Chapter 9

Generalizing the DTFT
The forward DTFT is defined by X e j = ( ) x[n]e jn

in which
n=
is discrete-time radian frequency, a real variable. The quantity e jn

is then a complex sinusoid whose magnitude is always one and whose
The z Transform phase can range over all angles. It always lies on the unit circle in
the complex plane. If we now replace e j with a variable z that can

have any complex value we define the z transform X ( z ) = x[n] z n
.
n=
The DTFT expresses signals as linear combinations of complex

sinusoids. The z transform expresses signals as linear combinations of
complex exponentials.
M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. 1

Edited by Dr. Robert Akl
M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl
2

Complex Exponential Excitation

The Transfer Function


3
4

Systems Described by Difference

Direct Form II Realization

Equations

Direct Form II realization of a discrete-time system is similar

in form to Direct Form II realization of continuous-time systems

A continuous-time system can be realized with integrators,

summing junctions and multipliers

A discrete-time system can be realized with delays, summing

junctions and multipliers


5
6

1

Direct Form II Realization
The Inverse z Transform


7
8

Existence of the z Transform


Time Limited Signals
Right- and Left-Sided Signals

A right-sided signal x r [ n ] is one for which x r [ n ] = 0 for any
If a discrete-time signal x [ n ]
is time limited and bounded, n < n0 and a left-sided signal x l [ n ] is one for which x l [ n ] = 0
the z transformation for any n > n0 .

summation x[n] z n
is
n=
finite and the z transform of

x [ n ] exists for any non-zero
value of z.

9
10



Right- and Left-Sided Exponentials

The z transform of x [ n ] = n u [ n n0 ] , is

x [ n ] = n u [ n n0 ] , x [ n ] = n u [ n0 n ] ,
X(z) = u[n n ] z
n
0
n
= ( z ) 1 n
n= n=n0
if the series converges and it converges

if z > . The path of integration of
the inverse z transform must lie in the
region of the z plane outside a circle of
radius .

11
12

2



The z transform of x [ n ] = n u [ n0 n ] , is
n0 n0
X(z) = ( z ) 1 n
( z)
n n 1 n
z = =
n= n= n= n0
if the series converges and it converges if z < . The path

of integration of the inverse z transform
must lie in the region of the z plane inside
a circle of radius .

13
14

Some Common z Transform Pairs

z-Transform Properties

[ n ]
Z
1 , All z Given the z-transform pairs g [ n ]
Z
G ( z ) and h [ n ]
Z
H (z)
z 1 z
u [ n ]
Z
= , z >1 , u [ n 1]
Z
, z <1
z 1 1 z 1 z 1 with ROC's of ROCG and ROCH respectively the following
z 1 z 1
n u [ n ]
Z
= , z > , n u [ n 1]
Z
= , z <
z 1 z 1 z 1 z 1 properties apply to the z transform.
z z 1 z z 1
n u [ n ]
Z
2 = , z >1 , n u [ n 1]
Z
2 = , z <1
( z 1) 1 z ( 1 2
) ( z 1) 1 z (
1 2
)
n n u [ n ]
Z

z
=
z 1
( z )2 (1 z 1 )2
, z > , n n u [ n 1]
Z

z
( z )2
=
z 1
(1 z )
1 2
, z < Linearity g [ n ] + h [ n ]
Z
G ( z) + H ( z)
sin ( 0 n ) u [ n ]
Z
2
z sin ( 0 )
, z >1 , sin ( 0 n ) u [ n 1]
Z
2
z sin ( 0 )
, z <1
ROC = ROCG ROCH
z 2z cos ( 0 ) + 1 z 2z cos ( 0 ) + 1
z z cos ( 0 ) z z cos ( 0 )
cos ( 0 n ) u [ n ]
Z
, z >1 , cos ( 0 n ) u [ n 1]
Z
= , z <1
g [ n n0 ]
z 2z cos ( 0 ) + 1 z 2z cos ( 0 ) + 1
z n0 G ( z )
2 2
Z
z sin ( 0 ) z sin ( 0 )
Time Shifting
n sin ( 0 n ) u [ n ]
Z
, z > , n sin ( 0 n ) u [ n 1]
Z
2 , z <
z 2 2 z cos ( 0 ) + 2 z 2 z cos ( 0 ) + 2
ROC = ROCG except perhaps z = 0 or z
z z cos ( 0 ) z z cos ( 0 )
n cos ( 0 n ) u [ n ]
Z
, z > , n cos ( 0 n ) u [ n 1]
Z
2 , z <
z 2 2 z cos ( 0 ) + 2 z 2 z cos ( 0 ) + 2
n g [ n ] G(z / )
z z
Z
n , < z < 1 Z
z z 1 Change of Scale in z
z n1 n0 1 + z n1 n0 2 + + z + 1
u [ n n0 ] u [ n n1 ]
Z

