Daniel Mingo

BS Architecture 4-2

Monism
Defined as the view that reality is a unified whole and that all existing things
can be ascribed to, or described by, a single concept or system. It is the
doctrine that mind and matter are reducible to the same ultimate substance
or principle of being.

Pluralism
The term is also used in a wider sense in several fields of philosophy, to
express the idea that there can be no single explanatory system, or view of
reality that can explain the totality of life; or that there are many different
possible viewpoints or positions of equal validity and importance. In religion,
law, and politics, pluralism refers to the co-existence of more than one belief
system, legal structure, or political interest group. Societies incorporating a
variety of ways of life, moral standards, and religions are referred to as
pluralistic.
In Metaphysics:
Pluralism is the belief that reality consists of many different substances.
In Philosophy of Mind:
Pluralism is the belief that there is a plurality of basic substances making up
the minds and bodies of humans.
In Epistemology:
Pluralism is the claim that there are several conflicting but
still true descriptions of the world, and that that no single explanatory
system or view of reality can account for all the phenomena of life.
In Ethics:
Pluralism is the supposition that there are many independent sources of
value and that there is no single truth, even in moral matters.
In Political Philosophy:
Pluralism is the acceptance of a multiplicity of groups with competing
interests. This is closest to the concept most commonly in general
conversational usage.
Empiricism
The theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It
emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory
perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge
humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience). Most empiricists
also discount the notion of innate ideas or innatism (the idea that the mind
is born with ideas or knowledge and is not a "blank slate" at birth).
In order to build a more complex body of knowledge from these direct
observations, induction or inductive reasoning (making generalizations based
on individual instances) must be used. This kind of knowledge is therefore
also known as indirect empirical knowledge.
Empiricism is contrasted with Rationalism, the theory that the mind may
apprehend some truths directly, without requiring the medium of the senses.
Idealism
The metaphysical and epistemological doctrine that ideas or thoughts make
up fundamental reality. Essentially, it is any philosophy which argues that the
only thing actually knowable is consciousness (or the contents of
consciousness), whereas we never can be sure that matter or anything in
the outside world really exists. Thus, the only real things are mental entities,
not physical things (which exist only in the sense that they are perceived).
Idealism is a form of Monism (as opposed to Dualism or Pluralism), and
stands in direct contrast to other Monist beliefs such
as Physicalism and Materialism (which hold that the only thing that can be
truly proven to exist is physical matter). It is also contrasted
with Realism (which holds that things have an absolute existence prior to,
and independent of, our knowledge or perceptions).

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHIES
Confucianism
A way of life taught by Confucius in China in the 6th5th century BCE.
Sometimes viewed as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion, Confucianism is
perhaps best understood as an all-encompassing humanism that neither
denies nor slights heaven. It has been followed by the Chinese for more than
two millennia.
Epicureanism

A system of philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, founded around

307 B.C. It teaches that the greatest good is to seek modest pleasures in
order to attain a state of tranquillity, freedom from fear ("ataraxia")
and absence from bodily pain ("aponia"). This combination of states is held
to constitute happiness in its highest form, and so Epicureanism can be
considered a form of Hedonism, although it differs in its conception of
happiness as the absence of pain, and in its advocacy of a simple life.

Neoplatonism
A thought form rooted in the philosophy of Plato (c. 428-347 B.C.E.), but
extending beyond or transforming it in many respects. Neoplatonism
developed as a school of thought in the Roman Empire from the third to the
fifth century of the common era (C.E.). However, the term itself was coined
only recently in the mid-ninteenth century, when German scholars used it to
distinguish the ideas of later Greek and Roman Platonists from those of Plato
himself. Plotinus (c. 204-270 C.E.) is considered the first main proponent of
Neoplatonism, and his intent was to use Plato's thought as an intellectual
basis for a rational and humane life.
Stoicism
A school of thought that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. It was one
of the loftiest and most sublime philosophies in the record of Western
civilization. In urging participation in human affairs, Stoicshave always
believed that the goal of all inquiry is to provide a mode of conduct
characterized by tranquillity of mind and certainty of moral worth.

