
To use them, a hole is drilled, pushing a bolt through and adding a nut.
Bolts tightened with screw while holding the nut with a wrench.
Nuts
Flat square nut
Hex nut
Square nut
Acorn nut
T nut
Knurled nut
Wing nut
Joinery brackets
Mending plate
T-plate
Flat corner plate
L-bracket
Terms:
Awning an architectural projected window.
Bay window a window which projects outside the main line of a building.
Hopper window a window sash which opens inward and its hinged at the
bottom.
Oriel window a projected window beyond building wall carried by a corbel.
Batten door - a door w/out stiles which is constructed of vertical boards held
together by horizontal battens.
Stile vertical frames of a panel door.
Transom window over a door.
Door jamb finished frame surrounding a door.
Anchor bolt a steel bolt usually fixed in a building structure with its threaded
portion projecting.
Plate bolt a bolt in a building foundation which secures the plate or sill.
Machine bolt a threaded bolt having a straight shank and a conventional
head such as a square, hexagonal, button or countersunk.
Carriage bolt a bolt with neck for non-rotating mounting.
Lag screw common hardware fastener for truss braces.
Knob bolt a door lock with a spring bolt controlled by one or both knobs and
dead bolt controlled by a key.
Backset the horizontal distance from the face of a lock or latch to the center
of the knob or lock cylinder.
Gusset a plate attached to side of a joint for increase holding power.
Brad a thin nail with small head.
Kerf in a suspended acoustical ceiling, a groove cut into the edges of
acoustical tiles to receive splices or supporting members of the ceiling suspension
system.
Perforated tape a type of tape used in finishing joints between gypsum board.
Sahara used for waterproofing.
Parquet inlaid wood flooring usually set in simple geometric pattern.
Vinyl tile a floor tile composed principally of polyvinyl chloride.
Bevel the angle with one surface of a body makes with another surface when
they are not at right angle.
Chase a continuous recess built into a wall to receive pipes, ducts, etc.
Gypsum board material used in drywall construction.
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Plough a groove extended along the edge or face of the wood member being
cut parallel to grain.
REFERENCES
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