z
z 1
(
z n0 z n1 = ) z n1 1
, z >0
ROC = ROCG

15
16


Time Reversal g [ n ] G z Z
( ) 1
Convolution g [ n ] h [ n ]
Z
H (z)G (z)
ROC = 1 / ROCG
g [ n / k ] , n / k and integer Z First Backward Difference g [ n ] g [ n 1]
Z
1 z 1 G ( z ) ( )
Time Expansion G z
k
( ) ROC ROCG z > 0
0 , otherwise
ROC = ( ROCG )
1/k
n
z
Accumulation g [ m ] z 1 G ( z )
Z
( )
m=
Conjugation g* [ n ]
Z
G* z* ROC ROCG z > 1
ROC = ROCG
Initial Value Theorem If g [ n ] = 0 , n < 0 then g [ 0 ] = lim G ( z )
z
z-Domain Differentiation n g [ n ]
Z
z
d
G (z) Final Value Theorem If g [ n ] = 0 , n < 0, lim g [ n ] = lim ( z 1) G ( z )
n z1
dz
ROC = ROCG if lim g [ n ] exists.
n

17
18

3


Synthetic Division

For rational z transforms of the form

For the final-value theorem to apply to a function G ( z ) all the bM z M + bM 1z M 1 + + b1z + b0
H (z) =
finite poles of the function ( z 1) G ( z ) must lie in the open aN z N + aN 1z N 1 + + a1z + a0
interior of the unit circle of the z plane. Notice this does not we can always find the inverse z transform by synthetic
say that all the poles of G ( z ) must lie in the open interior of division. For example,
the unit circle. G ( z ) could have a single pole at z = 1 and the H (z) =
( z 1.2 ) ( z + 0.7 ) ( z + 0.4 ) , z > 0.8
final-value theorem could still apply.
( z 0.2 ) ( z 0.8 ) ( z + 0.5 )
z 3 0.1z 2 1.04z 0.336
H (z) = , z > 0.8
z 3 0.5z 2 0.34z + 0.08

19
20



Synthetic Division
Synthetic Division


21
22


Partial Fraction Expansion

Synthetic Division

We can always find the inverse z transform of a rational

function with synthetic division but the result is not in closed
form. In most practical cases a closed-form solution is
preferred.

23
24

4

Partial Fraction Expansion

An LTI system has a transfer function
Y( z ) z 1/ 2
H (z) = = , z >2/3
X( z) z2 z + 2 / 9
Using the time-shifting property of the z transform draw a
block diagram realization of the system.
( )
Y( z ) z2 z + 2 / 9 = X ( z )( z 1 / 2 )
z 2 Y ( z ) = z X ( z ) (1 / 2 ) X ( z ) + z Y ( z ) ( 2 / 9 ) Y ( z )
Y ( z ) = z 1 X ( z ) (1 / 2 ) z 2 X ( z ) + z 1 Y ( z ) ( 2 / 9 ) z 2 Y ( z )