MEDIEVAL PHILISOPHIES
Scholasticism
From the Latin word scholasticus ("that [which] belongs to the school) was a
method of learning taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval
universities circa 1100 1500 C.E. Scholasticism originally began as a
reconciliation of the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with
medieval Christian theology. It was not a philosophy or theology in itself, but
a tool and method for learning which emphasized dialectical reasoning. The
primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or
resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval
theology, but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other
fields of study.
Thomism
Inspired by the philosophical methods and principles used by Thomas
Aquinas (1224/5-1274), a Dominican Friar and Theologian, in his explanation
of the Catholic faith. Aquinas, who is most renowned for his Five Ways of
Proving the Existence of God, believed that both faith and reason discover
truth, a conflict between them being impossible since they both originate in
God.
Believing that reason can, in principle, lead the mind to God, Aquinas
defended reason's legitimacy, especially in the works of Aristotle. The
philosophy of Aquinas continues to offer insights into many lingering
problems in Metaphysics, the Philosophy of Mind, Philosophy of Religion and
Ethics.
Scotism
Sometimes referred to as the Later Franciscan School, Scotism
(like Thomism, the other main Scholastic movement of the Middle Ages),
made free use of Aristotelianism in Christian theologizing. Unlike Thomism,
however, Scotism adhered more to the teachings of the Older Franciscan
School in points such as the plurality of forms or souls, the spiritual matter
of angels, the source of venial sin, the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception of Mary (which had been specifically rejected by St. Thomas
Aquinas), etc.

MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
Rationalism
Any view appealing to intellectual and deductive reason (as opposed to
sensory experience or any religious teachings) as the source of knowledge or
justification. Thus, it holds that some propositions are knowable by us
by intuition alone, while others are knowable by being deduced through
valid arguments from intuited propositions. Depending on the strength of the
belief, this can result in a range of positions from the moderate view that
reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge, to
the radical position that reason is the only path to knowledge
Pragmatism
Asserts that any theory that proves itself more successful
in predicting and controlling our world than its rivals can be considered to
be nearer the truth. It argues that the meaning of any concept can be
equated with the conceivable operational or practical consequences of
whatever the concept portrays. Like Positivism, it asserts that the scientific
method is generally best suited to theoretical inquiry, although Pragmatism
also accepts that the settlement of doubt can also be achieved
by tenacity and persistence, the authority of a source of ready-made beliefs
or other methods. For more details, see the section on the doctrine of
Pragmatism.
Phenomenology
 The study of experience and how we experience. It studies structures of
conscious experience as experienced from a subjective or first-person point
of view, along with its "intentionality" (the way an experience
is directed toward a certain object in the world). It then leads to analyses of
conditions of the possibility of intentionality, conditions involving motor
skills and habits, background social practices and, often, language

10 COMMANDMENTS OF PHILOSOPHY (according to Louis P.

Pojman)
Allow the spirit of Wonder to flourish in your breast. Philosophy
begins with deep wonder about the universe and about who we are and
where we came from and where we are going.
Doubt every claim you encounter until the evidence convinces you
of its Truth. Be reasonably cautious, a moderate skeptic, suspicious of those
who claim to have the Truth. Doubt is the souls purgative. Do not fear
intellectual inquiry.
Love the Truth.
Divide and conquer. Divide each problem and theory into its smallest
essential components so you can analyze each unit carefully.
Collect and Construct. Build a coherent argument or theory from
component parts. One should move from the simple, secure foundations to
the complex and comprehensive.
Conjecture and Refute. Make a complete survey of possible objections to
your position, looking for counter-examples and subtle mistakes.
Revise and Rebuild. Be willing to revise, reject, and modify your beliefs
and the degree with which you hold any belief. A knowledge that you
probably have many false beliefs and be grateful to those who correct you.
Seek Simplicity. Prefer the Simpler Explanation to the more complex, all
things being equal. This is the Principle of Parsimony, sometimes known as
Occams Razor.
Live the Truth! Appropriate your ideas in a personal way, so that even as
the Objective Truth is a correspondence of the thought to the world, this
Lived Truth will be a correspondence of the life to the thought.
Live the Good! Let the practical conclusions of a philosophical reflection on
the moral life inspire and motivate you to action.
Louis P. Pojman, Ph.D U.S. Military Academy in West Point, NY.
Taken from his text: Philosophy The Quest for Truth. pages 4-5