25
26


z 1
Let g [ n ]
Z
G (z) = . Draw a
Y ( z ) = z X ( z ) (1 / 2 ) z X ( z ) + z Y ( z ) ( 2 / 9 ) z Y ( z )
1 2 1 2
( z 0.8e j /4
)(
z 0.8e+ j /4 )
pole-zero diagram for G ( z ) and for the z transform of e j n/8g [ n ].
Using the time-shifting property
y [ n ] = x [ n 1] (1 / 2 ) x [ n 2 ] + y [ n 1] ( 2 / 9 ) y [ n 2 ]
The poles of G ( z ) are at z = 0.8e j /4 and its single finite zero is
at z = 1. Using the change of scale property
ze j /8 1
e j n/8g [ n ]
Z
(
G ze j /8 = ) ( ze j /8
0.8e j /4
)(
ze j /8 0.8e+ j /4 )
(
G ze j /8 = ) (
e j /8 z e j /8 )
(
e j /8 z 0.8e j /8 )e j /8
( z 0.8e + j 3 /8
)
j /8
ze
G ze ( j /8
)=e ( j /8
)(
z 0.8e j /8 z 0.8e+ j 3 /8 )
27
28


( )
G ze j /8 has poles at z = 0.8e j /8 and 0.8e+ j 3 /8 and a zero
Using the accumulation property and u [ n ]
Z

z
, z >1
z 1
at z = e j /8 . All the finite zero and pole locations have been
z
rotated in the z plane by /8 radians. show that the z transform of n u [ n ] is , z > 1.
( z 1)2
n
n u [ n ] = u [ m 1]
m=0
z 1
u [ n 1]
Z
z 1 = , z >1
z 1 z 1
z 1
n
z
n u [ n ] = u [ m 1]
Z
= , z >1
m=0
z 1 z 1 ( z 1)2

29
30

5

Inverse z Transform Example

Find the inverse z transform of
z z
X(z) = , 0.5 < z < 2 Find the inverse z transform of
z 0.5 z + 2
z z
Right-sided signals have ROCs that are outside a circle and X(z) = , z >2
left-sided signals have ROCs that are inside a circle. Using z 0.5 z + 2
z 1 In this case, both signals are right sided. Then using
n u [ n ]
Z
= , z>
z 1 z 1 z 1
n u [ n ] Z
= , z>
u [ n 1]
n Z z
=
1
, z< z 1 z 1
z 1 z 1 We get
We get
z z
( 0.5 )n ( 2 )n u [ n ] Z
X(z) = , z >2
( 0.5 )n u [ n ] + ( 2 )n u [ n 1]
Z
X(z) =
z

z
, 0.5 < z < 2 z 0.5 z + 2
z 0.5 z + 2

31
32


The Unilateral z Transform

Find the inverse z transform of

z z
X(z) = , z < 0.5
z 0.5 z + 2 Just as it was convenient to define a unilateral Laplace transform it is
In this case, both signals are left sided. Then using convenient for analogous reasons to define a unilateral z transform
z 1
n u [ n 1] Z
= , z< X( z) = x[n] zn
z 1 z 1 n=0
We get
z z
( 0.5 ) ( 2 ) u [ n 1] Z
X(z) = , z < 0.5
n n
z 0.5 z + 2
6/19/12
33
34

Properties of the Unilateral z Solving Difference Equations

Transform

If two causal discrete-time signals form these transform pairs, The unilateral z transform is well suited to solving difference
g [ n ]
Z
G ( z ) and h [ n ]
Z
H ( z ) then the following properties equations with initial conditions. For example,
hold for the unilateral z transform. 3 1
y [ n + 2 ] y [ n + 1] + y [ n ] = (1 / 4 ) , for n 0
n
Time Shifting 2 2
Delay: g [ n n0 ]
Z
z n0 G ( z ) , n0 0 y [ 0 ] = 10 and y [1] = 4
z transforming both sides,
n0 1

Advance: g [ n + n0 ]
Z
z n0 G ( z ) g [ m ] z m , n0 > 0 3 1 z
z 2 Y ( z ) y [ 0 ] z 1 y [1]
z Y ( z ) y [ 0 ] + Y ( z ) =
2
m=0
2 z 1/ 4
Accumulation:
the initial conditions are called for systematically.
n
z
g [ m ] z 1 G ( z )
Z
m=0

35
36

6

Solving Difference Equations
Pole-Zero Diagrams and
Frequency Response

Applying initial conditions and solving, For a stable system, the response to a sinusoid applied at

time t = 0 approaches the response to a true sinusoid (applied

16 / 3 4 2 / 3
Y( z ) = z + + for all time).

z 1 / 4 z 1 / 2 z 1
and
16 1 n 1
n
2
y[n] = + 4 + u[n]
3 4 2 3
This solution satisfies the difference equation and the initial
conditions.

37
38

Pole-Zero Diagrams and Pole-Zero Diagrams and

Frequency Response
Frequency Response

Let the transfer function of a system be
z z
H (z) = 2 =
z z / 2 + 5 /16 ( z p1 ) ( z p2 )
1 + j2 1 j2
p1 = , p2 =
4 4
e j
H e( )
j
= j
e p1 e j p2

39
40

Transform Method Comparison


z
A system with transfer function H ( z ) = , z > 0.8
( z 0.3) ( z + 0.8 )
is excited by a unit sequence. Find the total response.
Using z-transform methods,
z z
Y( z ) = H ( z ) X ( z ) = , z >1
( z 0.3) ( z + 0.8 ) z 1
z2 0.1169 0.3232 0.7937
Y( z ) = = + + , z >1
( z 0.3) ( z + 0.8 ) ( z 1) z 0.3 z + 0.8 z 1
y [ n ] = 0.1169 ( 0.3) + 0.3232 ( 0.8 ) + 0.7937 u [ n 1]
n1 n1

41
42

7


0.1169e j 0.3232e j e j
( )
Y e j =
1 0.3e j
+
1 + 0.8e j
+ 0.7937
1 e j
+ 2 ( )

Finding the inverse DTFT,
y [ n ] = 0.1169 ( 0.3) + 0.7937 u [ n 1]
+ 0.3232 ( 0.8 )
n1 n1
The result is the same as the result using the z transform, but the effort
and the probability of error are considerably greater.

43
44

System Response to a Sinusoid


A system with transfer function
z
H (z) = , z > 0.9 Using the z transform we can find the response of the system to a
z 0.9
causal sinusoid x [ n ] = cos ( 2 n /12 ) u [ n ] and the response is
is excited by the sinusoid x [ n ] = cos ( 2 n /12 ) . Find the response.
y [ n ] = 0.1217 ( 0.9 ) u [ n ] + 1.995 cos ( 2 n /12 1.115 ) u [ n ]
n
The z transform of a true sinusoid does not appear in the table of z Notice that the response consists of two parts, a transient response
0.1217 ( 0.9 ) u [ n ] and a forced response 1.995 cos ( 2 n /12 1.115 ) u [ n ]
n
transforms. The z transform of a causal sinusoid of the form
x [ n ] = cos ( 2 n /12 ) u [ n ] does appear. We can use the DTFT to that, except for the unit sequence factor, is exactly the same as the
find the response to the true sinusoid and the result is forced response we found using the DTFT.
y [ n ] = 1.995 cos ( 2 n /12 1.115 ) .

45
46



47

Chapter 9

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Chapter 9

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Generalizing the DTFT

The forward DTFT is defined by X e j = ( ) x[n]e jn

is discrete-time radian frequency, a real variable. The quantity e jn

The DTFT expresses signals as linear combinations of complex

Complex Exponential Excitation

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Systems Described by Difference

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Existence of the z Transform

finite and the z transform of

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Existence of the z Transform

if the series converges and it converges

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

if the series converges and it converges if z < . The path

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Some Common z Transform Pairs

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

For rational z transforms of the form

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

The Inverse z Transform

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

The Inverse z Transform

We can always find the inverse z transform of a rational

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Inverse z Transform Example

Find the inverse z transform of

Properties of the Unilateral z Solving Difference Equations

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Pole-Zero Diagrams and Pole-Zero Diagrams and

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

Transform Method Comparison

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

System Response to a Sinusoid

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

System Response to a Sinusoid

M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved. Edited by Dr. Robert Akl

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